STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Media and society both are inter-related and affect each other in many ways. Sometimes
media communication is guided by society and sometimes media have dominance over
society. The mass media are essential not only in promotion and propagation of innovative
ideas but also in transformation of the society. The media affects and changes the behavior,
thinking, perception and ideas of people often. Being the public broadcaster, television in
India had originated as a social, economic and educational project in 1949. (Pendakur,
1991). Television was seen as a catalyst of social change and national development,
sensitising society about social justice, educating the population and developing its human
resources. (Acharya, 1987: 90, 117). As an effective audio-visual media, television has
tremendous impact on Indian society where majority of population is illiterate. The
effectiveness of media has been a matter of great concern among the media researchers
right from the beginning. There is a long debate regarding medium and content. The theory
of Marshall McLuhan, ‘Medium is the message’ has been a subject of debate among the
mass researchers and critiques on the ground that content (program) is more important than
medium. The success of serial Mahabharata and Hum Log (Mitra, 1993) and
advertisements like ‘thanda matlab Coca-Cola’ indicates that program contents and their
presentation are also equally important. Thus, advertising is a very effective tool of
communication to sensitise the people in a developing country like India.

Gender discrimination and inferior status of women have been major drawbacks in the
modernization of Indian Society. In order to achieve the goal to empower women in post-
independent period, a number of steps were taken by the government. As a result, Seventh
(1985-90) & Eight (1992-97) Five Year Plans gave special attention and emphasised on
providing more health facilities integrated with family welfare and nutrition for women,
acceleration of women’s education, their increase in the labor force and welfare services.
Various welfare and developmental schemes have been introduced to improve the living
conditions of women and to increase their access to material and social resources. The role
of media in empowering the women is very significant. (Aggarwal,1995). Television is one
of the most important audio-visual media. Therefore it has the responsibility to play an
important role in the empowerment of the women particularly regarding their rights,
privileges and other facilities. It has been observed that a number of advertisements shown
on television directly target women and among these advertisements some have the sole
aim of social welfare and public concern including women empowerment and welfare.
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The researcher proposes to undertake a study to examine the bearing of Television
Advertisements on Women Empowerment among the Working Middle Class Women in
Silchar Town of Assam.

As a result the proposed study introduces the issues related to the effect of advertising
aimed at women and raises many questions about the nature and effects of the advertising
regarding social cause.
1. Is television an effective way to aware, educate, and empower women?
2. Are the advertisements typically aimed at women and content is proper, effective
and target oriented?
3. Does advertising encourage a more meticulously attitudes of women and present an
accurate theme of the plan, schemes, rights and empowerment?
4. Is Television an appropriate medium for promotion of status of women and
empowering them through social and public advertisement?

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 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Media and its effects are the important factors for the researcher and scholars from the very
beginning and there are many well established theories of communication based on effect
of the Media on the Society and People. Because there is a great relation between society
and media some theories emphasize about the role and effect of Media to greater extent
however others neglect the views of that school. Communication researcher has identified
many different individual characteristics of consumer or public that influence media effect.
Each person is motivated by different factors to use particular media. A person’s emotional
state at the time of media use also influences media effects, as does the person’s prior
experiences knowledge (Thorson & Reeves: 1990). One theoretical basis for such
individualized effect is called ‘Selective Exposure’ (Zillmann & Bryant: 1985). People
tend to watch, listen to and remember media messages that are consistent with their
attitudes, interest or predispositions. For example, someone with a beloved companion
would be more likely to see commercials featuring products for cost then would someone
who dislikes cats & dogs on a pet poodle. A great amount of research has supported the
idea of selective exposure (Broadbent: 1977, Greenwald & Leavit: 1984, Krugman: 1988,
Pechmann & Stewart: 1990). The related area of uses and gratification research has also
proven productive (Gunter: 1985). The research has shown that people tend to make their
selection based upon what they do not want to see rather than what they do want to see. In
fact, different people want to use media differently and react to it differently; therefore
advertisement affects them differently. Advertising media includes the various types of
mass media such as Television, Radio and Print sources. Earlier studies showed that the
use of certain media was highly related to a person’s level of educational entertainment.
Berelson and Steiner (1964) found that people with less education tended to read less,
listen to radio more, and watched television more than their better educated peers, whereas
those with higher level’s of education preferred print media to broadcast media.
Considering the connection between advertising persuasions, researchers in mass
communication have been very interested in studying the effects of advertising. The focus
of these researches have been either on the processes involved whenever advertising media
effects occur or on the differences in effects produce by the media context in which the
advertisement is embedded. Media context refers to programme type whether humorous,
sad, serious, riveting and so forth. The advertising research has various domains such as
theoretical as well as applied in nature (Jennings & Susan: 2002). Theoretical studies of

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advertising conducted by mostly scholars of educational disciplines, use of variety of
research method to test hypothesis and advance knowledge in the field. The primary
purpose of theoretical research is to gain a richer understanding of a phenomenon, in this
case, the role and functions of advertising for individual and society. Applied research also
implies a variety of research techniques to answer questions of practical values to
advertising practitioners and media professionals. Such research indicates that a person’s
attitude with regard to a particular media product within a particular medium influence
both media use and effects (Jennings & Susan: 2002). A study done by Politz research
(1962) to measure differences in the brand quality and preference ratings among readers of
three different magazines, McCall’s, Look and Life. Readers perceive that products
appearing in McCall’s were of much higher quality than the same product in Look and Life
ads. It clearly reveals about the individual attitudes regarding particular magazines made
the difference. Such study gave a great mileage to researcher to continue the research and
examine individual attitudes regarding the media and the advertising messages they carry
to make effect on the sensationary organs of the people. The impact of advertising has been
a matter of considerable debate and many different claims have been made in deferent
context. During debate about the banning of cigarette advertising, a common claim from
the cigarette manufacturers was that cigarette advertising does not encourage people to
smoke who would not otherwise. The opponent of advertising, on the other hand, claims
that advertising does in fact increase consumption (Bagga: 2006). Bagga argues that
advertising in non-commercial guise is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and
motivation large audiences. But public awareness has become very negative. It is seen as a
medium that inherently promotes a lie based on the purpose of advertisement – to
encourage the target audience to submit a cause or a belief and act on it to the advertising
parties benefit and consequently targets disadvantage (Bagga: 2006). In the light of such
established theories regarding the role, functions and effect of media as well as advertising,
these are the following review of literature related to the study in order to conceptualize the
problem and draw an appropriate hypothesis. An examination of the impact of television
from a semiotic and cultural perspective leads us to pursue the relationship between the
television message, the everyday reality of the audience and the functions performed by
television for that audience (Fiske and Hartley: 1994) Based on the notion of
functionalism, which derives from a well established sociological discipline, television is
considered to be used by viewers to satisfy their psycho-logical needs.
Katz (1973) lists five basic needs to be fulfilled by the mass media-which includes the
television:
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 1. Cognitive needs: the acquiring of information, knowledge and understanding.
2. Affective Needs: the need for emotional and aesthetic experience, love and
friendship, the desire to see beautiful things.
3. Personal integrative needs: the need for self-confidence, stability, status,
reassurance.
4. Social integrative needs:: the need for strengthening contacts with family, friends
and others.
5. Tension-release needs: the need for escape and diversion.
McQual (1972) has identified four main categories/functions of television:

1. Diversion and escape – from routines and problems.

2. Personal relationship – the media provide company for the lonely and topics for
conversation.
3. Personal identity – the media provide models and values that we can identify with
or use as a point of comparison.
4. Surveillance – the media satisfy a need to know what is going on in the world.
The impact of the television on the audience depends on what we watch and why we watch
it. A growing body of literature on the television impact focuses on this ‘Agenda Setting
Role’ of the television. It is also true to an extent what we watch and how we exercise our
choices depend on what shown on the television what is considered watchable. Barwise
and Ehrenberg (1996) observe that watching television is cheap, but producing watchable
television programme may increase viewership which bring revenue from Pay television or
through better patronage from commercial advertisers. Often it is the commercial
advertisers and the public authorities who decide what we watch and when (at what time of
the day). This line of thinking in the literature is described as the ‘Gate-keeper theory’.

Watching television is considered a passive activity for two reasons (Barwise and
Ehrenberf: 1996):

1. It involves little physical, emotional, intellectual or financial effort or investment.

2. Most of the time it seems to be something that we do so a ‘filler’, when we have
nothing better or more important to do.
Over a period we get used to what the media cultivates us to do. ‘Cultivation Analysis
theory’ points to the long-term role of television in blending or molding audience attitudes
and preferences.

De Fleur and Ball-Rokeach (1975) propose an ‘Integrated theory’ of mass media in which

5
the idea of needs becomes the basis for understanding the media. They consider that people
need to: (a) understand the social world in which they live; (b) act meaningfully and
effectively in that world; and (c) experience fantasy-escape from daily problems and
tensions. Based on these needs analysis, they develop the ‘Dependency theory’ which
suggests that every-one in the modern world is to a great extent dependant on the mass
media for the information which enable them to satisfy all the above mentioned needs.

