Psy 100-Test 2

Study online at quizlet.com/_33yz4 16. Humans are capable of 20

7 hearing the ticking of a watch
in a quiet environment from __
1. Which 2 topics are the oldest and most important in Sensation and perception feet away
psychology? 17. What is the differential The smallest difference needed in order to differentiate two stimuli
2. Our senses have the ability to: Convert real-world information into electrical information that can be threshold/just noticeable
processed by the brain difference (JND)?

3. What is sensation? The PHYSICAL process during which our sensory organs respond to 18. Give an example of a -Take 1, 2, 10, and 11 lb weights
external stimuli (e.g. when you eat noodles or feel the wind on your differential threshold/just -Give the 1 lb weight to your friend in one hand, and the 2 lb weight in the other hand, your friend
face or hear a car horn honking in the distance) noticeable difference: will be able to notice the difference because one is double the weight of the other
-Give the 10 and 11 lb weights instead and it will be harder to recognize the difference because it is
Involves the detection of external stimuli (e.g., light, pressure, odours, only a lb off (it is not so easy when the difference is a smaller percentage of the overall weight)
etc.), responses to those stimuli, and the transmission of these 19. What is Weber's Law? States that just noticeable difference is proportional to the magnitude of the initial stimulus (idea
responses to the brain that bigger stimuli require larger differences to be noticed)
4. During sensation, our organs are engaging in _____ Transduction 20. What is bottom-up Building up to perceptual experience from individual pieces (e.g. little kid reading a book word by
5. What is transduction? The conversion of one form of energy into another/process by which processing? word)/information is sent from lower-level processing areas to higher level processing areas
sensory receptors pass impulses to connecting neurons when they 21. What is top-down Previous experience influencing the perception of stimuli (e.g. stimuli we've experienced in our
receive stimulation (e.g., from pressure on the skin, in the case of processing? past will influence how we process new ones)/information from higher-level areas can also
touch) influence lower, "earlier" levels in the processing hierarchy (expectations from perceptions)
6. Physical energy such as light or a sound wave is Electrical stimulation 22. Bottom-up processing vs.
converted into a form of energy the brain can understand: top-down processing:
7. What is perception? The PSYCHOLOGICAL process of interpreting sensory
information/making sense of stimuli (e.g. you are able to identify a
gas leak in your home or a song that reminds you of a specific
afternoon spent with friend)

Involves the processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory

signals in the brain, which results in an internal representation of the
stimuli - and your conscious experience of it!
8. What is the absolute threshold? The smallest amount of stimulation needed for detection by a -If you didn't notice the second "the", you were using top-down processing (having a second "the"
sense/requires a minimal amount of stimulation in order to detect a doesn't make sense, our brain knows this and doesn't expect there to be a second one, so we have
stimulus/The minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before a tendency to skip right over it-your past experience has changed the way you perceive the
you experience a sensation (or the stimulus intensity detected above writing in the triangle)
chance) (e.g. the quietest whisper you could hear half the time) - A beginning reader—one who is using a bottom-up approach by carefully attending to each
9. What explains why you don't smell the perfume someone Absolute threshold piece—would be less likely to make this error
is wearing in a classroom unless they are somewhat close 23. What is sensory adaptation? Decrease in sensitivity of a receptor to a stimulus after constant stimulation (not noticing something
to you? anymore)
10. The way we measure absolute thresholds is by using a Signal detection 24. Why do we experience Because we are adapted to notice change (because it may signal something important/dangerous
method called: sensory adaptation? is happening), NOT constant stimulation
11. What is signal detection? Method for studying the ability to correctly identify sensory stimuli 25. Give an example of sensory -When we leave the radio on in our car after we park it at home for the night
adaptation: -When we listen to the radio on the way home from work the volume seems reasonable
12. What does the signal detection process involve? Involves presenting stimuli of varying intensities to a research
- However, the next morning when we start the car, we might be startled by how loud the radio is
participant in order to determine the level at which he or she can
(we don't remember it being that loud last night)
reliably detect stimulation in a given sense
-What happened is that we adapted to the constant stimulus of the radio volume over the course
13. What is an example of a signal detection test? During one type of hearing test a person listens to increasingly of the previous day-this required us to continue to turn up the volume of the radio to combat the
louder tones (starting from silence) in an effort to determine the constantly decreasing sensitivity
threshold at which he or she begins to hear -However, after a number of hours away from that constant stimulus, the volume that was once
14. During the hearing signal detection test, correctly Hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection reasonable is entirely too loud, we are no longer adapted to that stimulus
indicating that a sound was heard is called a _____; failing 26. What is the retina? Cell layer in the back of the eye containing photoreceptors
to do so is called a _____, and indicating that a sound was
heard when one wasn't played is called a _____, and
correctly identifying when a sound wasn't played is a _____
15. The human eye is capable of detecting candlelight from __ 30
miles away in the dark
27. Because we have two eyes in different locations, Binocular disparity, binocular vision 48. Together, the _____ and _____ pathways process a Ventral and dorsal
the image focused on each retina is from a large amount of information about visual stimuli
slightly different angle (_____), providing us with 49. What happens when "higher" areas of visual Optical illusions
our perception of 3D space (_____) processing are provided with misleading
28. What is binocular disparity? information?
50. Diagram of the human eye:

Difference in images processed by the left and right eyes/important cue of

depth perception, caused by the distance between the eyes, which provides
each eye with a slightly different image. The brain uses the disparity between
these two retinal images to compute distances.
29. What is binocular vision? Our ability to perceive 3D and depth because of the difference between the
images on each of our retinas
30. Give an example of how binocular vision works? -By holding a pen in your hand, extending your arm in front of your face, and
looking at the pen while closing each eye in turn
-Pay attention to the apparent position of the pen relative to objects in the
background
-Depending on which eye is open, the pen appears to jump back and forth 51. Give the steps of how we process visual -Light enters the eye through the pupil, a tiny opening behind the cornea
information: -Once past the pupil, light passes through the lens, which focuses an image on a
31. How do video game manufacturers create the Two slightly different images are presented on top of one another (binocular
thin layer of cells in the back of the eye, called the retina
perception of 3D without special glasses? vision)
-It is in the retina that light is transduced, or converted into electrical signals, by
32. The pupil regulates the amount of light entering Contracting (getting smaller) in bright light and dilating (getting larger) in specialized cells called photoreceptors
the eye by: dimmer light -Next, the electrical signal is sent through a layer of cells in the retina,
33. The retina contains 2 main kinds of 1. Rods eventually traveling down the optic nerve
photoreceptors: -After passing through the thalamus, this signal makes it to the primary visual
2. Cones cortex where information about light orientation and movement begin to come
34. What is the function of the rods and where are -Responsible for our ability to see in dim light conditions, such as during the together
they located? night - Information is then sent to a variety of different areas of the cortex for more
-Around/periphery of fovea complex processing

35. What is the function of the cones and where are -Provide us with the ability to see colour and fine detail when the light is 52. Night vision takes about how much time to turn 10 minutes
they located? brighter on?
-In the fovea (the central region of focus) 53. What is dark adaptation? Adjustment of eye to low levels of light
36. Why does looking directly at a dim star in the sky There aren't enough rods to process the dim light 54. Why does night vision ability take about 10 Because our rods become bleached in normal light conditions and require time
make it seem to disappear? minutes to turn on? to recover
37. What is the primary visual cortex? Area of the cortex involved in processing visual stimuli 55. What is light adaptation? Adjustment of eye to high levels of light
38. What is the fusiform face area? Part of the human visual system that is specialized for facial recognition 56. What happens during light adaptation? A large number of rods and cones are bleached at once, causing us to be
39. What is the extrastriate body area? Involved in the visual perception of human body and body parts blinded for a few seconds
57. Light adaptation takes about how much time to Almost instantly compared to dark adaptation
40. Damage to either the fusiform face area or the Agnosia (for visual stimuli)
turn on?
extrastriate body area could lead to some form
of: 58. If you want to turn on a light without losing your A red light; this wavelength doesn't bleach your rods
night vision, use:
41. What is agnosia? Loss of the ability to perceive stimuli/recognize and name objects
59. What is the trichromatic theory? Theory proposing colour vision as influenced by three different cones
42. What did the famous neurologist Dr. Oliver Sacks Prosopagnosia
responding preferentially to red, green and blue
suffer from?
60. How old is the trichromatic theory? Dates back to the 19th century
43. What is prosopagnosia? The inability to recognize faces
44. A specialized region for visual recognition is: Ventral pathway (the "what" pathway)
45. What is the ventral pathway? Pathway of visual processing. The "what" pathway.
46. Other areas involved in processing location and Dorsal pathway (the "where" pathway)
movement make up the:
47. What is the dorsal pathway? Pathway of visual processing. The "where" pathway.
61. What does trichromatic theory NOT 82. It is inside the _____ that sound waves are Cochlea
explain? converted into an electrical message
83. Because we have an ear on each side of Localizing sound in 3D space pretty well (in the same way that having two eyes
our head, we are capable of: produces 3D vision)
84. We can reliably locate something based Which ear receives the sound first
on:
85. Research in cats and humans has pointed Vertical positioning
-The odd effect that occurs when we look at a white wall after staring at a picture for
to differences in the quality of sound
around 30 seconds
waves depending on:
-According to the trichromatic theory of colour vision, you should see white when you
do that 86. What is the cochlear nerve? A division of the vestibulocochlear nerve
-The trichromatic theory doesn't explain the afterimage 87. What is the primary auditory cortex? Area of the cortex involved in processing auditory stimuli
62. What theory explains what trichromatic Opponent-process theory 88. The tonotopic organization of the Primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe
theory cannot explain? cochlea is maintained where?
63. What is the opponent-process theory? Theory proposing colour vision as influenced by cells responsive to pairs of 89. Give the steps on how we process -Initially, sound waves are funneled by your pinna into your auditory canal
colours/states that our cones send information to retinal ganglion cells that respond to auditory information: -Sound waves eventually reach a thin, stretched membrane called the tympanic
pairs of colours (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) membrane
64. What explains why we cannot see Retinal ganglion cells take information from the cones and compute the difference -Both the tympanic membrane and the ossicles amplify the sound waves before they
reddish-green or bluish-yellow, as well between the two colours (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) enter the fluid-filled cochlea containing auditory hair cells
as why we see afterimages? -After being processed by auditory hair cells, electrical signals are sent through the
65. What can result from issues with the Colour blindess cochlear nerve to the thalamus, and then the primary auditory cortex of the temporal
cones or retinal ganglion cells involved lobe
in colour vision? 90. Diagram of the human ear:
66. How is music produced? Vibrating the air a certain way to create sound waves
67. What are sound waves? Changes in air pressure. The physical stimulus for audition.
68. What is audition? Ability to process auditory stimuli. Also called hearing.
69. What is the loudness of a stimulus? Amplitude (or intensity) of a sound wave (higher amplitude sound waves result in
louder sounds)
70. What is the pitch of a stimulus? The frequency of a sound wave (higher frequency sounds are higher pitched)
71. We can also gauge the quality, or The complexity of a sound wave (this allows us to tell the difference between bright 91. The inner ear isn't only involved in Balance and detect where we are in space
timbre, of a sound by: and dull sounds as well as natural and synthesized instruments) hearing; it's also associated with our
72. In order for us to sense sound waves Inner ear ability to:
from our environment they must reach 92. What is the vestibular system? Parts of the inner ear involved in balance
our:
93. The vestibular system is comprised of: 3 semicircular canals
73. What is the pinna? Outermost portion of your ear/the external part of your ear that you can actually see
94. What are semicircular canals? Fluid-filled bone structures containing cells that respond to changes in the head's
74. What is your auditory canal? Tube running from the outer ear to the middle ear (hole you stick Q-tips in) orientation in space
75. What is the tympanic membrane? Thin, stretched membrane in the middle ear that vibrates in response to sound. Also 95. How information from the vestibular Information from the vestibular system is sent through the vestibular nerve (the other
called the eardrum system is processed: division of the vestibulocochlear nerve) to muscles involved in the movement of our
76. The tympanic membrane vibrates 1. The malleus (hammer) eyes, neck, and other parts of our body
against the 3 smallest bones in the body, 96. Information from the vestibular system Maintain our gaze on an object while we are in motion
which are: 2. The incus (anvil) allows us to:
97. Disturbances in the vestibular system can Balance, including vertigo
3. The stapes (stirrup)
result in issues with:
77. What are the 3 smallest bones in the Ossicles-A collection of three small bones in the middle ear that vibrate against the
98. What is somatosensation? Ability to sense touch, pain and temperature
body collectively called? tympanic membrane
78. What is the cochlea? Spiral bone structure in the inner ear containing auditory hair cells 99. Somatosensation transduces physical Electrical potentials that can be processed by the brain
stimuli into:
79. What are auditory hair cells? Receptors in the cochlea that transduce sound into electrical potentials
100. What are tactile stimuli? Those that are associated with texture
80. The auditory hair cells are arranged on The basilar membrane, the frequency they respond to (called tonotopic organization)
101. Tactile stimuli are transduced by special Mechanoreceptors
_____ according to _____
receptors in the skin called:
81. Depending on age, humans can normally 20, 20
detect sounds between __ Hz and __ kHz
102. What are mechanoreceptors?
103. What is the primary somatosensory cortex?
104. The primary somatosensory cortex is
organized in a _____ where different regions are
sized based on the sensitivity of specific parts
on the opposite side of the body
105. What is a somatotopic map?
106. How are tactile stimuli processed?
107. Homunculus and somatotopic map:
Mechanical sensory receptors in the skin that response to tactile stimulation, 120. Odorants in our environment bind with _____ found in Olfactory receptors, olfactory epithelium
these allow for the conversion of one kind of energy into a form the brain can the _____
understand/respond to mechanical distortion or pressure 121. What is the olfactory epithelium? Organ containing olfactory receptors
Area of the cortex involved in processing somatosensory stimuli 122. The binding of odorants to receptors is thought to be A lock and key operates-different odorants binding to different
Somatotopic map similar to how: specialized receptors based on their shape
123. What is the shape theory of olfaction? Theory proposing that odorants of different size and shape correspond to
different smells
124. What is an alternate explanation to the shape theory Vibrations of odorant molecules correspond to their subjective smells
Organization of the primary somatosensory cortex maintaining a representation of olfaction?
of the arrangement of the body 125. Regardless of how odorants bind with receptors, the Neural activity
-Transduced by special receptors in the skin called mechanoreceptors result is a pattern of:
-After tactile stimuli are converted by mechanoreceptors, information is sent 126. It is thought that our memories of these neural Our subjective experience of smell
through the thalamus to the primary somatosensory cortex for further activity patterns of activity underlie:
processing
127. Because olfactory receptors send projections to the Cribriform plate
brain through the _____ of the skull
128. What does the cribriform plate do? Supports the olfactory bulb
129. Because olfactory receptors send projections to the Anosmia (e.g. if you are a professional boxer this can happen to you
brain through the cribriform plate of the skull, head frequently)
trauma has the potential to cause _____ due to the
severing of these connections
130. What is anosmia? Loss of the ability to smell
131. Is anosmia permanent? No