McQuail (1972) suggests the following five general conditions which bear upon the effect
of media:

1. The greater the monopoly of communication sources over the recipient, the greater
the change or effect in favor of the source over the recipient.
2. Communication effects are greatest where the message is in line which the existing
opinions, beliefs and dispositions of the receiver.
3. Communication can produce the most effective shifts unfamiliar, lightly felt,
peripheral issues, which do not lie at the center of the recipient’s value systems.
4. Communication is more likely to be effective where the source is believed to have
expertise, high status, objectivity, or likeability, but particularly where the source
has power, and can be identified with.
5. The social context, group or reference group will mediate the communication and
influence whether or not it is accepted.
McQuail (1972) classified the relationship between media content and the audience as
following:

1. Diversion
i) Escape from the constraints of routine
ii) Escape from the burdens of problems
iii) Emotional release
2. Personal Relationships
i) Companionship
ii) Social utility
3. Personal Identity
i) Personal reference
ii) Reality exploration
iii) Value reinforcement
4. Surveillance

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Although McQuail is critical about the inadequacy of studies which seek to measure the
effects of media, yet, he recognizes one of the major effects as diversion.

Marshall McLuhan (1965) observed, “In a culture like ours, long accustomed to splitting
and dividing things as a means of control, it is sometimes a bit of a shock to be reminded
that, in operational and practical fact, the medium is the message. This is merely to say that
the personal and social consequences of any medium – that is, of any extension of
ourselves – results from the new scale that is introduced into our affairs by each extension
of ourselves, or by any new technology.”

Though McLuhan (1965) agreed with critics who proclaimed that the television was
radically altering society, he sneered at their moralistic attempts to censor or curtail certain
types of programmes. He claimed that the content of television (programming) is
irrelevant, what is changing society, rather, is the medium’s stimulation of new, more
active ways of looking at the world, in which “information” is less important than patterns
of feeling and engagement. He observes that TV introduced young people to “mythic”
thought, “the instant vision of a complex process that ordinarily extends over a long period
of time.”

Lazerfeld and Merton (1960) identify three social functions which the media serves and
call for sustained research into these aspects:

i) The media confer status on public issues, persons, organizations, and social
movements. It bestows prestige and enhances the authority of individuals and
groups by legitimizing their status. This status conferral function thus enters into
organized social action by legitimizing select policies, persons, and groups which
receive the support of mass media.
ii) Media serves to reaffirm social norms by exposing deviations from these norms to
public view. Media publicity closes the gap between ‘private attitudes’ and ‘public
morality’.
iii) The mass media has narcotising dysfunction. Though the mass media has lifted the
level of information of large population, apart from intent, increasing dosages of
mass communications do sometimes inadvertently transform the energies of men
from active participation into passive knowledge.
Harold Lasswell (1948) has described three major functions of mass communication
(which include TV) as:

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 i) Surveillance of the environment, disclosing threats and opportunities affecting the
value position of the community and of the component parts within it.
ii) Correlation of the different parts of society in responding to environment.
iii) Transmission of the social heritage from one generation to the next.
Wilson and Gutierrez (1985) examine Lasswell’s proposition and observe that the
surveillance function assigns to the media the responsibility of looking across the society
in order to define and describe the different minority groups within it. The correlation
function of the media helps members of the media audience to take stock of the different
groups and determine how and where they fit in the society. The transmission function
both defines what the culture and heritage of the society are and transmits it to other
members of the society. However, Lasswell, cautions that “the communication process
reveals special characteristics when the ruling element is afraid of the internal as well as
the external environment. Therefore, the structure and ownership of media has been the
subject of great concern for even governments.

The economic function of the media is “to make money.” Whether the media can achieve
this by increasing the size of the audience without maximizing the satisfaction of the
audience is a subject of inquiry by itself. This line of inquiry is also pursued in a different
way by those who look at needs-goals or needs-gratification theorists.

Eliot (1996) is critical of some of the uses and gratification studies on the ground that the
various media and the consumption behaviors associated with them are already socially
stratified. Differences in tastes, reported consumption behavior, or needs-goal can be
related to social class and similar variables. As far as television is concerned, Eliot argues,
it is reported behavior, not actual behavior, which differs along this dimension.

Television and the Concept of ‘Preferred Meanings’

Some studies – notably those of Parkin and Hall, on television show the power of
television to construct its preferred meanings on the viewers. (Parkin: 1972, Hall: 1980)

Ethnologists like Morley (1981) point to the viewer’s ability to make own meanings.
Words do not have meaning, people have. Similarly, pictures also may carry different
meanings to different people. Psychologists use thematic apperception tests to understand
the psyche of people. Socialisation processes facilitate or inhibit people to be comfortable
with the things they are exposed to. As such, it can be said that the same television
programme can be received in different ways by different people.

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Hobson (1982) observed that “the message is not solely in the ‘text’, but can be changed or
‘worked on’ by the audience as they make their own interpretation of a programme.

Fiske and Hartley (1978) emphasise that a “Television message is made meaningful only at
the moment when the semiotic codes interlock with the cultural awareness supplied by the
viewer, whose own context will play a major part in shaping that cultural awareness.
Therefore, it is difficult to generalize on the individual behavioural aspects of the causes
and effects of television. However, when the same or similar things are repeatedly viewed
by people it can have a social or ideological impact on people. It is said that a myth
repeated one hundred times may have the chance of being considered true. Television has
the potential to interweave fact (for example, news) and fiction (for instance, social
drama). Myths can naturalise history since truth can often be stranger than fiction.

Fiske and Hartly (1978) also observed that “the written word (and particularly the printed
word) works through and so promotes consistency, narrative development from cause to
effect, universality and abstraction, clarity, and a single tone of voice. The television on the
other hand, is ephemeral, episodic, concrete and dramatic in mode. Its meanings are
arrived at by contrasts and by the juxtaposition of seemingly contradictory signs and its
‘logic’ are oral and visual.”

Television’s information is ephemeral; there is no way for the viewer to go back over
material, in the way a newspaper reader or book reader can glance back over the page.
Fiske and Hartley further point out that television “uses codes which are closely related to
those by which we perceive reality itself. It appears to be the natural way of seeing the
world. It shows us not our names but our collective selves.” (Fiske and Hartley: 1978)

Smythe (1986) analysed all the drama programmes broadcast in New York City in the first
week of January of that year. He found, among other things, that most characters worked in
professional, middle-class jobs rather than in routine white-collar or blue-collar ones, and
males out-numbered females by 2:1 among the lead characters of the stories and 4:1 among
villains. Villains tended to be older than heroes, and were less likely to be white
Americans.

De Fleur (1964) studied, over six months, drama on television in the early 1960’s to
examine how the world of work was represented on television and came up with
observations that were quite similar to that of Smythe. Both observed that television
dramas tend to over-represent white males and high prestige jobs. De Fleur was
particularly concerned that “Television presents least often and as least desirable (from a

9
child’s standpoint) those occupations in which its younger viewers are most likely to find
themselves later. Television may be instructing children in ways that are not readily
apparent even to close observers – ways that may lead to later disappoints as the individual
enters the labor force.” (De Fleur: 1964)

Grebner (1973) however, does not imply that television drama should necessary reflect the
real world precisely. Nor does he imply that children generally react to the message system
in the same way as they react to the reality that it portrays. There is a difference between,
say, messages about violence and violence itself. What television reflects, in De Fleur’s
view, is social values, not social reality per se. (Grebnere: 1973)

Fiske and Hartley (1978) have asserted that the world of television, though not unrelated
to, is different from our real world. Television may not represent the manifest actuality of
our society, but it reflects, rather symbolically, the structure of values and relationship
beneath the surface.

Hodge and Tripp (1986) did not ask the viewers what effect the television has on them; nor
did they ask the viewers what use they make of the television. They asked the viewers how
a particular television text connects with their social life. The respondents were school
children in Australia. The most popular programme they cited in this context was a serial
called, Prisoner. The social drama dealt with a women’s prison in the USA Most children
were able to articulate with varying degrees of explicitness, significant parallels between
the prison and the school. The following were perceived by the school children as the key
similarities between prisoners and school children:

1. Pupils are shut in.

2. Pupils are separated from their friends.
3. Pupils would not be there if they are not made to be.
4. Pupils only work because they are punished if they do not, and it is less boring than
doing nothing at all.
5. Pupils have no right: they can do nothing about an unfair teacher.
6. Some teachers victimize their pupils.
7. There are gangs and leaders among the pupils.
8. There are silly rules which everyone tries to break. (Hodge and Tripp: 1986)

Impact on Children and Women

Minow (1991) observed, “I worried that my children would not benefit from television, but
in 1991, I worry that my grandchildren will actually be harmed by it”.

10
A study by BBJ media Services (1996) revealed that on an average weekday, boys in the
UK watch 4 hours on the weekend. Boys devote 15 minutes more in a day than girls to
watching television.

Stayer (1995) has reported the results of a survey of 750 children in the age group 10-16 in
the USA conducted by a nationally research public opinion research firm of Fairbank,
Maslin, Maulin & Associates in 1995. The survey results show that television is sending
kids mixed messages about the moral condition of the society. What young people see on
television makes them think that people are mostly dishonest (49%), care more about
money than about people (54%), are selfish (46%) and talk back to their parents (51%). On
the other hand, kids also report that what they see on television makes them think people
take responsibility for their actions (54%) and have good morals (61%). The study also
notes that kids say that the television and the movies do an average job addressing the
issues they think are more important. The kids say that the issues which are addressed most
often by entertainment television are crime (37% say it is “often” addressed), gangs (37%)
and drugs (31%); those least often addressed are the education (28%), AIDS (24%), school
related issues (18%) and family issues (12%).

Webster (1995) explores whether a high level of television watching will have only a
negative impact on the thinking and the behaviour of children and how they can be
countered by using television constructively in Teaching. He asks whether long term
passive television watching has damaging effects on children’s cognitive skills, language,
learning, behaviour and achievement and answers in the affirmative.

He concedes that, “Those children who spend more time watching television tend to be
those with more limited general abilities in any case. In other words the longer a child
habitually spends watching Television at home, the worse is her performance on measures
such as reading comprehension, spelling, math’s concepts or language structure.” The
problem is not just with the television.

Levy (1994) observes that advancements in multi-media system and the children’s access
to computer mouse and remote control devices even before they go to school are
encouraging them (the children) to discover monetary delights, most often in form of
special effects.

There are conflicting theories about the impact of video games on children. Tulupman
(1993) summarizes the study, Mind and Media by Patrician Greenfield of the University of

11
California. According to the study the possible effects of video games on children could be
either of the following:

1. The interactive violence may reduce a certain amount of aggression by giving

children an outlet to release their energy.
2. Video games provide a model of aggressive behaviour and teach children how to
become violent.
Webster (1995) suggests that the research evidence on television watching and children’s
behaviour is not easy to interpret. Teachers and parents may be concerned that violence on
television may produce more violent behaviour. Webster cites that “the classic
psychologist’s experiment is to ask children to watch a film of an adult hitting a doll, and
then observe them in a room which contains, among other things, dolls of the types shown
in the film. In this setting children, especially boys, do imitate the adult’s violent
behavior”. However, Webster is optimistic that the tendency for the children who watch
violent scenes to display more violent behaviour would be a short- lived phenomenon as by
the age of five or six, more children would be able to distinguish between violence and its
consequences in reel and real life. Since the use of new media forms is likely to continue
escalating, instead of allowing television to pace the viewer, if teachers and parents can
draw up with children the questions to ask and develop learning, Webster argues that the
negative effects of television can be minimized and the positive effects can be harnessed.

The Independent Television Commission in the UK noted that two out of top five most
offensive advertisements in 1995 were animated; though naturally inclined to the medium,
children may easily be disoriented by the message. (Davies: 1986)

Collins (1992) observed on the basis of a study conducted in four nations- Ireland,
Australia, United States and Norway- that parents were concerned about television
advertisements because they are seen as creating a need in children and through them,
commercial pressures in their parents.

Davies (1989), however points out that while the contents of the ads and how children
understands them is to some degree understood, there is a considerable confusion about the

connection between what is seen and what happens afterwards.

In India there are several studies about the power of the television in influencing people’s
attitudes and behaviour.

Dutta (1996) is critical about the power of television and observes that; “…the arrival of
the satellite channels with foreign commercial programming has not presented us with an
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alternative to the old discourse of power. Instead our significance of the world beyond the
box is now organized by information and images processed under political-economic
conditions in which an Indian audience is irrelevant. In other words, the assumption that
form the TV content of most satellite channels are part of a process of production tailored
to meet the demands of advertisers and shareholders of another country. This does not
necessarily imply that we are being indoctrinated by malevolent foreign powers through
satellite TV in a high- tech ‘War of the World’ scenario! It means, rather, that the media in
question is more concerned with the business of ratings and corporate sponsorships. ”
Dutta further argues, “in the satellite TV era, cold, blue scrutiny has grown more powerful-
till it invades almost every aspects of our thoughts and actions. Many a decision is made
and opinion formed on the basis of what was seen on the BBC/ STAR PLUS/CNN.”

Prasad (1995) has made observations on media strategies for rural development as follows:
Prasad observed the role of radio & television that “we seem to think that coverage is
communication, that quality is credibility” for making appropriate strategy for rural India.
(Sardaprasad: 1981).

The sheer amount of time spent in watching television itself is considered too large to have
no impact on children while considering their studies, socialization and participation in
physical exercises regardless of the nature and quality of the programmes.

Narayanan’s (1983) doctoral study in Sociology, which dealt with the television viewing
habits of children in Mumbai, reveals that television keeps children indoors in the evening
when they should actually be engaged in vigorous outdoor play. Though television is
supposed to provide information and knowledge, Narayanan said few of his respondents
reported that television glued kids got good grades in examinations!

Singh (1992) reviewed 108 published works on the impact of television. Almost all of

these focused on the impact on children and education, particularly in the context of rural
India. Singh’s broad conclusions are that television has changed the habits of the children.
Educational television has a positive impact and helped children to gain more knowledge.
Unikrishnan and Bajpai (1996) covered 730 children, some of their parents, teachers,
experts and advertisers during their field work in Delhi studied the extent to which
advertising shapes the consciousness of children; what they are learning from television;
and whether television advertising is establishing a social and consumption agenda for
children to follow. The study reveals the excitement and the confusion created in the minds
of children by what they see on the small screen. It explains that the manner in which

13
children negotiate television information and advertising messages varies according to
their socio-economic background.

Gopal Saksena (1996) argued “television ads generally project not only a better
environment but also better object than most children in a developing society can afford.
Finding themselves deprived of that thing; a feeling of frustration and inferiority develops
in them. When this reaction grows more intense, they start nursing a skin-deep hatred for
their friends, born in more privileged and prosperous families. Sowing the seeds of social
antagonism so early in life many develop into a serious social problem later. Then, our
juvenile audience many be led to develop instincts of violence”.

Kalra and Karla (1996) studied the impact of cable television viewing on adolescents. The
study was conducted in four colonies of Ludhiana city in Punjab covering a sample of 150
adolescents in the age group 13-19 who had connections in their houses. The authors point
out that the media invasion has triggered off a number of unhealthy trends in the society. It
has even interfered with social mingling and family bonds. The ‘villain’ has driven guests
away and injected lethargy into the youth and students. Studies have gone out of gear and
the ocular, physical and mental health of the ‘victims’ have been affected. The authors
point to the special responsibility of parents in curtailing the negative effects of cable
television.

Deodhar (1991) rightly summed up the dilemmas concerning the impact of television:
“television is a double edged weapon. It can be the healing knife of a surgeon or the
stabbing weapon of a killer.” The book very aptly brings home the point that a child builds
its character, its intelligence and its knowledge level in the constant company of its two
parents, the mother and the father. Tele-video at home or at school or at the community
place may soon become the third parent.

Prasad (1995) studied 75 days programmes of Doordarshan. Based on a content analysis

she observed that the public sector broadcasting fails in one of its prime aims of promoting
women’s development. She finds that more often women were portrayed as a mere
decorative piece, a feather-glamour doll existing only to high-light the hero’s masculinity.
Articulation about the women as a victim of injustice in the patriarchal world order is rare.
The afternoon transmission which targets women, children and the elderly encompass
cooking and beauty tips, training in first-aid, songs, and a few good serials. In many
advertisements, women models were used irrelevantly and with irreverence simply to
‘attract’ the attention of viewers. Most advertisements project women in traditional role
such as housewives and rarely are they shown as progressive, successful human beings.
14
For a vast majority of women, illiteracy is the greatest barrier for development Television,
incorporating visual images and bridging time and distance, has the potentiality to serve as
an effective agent of social change. But Prasad regrets that quite often Doordarshan either
ignores women’s issues or paints a negative picture of women.

Television Advertisements

We live in the world of multimedia and we are surrounded by a number of mediated

products. In the present era, television is the major global entertainer and news provider. It
is the most suitable and largest medium for advertising.

Television access has risen to 108 million homes in 2005 of which cable and satellite
homes consists of 73 million – the largest cable television market. In 2005, media
advertising study revealed that 46% of the total industry worth Rs. 9,493 crores was taken
away by television alone. India’s pay television market earned $4.2 billion in 2006 and is
believed to grow strongly by 2015. At present around three hundred and twenty five
television channels, fifty thousand newspapers and forty three thousand periodicals along
with an ample number of FM channels in India. Studies have revealed that a large
percentage of people enjoy watching television commercials and a majority of consumers
receive product information from television only. Further, a majority of consumers feel
that television commercials have the greatest influence in buying decisions. (Rani: 2007,
Yadav: 2009).