More sensitive parts of the body are shown as larger on the Homunulus, and 132. Taste receptors are found in: Taste buds of the tongue, called taste receptor cells
drawing of the somatosensory cortex in the brain and the areas in the human 133. What are taste receptor cells? Receptors that transduce gustatory information
body that correspond to it - they are also drawn in proportion to the most
134. Where are taste buds located? Not the bumps on your tongue (papillae), but are located in small divots
sensitive or the most innervated parts of the body
around these bumps
108. What is nociception? Our ability to sense pain
135. What are tastants? Chemicals transduced by taste receptor cells
109. Why do we feel pain? Perception of pain is our body's way of sending us a signal that something is
136. The binding of these chemicals with taste receptor 1. Sweet
wrong and needs our attention (e.g. without pain how would we know that we
cells results in our perception of the 5 basic tastes:
are resting our hand on a hot stove and we need to remove it?)
2. Sour
110. What are phantom limbs? The perception that a missing limb still exists
111. What is phantom limb pain? Pain in a limb that no longer exists (e.g. sensations such as itching, muscles of 3. Bitter
the missing limb uncomfortably clenching)
4. Salty
112. What is an explanation for why people There is evidence to support that the damaged nerves from the amputation site
experience phantom limb? are still sending information to the brain and that the brain is reacting to this
5. Umami (savory)
information
113. What is a treatment to alleviate phantom limb? Works by tricking the brain, using a special mirror box to create a visual *Some scientists argue that there are more
representation of the missing limb-the technique allows the patient to
137. Are there areas on the tongue where we taste All taste receptors are capable of tasting everything
manipulate this representation into a more comfortable position
specific things or are all taste receptors capable of
114. What are chemical senses? Our ability to process the environmental stimuli of smell and taste tasting everything?
115. What is olfaction? Ability to process olfactory stimuli. Also called smell. 138. What was the old map for taste receptors on your Back was bitter to know to spit out poison, front of tongue was sweet to
116. What is gustation? Ability to process gustatory stimuli. Also called taste. tongue? detect high energy foods

117. Both olfaction and gustation require the Electric potentials 139. During the process of eating we are not limited to While we are chewing, food odorants are forced back up to areas that
transduction of chemical stimuli into: our sense of taste alone: contain olfactory receptors

118. Unlike any of the other senses discussed so far, Directly with the stimuli they transduce 140. Combination of taste and smell gives us: Flavor
the receptors involved in our perception of 141. What is multimodal perception? The effects that concurrent stimulation in more than one sensory modality
both smell and taste bind: has on the perception of events and objects in the world/involving
119. What are odorants? Chemicals transduced by olfactory receptors combinations of our senses into one perceptual experience/information
from each of our senses becomes integrated
142. What is The finding that responses to multimodal stimuli are typically greater than the sum of the independent 154. Give an example of why influence on our -Subliminal messaging:
superadditive responses to each unimodal component if it were presented on its own (we actually respond more strongly subconscious exists:
effect of to multimodal stimuli compared to the sum of each single modality together) -Researcher in the 1950's inserted the words "Eat Popcorn" onto one frame
multisensory of a film being shown all across the United States
integration?
-Was only on screen for 1/24th of a second—a speed too fast to be
143. What is an example This can explain how you're still able to understand what friends are saying to you at a loud concert, as long perceived by conscious awareness—the researcher reported an increase in
of something as you are able to get visual cues from watching them speak popcorn sales by nearly 60%
superadditive
effect of -Almost immediately, all forms of "subliminal messaging" were regulated in
multisensory the US and banned in countries
integration can
explain? -Later it was shown data was made up
144. What is the The finding that, in general, for a multimodal stimulus, if the response to each unimodal component (on its 155. Subtle, even subliminal influences fall into the Low
principle of inverse own) is weak, then the opportunity for multisensory enhancement is very large. However, if one component— category of _____ awareness
effectiveness? by itself—is sufficient to evoke a strong response, then the effect on the response gained by simultaneously
processing the other components of the stimulus will be relatively small (you are less likely to benefit from 156. Conscious thinking, feeling you which includes all High
additional cues from other modalities if the initial unimodal stimulus is strong enough). that you are currently aware of falls into the
category of _____ awareness
145. What is an example If you were having a quiet conversation at a café, you likely wouldn't need these additional cues
that the principle of 157. Although any moment has too many sights, smells, Processing all that information (constantly receiving and evaluating sensory
inverse and sounds for them all to be consciously information)
effectivenes can considered, our brains are nonetheless:
explain? 158. What is an example of how even though you may Being at a party, overwhelmed by all the people and conversation, when
146. Neurons that Superior temporal sulcus not be aware of various stimuli in your out of nowhere you hear your name called-even though you have no idea
respond to both environment, your brain is paying closer attention what else the person is saying, you are somehow conscious of your name
visual and auditory than you think?
stimuli have been 159. What are cues? A stimulus that has a particular significance to the perceiver (e.g., a sight or
identified in the: a sound that has special relevance to the person who saw or heard it)
147. Multimodal "what" Auditory and tactile stimuli 160. Cues will automatically elicit a response from us We never consciously perceive it
and "where" even though:
pathways have 161. Describe the study done by Öhman and Soares -Took participants with a fear of snakes and connected them to a machine
been proposed for: (1994): that measured subtle variations in sweating
148. What is the McGurk What we see overrides what we hear
Effect? -The researchers then flashed pictures of different items (e.g., mushrooms,
149. Define The awareness or deliberate perception of a stimulus flowers, and most importantly, snakes) on a screen in front of them, but did
consciousness: so at speeds that left the participant clueless to what he or she had actually
seen
150. Consciousness -The self
includes awareness -Bodily sensations -However, when snake pictures were flashed, these participants started
of: -Thoughts sweating more (i.e., a sign of fear), even though they had no idea what
-The environment they'd just viewed
151. The opposite word Senselessness or a barrier to awareness 162. Describe the study done by Bargh, Chen, and -Had participants solve a word search puzzle where the answers pertained
"unconscious" Burrows (1996): to words about the elderly (e.g., "old," "grandma") or something random
indicates: (e.g., "notebook," "tomato")
152. What is the concept -Even while we are awake, many things lay outside the realm of our conscious awareness
of "subconscious" -Some of our memories and even our basic motivations are not always accessible to our conscious minds -Afterward, the researchers secretly measured how fast the participants
proposed by walked down the hallway exiting the experiment
Freud?
153. Is consciousness Continuum -Although none of the participants were aware of a theme to the answers,
more of a those who had solved a puzzle with elderly words (vs. those random ones)
continuum or more walked more slowly down the hallway
an on-or-off state 163. What is the question answered by the Bargh, Chen, Just because our brains perceive these stimuli without our conscious
of being? and Burrows (1996) study? awareness, do they really affect our subsequent thoughts and behaviors?
164. What is the effect portrayed in the Bargh, Chen, Priming
and Burrows (1996) study?
165. What is priming? The activation of certain thoughts or feelings that make them easier to think of 178. Have you ever snapped at someone An expansion of your conscious awareness as you take the time to consider the possible
and act upon (readily "activating" certain concepts and associations from one's in frustration, only to take a moment influences on your thoughts
memory) and reflect on why you responded
so aggressively? This more effortful
166. What is another example of priming Priming the people by having them drink from a warm glass (vs. a cold one)
consideration of your thoughts
demonstrated by Williams & Bargh (2008)? resulted in behaving more "warmly" toward others
could be described as:
167. Many priming studies have come under Do not replicate (when late researchers have attempted to recreate certain
179. Research has shown that when you You are less persuaded by irrelevant yet biasing influences (e.g. presence of a celebrity in
scrutiny because they: studies, they have not always gotten the same, or even similar, results)
engage in this more deliberate an advertisement)
168. Why does non-replication happen? Flaws in the original sampling or research methods-NOT because the other consideration:
researchers "faked" the results
180. Higher awareness is also associated Using a stereotype, rather than fairly evaluating another person
169. What is one way of side-stepping the Using the implicit associations test (IAT) with recognizing when you're:
difficulty of using self-reports and surveys to
181. The less we're paying attention, the Non-conscious stimuli
ask people about motives or beliefs that they,
more likely we're influenced by:
themselves, might not even be aware of?
182. What is the Flexible Correction The ability for people to correct or change their beliefs and evaluations if they believe
170. What is the implicit associations test (IAT)? A computer reaction time test that measures a person's automatic associations
Model? these judgments have been biased (e.g., if someone realizes they only thought their day
with concepts. For instance, the IAT could be used to measure how quickly a
was great because it was sunny, they may revise their evaluation of the day to account for
person makes positive or negative evaluations of members of various ethnic
this "biasing" influence of the weather) (i.e. although these subliminal influences may have an
groups.
effect on us regardless of how effortfully we're thinking, we can use our higher conscious
171. Why is the IAT a very difficult test to fake? Because it records automatic reactions that occur in milliseconds awareness to blunt or even reverse the effect of them)
172. How can the IAT discover whether someone -IAT might present photographs of Caucasian faces and Asian faces while asking 183. How can we use a train analogy to -When you have low awareness, you just jump on the first train that opens its doors for you
has biases on certain ethnic groups? research participants to click buttons indicating either "good" or "bad" as quickly explain low and high awareness?
as possible - However, if you're more mindful of your thoughts, you can pause to consider all the
various trains and select the one that will best get you to your destination
-Even if the participant clicks "good" for every face shown, the IAT can still pick
up minute delays in responding *Only applies to standard conception of consciousness
184. Costs and benefits of states of
-When information is processed quickly—as in the example of white faces being consciousness:
judged as "good"—it can be contrasted with slower processing—as in the
example of Asian faces being judged as "good"—and the difference in processing
speed is reflective of bias 185. Why do hypnotist shows seem -You would recognize some profound differences between sleep and hypnosis
173. What are delays in responses associated More mental effort needed to process information unreal?
with? -Such performances are entertaining but have a way of sensationalizing the true nature of
hypnotic states
174. What other thing, besides racial biases, does Self-esteem
the IAT investigate? 186. Who is credited as among the first Franz Mesmer (1734 - 1815)
people to "discover" hypnosis?
175. Actual IAT screenshot:
187. What did Mesmer use hypnosis for? He used to treat members of elite society who were experiencing psychological distress
188. What English word did we get from "Mesmerize" meaning "to entrance or transfix a person's attention"
Mesmer's name?
189. Mesmer attributed the effect of "Animal magnetism"
hypnosis to:
190. What is animal magnetism? A supposed universal force (similar to gravity) that operates through all human bodies
191. What is hypnosis? The state of consciousness whereby a person is highly responsive to the suggestions of
another; this state usually involves a dissociation with one's environment and an intense
focus on a single stimulus, which is usually accompanied by a sense of relaxation/a social
interaction during which a person, responding to suggestions, experiences changes in
memory, perception, and/or voluntary action