As per the ZenithOptimedia Advertising Expenditure Forecasts report released in

December 2009, “the advertising spend on television was estimated at Rs 9,013.3 crores
in 2009, vis-à-vis Rs 8,501 crores in 2008 and Rs 7,396 crores in 2007. It increased by Rs
512 crores (6 per cent increase) in 2009, while it increased by Rs 1,105 crores (15 per cent
increase) in 2008, when compared with the television ad spends in 2007. Except for
internet media, advertising expenditure on all traditional media formats -- television, print,
outdoor and radio -- grew at a slower rate in 2009, as compared to 2008 and 2007”.
(afaqs.com)

According to the Economic Times, emerging markets like Chilna and India will drive
growth for the $ 464-billion global advertising market in 2012, according to Publicis
Groupe, the third-largest communications group in the world. (ET, 6th Dec., 2011)

From the time we get up till the time we sleep we come across a number of product
advertisements. As the consumption of household products is very high, the advertisers in
most cases target the women, as they are the decision makers and potential buyers of a

15
family. Television advertisements inform women about different products and its usages in
day-to-day life. Though advertisements teach a lot of things it is under attack as it
generates unnecessary demand for products and also it is observed that some advertised
products are costlier than non-advertised products. The proliferation of products,
advertisements, and various types of promotional activity, often targeted to women and
children is of great concern to general public as some advertisements might misguide the
consumers. The advertisements mostly provide limited, bias and sometimes vague
information based on their product strength. Since women are exposed to advertisement on
a high level (especially housewives), they start taking commercials as a part of their lives.
The dream of a woman to become perfect and beautiful is fulfilled by the commercial as
the advertisers push women into the world of her dreams over reality and make them
special, but only in the virtually sphere. Advertisements have thus become an effective
market instrument in creating unwanted needs that guarantee to mold women into heavenly
beauty. E.g.: Purple Lux advertisement, endorsed by Katrina Kaif, Ponds age miracle pro-
vitamin v5 etc.

Television has special programs, intelligently scheduled for all. It has taken the position of
important family member at our homes. Thus the advertisers having realized this essential
position of television employ various new concept and ideas to sell products and services.

Media Awareness Network, a Canadian non-profit organization that has been pioneering
the development of media and digital literacy programs since its incorporation in 1996
states in one of its reports that “in the United States, The average North American girl will
watch 5,000 hours of television, including 80,000 ads, before she starts kindergarten.
Saturday morning cartoons alone come with 33 commercials per hour. Commercials aimed
at kids spend 55 per cent of their time showing boys building, fixing toys, or fighting. They
show girls, on the other hand, spending 77 per cent of their time laughing, talking, or
observing others. And while boys in commercials are shown out of the house 85 per cent
of the time, more than half of the commercials featuring girls place them in the home.”
Through the homogenization of cultures, many corporate companies have made their way
into diverse societies. These companies have the sole aim of selling goods and services.
They have used advertisements and strengthen consumerism.

16
Women Empowerment

The concept of empowerment is not a new one. References to the term date back to the

1960s, particularly in the Afro-American movement and in Paolo Freire’s theory based on
the development of a critical conscience. Since 1985, popular women’s movements in
Latin America and the Caribbean as well as feminist movements have seen the notion of
empowerment as being tied, on the one hand, to the seizing of power, by emphasizing
mainly the improvement of self-esteem and self-confidence as well as the ability to choose
what direction one’s life should take; and on the other to the collective power to change
gender relations in the economic, political, legal and socio-cultural spheres. This concept
was officially first brought out at the International Women’s Conference in 1985 at
Nairobi. The conference concluded that empowerment is the redistribution of power and
control of resources in favor of women through positive intervention. Broadly,
empowerment means individuals acquiring the power to think and act freely, exercise
choice, and to fulfill their potential as full and equal members of society. The United
Nations Development fund for Women (UNDFW) includes the following factors in its
definition of women’s empowerment:

 Acquiring knowledge and understanding of gender relations and the ways in which
these relations may be changed;

 Developing a sense of self-worth, a belief in one’s ability to secure desired

changes and the right to control one’s life.

Social empowerment: to create an enabling environment through various affirmative

developmental policies and programs for development of women besides providing them
easy and equal access to all the basic minimum services so as to enable them to realize
their full potential.

Economic empowerment: to ensure provisions of training, employment and income

generation activities with the ultimate objective of making all potential women
economically independent and self-reliant.

Political empowerment: to ensure increases in participation of women in Political and

democratic processes at different level so that they can hold various positions in the power
structure and play their role effectively in the society.

17
Educational empowerment: to ensure active participation and provides an opportunity for
women to avail education and achieve equal opportunity on account of eligibility and
education without gender discrimination.

Gender justice: to eliminate all forms of gender discrimination and thus, allow women to
enjoy not only the de-jure (rightful) but also the de-facto (whether by right or wrong/ in
fact) rights and fundamental freedom on par with men in all spheres, viz. political,
economic, social, civil, cultural, etc.

The approach to women’s empowerment draws an important distinction between equality

of opportunity, on the one hand and equality of outcome on the other.

 Equality of Opportunity means that women should have equal rights and
entitlements to human, social, economic and cultural development, and an equal
voice in civil and political life.

 Equality of Outcome means that the exercise of these rights and entitlements lead
to outcomes which are fair and just, and which enable women to have the same
power as men to define the objectives of development.

Within the framework of a democratic polity, our laws, development policies, plans and
programmes have aimed at women’s advancement in different spheres. From the fifth five
year plan (1974-78) onwards there has been a mark shift in the approach to women issues
from welfare to development. In recent years, the empowerment of women has been
recognized as the central issue in determining the status of women.

It is still argued that mass media in developing countries are hardly ‘Media of the Mass’
they are virtually ‘Class-Media’. The media have generally contributed to perpetuate status
quo. The media tend to push women into home on roles and situation perceived by the
middle class as appropriate. They do not create awareness of existing situation, erode
existing value and myth of the supplementary nature of women’s work and to work
towards women’s equal and dignified status. Women’s problems have been seen by the
wider socio-economic situation. Success stories of women are not being given adequate
attention by the media, which insists on depicting women as dependent both socially and
emotionally. No pressure groups exist for bringing about a change in this bias.

Welfare of women is a subject of great concern for the society and media has a major
role to play in enhancing this aspect. In India, women’s empowerment often varies by
community, with tribes sometimes being the most progressive. The committee on Status
of women observed the content of communication at any given time reflects the pattern
18
of values of the society. The way the subject dealing with women are treated indicate to a
great extent the prevailing attitude of that society towards its women who are half the
population are often half the audience. The success or failure of development plans in
education, family planning, community development, health and nutrition depends upon
the involvement and participation of women. This shows that compared to men, women
are underprivileged in many ways and suffer from serious disabilities. Since education is
a costly and long-term process, it is essential to harness the mass media. However,
incidental studies on the impact of mass media indicate that women’s exposure to mass
media is often marginal and unsatisfactory. It appears that mass media has not been an
effective instrument to inform and prepare women to play their new roles in society. The
committee’s investigation reveals a general lack of awareness about the rights, problems,
opportunities and responsibilities among both men and women. Since government
controls a significant section of the mass media, it should set the pace.

A seminar on Doordarshan’s role in Women’s Equality and Development by the Center

for Women’s Development studies and the Committee for the portrayal of women in the
media made two major points:

1. A very wide distance existed between the national policy objectives vis-à-vis
women’s equality and development and Doordarshan present role and
programming, and

2. The general tenor of Doordarshan programmes counters to its stray efforts to be

purposive on women’s behalf.

Today, Indian women are placed in an enigmatic position. The symbolic structure backed
by constitutional provisions has given her a high status in society while reality is
something different. Stringent efforts should be made to locate the roots of this dichotomy
and also resist this anomalous situation. Only then can the position of women be improved
both formally and in true sense. It is to be always remembered that women’s development
is a part of the total effort of development women’s liberation would in fact ultimately
leads to human liberation.

Throughout history and in many societies including India, gender inequality was part and
parcel of an accepted male-dominated culture. Atrocities and discrimination are the two
major problems, which the Indian women face in the present day society. The traditional
mentalities of India assume that the place of women is mainly concentrated to the
household activities like kitchen work and upbringing of the children. They have been

19
considered as the sex object and inferior to the men in different spheres of knowledge. The
'Sati Pratha', Pardah System', 'Child Marriage', 'Dowry System', etc. have been some form
of atrocities and discriminatory attitudes against the women. Even after fifty-seven years of
Indian independence, women are still one of the most powerless and marginalized sections
of Indian society. The 2001 Census shows that the sex ratio for India is 933, which is
lowest in the world. Percentage of female literacy is 54.16 (2001 Census) against male
literacy of 75.85 per cent.

With their well-known patience and perseverance, Indian women are bound to smash
their position and come out to participate in and contribution their share to the
development of humanity as a whole. Television of tomorrow would definitely depict the
story of the victory of women kind for a just social order.

Both women development and development of society in general are interwoven and
essential related to the state of status of women in society because that alone determines
their participation in the process of development. Unfortunately women have never been
given an independence status. Experts have always stressed the role of communication in
changing attitude of omen. Besides bring attitudinal and value change, communication is
expected to impart knowledge of new skill and technique.

With their well-known patience and perseverance, Indian women are bound to smash their
position and come out to participate in and contribution their share to the development of
humanity as a whole. Television of tomorrow would definitely depict the story of the
victory of women kind for a just social order.

Both women development and development of society in general are interwound and
essential related to the state of status of women in society because that alone determines
their participation in the process of development. Unfortunately women have never been
given an independence status. Experts have always stressed the role of communication in
changing attitude of women. Besides bring attitudinal and value change, communication is
expected to impart knowledge of new skill and technique.

International Seminar on Women, Communication and Networks

This seminar held in Japan on 28th to 30th October in 1985. The purpose of this seminar
was to provide the invited participants with an opportunity to exchange view and share
experiences on women’s information and communication networks either at the
international, regional or the national level.

20
Ms. Atsuka Shikuma, Director General of NWEC quoted that the most important tools for
women’s empowerment are “information and communication” that accurately reflects
women’s experience and communication that links up women around the world. She noted
that mass media however does not always reflect rightly the real issues confronting women
and is often guilt of sensationalisation on women’s concern as well as conveying the image
of stereotyped sex roles.

To sum up it may be stated that the most important result of the seminar was the mutual
understanding and agreement reached by all the participants both panelist and observers to
make use of women’s information.

International Conference on Women Development: Society for International

Development:

This conference was held at Jaipur in 1985. It was commonly felt that the media tended to
reinforce traditional values and attitudes towards male female relationship to discuss the
growing dissatisfaction regarding ineffective role played by media is disseminating
knowledge of existing legal rights of women. So of the recommendations were made by
this conference. The major recommendation in this area was to set up an independent non-
governmental women organisation to disseminate information on women’s problems.
Some others are as below:

1. Such a non-governmental organisations could also monitor media performance in

this field.

2. International organisations and agencies should be requested to support projects

associated with women and mass media seed money should be given for identifying
and developing such innovative projects.

3. Adequate representation should be given to women at decision-making levels in the

editorial section of journals and newspapers.

4. Frequent interaction should take place between persons working in the different
areas of communication media to keep alive discussion on women’s status and to
ensure follow up to these recommendation.

5. People’s organisation in general should stimulate the public against negative and
unjust portrayal of women in mass media.

This conference discussed the burning issue related to women in communication media
which proves fruitful if their recommendations are follows in practical life. It tried to

21
stimulate the adequate representation to women in media and decision-making level on
various bodies. Media must make conscious effort to change basic attitude towards man-
woman relationship. Aspects of creativity must find place on the media. Overall it may be
stated this conference proved successful to some extent. (Singh: 1985).

Measuring the effects of viewing screen violence represents one important facet of media
effects research, but the study of media effects encompasses many other type of research as
well. Social scientists are also interested in the persuasive power of mass mediated
messages (e.g. Advertisement, propaganda, communication campaign), the impact of new
communication technology, the impact of viewing sexually explicit media fare, reactions
to frightful or disturbing media content, effects from political communication, and much
more.

Communication may take several different forms. It may be interpersonal in nature, it may
involve the use of personal communication medium, or it may be described as mass
communication. The act of communicating via interpersonal, media, or mass media
channels involves a process or series of stages. Even in its simplest form, communication
between a source and a receiver may take on an interactional or transactional dimension.
Mass communication involves one or more institutional sources (usually complex entities
such as production houses in conjunction with a television network) reaching thousands or
millions of people with the same transient message. The audience members are
heterogeneous, or demographically diverse, and unknown to the message source.

Scholars have developed models and theories and illustrated abstract ideas regarding
communication processes and behaviour. Models may also be used to explain media
effects. Models help demonstrate the different process of communication, whether linear,
interactional or transactional in nature.

The study of media effects assumes a basic cause and effect scenario. Social scientist
employs statistical methods to account for chance as an important component of the notion
of casualty.

Researchers often measure media effects in laboratory settings using experimental

methods. Other research methods include survey, field experiments, and panel studies.
Content analysis is used to examine the presence, absence, or quantity of certain attributes
of media messages that allegedly contribute to certain media effects. Most media effects
studies employ statistical methods.

22
With so many of the problems in today’s worlds being blamed on media communications,
the issue of mass media effects has become one of the paramount social relevance. Media
effects are an important and fascinating research domain. A fundamental knowledge of
media effects is a necessary criterion for excelling in the information age.

Media Advertising and the Audience

From the very beginning social scientist focused on effectiveness of the media in shaping
the attitudes and opinion of the people. Communication researcher has identified many
different individual characteristics of consumer of public that influence media effect. Each
person is motivated by different factors to use particular media. A person’s emotional state
at the time of media use also influences media effects, as does the person’s prior
knowledge (Thorson & Reeves, 1990). One theoretical basis for such individualized effect
is called ‘Selective Exposure’ (Zillmann & Bryant, 1985). People tend to watch, listen to
and remember media messages that are consistent with their attitudes, interest or
predisposition.

A great amount of research has supported the idea of selective exposure (Broadbent, 1977;
Greenwald & Leavit, 1984; Krugman, 1988; Pechmann & Stewart, 1990). The related area
of uses and gratification research has also proven productive (Gunter, 1985). The research
has shown that people tend to make their selection based upon what they do not want to
see rather than what they want to see. In fact, different people want to use media
differently and react to it differently; therefore advertisements affect them differently.
Advertising media includes the various types of mass media such as Television, Radio and
Print sources. Earlier studies showed that the use of certain media is highly related to a
person’s level of education attainment. Berelson and Steiner (1964) found that people with
less education tended to read less, listen to radio more, and watched television more than
their better educated peers, whereas those with higher level’s of education preferred print
media to broadcast media. Considering the connection between advertising persuasions,
researchers in mass communication have been very interested in studying the effects of
advertising. The focus of these researchers have been either on processes involved
whenever advertising media effects occur or on the differences in effects produced by the
media context in which the advertisement is embedded. Media context refers to the
programme type whether humorous, sad, serious, riveting and so forth. The advertising
research has various domains such as theoretical as well as applied in nature (Jennings &
Susan, 2002: 288). Theoretical studies of advertising conducted mostly by scholars of
academic disciplines, use a variety of research method to test hypotheses and advance
23
knowledge in the field. The primary purpose of theoretical research is to gain richer
understanding of a phenomenon particularly the role and function of advertising for
individual nad society. Applied research also implies a variety of research techniques to
answer questions of practical values to advertising practioners and media professionals.
Such research indicates that a person’s attitude with regard to a particular media product
within a particular medium influence both media use and effects (Jennings & Susan, 2002:
288). Politz research (1962) conducted a study to measure differences in the brand quality
and preferences ratings among readers of the three different magazines (McCall’s, Look
and Life). The study reveals that in the perception of readers the product appeared in
McCall’s were of much higher quality than the same product in Look and Life. It clearly
reveals about the individual attitudes regarding particular magazine make the difference in
their perception about the quality of their product. Such study gave a great mileage to
researcher to continue the research and examine individual attitude regarding the media
and the advertising messages they carry to make effect on the sensationary organs of the
people.

The impact of advertisements has been a matter of considerable debate and many different
claims have been made in different context. During debate about the banning of cigarette
advertising, a common claim from the cigarette manufacturers was that cigarette
advertising does not encourage the non-smoker population. The opponents of such
advertising, on the other hand, claim that advertising does in fact increase consumption of
such products (Bagga, 2006). Bagga argues that advertising in its non-commercial guise is
a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences. But over
exposure of the people to commercial advertisements has generated a kind of negative
awareness among the masses and they see advertising as a in medium that inherently
promotes a lie, created only for the purpose of advertisement – to encourage the target
audience to submit a cause or a belief and act on it to the benefit of advertising parties and
consequently disadvantages for the target audience.

Media Advertising and Women Empowerment

According to Byerly and Ross (2006), audience research and effects have always been
studied by feminist media researchers. And ‘these audiences’ are broken down into
specific ‘stratum’, which was once passive but have become active and interactive. Thus
the advertisers trigger to the specific strata of audiences. Therefore it has become
interesting to study the media effects, especially on women for the advertisers. It has been
noticed in the past that most of the women studies are based on the effects of soap operas
24
on them. Although these studies done in the past 50 years were not sure about the kind of
women consuming these soap operas.

India is a fast growing economy with huge population favorable for advertisers and brands.
India thus has enormous potential for growth in market. It has become one of the favorable
destinations for national and international brands from worldwide for biggest investments
opportunities especially in media and entertainment industry.

According to Rani (2007), “Advertisers can better be known as ‘idea merchants’ than
sellers or propagandist because advertise strives for acceptance of idea by the people.
Advertising deals with selling of images by persuading people about certain products or
services. The change in our Indian economy has opened new doors for advertising.
Advertising had helped in marketing of the product and creating competition which
directly helps in quality improvement leading to good market i.e. expanding market and
sales.”

It has been found in the study conducted by Rani (2007) that the advertisements can
change the preferences of product right from third year of human life. Young children can
differentiate between a programme and a commercial and recall these commercials while
purchasing. Only between the ages of 8-10 years, with experience, they understand the
blown up facts about the product. Thus she emphasises the need for elders concerned to
enlighten young ones about the advertised products and commercials, which are designed
to make people purchase products they might, don’t necessarily need.

A study conducted by Shartiely (2005) provides us that advertisements portray gender

stereotypical images fabricated and practiced by the society since time immemorial.
Advertisements sell us our social reality: historical, cultural, economic, social classes,
traditional gender role, financial authority, our daily consumption, wear, likes and dislikes.
It is so because the society has clearly defined gender roles for male and female.