176. High awareness is what you think of as: Effortful attention and decision making/engaging a state of consciousness that 192. How is one normally introduced into -The hypnotist will usually induce hypnosis by getting the person to pay attention only to
allows you to be highly aware of and focused on particular details in your a state of hypnosis? the hypnotist's voice
environment (e.g. when you listen to a funny story on a date, consider which
class schedule would be preferable, or complete a complex math problem) -As the individual focuses more and more on that, s/he begins to forget the context of the
setting and responds to the hypnotist's suggestions as if they were his or her own
177. What is mindfulness? A state of heightened focus on the thoughts passing through one's head, as well
as a more controlled evaluation of those thoughts (e.g., do you reject or support
the thoughts you're having?)
193. Some people are naturally more suggestible, and therefore more Empathy
"hypnotizable" than are others, and this is especially true for those who
score high in:
194. One common "trick" of stage hypnotists is to: Discard volunteers who are less suggestible than
others
195. Regardless of one's predisposition to being hypnotized, this mental state 1. A dissociation of the self
relies on 2 psychological processes:
2. Reduction in elaborative (or "critical") thinking
196. What is dissociation? The heightened focus on one stimulus or thought
such that many other things around you are ignored;
a disconnect between one's awareness of their
environment and the one object the person is
focusing on
197. Dissociation is kind of like daydreaming, but during hypnosis becomes Concentrating so much on the words of the
more extreme, resulting in: hypnotist that s/he loses perspective of the rest of
the world around them
198. As a consequence of dissociation, a person is: Less effortful, and less self-conscious in
consideration of his or her own thoughts and
behaviours
199. Dissociation is similar to: Low awareness states where one often acts on the
first thought that comes to mind, so, too, in hypnosis
does the individual simply follow the first thought
that comes to mind, i.e., the hypnotist's suggestion
200. Just because one is more susceptible to suggestion under hypnosis, it S/he will do anything that's ordered
doesn't mean:
201. What are criteria for you to be hypnotized? -You must first want to be hypnotized (i.e., you can't
be hypnotized against your will)
-Once you are hypnotized, you won't do anything
you wouldn't also do while in a more natural state of
consciousness
202. What is hypnotherapy? The use of hypnotic techniques such as relaxation
and suggestion to help engineer desirable change
such as lower pain or quitting smoking
203. Modern hypnotherapy often uses a combination of: Relaxation, suggestion, motivation and expectancies
to create a desired mental or behavioural state
204. Where is there mixed evidence for effectiveness of hypnotherapy and -Mixed: Addiction reduction (e.g., quitting smoking)
where is definite evidence of its effectiveness?
-Definite: Successful in treating sufferers of acute
and chronic pain
205. Describe the study done by Patterson et al. (1996): -Examined the treatment of burn patients with either
hypnotherapy, pseudo-hypnosis (i.e., a placebo
condition), or no treatment at all
-Afterward, even though people in the placebo
condition experienced a 16% decrease in pain, those
in the actual hypnosis condition experienced a
reduction of nearly 50%
206. Even though hypnosis may be sensationalized for television and movies, A documented practice with actual medical benefits
its ability to disassociate a person from their environment (or their pain) in
conjunction with increased suggestibility to a clinician's recommendations
(e.g., "you will feel less anxiety about your chronic pain") is:
207. What is a state similar to hypnotic states? Trance state
208. What are trance states? A state of consciousness characterized by the experience of "out-of-
body possession," or an acute dissociation between one's self and
the current, physical environment surrounding them
209. When do trance states often occur? In religious ceremonies, where the person believes he or she is
"possessed" by an otherworldly being or force
210. While in trance, people report anecdotal accounts of: A "higher consciousness" or communion with a greater power
211. The body of research investigating trance states tends to An "altered state of consciousness"
reject the claim that these experiences constitute:
212. Most researchers today describe both hypnosis and Subjective
trance states as "_____" alterations of consciousness, not
an actually distinct or evolved form
213. Just like you feel different when you're in a state of deep Shifts from the standard conscious experience
relaxation, so, too, are hypnotic and trance states simply:
214. Researchers contend that even though both hypnotic and Standard socio-cognitive factors like imagination, expectation, and
trance states appear and feel wildly different than the the interpretation of the situation
normal human experience, they can be explained by:
215. People generally follow a "_____" that impacts when they Biological clock
naturally become drowsy, when they fall asleep, and the
time they naturally awaken:
216. The hormone _____ increases at night and is associated Melatonin
with becoming sleepy
217. What is melatonin? A hormone associated with increased drowsiness and sleep
218. What is your natural daily "rhythm" called? Circadian Rhythm
219. What is a Circadian Rhythm? The physiological sleep-wake cycle. It is influenced by exposure to
sunlight as well as daily schedule and activity. Biologically, it includes
changes in body temperature, blood pressure and blood sugar.
220. Changing your location, such as flying from Canada to Jet lag
England, can disrupt your natural sleep rhythms, and we
call this:
221. What is jet lag? The state of being fatigued and/or having difficulty adjusting to a new
time zone after traveling a long distance (across multiple time zones)
222. You can overcome jet lag by: Synchronizing yourself to the local schedule by exposing yourself to
daylight and forcing yourself to stay awake even though you are
naturally sleepy
223. Instead of turning off like a light with a flick of a switch, Your brain's electrical activity
your shift in consciousness is reflected in:
224. While you are awake and alert your brain activity is Beta
marked by _____ waves
225. Beta waves are characterized by: Being high in frequency but low in intensity
226. Beta waves are the most inconsistent brain waves which The wide variation in sensory input that a person processes during
reflects: the day
227. As you begin to relax beta waves change to _____ waves Alpha
228. Alpha waves reflect brain activity that is: Less frequent, more consistent and more intense
229. How many stages of sleep are there? 5
230. Describe Stage 1 of sleep: Is a light sleep and is marked by theta waves
231. Describe Stage 2 of sleep: Is deeper sleep (here there are "sleep spindles," or occasional very
high intensity brain waves)
232. Describe Stage 3 of sleep: Is marked by greater muscle relaxation and the appearance of delta
waves
233. Describe Stage 4 of sleep: Is very relaxed and marked by delta waves 251. Traditional societies have used plant- Peyote, ebene, and psilocybin mushrooms
234. Describe Stage 5 of sleep: Sleep marked by rapid eye movement (REM). It is here that based hallucinogens such as _____, _____,
people dream most vividly. Interestingly, this stage is—where and _____ in a wide range of religious
brain activity is concerned—similar to wakefulness. That is, the ceremonies
brain waves occur less intensely than in other stages of sleep. 252. What are hallucinogens? Substances that, when ingested, alter a person's perceptions, often by creating
235. Changes in brain activity or brainwaves across different hallucinations that are not real or distorting their perceptions of time
stages of consciousness - from being awake and throughout 253. Common examples of hallucinogens Marijuana, LSD, and MDMA, also known as "ecstasy."
various stages of sleep: include:
254. Marijuana is the dried flowers of the hemp Euphoria
plant and is often smoked to produce:
255. What is euphoria? An intense feeling of pleasure, excitement or happiness
256. The active ingredient in marijuana is THC
called:
257. What can THC do? Can produce distortions in the perception of time, can create a sense of rambling,
unrelated thoughts, and is sometimes associated with increased hunger or excessive
laughter
236. Throughout history dreams have been thought to be: Predictions of the future, hints of hidden aspects of the self,
258. Why is marijuana becoming legal in more This may be due, in part, to changing public attitudes or to the fact that marijuana is
important lessons about how to live life, or opportunities to
and more places? increasingly used for medical purposes such as the management of nausea or
engage in impossible deeds like flying
treating glaucoma
237. What is one theory about why we dream? Our nonconscious attempt to make sense of our daily
259. What are depressants? A class of drugs that slow down the body's physiological and mental processes
experiences and learning
238. What is another theory about dreaming popularized by Dreams represent taboo or troublesome wishes or desires 260. What is the most widely used depressant? Alcohol
Freud? 261. Alcohol's effects include the reduction of: Inhibition, meaning that intoxicated people are more likely to act in ways they would
239. In what stages of sleep do we get dreams? All of them otherwise be reluctant to

240. In which stage of sleep are dreams especially vivid? REM 262. Alcohol's psychological effects are the Increasing the neurotransmitter GABA
result of it:
241. One under explored area of dream research is: The possible social functions of dreams: we often share our
263. What are some physical effects of Loss of balance and coordination (these stem from the way that alcohol interferes
dreams with others and use them for entertainment value
alcohol? with the coordination of the visual and motor systems of the brain)
242. Sleep serves many functions, one of which is to: Give us a period of mental and physical restoration
264. Despite the fact that alcohol is so widely 1. Alcohol is toxic, meaning that it acts like a poison because it is possible to drink
243. Children generally need more sleep than adults since: They are developing accepted in many cultures it is also more alcohol than the body can effectively remove from the bloodstream (when a
244. A lack of sleep is associated with a wide range of problems, People who do not receive adequate sleep are more irritable, associated with a variety of dangers person's blood alcohol content or BAC reaches 0.3 t0 0.4%, there is a serious risk of
such as: have slower reaction time, have more difficulty sustaining (name 3): death)
attention, and make poorer decisions
2. Lack of judgment and physical control associated with alcohol is associated with
245. In one highly cited study researchers found that __ in 5 1, 1, half
more risk taking behaviour or dangerous behaviour such as drunk driving
students took more than 30 minutes to fall asleep at night, __
in 10 occasionally took sleep medications, and more than
3. Alcohol is addictive and heavy drinkers often experience significant interference
_____ reported being "mostly tired" in the mornings
with their ability to work effectively or in their close relationships
246. Who discovered LSD? -On April 16, 1943, Albert Hoffman—a Swiss chemist working in a
265. What is blood alcohol content (BAC)? A measure of the percentage of alcohol found in a person's blood. This measure is
pharmaceutical company—accidentally ingested a newly
typically the standard used to determine the extent to which a person is intoxicated,
synthesized drug
as in the case of being too impaired to drive a vehicle
247. What were the effects of LSD on Hoffman and what was it -The drug—lysergic acid diethylimide (LSD)—turned out to be a
266. Other common depressants include: Opiates (also called "narcotics")
classified as? powerful hallucinogen
267. Opiates are synthesized from: Poppy flowers
-Hoffman went home and later reported the effects of the drug, 268. Opiates stimulate _____ production in the Endorphins
describing them as seeing the world through a "warped mirror" brain
and experiencing visions of "extraordinary shapes with intense,
269. Because opiates produce endorphins, Pain killers by medical professionals
kaleidoscopic play of colours."
they are often used as:
248. Psychoactive drugs, when ingested, can have a powerful Perception and consciousness
270. Unfortunately, because opiates such as Illegally as recreational substances
effect on:
Oxycontin so reliably produce euphoria
249. Researchers and medical doctors tend to classify drugs Their effects they are increasingly used:
according to:
271. Are opiates addictive? Highly addictive
250. Which drugs, historically, have been used the most widely? Hallucinogens
272. What are stimulants? A class of drugs that speed up the body's physiological and mental processes
273. 2 commonly used stimulants are: 1. Caffeine—the drug found in coffee and tea 293. Taste diagram:

2. Nicotine, the active drug in cigarettes and other tobacco products

274. Many people are attracted to stimulants because: They feel more alert when under the influence of these drugs
275. Over intoxication of stimulants can result in: Anxiety, headaches, and insomnia
276. Smoking cigarettes—the most common means of Cancer (among heavy smokers 90% of lung cancer is directly
ingesting nicotine—is associated with higher risks of: attributable to smoking)
277. There are other stimulants such as: Cocaine and methamphetamine (also known as "crystal meth" or "ice")
278. Stimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamine work Blocking "re-uptake" of dopamine in the brain. This means that the
by: brain does not naturally clear out the dopamine and that it builds up in
the synapse, creating euphoria and alertness.
279. As the effects wear off from stimulants such as cocaine They are highly addictive
and methamphetamine, it stimulates strong cravings for 294. What are supertasters? -Way more taste receptors than typical people (6x the amount)
more of the drug; because of this: -Taste to the extreme level, more sensitive to taste that most people
280. The degree to which you are in high, medium, or low -Susceptible you are to persuasion 295. What part of the brain processes information about Amygdala
states of conscious awareness affect how: the INTENSITY of smell?
-Clear your judgment is
296. What part of the brain processes information about Prefrontal cortex
the PLEASANTNESS of smell?
-Much detail you can recall
297. What are the stimuli for smell? Chemical substances from outside the body that dissolve in fluid on
281. Explain the situation of the dress (black & blue or white -Actually black & blue, most people see it as this
mucous membranes in the nose
& gold): -Rare visual illusion of colour perception
-Difficult to switch back & forth 298. What is the olfactory epithelium and what does it do? A thin layer of tissue embedded with smell receptors, which transmit
-Vision scientists don't really know information to the olfactory bulb
-1 explanation: Chromatic adaptation, visual system adjusts for 299. What is the olfactory bulb? The brain centre for smell
illumination, some people take out blue, some people take out gold,
300. Smell diagram:
might be based on past experiences
-If you illuminate with yellow light -> see dress as blue
-If you illuminate with blue light -> see dress as white
282. Everything is experienced in: Your brain
283. The world you live in is: Constructed by you
284. What are 2 things important to sensation and 1. Context
perception?
2. Change (the way we see things)
285. Stimuli need to be what in order for your brain to Translated into chemical or electrical signals
understand them? 301. Describe the olfaction test: -Pleasantness vs. intensity
-We are good at discrimination and good/bad judgments, but not at
286. What path do stimuli generally take within the brain Most of this information goes first to the thalamus, before being naming specific odours from scent alone
(except smell)? directed to a particular part of the cortex, where the information is
then interpreted as sight, smell, taste, etc. 302. How well are our olfactory receptors understood? Poorly

287. Does the absolute threshold ever change? No 303. Where are the most sensitive mechanoreceptors? Cochlea-responsible for sound transduction

288. What is the difference threshold? The just noticeable difference between two stimuli (the minimum 304. Another homunculus map:
amount of change required for a person to detect a difference)
289. The difference threshold increases as: Stimulus becomes more intense/larger
290. What are the stimuli for taste? Chemical substances from food that dissolve in saliva
291. What sends signals to the brain that produces the Taste receptors (found in taste buds)
experience of taste?
292. What 2 things are also important to taste and why? Smell and texture, remember, the taste experience occurs in your
brain, where all of these signals are integrated (never just taste
information alone)
305. How are temperature/pressure/pain Nerve signals enter the thalamus, and are then projected to the primary somatosensory 325. Hearing
nerve signals transduced? cortex in the parietal lobe diagram:
306. More sensitive areas, more _____ space Cortical
307. What are nociceptors? Pain reception
308. What are nociceptors activated by? By damaging (or possibly damaging) stimuli -> being pierced, burned, etc.
309. Is pain adaptive? Why or why not? -Yes
-People with conditions who don't feel pain normally die young because they can't
detect if something is wrong, they don't know they need to recuperate, etc.
326. Eye diagram:
310. What kind of fibres in our body -Myelinated ("A delta") fibres
PROTECT us from pain and what kind of -Sharp, immediate pain
pain are they associated with?
311. What kind of fibres in our body -Lightly or non-myelinated ("C") fibres
RECUPERATE us from the pain and what -Dull, steady pain
kind of pain are they associated with?
312. How do C fibres work? After a pain episode (e.g. after you hit yourself somewhere), more of a "dull" pain, lets
you know you need to recover
313. What is the gate control theory of pain? 327. What is
accommodation
(vision)?

Muscles change the shape of the lens, flattening it to focus on distant objects, and thickening it to focus on
For pain to be experienced, pain receptors must be activated, AND, the neural "gate" in closer objects (red lines are muscles, accommodation is basically focusing, people who need
the spinal cord must allow the signals through to the brain (If the gate is "open" → pain is glasses/contacts/etc. can't focus well)
experienced, if the gate is "closed" → pain is reduced or prevented) 328. What are Convert the energy from light particles (photons) into a chemical reaction that produces an electrical signal
314. What happens if you put pressure Activates larger fibres which block gate, take precedence over pain, start to only feel photoreceptors?
on/rub the area you hurt? pressure (less pain) 329. What are rods? Retinal cells that respond to low levels of light, and result in black and white perception. About 120 million in
315. Give examples on how you can ignore Stubbing your toe and home and swearing vs. stubbing your toe at a job interview and each retina, located along the edges.
"top down" pain depending on the needing to keep quiet 330. What are cones? Retinal cells that respond to higher levels of light, and result in colour perception. About 6 million in each
situation: retina, located in the fovea.
316. What does the effectiveness of Depends much more on the characteristics of the person being hypnotized than on 331. Are there more Rods
hypnosis depend on? skills of the hypnotist cones or rods?
317. What can hypnosis be used for? Can be an effective pain reliever (e.g. chronic pain, painful ordeals such as labour, 332. Visual
childbirth, etc.) transmission:
318. Hypnotism is an interaction between The person(s) being hypnotized
the hypnotist and:
319. Hypnotism is real and does work, BUT Doesn't want to be hypnotized (also can't make people do things they wouldn't
you can't hypnotize someone who: normally do in real life)
320. What happens to your attention during Becomes singly focused on hypnotist (normally doesn't happen, attention is on many
hypnosis? things) Bipolar, amacrine, horizontal = all cells
321. Describe the hypnosis with colourful -People were hypnotized, told they would see colourful images, were shown black and
images: white images
-But areas in brain responsible for processing colour lit up (indication they weren't
lying)
322. What is concentrative meditation? Focus all of your attention on one particular thing
323. What is mindfulness meditation? Let your thoughts flow freely, paying attention to them, but not reacting to them
324. What can long term practice of Long term practice can decrease the reactivity of your autonomic nervous system to
mindfulness meditation do for you? stressful events
333. Visual areas beyond the primary visual cortex form 346. Give an example of how Gestalt principles
what 2 parallel processing streams? of perceptual organization have
implications in graphic design:

347. What are 6 Gestalt principles of
perceptual organization?
The navigating bar on the left is more "comprehensive" and easier to use because
the words aren't the same as the rectangles as is on the right, which mixes them up
and the words aren't as bold and noticeable
1. Figure-ground relationship
2. Proximity

1. Dorsal "where" stream 3. Similarity

2. Ventral "what" stream 4. Good continuation

334. What is the dorsal "where" stream? Specialized for spatial perception, determining where an object is and its
5. Closure
spatial relation to other objects
335. What is the ventral "what" stream? Specialized for perception and recognition of objects, such as determining 6. Illusory contours
colour and shape
348. What is figure-ground relationship?
336. What kinds of disorders can arise from the ventral Agnosia, prosopagnosia
"what" stream?
337. Who is Patient DF? -Had agnosia
-Can move objects in right way (spatially), knows what to do with them, but
can't name them
338. What are the 3 types of cones? -S → Short wavelengths → Blue Whatever is not the figure (the focus of visual field) is automatically assigned as
-M → Medium wavelengths → Green background
-L → Long wavelengths → Red 349. What is proximity?
339. According to trichromatic theory, the perception of
colour is determined by:

The closer two figures are, the more likely we are to group them together and see
them as being part of the same object
350. What is similarity?