According to Santosh Desai, managing director and CEO of Future Brands while speaking
in an interview said, “Advertising always obsesses with the young. The whole notion of
advertising is about the young. Even when they show old people they show them as
youthful, because that is more desirable. Desirability is about youth. There is a need to
look at both the observer and the observed. Advertising is the marketer's view of what they
want us to use or see. For instance, earlier, any ad would have a housewife. Now, more
women are shown out of home and therefore their physical appearance is becoming more
important. Four years ago, it was more about achievement, now it is more about

25
appearance. That says something about the society. As a result, advertising is a fantastic
place to look at as a reflection of society. For example, even if there is a home loan ad, the
house they will show is a large mansion with a sloping roof, which you can never afford.
But as children or young people that is what we may have dreamed of.”

Empowerment of women has emerged as an important issue in our society in recent times.
The economic empowerment of women is being regarded these days as a sine-qua-non of
progress for a country, hence the issue of economic empowerment of women is of
paramount importance to political thinkers, social scientists and reformers, women
activists, politicians, academicians, administrators and media professionals.

Empowerment is a process, by which women gain greater control over material and
intellectual resources which will assist them to increase their self-reliance and enhance
them to assert their independent rights and challenge the ideology of patriarchy and the
gender based discrimination against women. This will also enable them to organize
themselves to assert their autonomy to make decisions and choices, and ultimately
eliminate their own subordination in all the institutions and structures of society. As a
result, welfare of women is a subject of great concern for the society and media and media
has a major role to play in enhancing these aspects. The various studies on the impact of
mass media indicate that women’s exposure to mass media is often marginal and
unsatisfactory. It appears that the mass media has not been an effective instrument to
inform and prepare humans to play new roles in society (Aggarwal: 1995). A major study
of women’s role in television and radio in five countries – India, Egypt, Nigeria, Canada,
and Ecuador proves that women have a long way to go if they are to make any meaningful
impact on society objective for the mass media through the control of key management and
policy making positions. Therefore there should be programs relating to women’s status,
image and empowerment since the status of women is directly related to a countries
national development. This problem has attracted the attention of researchers, policy
makers, not only to propagate the government policies and programs but also know the
proper use of such media regarding women education, empowerment and welfare. Many
researchers have coined the study about media advertising and its effect but most of the
study is based on commercial advertisement as an economic and commercial force. None
of study has been conducted so far to know the impact of social or public advertisement
mainly given by government mostly through National Television (national channel). In
most of the commercial ads image of women in the Indian media has always been
projected wrongly and unrealistically. All media such as newspapers, magazines, radio,

26
television and film are not putting any concrete effort to change the conventional image of
Indian women. Instead of enhancing the prestige and respect of women in Indian media,
these media knowingly or unknowingly are contributing for lowering the image of women
by projecting superficial, physical, ornamental characteristics of women. Whether it is an
advertisement of a cigarette like Wills, in which a half-dressed women with her male
counterpart is seen enjoying the charm of cigarette, or of a soft-drink like frooty, when a
women is quenching her thrust in semi-nude dress in a pool, a distorted or tarnish image of
women is projected. In commercial advertisements woman is always being projected as
sex object (Pandey: 2003). However in case of social advertisement situation it is totally
different, these intend to promote and empower women instead of selling her.

There are the various paradigms related to women empowerment and television
advertising such as Television Advertising and Gender equality, Television Advertising
and Women Education, Television Advertising and Women Poverty Eradication,
Television Advertising and Women Empowerment, Television Advertising and Women
Participation in Government and Local Elected Bodies namely, gram panchayat, village
panchayat etc., Television Advertising and Right to Women Property, Television
Advertising and Family Welfare, Nutrition and Health for Women, Television
Advertising and Financial Gains for Women, infanticide, Television Advertising and
Environment, Television Advertising and Science and Technology, Television
Advertising and Women Industry (Vasungi: 2008). For the successful implementation of
such plan there are continuous and sustained efforts from the government to achieve the
goal and empower women, but still goal is faraway. Thus, government and media have
miles to go to achieve the success. In addition to such dynamic endeavor made by
government many studies have been conducted by the scholars related to women welfare
and empowerment as well as other issues to know the ground reality and concrete findings
in order to formulate a appropriate strategies and course of action by adopting majors.
Some of the studies in related field are as follows.

Many studies have identified education, work participation, exposure to mass media and
household standard of living as determinants of empowerment. Education enhances a
women’s position through decision-making autonomy, control over resources, knowledge,
and exposure to the modern world and husband-wife closeness (Jejeebhoy: 1996 and
Kishore: et.al 2004). Female work participation in non-agricultural sector and level of
wage are also considered as determinant of empowerment (Srinivasan: 1990 and Kulkarni:
et al, 1990).

27
Women’s gainful employment outside home exposes her to the outside world; delay age at
marriage, provides a sense of financial independence and increase her bargaining power
and autonomy within the household and society (Chen: 1995, Pruthi: et al, 1999, and
Dixon-Mueller: 1993). Also women’s paid employment could alter the perception of
women’s values, motivate investment in the girl child’s education and health (United
Nations, 1999). The investment of power on a woman becomes evident through her
participation in household decision-making, financial autonomy and freedom of movement
(Kishore: 2004). Lack of decision-making power by women could result into lesser timely
health seeking behavior and leads to greater adverse health consequences (Sundari: 2002).

The input of empowerment also has to enhance her intrinsically by changing her attitude or
ideology into egalitarian ideas, otherwise the power or autonomy she has gained, cannot
channel her to make welfare and developmental decisions. A fundamental shift in
perceptions or “inner transformation” is essential to the formulation of developmental
choices (Malhotra: 2002). Non-egalitarian gender relations deny women in egalitarian
decision making role during health care need, and other family matters (Jeejebhoy: 1998).
Positive change in the attitude could alter the current submissive image of Indian woman
as only a reproductive tool, homemaker, caregiver and subordinate.

The BAIF Development Research Foundation, in partnership with IDRC and nine
Indian nongovernmental organizations, and with the financial support of the Canadian
International Development Agency, has been exploring women's empowerment
processes through a five-year, multi-institution, multi-state initiative, the Swayamsiddha
project.

Swayamsiddha (swayam, or self, and siddha, one who has proven capability or is
empowered) embodies the project’s focus on improving the lives of women and girls in
rural India, and empowering them to address their own socioeconomic and development
needs. Since its inception, the project has reached more than 6,000 women and girls in
91 villages in six Indian states.

Recently a report, ‘Working Conditions of Women in Prasar Bharati’, was tabled in Lok
Sabha by the Committee on Empowerment of Women. The committee noted that though it
is comparatively satisfied with the representation of women in higher posts in both All
India Radio and Doordarshan, but are "quite unhappy" about their decreasing numbers in
lower categories. "The committee believes there is a strong connection between women in
media and the issue of empowerment of women. Moreover, it is an accepted fact that
women are better communicators than men". The panel has urged Prasar Bharati to take
28
appropriate measures to create more job opportunities for women and enhance their
representation in workforce.
The committee also found that complaints were made in AIR and Doordarshan by women
to the Women's Cell. Thus the committee has recommended that complaints relating to
sexual harassment should be tackled with “greater sensitivity” and settled without delay
and loses of faith in the system. (The Economic Times)

When asked, ‘If the popular culture hamper the growth of women?’, Dr. Sayeda Hameed,
Member, 11th Planning Commission replied in an interview with NDTV, “if women are
shown closely seated on a toilet seat or if a model is lying on top of a car being advertised
it is her total commodification. We are using the innocence of women and replicating
others in the form of globalization, as for example, cheer leaders look like street dancers
and are a kind of show business with exception in films where women problems have been
raised and portrayed in a dignified manner. But otherwise everything has commodification
of women which we can be seen in Page3 newspapers, where women bodies are being
used and is flashed all over the media. Internet is wide open, anyone and everyone has
access to whatever they want to see.”

Lastly it was concluded that in India we have problems like literacy, poverty and imitation
of foreign and Indian media who portray women in a stereotype manner like in ‘Saas-bahu’
serials and thus the people who watch them believe that women cannot compete with men.
Therefore it becomes necessary to understand that whatever the government does or
policies it makes, until and unless we change our entire stereotype views about women, we
cannot give them equal status with men. (NDTV India)

The UNESCO’s Report on Women and Media observes that the perception of women
shown in mass media expresses the male point of view towards woman. Due to the
commercialization of media women are shown ‘housewives, consumers and sex-objects’.
In advertising women are generally portrayed as the object of desire which reminds us of
the concept of Laura Mulvey’s ‘Male Gaze’. But the actual role of mass media should be
to redefine the definition set by men about women.

World Association for Christian Communication Congress, 19th issue held in October
(2008), on Gender and Media says that gender equality and women’s struggle are vital
areas of study. United Nations has also recognized, Media monitoring as a tool for social
change.