The ratio of activity among the 3 types of receptors/cones We tend to group figures according to how closely they resemble each other
340. What is colour blindness? Colour vision deficiency 351. What is good continuation?
341. Is colour blindness genetic? Yes
342. What is the most common form of colour blindness? Red/green colour blindess
343. Is colour blindness more common in males or Males (5-8% vs. 0.5%), because it is carried on the X chromosome
females and why?
We tend to interpret intersecting lines as continuous rather than as changing
344. What does red/green colour blindness mean? That people mix up colours which have some red or green in them direction radically
345. What do Gestalt principles of perceptual How we perceive objects in our environment (how do we organize
organization help us explain? elements into groups in order to perceive a "unified whole")
352. Another example of good continuation: 363. Through classical and 1. Stimuli in the environment
instrumental conditioning,
we learn to associate what 2. Our own behaviours
2 things with significant
events (such as rewards
and punishments)?
364. Why have the 2 types of Because they have powerful effects on behaviour, and because they provide methods that allow
Gestalt principle of perceptual organization used in magic tricks learning been intensively scientists to analyze learning processes rigorously
studied?
353. What is closure?
365. Classical condition is more Identity
than just a theory of
learning, it is also a theory
of:
366. What other things, besides Why some people get anxious just looking at a crowded bus, why the sound of a morning alarm is so
We tend to complete figures that have gaps Pavlov's dog, can his work hated, and even why we swear off certain foods we've only tried once
on classical conditioning
354. What are illusory contours? explain?
367. What is classical/Pavlovian The procedure in which an initially neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) is paired with an
conditioning? unconditioned stimulus (or US). The result is that the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit a
conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning is nowadays considered important as both a
We tend to perceive contours, even when they don't exist (but something behavioural phenomenon and as a method to study simple associative learning. Same as Pavlovian
in the stimulus suggests that they ought to be present) conditioning. (Occurs when two different stimuli come to be associated with one another. Doesn't
require any action on the part of the learner.)
355. Another example of illusory contours:
368. A type of learning in which Neutral stimulus, reflexive response, already produces
a _____ comes to elicit a
_____ because it has
become associated with a
stimulus that _____ that
response
369. What are 4 key terms of 1. Unconditioned stimulus (US)
classical conditioning?
2. Unconditioned response (UR)
356. Example of bottom-up vs. top-down processing:
3. Conditioned stimulus (CS)

4. Conditioned response (CR)

370. Describe Pavlov's
-Context is important experiment with dogs and
-Same stimulus, different perception some other versions of it:
357. What are monocular depth cues?
371. Classical conditioning:
-Pavlov rang a bell and then gave a dog some food
-After repeating this pairing multiple times, the dog eventually treated the bell as a signal for food,
and began salivating in anticipation of the treat
-This kind of result has been reproduced in the lab using a wide range of signals (e.g., tones, light,
tastes, settings) paired with many different events besides food (e.g., drugs, shocks, illness)

Include occlusion, relative size, familiar size, linear perspective, texture

gradient, and position relative to horizon
358. Motion cues for depth perception include the the Objects that are farther away seem to move more slowly that objects that
motion parallax which is: are closer
359. What is the waterfall illusion? Fatigue of certain motion sensitive neurons leads to motion after-effects 372. What is acquisition in The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
(also called motion-after effect, e.g. in class with moving buddha) classical conditioning?
360. Dream consciousness is both similar and dissimilar Disconnect from external environment
from waking consciousness, it is a profound:
361. What is achromotopsia? Seeing world in black and white-extremely rare

362. What are the 2 most 1. Classical (Pavlovian)

fundamental forms of
learning? 2. Instrumental (operant)
373. What are other examples of
results of classical
conditioning in our every day
lives?
374. Give 2 reasons why classical
conditioning is still widely
studied today:
375. Classical conditioning occurs
whenever:
376. The dog food in Pavlov's
experiment is called the _____
because it elicits an _____
377. What is an unconditioned
stimulus (US)?
378. What is an unconditioned
response (UR)?
379. Describe how the US and UR
work together
380. Give examples of how an US
elicits an UR:
381. A conditioned stimulus (CS)
produces:
382. What is a conditioned stimulus
(CS)?
383. What is a conditioned
response (CR)?
384. Describe how the CS and CR
work in Pavlov's experiment:
385. The conditioned response is
almost always the same as the:
386. it is called the conditioned
response because:
387. What is another example of
how a conditioned response is
almost always the same as the
unconditioned response?
-When humans associate a drug they've taken with the environment in which they've taken it 388. Describe how an alarm
clock/alarm tone works
-When they associate a stimulus (e.g., a symbol for vacation, like a big beach towel) with an as a conditioned
emotional event (like a burst of happiness) stimulus (CS):
-When they associate the flavour of a food with getting food poisoning.
1. It is a straightforward test of associative learning that can be used to study other, more
complex behaviours
2. Because classical conditioning is always occurring in our lives, its effects on behaviour have
important implications for understanding normal and disordered behaviour in humans
Neutral stimuli are associated with psychologically significant events (e.g. with food poisoning,
for example, although having fish for dinner may not normally be something to be concerned
about (i.e., a "neutral stimuli"), if it causes you to get sick, you will now likely associate that neutral 389. What is
stimuli (the fish) with the psychologically significant event of getting sick) instrumental/operant
conditioning?
Unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR)
390. Which 2 people are
associated with
instrumental/operant
In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits the response before conditioning occurs conditioning?
391. Operant conditioning
In classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before (or in the occurs when:
absence of) conditioning
392. Describe the "Skinner
Without any kind of "training" or "teaching," the stimulus produces a natural or instinctual box" and how it is an
reaction example of instrumental
-In Pavlov's case, the food (US) automatically makes the dog drool (UR) conditioning:
-Stimuli include loud noises (US) that startle us (UR)
-A hot shower (US) that produces pleasure (UR)
A conditioned response (CR)
An initially neutral stimulus (like a bell, light, or tone) that elicits a conditioned response after it
has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus
393. What is operant
The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken
behaviour?
place
394. What is a reinforcer?
-The bell is the conditioned stimulus
-Before the dog has learned to associate the bell (CS) with the presence of food (US), hearing
the bell means nothing to the dog
-However, after multiple pairings of the bell with the presentation of food, the dog starts to 395. What is a primary
drool at the sound of the bell reinforcer?
-This drooling in response to the bell is the conditioned response 396. What is a secondary
Unconditioned response reinforcer?
397. Give another example of -Imagine that you're playing a street-racing video game
It is conditional on (or, depends on) being paired with the conditioned stimulus (e.g., the bell) how operant
conditioning works:
-Becoming really hungry when you see the logo for a fast food restaurant-there's a good
chance you'll start salivating
-Although it is the actual eating of the food (US) that normally produces the salivation (UR),
simply seeing the restaurant's logo (CS) can trigger the same reaction (CR)
398. Operant conditioning
research studies how:
399. What is Thorndike's law of
effect?
-Waking up early (US) produces a natural sensation of grumpiness (UR)
-Rather than waking up early on your own, though, you likely have an alarm clock that plays a tone to
wake you
-Before setting your alarm to that particular tone, let's imagine you had neutral feelings about it (i.e., the
tone had no prior meaning for you)
-However, now that you use it to wake up every morning, you psychologically "pair" that tone (CS) with
your feelings of grumpiness in the morning (UR)
-After enough pairings, this tone (CS) will automatically produce your natural response of grumpiness
(CR).
-This linkage between the unconditioned stimulus (US; waking up early) and the conditioned stimulus
(CS; the tone) is so strong that the unconditioned response (UR; being grumpy) will become a
conditioned response (CR; e.g., hearing the tone at any point in the day—whether waking up or walking
down the street—will make you grumpy)
Process in which animals learn about the relationship between their behaviours and their
consequences. Also known as operant conditioning. (When an animal or person operates on their
environment to produce particular results (e.g. learning a trick to receive a treat)
First studied by Edward Thorndike, and later extended by B. F. Skinner
A BEHAVIOUR (as opposed to a stimulus) is associated with the occurrence of a significant event
-A rat in a laboratory learns to press a lever in a cage to receive food
- Because the rat has no "natural" association between pressing a lever and getting food, the rat has to
learn this connection
-At first, the rat may simply explore its cage, climbing on top of things, burrowing under things, in
search of food
-Eventually while poking around its cage, the rat accidentally presses the lever, and a food pellet
drops in
-This voluntary behaviour is called an operant behaviour, because it "operates" on the environment (i.e.,
it is an action that the animal itself makes)
-Once the rat recognizes that it receives a piece of food every time it presses the lever, the behaviour
of lever-pressing becomes reinforced (the food pellets are reinforcers because they strengthen the
rat's desire to engage with the environment in this particular manner)
A behaviour that is controlled by its consequences. The simplest example is the rat's lever-pressing,
which is controlled by the presentation of the reinforcer.
Any consequence of a behaviour that strengthens the behaviour or increases the likelihood that it will
be performed it again (a stimulus that occurs after a response and increases the likelihood that the
response will be repeated)
Biological reinforcer (e.g. food, drink, and pleasure)
A stimulus reinforcing a behaviour after it has been associated with a primary reinforcer
-As you drive through one city course multiple times, you try a number of different streets to get to the
finish line
-On one of these trials, you discover a shortcut that dramatically improves your overall time
-You have learned this new path through operant conditioning (that is, by engaging with your
environment (operant responses), you performed a sequence of behaviours that that was positively
reinforced (i.e., you found the shortest distance to the finish line))
-Now that you've learned how to drive this course, you will perform that same sequence of driving
behaviours (just as the rat presses on the lever) to receive your reward of a faster finish
The effects of a behaviour influence the probability that it will occur again (e.g. the effects of the rat's
lever-pressing behaviour (i.e., receiving a food pellet) influences the probability that it will keep
pressing the lever)
The idea that instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effects. When a
behaviour has a positive (satisfying) effect or consequence, it is likely to be repeated in the
future. However, when a behaviour has a negative (painful/annoying) consequence, it is less
likely to be repeated in the future.

400. Thorndike's puzzle box:
401. Effects that increase behaviours Reinforcers, punishers
are referred to as _____, and
effects that decrease them are
referred to as _____
402. What are punishers?
403. Describe how operant
conditioning is used to get a
good grade in class:
404. What is an important distinction
between operant and classical
conditioning? Give an example:
405. What is another difference
between classical and
instrumental conditioning in
terms of what is learned?
406. What is another difference
between classical and
instrumental conditioning in
terms of how the behaviour
arises?
407. The word "emitted" further conveys the Voluntary
idea that operant behaviours are
essentially _____ in nature
408. What are other responses to the CS
(the bell) in Pavlov's experiment
besides salivation?
409. Presenting a CS for food can also
cause animals whose stomachs are full
to:
410. CSs are so prevalent in modern
society, humans are likewise inclined
to:
411. How can classical conditioning make
certain flavours become preferred?
A stimulus that decreases the strength of an operant behaviour when it is made a consequence 412. How can classical conditioning make
of the behaviour certain flavours become disliked?
-Could be considered a reward for students (produces a positive emotional response)
-In order to get the reward, the student needs to modify their behaviour (similar to the rat 413. What is taste aversion conditioning?
learning to press the lever)
-E.g. the student may learn that speaking up in class gets him/her participation points (a 414. The fact that flavours are often
reinforcer), so the student speaks up repeatedly. However, the student also learns that s/he associated with so many consequences
shouldn't speak up about just anything; talking about topics unrelated to school actually costs of eating is important for animals
points. (including rats and humans) that are:
-Therefore, through the student's freely chosen behaviours, s/he learns which behaviours are
reinforced and which are punished 415. How is classical conditioning clinically
relevant? Give an example:
-Operant conditioning provides a method for studying how consequences influence "voluntary"
behaviour, voluntary behaviour is strongly influenced by its consequences
- Classical conditioning, on the other hand, is just the opposite—depending instead on 416. What is fear conditioning?
"involuntary" behaviour
E.g. The rat's decision to press the lever is voluntary, in the sense that the rat is free to make and
repeat that response whenever it wants, the dog doesn't choose to drool; it just does-so, 417. Give an example of how fear
whereas the rat must actively participate and perform some kind of behaviour to attain its conditioning works in the laboratory:
reward, the dog in Pavlov's experiment is a passive participant 418. Fear conditioning plays a role in what
in humans and why?
419. In fear conditioning, rather than a
physical response (like drooling), the
CS triggers an:
-Modern thinkers often emphasize the fact that they differ—as illustrated here—in WHAT is 420. When a drug is taken, it can be
learned associated with:
-In classical conditioning, the animal behaves as if it has learned to associate a STIMULUS with a
421. Explain what happens if someone
significant event
associates a, as an example, smell with
-In operant conditioning, the animal behaves as if it has learned to associate a BEHAVIOUR with
an effect from a particular drug:
a significant event
Another difference is that the response in the classical situation (e.g., salivation) is ELICITED by
a stimulus that comes before it, whereas the response in the operant case is not elicited by any
particular stimulus. Instead, operant responses are said to be EMITTED.
-Bell almost certainly elicited a whole system of responses that functioned to get the
organism ready for the upcoming US (food)
-Elicit the secretion of gastric acid, pancreatic enzymes, and insulin (which gets blood
glucose into cells)-this all prepares body for digestion
-Elicits approach behaviour and a state of excitement
-Shows that a classical CS does not merely elicit a simple, unitary reflex
Eat more food if it is available
Eat or feel hungry in response to cues associated with food (e.g. sound of bag of chips
opening, food logos, etc.)
-Flavours associated with certain nutrients (such as sugar or fat) can become preferred
without arousing any awareness of the pairing
-E.g. Protein is a US that your body automatically craves more of once you start to
consume it (UR): since proteins are highly concentrated in meat, the flavour of meat
becomes a CS (or cue, that proteins are on the way), which perpetuates the cycle of
craving for yet more meat (this automatic bodily reaction now a CR)
-Flavours associated with stomach pain or illness become avoided and disliked
-E.g. A person who gets sick after drinking too much tequila may acquire a profound
dislike of the taste and odour of tequila (taste aversion conditioning)
The phenomenon in which a taste is paired with sickness, and this causes the organism
to reject—and dislike—that taste in the future
Frequently exposed to new foods
Drugs used in chemotherapy often make cancer patients sick-as a consequence,
patients often acquire aversions to foods eaten just before treatment, or even aversions
to such things as the waiting room of the chemotherapy clinic itself
A type of classical or Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is
associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock. As a
consequence of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear. The phenomenon is thought to
be involved in the development of anxiety disorders in humans.
If an experimenter sounds a tone just before applying a mild shock to a rat's feet, the
tone will elicit fear or anxiety after one or two pairings
-Many anxiety disorders in humans, such as phobias and panic disorders
-People associate cues (such as closed spaces, or a shopping mall) with panic or other
emotional trauma
Emotion
Cues that are present at the same time (e.g., rooms, odours, drug paraphernalia)
Whenever that person smells the same odour afterward, it may cue responses (physical
and/or emotional) related to taking the drug itself
422. What is an interesting
property that drugs have?
Give an example:
423. What is a conditioned
compensatory response?
424. How do conditioned
compensatory responses
work with drugs?
425. When will a drug user be
most "tolerant" to the drug?
426. What is overdose normally a
result of?
427. How can conditioned
compensatory responses
motivate a drug user to
consume more drugs?
428. A final effect of classical
cues is that they motivate:
-They elicit responses that often "compensate" for the upcoming effect of the drug 435. What is blocking?
-E.g. Morphine itself suppresses pain; however, if someone is used to taking morphine, a cue that
signals the "drug is coming soon" can actually make the person more sensitive to pain (because the
person knows a pain suppressant will soon be administered, the body becomes more sensitive,
436. Learning depends on a
anticipating that "the drug will soon take care of it")
discrepancy between what 2
In classical conditioning, a conditioned response (CR) that opposes, rather than is the same as, the things?
unconditioned response (UR). It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response.
437. To learn something through
Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli.
classical conditioning, there
Decrease the impact of the drug on the body—because the body has become more sensitive to must first be some:
pain
438. What is prediction error?
In the presence of cues that have been associated with it (because such cues elicit compensatory
responses)
Overdose is usually not due to an increase in dosage, but to taking the drug in a new place
without the familiar cues—which would have otherwise allowed the user to tolerate the drug 439. Give an example of
Conditioned compensatory responses (which include heightened pain sensitivity and decreased prediction error:
body temperature, among others) might also cause discomfort, thus motivating the drug user to
continue usage of the drug to reduce them (may be a factor in drug addiction and dependance)
440. Blocking and other related
Ongoing operant behaviour effects indicate that the
learning process tends to:
In classical conditioning, the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a
previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials. Suggests that information, surprise value,
or prediction error is important in conditioning.
1. What occurs on a conditioning trial
2. What is already predicted by cues that are present on the trial
Prediction error
When the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the
conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial (i.e., when the US is surprising). Prediction error is
necessary to create Pavlovian conditioning (and associative learning generally). As learning occurs
over repeated conditioning trials, the conditioned stimulus increasingly predicts the unconditioned
stimulus, and prediction error declines. Conditioning works to correct or reduce prediction error.
-With the example of the bell and the light, because the bell always leads to the reward of food,
there's no "prediction error" that the addition of the light helps to correct
-However, if the researcher suddenly requires that the bell and the light both occur in order to
receive the food, the bell alone will produce a prediction error that the animal has to learn
Take in the most valid predictors of significant events and ignore the less useful ones

429. Give an example of how
classical cues motivate
ongoing operant behaviour
with the rat example:
430. Give other examples of how
classical cues motivate
ongoing operant behaviour:
431. Classical conditioning
provides a method for
studying:
432. Is pairing a CS and US
together enough for an
association to be made
between them? Why or why
not?
433. Give an example of what
stimulus A and stimulus B
are:
441. Give another real life
example of blocking:
If a rat has learned via operant conditioning that pressing a lever will give it a drug, in the
presence of cues that signal the "drug is coming soon" (like the sound of the lever squeaking), the
rat will work harder to press the lever than if those cues weren't present (i.e., there is no
squeaking lever sound) 442. Classical conditioning is the
strongest if:
-In the presence of food-associated cues (e.g., smells), a rat (or an overeater) will work harder for
food
-Even in the presence of negative cues (like something that signals fear), a rat, a human, or any
other organism will work harder to avoid those situations that might lead to trauma 443. Give an example of how
→ Classical CSs thus have many effects that can contribute to significant behavioural phenomena classical conditioning is
strongest when the
Basic learning processes organism's biology has
prepared it to associate a
particular CS and US:
No-conditioned response only occurs during the presentation of stimulus A, because the earlier 444. What is the concept in the
conditioning of A "blocks" the conditioning of B when B is added to A-stimulus A already predicts previous flashcard called?
the US, so the US is not surprising when it occurs with stimulus B
445. What is preparedness?
446. After conditioning, the
response to the CS can be
-An animal first learns to associate one CS—call it stimulus A—with a US eliminated if:
-In the illustration, the sound of a bell (stimulus A) is paired with the presentation of food. Once
this association is learned, in a second phase, a second stimulus—stimulus B—is presented
alongside stimulus A, such that the two stimuli are paired with the US together
-In the illustration, a light is added and turned on at the same time the bell is rung
-However, because the animal has already learned the association between stimulus A (the bell)
and the food, the animal doesn't learn an association between stimulus B (the light) and the food
-Imagine that your supermarket puts big star-shaped stickers on products that are on sale
-You learn that items with the big star-shaped stickers are cheaper
-However, imagine you go into a similar supermarket that not only uses these stickers, but also uses
bright orange price tags to denote a discount
-Because of blocking (i.e., you already know that the star-shaped stickers indicate a discount), you
don't have to learn the colour system, too-the star-shaped stickers tell you everything you need to
know (i.e. there's no prediction error for the discount), and thus the colour system is irrelevant
-The CS and US are intense or salient
-The CS and US are relatively new and the organism hasn't been frequently exposed to them
before
-The organism's biology has prepared it to associate a particular CS and US
-Rats and humans are naturally inclined to associate an illness with a flavour, rather than with a light
or tone
-Because foods are most commonly experienced by taste, if there is a particular food that makes us
ill, associating the flavour (rather than the appearance—which may be similar to other foods) with
the illness will more greatly ensure we avoid that food in the future, and thus avoid getting sick
Preparedness
The idea that an organism's evolutionary history can make it easy to learn a particular association.
Because of preparedness, you are more likely to associate the taste of tequila, and not the
circumstances surrounding drinking it, with getting sick. Similarly, humans are more likely to
associate images of spiders and snakes than flowers and mushrooms with aversive outcomes like
shocks.
The CS is presented repeatedly without the US

434. What is the example in the
previous flashcard called?
Blocking 447. What is Decrease in the strength of a learned behaviour that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without
extinction? the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behaviour is no longer reinforced (in
instrumental conditioning). The term describes both the procedure (the US or reinforcer is no longer
presented) as well as the result of the procedure (the learned response declines). Behaviours that have been
reduced in strength through extinction are said to be "extinguished."
448. How would If Pavlov kept ringing the bell but never gave the dog any food afterward, eventually the dog's CR (drooling) 461. How is the inhibition from extinction mainly In the context in which it is learned
Pavlov's dog's would no longer happen when it heard the CS (the bell), because the bell would no longer be a predictor of expressed?
reaction to the food 462. How can clinicians prevent renewal effects -Can increase the therapy's effectiveness by using basic research on learning to
bell become for their patients with phobias/anxieties? help defeat these relapse effects
extinct? -E.g. conducting extinction therapies in contexts where patients might be most
449. What can Therapies used to eliminate maladaptive and unwanted behaviours vulnerable to relapsing (e.g., at work), might be a good strategy for enhancing the
extinction be therapy's success
helpful for? 463. In instrumental learning, we associate what 2 Our actions with their outcomes
450. Give an example -Systematic exposure to spiders things?
of how - Initially the person has a CR (e.g., extreme fear) every time s/he sees the CS (e.g., the spider), after repeatedly 464. The "bigger" the reinforcer (or punisher), the Stronger
extinction can being shown pictures of spiders in neutral conditions, pretty soon the CS no longer predicts the CR (i.e., the _____ the learning
be used as a person doesn't have the fear reaction when seeing spiders, having learned that spiders no longer serve as a
therapy for a "cue" for that fear) 465. Can instrumental behaviour also be Yes, by no longer reinforcing the behaviour
spider phobia: extinguished? How?

451. Does extinction No 466. What is stimulus control? When an operant behaviour is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it
destroy the 467. Give an example of stimulus control with the -Can be arranged so that lever-pressing only produces pellets when a particular
original lever-pressing rats: stimulus is present
learning? -Lever-pressing can be reinforced only when a light in the Skinner box is turned
452. What is Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. Can occur after on; when the light is off, no food is released from lever-pressing
spontaneous extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning (following a lapse in exposure to the CS after -The rat soon learns to discriminate between the light-on and light-off conditions,
recovery? extinction has occurred, sometimes re-exposure to the CS can evoke the CR again). and presses the lever only in the presence of the light (responses in light-off are
extinguished)
453. Classical
conditioning 468. Give an example of stimulus control in real -Think about waiting in the turn (→) lane at a traffic light
"steps": life: -Although you know that green means go, only when you have the green arrow
do you turn
469. The stimulus controlling the operant Discriminative stimulus
response is called a:
470. What is a discriminative stimulus? In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be
reinforced. It is said to "set the occasion" for the operant response
454. Give an example -Imagine you strongly associate the smell of chalkboards with the agony of middle school detention 471. What 2 things can a discriminative stimulus 1. Directly with the response
of spontaneous -After years of encountering chalkboards, the smell of them no longer recalls the agony of detention (an be associated with?
recovery: example of extinction) 2. Reinforcer
- However, one day, after entering a new building for the first time, you suddenly catch a whiff of a chalkboard 472. A discriminative stimulus does not elicit a "Sets the occasion for" the operant response (e.g. a canvas put in front of an artist
and the agony of detention returns response like a classical CS does, rather it: does not elicit painting behaviour or compel her to paint, it allows, or sets the
455. What is stimulus Occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned occasion for, painting to occur)
generalization? response 473. What are stimulus-control techniques also Perception (e.g. the rat would not be able to respond appropriately to light-on
456. What is stimulus A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the used to study? and light-off conditions if it could not see the light)
discrimination? unconditioned stimulus 474. Experiments using stimulus-control methods How well animals see colour, hear ultrasounds, detect metal fields (researchers
457. What is the Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changed after extinction. Especially have tested what kinds of things? pair these discriminative stimuli with those they know the animals already
renewal effect? strong when the change of context involves return to the context in which conditioning originally occurred. understand, such as pressing the lever)
Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning. After extinction, if the CS is tested in 475. Give an example of how stimulus-control -Pigeons can learn to peck at different buttons in a Skinner box when pictures of
a new context, the CR can also return. methods can be used to study "higher" flowers, cars, chairs, or people are shown on a miniature TV screen
458. What is context? Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs. For instance, the Skinner box or room in which cognitive processes: -Pecking button 1 (and no other) is reinforced in the presence of a flower image,
learning takes place is the classic example of a context. However, "context" can also be provided by internal button 2 in the presence of a chair image, and so on
stimuli, such as the sensory effects of drugs (e.g., being under the influence of alcohol has stimulus properties -Pigeons can learn the discrimination readily, and, under the right conditions, will
that provide a context) and mood states (e.g., being happy or sad). It can also be provided by a specific period even peck the correct buttons associated with pictures of new flowers, cars,
in time—the passage of time is sometimes said to change the "temporal context." chairs, and people they have never seen before
-These birds have learned to categorize sets of stimuli

459. In the chalkboard example, how can the The action of entering a new building—where you don't expect to smell 476. Stimulus-control Categorization
renewal effect come into play? chalkboards—suddenly renews the sensations associated with detention methods can be used
to study how _____ is
460. Renewal effects have been interpreted to Inhibits
learned
suggest that extinction _____ rather than
erases the learned behaviour
477. What does it mean to To sort or arrange different items into classes or categories 484. Give an example of the reinforcer devaluation effect:
categorize?
478. Operant conditioning Choosing one behaviour over the others (e.g. the student who goes to the bar on Thursday night chooses
ALWAYS requires: to drink instead of staying at home and studying, the rat chooses to press the lever instead of sleeping or
scratching its ear in the back of the box, etc.)
-A rat is first trained to perform two instrumental actions (e.g.,
479. The tendency to Both the reinforcers earned for it and the reinforcers earned for its alternatives pressing a lever on the left, and on the right), each paired with a
perform a particular different reinforcer (e.g., a sweet sucrose solution, and a food pellet)
action depends on: -Rat is trained to press both levers (alternating)
480. What is the A mathematical rule that states that the effectiveness of a reinforcer at strengthening an operant response -In a second phase, one of the reinforcers (e.g., the sucrose) is then
quantitative law of depends on the amount of reinforcement earned for all alternative behaviours. A reinforcer is less separately paired with illness-conditions a taste aversion to sucrose
effect? effective if there is a lot of reinforcement in the environment for other behaviours. The law acknowledges -In last phase, rat is returned to Skinner box and is allowed to press
the fact that the effects of reinforcing one behaviour depend crucially on how much reinforcement is whichever lever
earned for the behaviour's alternatives. -No reinforcers are presented, so the rat can only go from memory
481. Give an example of of what it has learned earlier
the quantitative law -Rat chooses not to perform the response that once produced the
of effect: reinforcer that it now has an aversion (doesn't press sucrose lever)
485. What kind of behaviour does the rat exhibit in the Goal-directed
previous flashcard?
486. What is goal-directed behaviour? Instrumental behaviour that is influenced by the animal's knowledge
of the association between the behaviour and its consequence and
the current value of the consequence. Sensitive to the reinforcer
devaluation effect.
487. If the rat has spent many months learning the value of A habit
pressing each of the levers, the act of pressing them
becomes automatic and routine, this once goal-directed
action has become:
-If a pigeon learns that pecking one light will reward two food pellets, whereas the other light only 488. What is a habit? Instrumental behaviour that occurs automatically in the presence of a
rewards one, the pigeon will only peck the first light stimulus and is no longer influenced by the animal's knowledge of
-However, what happens if the first light is more strenuous to reach than the second one? the value of the reinforcer. Insensitive to the reinforcer devaluation
-In general, a given reinforcer will be less reinforcing if there are many alternative reinforcers in the effect.
environment
489. Once the lever-pressing turns into a habit, even if again Yes (instrumental response (pressing the lever) is no longer sensitive
482. Reinforcers do more Learn about the specific consequences of each behaviour, and will perform a behaviour depending on paired with the sucrose that is paired with illness, will the to reinforcer devaluation)
than just "stamp in" how much they currently want—or "value"—its consequence rat keep pressing the same lever?
behaviour they are a
490. Why are habits useful? You do not need to relearn each day how to do something
consequence of,
rather they: 491. Generally, what 3 things are paired when we're putting
classical and instrumental learning together?
483. What is the The finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the
reinforcer reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable
devaluation effect?