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Although women’s population is almost half of the total population of India, media access
is not the same. The gender bias is extensive, especially in the rural areas as women remain
marginalized as far as media is concerned. A major contributory factor for this could be
illiteracy; non-exposure to the outside world, confinement within the four walls. It is
important to understand that creation of a knowledge society helps in empowerment. In
fact, the term ‘empowerment’ through communication or mass communication depends
mostly on the access and content of the media and also the content that the masses are
interested in reading, listening or viewing says Halaswamy, (2008).

He also makes interesting revelations based on his study in two districts on rural women
that women found Television interesting than Radio (both medium does not require
literacy), For the improvement of quality or value of life, entertainment as well as
empowerment, women found Television as the most favored medium. It was also found
that family members play a vital role in conveying information on women issues followed
by extension officers, in the article on ‘role of Communications on enriching Women’.
(Halaswamy: 2008)

Brown and Singhal (1990) have expressed that mass media if used effectively, can serve to
a great extent for development.

Stereotypical Portrayal of Fair sex in Advertising

The market and the media have shaped how women should perform at home. The ideal
woman is beautiful, a good cook, follows ritual and traditions, looks after elders and
children, a perfect wife, whiten the husband’s and children’s dirtiest white shirt etc. At the
same time, women's bodies are constantly used to sell surrogate advertisements of
cigarettes, tobacco and liquor companies.

According to Gaur (2008) women in almost all Television programs and advertising appear
to be young, attractive, dependent and victimized. Advertisements judged women based on
how they look and not on their abilities. The beautiful woman has fair and unblemished
skin, is full breasted, slim, active, and is a successful career woman.

Some advertisements have shown women as ‘super mom’ who are now technologically
empowered as the users of washing machines, chimneys, microwave oven, scooty and car
etc. In the world of advertisement, a mom can cook food in 2 minutes. Whereas some
advertisement reflect the daily problems faced by women such as dandruff and body odor.
E.g. Head&Shoulders ‘Sar ko rakho happy happy’, Rexona ‘Har pal saath nibhaye’, Nima
Rose ‘Rose Rose Nima Rose’. Also some advertisements show women worried about

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losing her boyfriend like Garnier Colour Naturals advertisement of a girl worried about her
first grey hair, Pears Clean & Clear advertisement also has the same story.

Yadav (2009) views that in the present times many advertisements carrying children
project girls with their mothers for beauty products e.g. Pears, Clinic plus etc. some other
advertisements show girls as chatterboxes or sweet little things. She adds that when two
children are shown in advertisements, it is mostly a boy and a girl or two boys and very
rarely is a family with two girls spotted. E.g. The advertisements of Surf excel – Daag
Achae hai, a detergent, features a boy protecting his sister and beating the mud puddle to
make his sister happy, another as crusader, and a responsible individual to gets involved
into a mock fight to break another and the recent one is trying to make his teacher (Rosy
Miss) feel better who lost her dog.

Advertising could influence society and big brands could take the initiative to break
stereotypes says Yadav (2009).

Concepts in Advertising

Brand and Branding: According to Philips Kotler and Gary Armstrong in ‘Principles of
Marketing’, defined Brand ‘as a name, term, sign symbol or a combination of these that
identifies the maker or seller of the product.’

Total number of brands advertised in television is more than 12,500. Branding is a western
concept widely used in the developed countries and fresh to Indian advertising. Unlike in
the developed countries branding is very difficult here, one of the reason being lack of
market for demand and use of branded products. E.g. Microsoft Software Company
Chairman Bill Gates has said that the heavy amount of piracy and use of non-branded
products in India has caused heavy loss to his company. In 2004 the NDA led government
tried to brand India. They did extensive political campaign throughout India with their
slogan as “India Shinning”. This campaign reminded the days when ad agencies tried to
brand Rajeev Gandhi after the demise of Indira Gandhi. In both the cases the campaign
failed badly. (Rani, 2007)

Content Design and Development: The advertising content in recent years has changed
slightly in portraying progressive ideas; even then the comodification of women has not
changed. Almost all men’s products ranging from underwear to shaving cream are
advertised by female models. On the other hand advertisements have continued to show
the stereotypical portrayal of women. Some advertisements are revolutionary as they try to
portray the new working, independent, aggressive, intelligent and assertive women (e.g.

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Tata Tea ‘Taaza Hole’, almost all ads of Fair and lovely). Women are the ‘consumer
queen’ and the advertisers cannot hurt their feelings.

1. Extensive use of children in advertisements (e.g. Volkswagen, German engineering

stock made for India, Rin, Chamkte rehna, Surf, Daag ache hai)
2. Mother-in-law not an object of terror (e.g. Brooke bond red label, ‘Chuskiya
zindagee ki’)
3. Eco-friendliness and development (e.g. Idea, Use Mobile Save Paper)
4. Stress on Ayurvedic products/cosmetics (e.g. Medimix, Vicco turmeric cream,
Dabur Dasmularist, Chawanprash, Lal dantmanjan, Lal tel etc)
5. The advertisements tell a realistic and practical stories
6. Celebrities like film stars, cricketers, shooters, boxers, tennis stars, badminton
players, hickey players etc are used extensively as brand ambassadors for both
national causes as well as to sell products.
7. Vodafone and ICICI Prodential Life Insurance has moved forward by introducing
animated characters, Zoozoos and Chintamani which are very famous nationwide.
According to some critique these characters are more famous than the product
itself.
8. The mantra of spending lavishly to make an advertisement film has become the
order of the day in the Advertising World today. Sometimes the advertisements
produced are more expensive than some full length small budget films. E.g. new
2010 Thums Up advertisement endorsed by Akshay Kumar estimated a cost of Rs.
4.5 crores. Films like Bheja Fry was produced under the budget of only 1 crore.
Today television commercials dominate big budget.
(Rani: 2007, the Economic Times)

Reality Advertisements: Its look and feel imitates reality. It seems honest, genuine and
credible due to authentic unrehearsed consumer statements and not copywriter’s words.
“Ads need not look real but the emotions it portrays ought to look real” (Rani: 2007). e.g.
Harpic toilet cleaner, TVC slander shaper, Dove 1/4th moisturising, Incredible India ‘Atithi
Devo Bhava’, Colgate Active Salt, Tata Tea ‘Jagoo Re’, Consumer Forum advertisement,
‘JaagoGrahakJaago’ etc.

Surrogate Advertising: in the advertisement world this concept of ‘Surrogate

Advertisement’ has emerged recently. The Government of India has banned the
advertisements of Tobacco and Liquor in mass media and since then the manufacturer of
these band products has been following an indirect form of advertising. One product is
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advertised under the brand name of another. One of the best examples of Surrogate
advertising is ‘Four Squar Bravery Awards’ in the name of Four Square Cigarettes (Yadav:
2009). Some other examples are of liquor companies like McDowells, Kingfisher,
Bagpipper who advertise themselves as sodas, music albums etc. Also the case can be seen
in gutka brands like Rajnigandha, Panparag etc.

Social Responsibility Advertisements: The foremost aim of an advertisement should be,

to sell products with a sense of responsibility towards society. In a free market society like
India, product choices are enormous leading to a highly competitive market and
improvement in the product. ‘Advertisement also brings every citizen endless variety of
free information and enjoyment through paid sponsorship of media content’. Some e.g. are:
Frooti had a campaign to give away less fortunate a chance to experience mango moments
through the initiative called ‘Aam Batne se Badhta hai’. It was with collaboration with
radio one where in a caller called and shard their most memorable mango moments. For
every experience that was shared, frooti foundation donated a cartoon of frooti to an
orphanage. Another example is JaagoGrahakJaago campaign of Tata Tea which was very
successful in creating social awareness. (Yadav: 2009). Idea cellular advertisement to save
paper and stop cutting trees, Aircel advertisements about saving tigers etc are some
advertisement with social cause as well as brand awareness.

Sexual Content based Advertisement: It was in 1992 that Alyque Padamsee created
controversy with his Kamasutra condom advertisement campaign. Lintas launched the
USP- safe and good sex. Also the Tuff shoes campaign in 1995 had Miland Soman and
Madhu Sapre pose nude. All these advertisements created lot of controversies. But today
advertisements have become very creative, credible and informative e.g. Deluxe Nirodh
‘Mukader ka Sikander’, Amul Macho ‘Yeah toh bada toing hai’. (Rani: 2007)

Product Placement Advertisement: It is a marketing technique where the product is

intentionally inserted in the movie or program. In this kind of situation the director is paid
to use the product in his/her film or Television program. E.g. FIR, a comedy serial in SAB
TV has inserted Sony Playstation Portable’s game in its episode; similarly MTV Roadies
has distributed free Rayban Sunglasses, Nokia Cell Phones etc. to its participants. Films
like Koi Mil Gaya had used Hero Honda and Bournvita, Bru in Saathiya, Coke in Taal etc.
This concept has always been associated in Indian movies and programs from the very
beginning but was only recognized in the 1970’s when the tobacco and liquor companies
realized its promotional advantage. It has to be understood that product placement is also
an indirect way of advertising and product promotion. (Yadav: 2009)
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Advertising Codes and Regulations in India

Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC), was established in 1948 with an aim to protect the
interest of advertisers and publishers. It is a non-profit organisation. It has over 500
publishers, more than 150 advertising agencies, all major newspapers and magazines are
members of ABC. The chairman is elected everyone from among its members. The ABC is
considered as a standard body, which provides statistical information. The member media
organizations follow the fix advertisement rate passed by ABC.

Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity (DAVP) works under the Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. It handles all the advertising matters
relating to various ministries of the government. It is a huge organisation having more than
one lakh employees. DAVP produces radio, television as well as print advertisements and
sponsored programmes. It also publishes pamphlets, booklets and makes hoardings, panels,
metallic plates, cinema slides etc.

Advertising Agencies Association in India (AAAI) represents major advertising agencies

in India. It serves the advertisers in both public and private sector. It also protects the
consumers from fake claims in advertisements. Its aims are:

 To raise the standard of advertising through all practical means.

 To give advertisement-related education, information and training to members and
others: and
 To set up libraries and clubs for making members and others aware of the
importance of advertising.

Advertising Standard Council of India (ASCI) 1985: ASCI have adopted a code of self-
regulation in advertising. The association is formed by the advertising agencies for
ensuring protection/interests of consumers. It aims is to maintain and enhance the public's
confidence in advertising.

Indian Society of Advertisers (ISA): ISA was formed in 1952 to protect the interest of
advertisers. Its objectives include solving advertiser’s problems and raising the standard of
advertising in India. It protects brand names and trademarks of advertisers, gathers
statistical information, organizes seminars and conferences, discourages tricky
advertisements etc. In the process it makes its member advertisers follow a code of ethics.

On the basis of the above discussion on television advertisements and women

empowerment the following questions can be raised.

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 1. What is the level of mass media exposure of women?
2. What is the level of empowerment of women?
3. What is the relationship between television advertisements and women
empowerment?

In order to address these questions the proposed study has aimed to analyse the relationship
between television advertisements and women empowerment amongst the working middle
class women in Silchar town of Assam.

The specific objectives of the proposed study are as follows:

1. To understand the level of mass media exposure among the middle class women in
Silchar.
2. To understand the socio-economic background of the respondents.
3. To understand the level of empowerment among the middle class women in
Silchar.
4. To understand the relationship between television advertisement and women
empowerment.

Methodology

The study is located in Silchar town in Cachar district of Assam. Silchar, the headquarter
of the district is one of the developed town of Barak Valley and second gateway of the
northeast which is well developed in terms of basic amenities such as bank, educational
institution, primary healthcare and hospitals, strong socio-political institutions, radio and
television stations and other means of communication and transportation. Moreover it is
well connected with other parts of the country through train, bus and air.

Techniques of Data Collection

The researcher has employed the following methodological framework:

1. Audience Survey Method

2. Content Analysis

The base data has been collected by administering a structured schedule on middle class
working women in Silchar town. A representative sample of 165 respondents is drawn by

35
taking 15 samples each from 11 wards under Municipal Corporation of Silchar after the
explorative study and considering all parameters for selecting the respondents.

For content analysis the researcher has considered three television channels i.e.
Doordarshan, Zee TV and STAR Plus. Though to select the advertisements based on
women or empowerment equal weight-age was given to all three channels. But in case of
National Channel of Doordarshan, which is the biggest Public Broadcaster and produces of
a number of advertisements based on social themes was given more weight-age. The Cable
Channels are amongst the highest TAM ratings satellite channels of India, Zee topping the
list as per DNA report (indiantelevision.com). Also the rationale behind selecting the
former channel is that it is owned by Indian national and the later owned by a foreign
national. The content analysis of the text of these advertisements has been taken regularly
for a period of 3 months to identify the relevant variables i.e. from January to March 2010.
The rational behind taking the period for analysis of the study was that many national
festivals and events fell within this taken period and also due to ending months of financial
year most of the social advertisements were given by the ministries and government
agencies. For further clarification informal discussions were be organized and appropriate
notes were taken for analysis for the study.

Variables and Parameters of the study

Social Background: Social Background of the respondents would be studied in terms of

their age, religion, mother tongue, caste, marital status, income, languages known,
educational level of the respondents, father’s and mother’s education and occupation,
native place (Urban/Rural/Developed/Semi-Develop), length of the residents in the town
and the household consumption pattern and media exposure.

Middle class women: A middle class women can be defined as a women engaged in
white collar (clericals, salesman, and school teachers), semi-professional (nurses,
accountants, deed-writers, astrologers) and medium level of business occupations
(shopkeepers).

Advertisements: There are two types of Advertisements i.e. Commercial and Non-
commercial advertisements. Commercial advertisements carries commercial message
regarding product, commodities and services by advertiser for the sake of sales promotion
or business purpose. Non-commercial advertisements are also called Public Service

36
Advertising. This type of advertisement is always given by government or its sub-ordinate
bodies for the sake of people which carries social message regarding Women
Empowerment.

Women empowerment: Women empowerment is achieved when women are able to take
self decision regarding education, Work participation in non-agricultural sector, Mobility,
Economic independency, Public speaking, Awareness and exercise of rights, and Political
participation,

Women empowerment is generally defined as a confidence building, insight and

understanding develop mechanism. Being empowered pre-supposes that individuals have
some level of commonsense and emotional maturity access to appropriate information and
knowledge. It also refers to increasing the political, social, educational, gender equality
and economic strength of individuals and groups. In other words enablement would be
the best terminology used for the term women empowerment.

Empowerment not only includes increase in the women’s level of income but control over
income and assets and participation in connectivity and household decisions. A woman is
truly empowered if she can enhance her confidence and status within her family as
independent producer of wealth and provider of finance to her household. Empowerment is
a process whereby women gain ability to make independent choices over their achievement
and control over resources, become self-reliant and overcome subordinate. (Choudhury,
2008)

Media Exposure of the respondents: Media Exposure of the respondents was studied in
terms of the exposure of the print media i.e. newspaper and magazines (subscription of the
newspaper, the number of the newspapers read, time spend on newspaper reading, category
of newspaper read, preference of the section of the newspapers), access to audio-visual
media i.e. Television and Radio channels (ownership, kind of channels they are being
exposed, time spent on watching television, frequency of radio listening) and cinema
(frequency of cinema going, types of film preferred), access to New media (computer,
internet, websites), access to Traditional media (street play, puppet show, rasleela, kirtan,
speech).

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Operational Definitions

1. Modern Mass media refers to the following forms of mass communication:

a. Print forms of communication – newspapers, magazines, pamphlets,
books, novels, journals etc
b. Broadcasting media – radio, public address systems such as amplifiers,
loudspeakers, etc.
c. Audio-visual media – television, cinema.
d. Multimedia – Internet, Mobile, iPod, Digital Versatile Disc etc.

The study will take a general note of the mass media exposure of the respondents but will
mainly focus on the television.

2. Advertising: It is mass media selling. It is the communication of product

information by means of mass media, the purpose of which is to sell products to
consumers. A specific purpose is to pursue an audience or viewers. Following are
the main types of advertising.
a. Social advertising: It is also called Public Service Advertising. This type of
advertisement is given by government or its sub-ordinate bodies for the sake
of people which carries social messages regarding women empowerment,
national integration and communal harmony, health and family welfare,
AIDS awareness, rural development, upliftment of girl child, employment
generation, income tax, defense, environment protection, road safety,
energy conservation, promotion of handicrafts and preparedness for natural
disaster. E.g. ‘JaagoGrahakJaago’ advertisement by Ministry of Consumer
Affairs, Food and Public Distribution, Government of India. National AIDS
Control Organisation’s advertisement on Deluxe Nirodh condom, ‘Jo
condom ka sath na chode, wahi hai mukaddar ka sikandar’.
b. Commercial advertising: It is given for commercial purpose and carries
commercial message regarding product, commodities and services by
advertiser for the sake of sales promotion or business purpose. The purpose
of such advertisement is making money rather than serving the people. Such
type of advertisement is also called hot advertisement which influences the
audience/viewer but also manipulates them. E.g. Dove 1/4th moisturizing,

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 Rin & Tide ‘naye jaise white ho toh Tide ho’, Rajnigandha Pan masala,
etc.
3. Women Empowerment is a process, by which women gain greater control over
material and intellectual resources which will assist them to increase their self-
reliance and enhance them to assert their independent rights and challenge the
ideology of patriarchy and the gender based discrimination against women. This
will also enable them to organize themselves to assert their autonomy to make
decisions and choices, and ultimately eliminate their own subordination in all the
institutions and structures of society. Empowerment of women is necessary not
merely on the grounds of social justice but as a basic condition for social, political
and economic development of the nation.
a. Individual: the acquisition of greater independence and capacity for self-
determination as well as means to allow individuals to broaden their
opportunities.
b. Collective: the capacity of a group to influence social change and move
towards a fair and equal society, in particular in its relations between men
and women.
4. Content analysis is the study of the message itself and not the communicator or the
audience. It is an important tool used in consumer research as mentioned by
Kassarjian (1977).

Scope of the study

This study will attempt to project various aspects of the changing scenario of women
empowerment through advertisements. This study has vital importance both in academic
point of view as well as in development and improvement point of view so far the role of
public broadcasting media is concerned regarding empowerment and welfare of the Indian
women.

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