Any reinforced or punished operant response (R) is paired with an

outcome (O) in the presence of some stimulus or set of stimuli (S)
492. What do you get when you pair R-O together? -Organism will learn to associate the response and the outcome
-Instrumental conditioning
-Learning process here is probably similar to classical conditioning,
with all its emphasis on surprise and prediction error
-Once R - O is learned, the organism will be ready to perform the
response if the outcome is desired or valued
-The value of the reinforcer can also be influenced by other
reinforcers earned for other behaviours in the situation
493. What do you get when you pair S-O together? -Learn to associate the stimulus with the reinforcing outcome
-Classical conditioning component
-The stimulus will come to evoke a system of responses that help the
organism prepare for the reinforcer (not shown in the figure) (e.g. eater may
salivate, etc.)
-The stimulus will evoke approach (if the outcome is positive) or retreat (if the
outcome is negative)
494. What do you get when you pair S-R together? -Habit learning
-After a lot of practice, the stimulus may begin to elicit the response directly
-The response occurs relatively automatically, without much mental
processing of the relation between the action and the outcome and the
outcome's current value
495. What do you get when you pair [S - (R - O)] -Stimulus and the response-outcome association
together? -More than just entering into a simple association with the R or the O, the
stimulus can signal that the R - O relationship is now in effect
-"Set the occasion" for the operant response: it sets the occasion for the
response-reinforcer relationship
496. What is a type of learning that is neither classical Observational
nor instrumental?
497. What is observational learning? Learning by observing the behaviour of others
498. Give an example of observational learning: -A child walking up to a group of children playing a game on the playground
-The game is new and unfamiliar
-Rather than joining the game immediately, the child opts to sit back and
watch the other children play a round or two
-Observing the others, the child takes note of the ways in which they behave
while playing the game
-By watching the behaviour of the other kids, the child can figure out the rules
of the game and even some strategies for doing well at the game
499. Observational learning is a component of what Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
theory?
500. What is Social Learning Theory? The theory that people can learn new responses and behaviours by observing
the behaviour of others
501. Observational learning does not necessarily Social models
require reinforcement, but instead hinges on the
presence of others, referred to as:
502. What are social models? Authorities that are the targets for observation and who model behaviours
503. What people are typically considered social Typically of higher status or authority compared to the observer, examples of
models? which include parents, teachers, and police officers
504. In the example of the child watching the The children who already know how to play the game even though they are
unfamiliar game, who would be considered the the same age as the observer
social model?
505. What are some other examples of observational A child learning to place her napkin in her lap by watching her parents at the
learning? dinner table, or a customer learning where to find the ketchup and mustard
after observing other customers at a hot dog stand
506. What are the 4 parts of observational learning? 1. Attention-one must pay attention to what s/he is observing in order to learn
Explain them:
2. Retention- to learn one must be able to retain the behaviour s/he is
observing in memory
3. Initiation-acknowledges that the learner must be able to execute (or
initiate) the learned behaviour
4. Motivation-must possess it in order to engage in the behaviour
507. Describe Albert Bandura's "Bobo doll experiment":
508. While reinforcement was not required to elicit the
children's behaviour in Bandura's first experiment, it is
important to acknowledge that _____ do play a role within
observational learning
509. A future adaptation of the "Bobo doll experiment"
demonstrated that children in the aggression group
showed less aggressive behaviour if:
510. As the children did not experience the reinforcement or
punishment directly, yet were still influenced by observing
it, this is called:
511. Bandura's "Bobo" doll experiment is an example of:
512. What is vicarious reinforcement?
513. What kind of learning is demonstrated in selecting clothes
others have complimented you on?
514. What kind of learning is demonstrated in choosing a
restaurant because it plays happy music?
515. What kind of learning is demonstrated in being always on
time with your assignments, because you saw how others
were punished when they were late?
516. "Memory" is a single term that reflects a number of
different abilities (list 3):
-Bandura had children individually observe an adult social model
interact with a clown doll ("Bobo")
-For one group of children, the adult interacted aggressively with
Bobo: punching it, kicking it, throwing it, and even hitting it in the face
with a toy mallet
-Another group of children watched the adult interact with other
toys, displaying no aggression toward Bobo
-In both instances the adult left and the children were allowed to
interact with Bobo on their own
-Bandura found that children exposed to the aggressive social
model were significantly more likely to behave aggressively toward
Bobo, hitting and kicking him, compared to those exposed to the
non-aggressive model
-Researchers concluded that the children in the aggressive group
used their observations of the adult social model's behaviour to
determine that aggressive behaviour toward Bobo was acceptable
Consequences
They witnessed the adult model receive punishment for aggressing
against Bobo
Vicarious reinforcement
Vicarious reinforcement
Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment
of another person
Instrumental
Classical
Observational
1. Holding information briefly while working with it (working memory)
2. Remembering episodes of one's life (episodic memory)
3. Our general knowledge of facts of the world (semantic memory)

517. Remembering episodes involves what 1. Encoding information (learning it, by perceiving it and relating it to past knowledge)
3 processes?
2. Storing it (maintaining it over time)

3. Retrieving it (accessing the information when needed)

518. The key to improving one's memory is Improve processes of encoding and to use techniques that guarantee effective retrieval 536. What are the 3 necessary stages in learning and 1. Encoding
to: memory process?
519. Good encoding techniques include: -Relating new information to what one already knows 2. Storage
-Forming mental images
-Creating associations among information that needs to be remembered 3. Retrieval

520. The key to good retrieval is:
521. What is a method dating back to the
Ancient Greeks to improve memory
abilities?
522. Who is Simon Reinhard?
523. For most of us, remembering digits
relies on:
524. What is short-term/working memory?
525. What is it called when you actively
think about information to keep it in
your short-term memory?
526. What kind of memory would
multiplying 24 x 17 require without
using a pen and paper?
Developing effective cues that will lead the rememberer back to the encoded 537. What is encoding? The initial experience of perceiving and learning events/initial learning of
information information (information is acquired and processed into a neural code that the
brain can use)
Classic mnemonic systems
538. What is storage? The stage in the learning/memory process that bridges encoding and
retrieval; maintaining information/memory over time (whether it is for a
moment or a lifetime)
-Able to memorize very long sequences of digits, his record being 240 (called "forward
digit span") 539. What is retrieval? The process of accessing stored information/ability to access information
-Most people can only memorize around 7, maybe a few more or less when you need it
-Isn't cheating, doesn't have photographic memory, doesn't have special abilities 540. Give an example of how encoding, storage, and -If you meet someone for the first time at a party, you need to encode her
-Taught himself simple strategies for remembering retrieval work together in remembering name (Lyn Goff) while you associate her name with her face
-Practiced them over years, before he was only able to memorize around 7 as a typical someone's name: - Then you need to maintain the information over time
person could - If you see her a week later, you need to recognize her face and have it serve
-In the top 2 of "memory athletes" behind Johannes Mallow as a cue to retrieve her name
Short-term memory, or working memory 541. Successful remembering requires: All 3 stages of memory be intact
542. What are 2 types of errors that can occur with 1. Forgetting
The ability to hold information in our minds for a brief time and work with it (memory remembering? 2. Misremembering/false recall/false recognition
that will remain for only about 20-30 seconds, unless you actively think about it)
543. How would the 2 types of errors in remembering 1.Forgetting-you see the person you met at the party and you cannot recall
Maintenance rehearsal (e.g. remembering a phone number or licence plate) come into play in misremembering someone's her name
name?
2. Misremembering/false recall/false recognition-recognize her face, but then
Working call her by the name of another woman you met at the party, which is
misrecall, or you see someone who looks like Lyn Goff and call the person by
that name which is false recognition

527. What is episodic memory? Memory for events in a particular time and place/the ability to remember the "episodes" 544. Why is it difficult to determine at which stage Because all 3 stages depend on one another/are bound together
of our lives (memory of your personal past experiences that includes information about was there a failure when we misremember
the time and place the experiences occurred) something?

528. Give an example of episodic memory: If you were given the task of recalling everything you did 2 days ago, that would be a 545. How we encode information determines how: It will be stored and what cues will be effective when we try to retrieve it
test of episodic memory; you would be required to mentally travel through the day in 546. The act of retrieval itself changes: The way information is subsequently remembered, usually aiding later recall of
your mind and note the main events the retrieved information
529. What is semantic memory? The more or less permanent store of knowledge that people have 547. How do psychologists often study recall? By having participants study a list of pictures or words
(ideas/concepts/common knowledge/facts)-may not remember where you learned it
548. What are 2 principles about encoding? 1. Selective-we attend to some events in our environment and we ignore
530. Give some examples of semantic -Meanings of words in a language (e.g. the meaning of "parasol") others
memory: -Huge collection of facts about the world (e.g. there are 196 countries in the world, and
206 bones in your body) 2. Prolific-we are always encoding the events of our lives—attending to the
531. What is collective memory? The kind of memory that people in a group share (whether family, community, world, trying to understand it
schoolmates, or citizens of a state or a country) 549. Normally encoding being prolific doesn't pose a If something does happen that seems strange—during your daily walk across
532. Give an example of collective -Residents of small towns often strongly identify with those towns, remembering the problem since our days are filled with routine campus, you see a giraffe—then we pay close attention and try to understand
memory: local customs and historical events in a unique way occurrences, so we don't need to pay attention why we are seeing what we are seeing
-The community's collective memory passes stories and recollections between to everything, but:
neighbours and to future generations, forming a memory system unto itself 550. What is distinctiveness? The principle that unusual events (in a context of similar events) will be
533. What kind of memory do people Episodic recalled and recognized better than uniform (nondistinctive) events
normally think of when they hear the
word "memory"?

534. What kind of memory is lost with Alzheimer's? Episodic (semantic is preserved in the early stage) 551. Give an example of distinctiveness: -If you had a typical walk across campus where nothing special happened, you wouldn't be
able to recall it a month later
535. What is autobiographical memory? Memory for the events of one's life/remembering specific events that have -If you saw, for example, a giraffe on campus which is different from your typical walk, you
happened over the course of one's entire life (e.g. your experiences in sixth would probably be able to recall it a month later with some specific details (such as what
grade) music was playing, etc.)
552. What is a key to remembering Distinctiveness-having an event stand out as quite different from a background of similar
events? events
553. Vivid memories are tinged with: Strong emotional content (e.g. public tragedies such as terrorist attacks, etc.) 568. Give an example of the DRM effect: -People presented with list of words to memorize: door, glass, pane, shade, ledge,
sill, house, open, curtain, frame, view, breeze, sash, screen, and shutter
554. What is a flashbulb memory? Vivid personal memories of receiving the news of some momentous (and usually emotional)
-Later given list of words and asked to pick out which ones were seen in the
event
previous list
555. Why is it called a "flashbulb" Refers to how some memories seem to be captured in the mind like a flash photograph- -This second list contains some words from the first list (e.g., door, pane, frame) and
memory? because of the distinctiveness and emotionality of the news, they seem to become some words not from the list (e.g., arm, phone, bottle)
permanently etched in the mind with clarity -One of the words was "window", which did not appear on the list but was related
556. Give an example of what could be a Many people are able to recall their exact physical location when they first learned about to the words on the list
flashbulb memory: the assassination or accidental death of a national figure - When subjects were tested, they were reasonably accurate with the studied words
557. Do you have to be directly involved No, you can also have memories about first hearing about them (door, etc.), recognizing them 72% of the time
in an incident to have a flashbulb -However, when window was on the test, they falsely recognized it as having been
memory of it? on the list 84% of the time

558. How much accuracy is there in
recalling flashbulb memories?
559. The process of encoding always
involves:
560. What is recoding?
561. Give an example of recoding:
562. What is a type of error recoding
can introduce?
563. What are 2 recoding strategies we
can use to improve retention?
564. What is one technique Simon
Reinhard uses to improve his
memory?
565. The basic concept behind good
encoding strategies is to:
566. What can happen during recoding
that leads to false memories?
-Objective accuracy with them is far from perfect (e.g. recalling the colour of objects, etc.) 569. What is an explanation for the DRM effect? While students listened to items in the list, the words triggered the students to think
-Distinctive and emotional events are well-remembered about window, even though window was never presented (people seem to encode
events that are not actually part of their experience)
Recoding
570. What are inferences? Refer to instances when something is not explicitly stated, but we are still able to
guess the undisclosed intention
Taking the information from the form it is delivered to us and then converting it in a way
that we can make sense of it 571. Give an example of an inference (general): If your friend told you that she didn't want to go out to eat, you may infer that she
doesn't have the money to go out, or that she's too tired
-Trying to remember the colours of a rainbow by using the acronym ROY G BIV (red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet) 572. What are pragmatic inferences? There is usually ONE particular inference you're likely to make
-The process of recoding the colours into a name can help us to remember 573. Give an example of a pragmatic inference -Statement participants were given: "The karate champion hit the cinder block."
When we accidentally add information during encoding, then remember that new material (Brewer 1977): -After hearing or seeing this sentence, participants who were given a memory test
as if it had been part of the actual experience tended to remember the statement as having been, "The karate champion broke the
cinder block."
1. As we study, we should think of the meaning of the events & we should try to relate new
-This remembered statement is not necessarily a logical inference (i.e., it is perfectly
events to information we already know-this helps form associations that we can use to
reasonable that a karate champion could hit a cinder block without breaking it)
retrieve information later
-Nevertheless, the pragmatic conclusion from hearing such a sentence is that the
block was likely broken
2. Imagining events also makes them more memorable- creating vivid images out of
-The participants remembered this inference they made while hearing the sentence
information (even verbal information) can greatly improve later recall/using images to
in place of the actual words that were in the sentence
encode information more effectively
574. Does every experience we have change Every-we encode each of our experiences within the structures of the nervous
Creating imagery to remember huge numbers of digits
our brains, or is it only a few specific system, making new impressions in the process—and each of those impressions
experiences that are capable of this? involves changes in the brain
575. What are memory traces/engrams? A term indicating the change in the nervous system representing an event/ physical
Form distinctive memories (ones that stand out), and to form links or associations among
change in the nervous system that represents our experience
memories to help later retrieval
576. Memories have to be stored somewhere in Biochemically alters itself and its neural tissue (just like you might write yourself a
-Can add information that was not even seen or heard during the initial encoding phase
the brain, so in order to do so, the brain: note to remind you of something, the brain "writes" a memory trace, changing its
-Several of the recoding processes, like forming associations between memories, can
own physical composition to do so)
happen without our awareness
-One reason people can sometimes remember events that did not actually happen— 577. Events create engrams through a process Consolidation
because during the process of recoding, details got added of:

567. What is the DRM (Deese-Roediger- False memory 578. What is consolidation? The process occurring after encoding that is believed to stabilize memory
McDermott) effect? traces/the neural changes that occur after learning to create the memory trace of
an experience
579. What is an indication that memory traces We often have errors in our memory
are not perfect packets of information?
580. Remembering is _____, not _____ Reconstructive (we reconstruct our past with the aid of memory traces),
reproductive (a perfect reproduction or recreation of the past)
581. When we remember past events, we Our current belief of what happened
reconstruct them with the aid of our
memory traces—but also with:

582. Give an example of how we reconstruct
memories with our current belief of what
happened in the past:
-If you were trying to recall for the police who started a fight at a bar, you may
not have a memory trace of who pushed whom first
-However, let's say you remember that one of the guys held the door open for
you
-When thinking back to the start of the fight, this knowledge (of how one guy was
friendly to you) may unconsciously influence your memory of what happened in
favour of the nice guy
583. Memory is a construction of what 2 things?
584. Psychologists refer to the time between
learning and testing as the:
585. During the retention interval, memories can:
586. What is retroactive interference?
587. Give an example of retroactive interference:
588. What is proactive interference?
589. Give an example of proactive interference:
590. What is one of the main causes of
forgetting?
591. Memory for an event can be changed via
misinformation supplied during:
592. What is misinformation effect?
593. Give an example of the misinformation
effect:
594. If correct information is given during the
retention interval, the witness's memory will
usually be:
595. Although interference may arise between the We retrieve memories
occurrence of an event and the attempt to
recall it, the effect itself is always expressed
when:
596. What is the key process in memory and why?
597. We encode and store thousands of events
—conversations, sights and sounds—every
day, creating memory traces. However,
we later access:
598. Psychologists distinguish information that
is _____ in memory from that which is _____
599. What is available information?
1. What you actually recall 600. What is accessible information?
601. Accessible information represents a _____
2. What you believe happened
slice of the information available in our
brains
602. What is 1 factor that determines what
information can be retrieved from
Retention interval memory?
-Consolidate, adding retention
-Be undermined because of certain experiences 603. The general principle that underlies the
effectiveness of retrieval cues is the:
The phenomenon whereby events that occur after some particular event of
interest will usually cause forgetting of the original event/when new information 604. What is the encoding specificity principle? The hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information
inhibits the ability to remember old information
-If you think of what you had for lunch yesterday, it's a pretty easy task
-However, if you had to recall what you had for lunch 17 days ago, you may well 605. Give an example of how the encoding
fail specificity principle works:
-The 16 lunches you've had since that one have created retroactive interference
-Retroactive interference refers to new activities (i.e., the subsequent lunches)
during the retention interval (i.e., the time between the lunch 17 days ago and
now) that interfere with retrieving the specific, older memory (i.e., the lunch details
from 17 days ago)
When past memories interfere with the encoding of new ones/when prior
information inhibits the ability to remember new information 606. Describe a classic experiment done on the -Had participants memorize a set of words in a unique setting
encoding specificity principle with
If you have ever studied a second language, often times the grammar and
memorizing a list of words:
vocabulary of your native language will pop into your head, impairing your
fluency in the foreign language
Retroactive interference
The retention interval 607. For the cue to work in the encoding
specificity principle, it can't:
When erroneous information occurring after an event is remembered as having 608. Give an example of how cues work in the
been part of the original event, a type of retroactive interference encoding specificity principle in a lab
-If you witnessed a car crash but subsequently heard people describing it from experiment:
their own perspective, this new information may interfere with or disrupt your own
personal recollection of the crash
-You may even come to remember the event happening exactly as the others
described it
Improved 609. Consider the experiment described on the
previous flashcard, but there were 25
pictures distributed within the 100-item
list:
610. What is the cue overload principle?
Retrieval- if information were encoded and stored but could not be retrieved, it
would be useless
Only a tiny portion of what we've taken in 611. For the cue "recall the picture" Only match one item in the target set (as in the one-picture, 99-word case)
to be effective, it should:
612. For a retrieval cue to be The cue and the desired target memory
effective, a match must exist
Available, accessible between:
613. To produce the best retrieval, Distinctive
The information that is stored in memory (precisely how much and what types are the cue-target relationship
stored cannot be known) should be:
All we can know is what information we can retrieve
Tiny
Type of hints, or cues, in the environment (e.g. you may hear a song on the radio that
suddenly evokes memories of an earlier time in your life, even if you were not trying
to remember it when the song came on-song is closely associated to the time, so it
brings the experience to mind)
Encoding specificity principle
encoded from the cue overlaps or matches information in the engram or memory
trace (when people encode information, they do so in specific ways)
-Take a song on the radio: perhaps you heard it while you were at a terrific party,
having a great, philosophical conversation with a friend
-Thus, the song became part of that whole complex experience
-Years later, even though you haven't thought about that party in ages, when you
hear the song on the radio, the whole experience rushes back to you
-The encoding specificity principle states that, to the extent a retrieval cue (the song)
matches or overlaps the memory trace of an experience (the party, the
conversation), it will be effective in evoking the memory
-Later, the participants were tested on the word sets, either in the same location they
learned the words or a different one
-As a result of encoding specificity, the students who took the test in the same place
they learned the words were actually able to recall more words than the students
who took the test in a new setting
-In this instance, the physical context itself provided cues for retrieval
Match too many other experiences
-Suppose you study 100 items; 99 are words, and one is a picture—of a penguin, item
50 in the list
-Afterwards, the cue "recall the picture" would evoke "penguin" perfectly
-However, if the word "penguin" were placed in the same spot among the other 99
words, its memorability would be exceptionally worse
-Shows the power of distinctiveness-one picture is perfectly recalled from among 99
words because it stands out
Although the picture of the penguin would still be there, the probability that the cue
"recall the picture" (at item 50) would be useful for the penguin would drop
correspondingly
The principle stating that the more memories that are associated to a particular
retrieval cue, the less effective the cue will be in prompting retrieval of any one
memory (to be effective, a retrieval cue cannot be overloaded with too many
memories)
614. Psychologists measure memory
performance by using _____ tests
or _____ tests
615. With our list of 100 words, give
an example of a production test
that can be made or a
recognition test that can be
made:
616. Do recall or recognition tests
produce better performance?
617. In recognition/multiple-choice
tests, you can fail to recognize a
target staring you right in the
face, yet be able to recall it later
with:
618. Give an example of how you can
recognize something with a
different set of cues:
619. Recall can sometimes lead to
better performance than
recognition, which can be
explained by:
620. What is the phenomenon we
have been describing in the case
of remembering names?
621. What does the recognition
failure of recallable words
highlight?
622. Cues that work best to evoke
retrieval are those that:
623. Every time we retrieve a
memory, it is:
624. What is the testing
effect/retrieval practice effect?
625. What is retrieval-induced
forgetting?
626. Just as retrieval practice (repetition) Errors or false memories (inaccuracy can become a basic fact in your mind after you've
enhances accurate memories, so
will it strengthen:
627. Sometimes memories can even be
manufactured just from:
Production (involving recall), recognition (involving the selection of correct from incorrect 628. Does remembering precise details
information, e.g., a multiple-choice test) of an event indicate accuracy when
reconstructing it?
-One group of people might be asked to recall the list in any order (a free recall test) 629. What are 2 conditions that
-A different group might be asked to circle the 100 studied words out of a mix with another maximize retrieval/cue
100, unstudied words (a recognition test) effectiveness?
630. What are mnemonic devices?
Recognition 631. What is the peg word technique?
632. What is one way to make retrieval
A different set of cues
easier when using the peg word
technique?
633. Another interesting aspect of the
peg word technique is that:
-Suppose you had the task of recognizing the surnames of famous authors 634. How did Simon Reinhard remember
-At first, you might think that being given the actual last name would always be the best cue all those digits in order?
-Research has shown this not necessarily to be true
-When given names such as Tolstoy, Shaw, Shakespeare, and Lee, subjects might well say that
Tolstoy and Shakespeare are famous authors, whereas Shaw and Lee are not
-When given a cued recall test using first names, people often recall items (produce them) that
they had failed to recognize before
- A cue like George Bernard ________ often leads to a recall of "Shaw," even though people
initially failed to recognize Shaw as a famous author's name
-Yet, when given the cue "William," people may not come up with Shakespeare, because 635. What other event does Simon
William is a common name that matches many people (the cue overload principle at work) Reinhard hold the world record in?
Encoding specificity principle (e.g. as a cue, George Bernard _________ matches the way the
famous writer is stored in memory better than does his surname, Shaw, does (even though it is 636. What is a good example of
the target). Further, the match is quite distinctive with George Bernard ___________, but the cue something analogous to a memory
William _________________ is much more overloaded (Prince William, William Yeats, William Faulkner, palace?
will.i.am)) 637. What is the method of loci?
Recognition failure of recallable words
638. What is eyewitness testimony?
The point that a cue will be most effective depending on how the information has been
encoded 639. What does eyewitness testimony
include?
Recreate the event or the name to be remembered, whereas sometimes even the target itself,
such as the Shaw example, is not the best cue 640. What are some duties of the
Altered (far from being a static repository of data, the memory is constantly changing) eyewitness testimony?
The act of retrieval itself (of a fact, concept, or event) makes the retrieved memory much more 641. Why is eyewitness testimony
likely to be retrieved again (usually by a large amount) problematic?
Retrieving some information can actually cause us to forget other information related to it
(though this effect is often relatively small)
642. Faulty eyewitness testimony
repeated it over and over) has been implicated in at least
__% of DNA exoneration cases—
more than any other cause
Hearing a vivid story (e.g. Jean Piaget's nurse telling him that she fought off a thief and got
scratches all over her arms, he believed the story so much he remembers living it, his 643. What is a famous case of faulty
parents believed it, but it turned out not to be true) eyewitness testimony?
No
1. We should construct MEANINGFUL cues that remind us of the original experience
2. Those cues should be DISTINCTIVE and not associated with other memories
A strategy for remembering large amounts of information, usually involving imaging events
occurring on a journey or with some other set of memorized cues
A memory aid that involves linking words with numbers
Provide good, distinctive cues (the weirder the better)
It's just as easy to recall the items in backwards order as forwards
-Has a much more complex system based on these same principles
-He uses "memory palaces" (elaborate scenes with discrete places) combined with huge
sets of images for digits
-For remembering digits, he has memorized a set of 10,000 images
- Every four-digit number for him immediately brings forth a mental image
-When Simon hears all the numbers coming at him, he places an image for every four digits
into locations in his memory palace
-He can do this at an incredibly rapid rate, faster than 4 digits per 4 seconds when they are
flashed visually
-"Speed cards," which involves memorizing the precise order of a shuffled deck of cards
-Simon was able to do this in 21.19 seconds
-Again, he uses his memory palaces, and he encodes groups of cards as single images
Imagine mentally walking through the home where you grew up and identifying as many
distinct areas and objects as possible (like many memory palaces)
Method of memory enhancement which uses visualizations with the use of spatial memory,
familiar information about one's environment, to quickly and efficiently recall information
What happens when a person witnesses a crime (or accident, or other legally important
event) and later gets up on the stand and recalls for the court all the details of the
witnessed event
-What happens during the actual crime to facilitate or hamper witnessing
-Everything that happens from the time the event is over to the later courtroom
appearance
-The eyewitness may be interviewed by the police and numerous lawyers
-Describe the perpetrator to several different people
-Make an identification of the perpetrator, among other things
Evidence that mistaken eyewitness evidence can lead to wrongful conviction—sending
people to prison for years or decades, even to death row, for crimes they did not commit
75%
-A man named Ronald Cotton was identified by a rape victim, Jennifer Thompson, as her rapist,
and was found guilty and sentenced to life in prison
-After more than 10 years, he was exonerated (and the real rapist identified) based on DNA
evidence
644. Many of the errors of
eyewitness testimony may be
avoidable if proper precautions
are taken during the _____ and
_____ processes
645. Describe the study done with
undergraduate students
watching a slideshow depicting
a small red car driving and then
hitting a pedestrian & what
phenomenon it portrays:
646. What is the misinformation
effect?
647. Hundreds of subsequent studies After
have demonstrated that
memory can be contaminated
by erroneous information that
people are exposed to _____
they witness an event
648. Who is most susceptible to the
misinformation effect?
649. Give an example of how slight
differences in wording can lead
to the misinformation effect:
650. Other studies have shown that
misinformation can corrupt
memory even more easily
when:
651. Misinformation can corrupt
memory even more easily when
it is encountered in social
situations; when is this a
problem?
Investigative, judicial 652.
- Some subjects were then asked leading questions about what had happened in the slides
-For example, subjects were asked, "How fast was the car traveling when it passed the yield
sign?" But this question was actually designed to be misleading, because the original slide
included a stop sign rather than a yield sign
-Later, subjects were shown pairs of slides
-One of the pair was the original slide containing the stop sign; the other was a replacement
slide containing a yield sign
-Subjects were asked which of the pair they had previously seen
-Subjects who had been asked about the yield sign were likely to pick the slide showing the
yield sign, even though they had originally seen the slide with the stop sign
-Portrays that the misinformation in the leading question led to inaccurate memory
A memory error caused by exposure to incorrect information between the original event (e.g.,
a crime) and later memory test (e.g., an interview, lineup, or day in court)
653.
654.
655.
Children & older adults
656.
Subjects in one study were more likely to say yes when asked "Did you see the broken
headlight?" than when asked "Did you see a broken headlight?"
It is encountered in social situations
657.
In cases where more than one person witnesses a crime-witnesses tend to talk to one another
in the immediate aftermath of the crime-but because different witnesses are different people 658.
with different perspectives, they are likely to see or notice different things, and thus remember
different things, even when they witness the same event-so when they communicate about the
crime later, they not only reinforce common memories for the event, they also contaminate
each other's memories for the event
659.
660.
Give an example of how the
misinformation effect has been modelled
in the laboratory:
In addition to correctly remembering
many details of the crimes they witness,
eyewitnesses often need to remember:
Lineups are typically conducted with:
What are photo spreads?
Describe how photo spreads work:
What are foils?
Describe how the process of photo
spreads is modelled in the laboratory:
Describe how mock witnesses (and real
witnesses) can make errors in 2 different
ways:
What are mock witnesses?
-Researchers had subjects watch a video in pairs -Both subjects sat in front of the
same screen, but because they wore differently polarized glasses, they saw two
different versions of a video, projected onto a screen
-Thought they were watching the same video
-In the video, a man is robbing a house
- A total of eight details were different between the two videos
-After watching the videos, the "co-witnesses" worked together on 12 memory test
questions
- 4 of these questions dealt with details that were different in the two versions of the
video, so subjects had the chance to influence one another
-Then subjects worked individually on 20 additional memory test questions, 8 of
these were for details that were different in the two videos
-Subjects' accuracy was highly dependent on whether they had discussed the details
previously
-Their accuracy for items they had not previously discussed with their co-witness
was 79%
-But for items that they had discussed, their accuracy dropped markedly, to 34%
(subjects allowed their co-witnesses to corrupt their memories for what they had
seen)
The faces and other identifying features of the perpetrators of those crimes (asked
to describe that perpetrator to law enforcement and later to make identifications
from books of mug shots or lineups)
Photo spreads (rather than with actual people standing behind one-way glass)
A selection of normally small photographs of faces given to a witness for the
purpose of identifying a perpetrator
-The eyewitness is given a set of small pictures of perhaps six or eight individuals
who are dressed similarly and photographed in similar circumstances
-One of these individuals is the police suspect, and the remainder are foils/fillers
-If the eyewitness identifies the suspect, then the investigation of that suspect is likely
to progress
-If a witness identifies a foil or no one, then the police may choose to move their
investigation in another direction
Any member of a lineup (whether live or photograph) other than the
suspect/people known to be innocent of the particular crime under investigation
-Research subjects witness a mock crime (often as a short video) and then are asked
to make an identification from a photo or a live lineup
-Sometimes the lineups are target present, meaning that the perpetrator from the
mock crime is actually in the lineup, and sometimes they are target absent, meaning
that the lineup is made up entirely of foils
-The subjects/mock witnesses are given some instructions and asked to pick the
perpetrator out of the lineup
-The particular details of the witnessing experience, the instructions, and the lineup
members can all influence the extent to which the mock witness is likely to pick the
perpetrator out of the lineup, or indeed to make any selection at all
1. They can fail to pick the perpetrator out of a target present lineup (by picking a
foil or by neglecting to make a selection)
2. They can pick a foil in a target absent lineup (wherein the only correct choice is to
not make a selection)
A research subject who plays the part of a witness in a study

661. Name 5 factors that have
been shown to make
eyewitness identification
errors particularly likely:
1. Poor vision or viewing conditions during the crime
2. Particularly stressful witnessing experiences
3. Too little time to view the perpetrator or perpetrators

4. Too much delay between witnessing and identifying

5. Being asked to identify a perpetrator from a race other than one's own
662. Name some factors that
would give lineup
identifications "pristine"
conditions:
663. Is a memory less
"memorable" when it is
wrong?
664. What is the tip-of-the-
tongue effect (TOT)?
665. What can have a huge
influence on our memories
(creates biases)?
666. What is a schemata?
667. Because many aspects of
our everyday lives are full
of redundancies, our
memory systems:
668. What are false memories?
669. In the 1990s, what pattern
emerged with people who
went into therapy for
depression and other
problems?
670. Give an example of an
early false memory study
with undergraduate
students and recall of
childhood memories:
671. Give an example of a
false memory study with
mock-advertising:
-Investigators can put together high-quality, fair lineups-a fair lineup is one in which the suspect and 672. Give other examples of -Another group of researchers photoshopped childhood photographs of their subjects into a hot air
each of the foils is equally likely to be chosen by someone who has read an eyewitness description false memory studies: balloon picture and then asked the subjects to try to remember and describe their hot air balloon
of the perpetrator but who did not actually witness the crime (this means that no one in the lineup experience
should "stick out," and that everyone should match the description given by the eyewitness) -Other researchers gave subjects unmanipulated class photographs from their childhoods along with
-"Double blind" lineups a fake story about a class prank, and thus enhanced the likelihood that subjects would falsely
-Unbiased instructions for witnesses remember the prank
-Conducting lineups in a sequential fashion -Subjects are told (falsely) that a powerful computer system has analyzed questionnaires that they
No completed previously and has concluded that they had a particular experience years earlier, subjects
apparently believe what the computer says about them and adjust their memories to match this new
information (a variety of different false memories have been implanted in this way)
-Etc.
Phenomenon of failing to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling
that retrieval is about to happen 673. Once false memories are Yes
implanted, is it difficult to
Expectations and beliefs about how the world works/schemata-one is likely to remember schema-
tell them from true
consistent information, and to remember them in a rather generic way, whether or not they were
memories?
actually present (e.g. we know to expect that a library will have shelves and tables and librarians,
and so we don't have to spend energy noticing these at the time-we remember them whether or not 674. Eyewitness memory can 1. Leading questions
they were actually present) be corrupted by what 4
things? 2. Misinterpretations of events
A memory template, created through repeated exposure to a particular class of objects or events
(hypothetical cognitive structures that help us perceive, organize, process, and use information)
3. Conversations with co-witnesses
Take advantage of the recurring patterns by forming and using schemata/memory templates
4. Their own expectations for what should have happened
675. What can corruption of People can even come to remember whole events that never occurred
eyewitness memory result
Memory for an event that never actually occurred, implanted by experimental manipulation or other in?
means
676. What specific -Some are aimed at specific legal procedures, including when and how witnesses should be
Over the course of the therapy develop memories for violent and horrible victimhood (the therapists recommendations have interviewed, and how lineups should be constructed and conducted
believed that they were recovering genuine memories of abuse, while experimental psychologists been made to fix -Appropriate education (often in the form of expert witness testimony) to be provided to jury
suggested they were created in therapy/were false) problems with memory in members and others tasked with assessing eyewitness memory
the legal system?
677. Is eyewitness testimony Yes (found by decades of research)
-Undergraduate subjects' family members were recruited to provide events from the students' lives given far more weight
- The student subjects were told that the researchers had talked to their family members and learned than its accuracy
about four different events from their childhoods justifies?
-The researchers asked if the now undergraduate students remembered each of these four events—
678. What 2 associations are 1. Conditioned taste aversion
introduced via short hints
easier to learn than
-The subjects were asked to write about each of the four events in a booklet and then were
others (CS-CR pairings)? 2. Preparedness (e.g. phobias about snakes and heights are more common than phobias about
interviewed two separate times
squirrels and staplers)
-The trick was that one of the events came from the researchers rather than the family (and the family
had actually assured the researchers that this event had not happened to the subject) 679. Why is there a slight Prediction-in order for learning to take place, the CS must accurately predict the US
-In the first such study, this researcher-introduced event was a story about being lost in a shopping delay between the CS and
mall and rescued by an older adult-in this study, after just being asked whether they remembered US optimal for learning?
these events occurring on three separate occasions, a quarter of subjects came to believe that they 680. What is the Rescorla- A cognitive model of classical conditioning which states that the strength of the CS-US association is
had indeed been lost in the mall Wagner model? determined by the extent to which the US is unexpected or surprising-because this leads to greater
-Many other examples of this kind effort by the animal to understand why the US appeared
681. What is the Hebb Rule? -Biological basis of learning
-Neurons that signal the US are active the same time as those that signal the CS. Over repeated trials,
the synapses that connect these two events become strengthened, so that when one fires, the other
fires, producing the conditioned response (neurons that fire together, wire together)
682. Who are 2 pioneers in 1. Keller Breland: commercial applications: TV, film, marine parks, circuses, etc.
humane animal training?
2. Karen Pryor: marine mammal trainer, popularized use of operant conditioning for dog training
Subjects were asked to review (fake) advertisements for Disney vacations, to convince subjects that
they had once met the character Bugs Bunny at Disneyland—an impossible false memory because
Bugs is a Warner Brothers character
683. 4 quadrants of operant conditioning: 701. What is a variable schedule? Reinforcement is variable and unpredictable (occurs after a varying number
of behaviours, or a varying amount of time)
702. What is a ratio schedule? Based on number of times the behaviour occurs (e.g. you get paid for every
10 boxes you fill)
703. What is an interval schedule? Based on the passage of time (e.g. you get paid for every hour of work)
704. What is the difference between continuous and In continuous reinforcement, the desired behaviour is reinforced every
partial reinforcement? single time it occurs, in partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced
only part of the time
705. On what schedule is gambling on? Variable ratio
706. What are biological constraints? Animals have a difficult time learning behaviours that are incompatible with
innate, adaptive behaviours
707. What does superstitious behaviour have to do with Our tendency to associate events with other events that occur together in
684. Dolphins are trained by using: Whistles learning? time can lead us to associate chance events unrelated to reinforcements or
685. Dogs are trained by using: Clickers punishments

686. What are clickers used for? -Operant conditioning 708. From a biological perspective, What makes a
-Event markers reinforcer rewarding/why does it lead to increased
behaviour?
687. What are event markers? A signal used to mark desired behaviour at the instant it occurs
688. What is a bridging stimulus? An event marker that identifies the desired response and "bridges" the time between
the response and the delivery of the primary reinforcer
689. What is shaping? Building new behaviour by selectively reinforcing variations in existing behaviour, -The experience of pleasure usually results from activation of dopamine
during the action rather than after completion, to increase or strengthen the behaviour neurons in the nucleus accumbens → more dopamine is released under
in a specific manner or direction (involves reinforcing behaviours that are increasingly deprived conditions
similar to the desired behaviour) -More dopamine = more reinforcement

690. Reinforcing _____ eventually produces Successive approximations 709. In order for something to potentially be Attended to
the desired behaviour by teaching the remembered, it must be _____ in the first place
animal to discriminate which behaviour is 710. Attention is: Selective
being reinforced 711. What is change blindness? The common failure for people to notice large changes in their environment
691. Why is shaping used? So that complex behaviours not normally within the natural repertoire of behaviour
712. What is parallel processing (visual search tasks)?
can be trained (e.g. dogs that skateboard, dogs that locate earthquake victims,
dolphins that locate underwater mines)
692. Why is positive reinforcement used for -Animal welfare issue
animal training? -Safety issue
-Parenting considerations
-Overwhelmingly supported by evidence as the most effective, humane, and the most
fun
693. Clicker training is positive reinforcement Event markers
using:
694. Operant conditioning is a learning Consequences
process in which the _____ of an action
determine the likelihood that it will be Searching for one feature is fast and automatic-he target will "pop out" at
performed in the future you (grabs your attention)
695. What is positive reinforcement? INCREASES the probability of a behaviour being repeated by the ADMINISTRATION
of a (positive, rewarding) stimulus
696. What is negative reinforcement? INCREASES the probability of a behaviour being repeated by the REMOVAL of a
(negative, aversive) stimulus
697. What is positive punishment? DECREASES the probability of a behaviour being repeated by the ADMINISTRATION
of a (negative, punishing) stimulus
698. What is negative punishment? DECREASES the probability of a behaviour being repeated by the REMOVAL of a
(positive, pleasurable) stimulus
699. What are 4 types of partial reinforcement? 1. Fixed schedule

2. Variable schedule

3. Ration schedule

4. Interval schedule
700. What is a fixed schedule? Reinforcement is consistent and predictable
713. What is serial processing (visual search 730. What is procedural memory? Motor skills, habits, and other behaviours that we remember how to do without
tasks)? thinking about it (e.g. Clive Wearing, Patient H.M.)
731. Memory is not a recording, it is a: Construction
732. Memories are mental representations, stored Meaning and function
in networks of neurons in the brain
organized by:
733. What is context dependent memory? Memory enhancement that occurs when the recall SITUATION is similar to the
encoding situation (may be similar in terms of physical location, background
music, odours, etc.)
734. What is state dependent memory? Memory enhancement that occurs when one's internal state during the recall
Searching for two (or more) features is slow and effortful-must attend to each target
situation is similar to the encoding situation (e.g. mood)
individually
735. Memories are stored in multiple regions of Memory circuits
714. What is the Multi-Store Model of Memory
the brain and linked through:
(Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)?
736. What kind of memory are the medial -Important for the consolidation of new explicit memories
temporal lobes important for? -Responsible for coordinating and strengthening the connections among neurons
-Memory consists of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and when something is learned (but not the storage of memories)
long-term memory (LTM) -E.g. Patient H.M., Clive Wearing
-Information passes from store to store in a linear way, and has been described as an 737. Reconsolidation occurs every time a Memory is activated → may differ from the original memory
information processing model with an input, process and output memory:
-Information is detected by the sense organs and enters the sensory memory
738. What kind of memory is the hippocampus -Particularly important for spatial memory → memory for the physical environment
715. What is sensory memory? Memory for sensory information that only lasts for an extremely brief (e.g., 1s) time. important for? (location of objects, direction, cognitive maps)
We are typically not even consciously aware of it. -E.g. Rats and the Morris Water Maze
716. Give an example of experiments done to George Sperling's "grid" experiments 739. Most forgetting occurs because of: Interference
study sensory memory:
740. You may owe a lot of your well-being to Forget (e.g. Jill Price ("The Woman Who Could Not Forget"))
717. How do you put information into long- Elaborative rehearsal
your ability to:
term memory?
741. Is memory fallible? Yes
718. What is elaborative rehearsal? Involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to
simply repeating the word to yourself over and over 742. Is it difficult to distinguish an accurate Yes
eyewitness from an inaccurate one?
719. What capacity does working memory 7±2 unit capacity (some believe it is even less)
have? 743. During a crime, what do people tend to focus People tend to focus on weapons, or actions, not minor details (e.g. clothing,
on? appearance)
720. What is chunking? Organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember (e.g. KFC
CEO UBC PHD UTM (6 units) much easier to remember than K F C C E O U B C P H D 744. What is the most effective schedule of Variable ratio
U T M (15 units)) reinforcement?

721. What is long-term memory? The relatively permanent storage of information 745. Schedules of reinforcement:

722. Give examples of things that could be in -The capital of France

your long-term memory:
723. What is the most basic distinction we can
make in terms of long-term memory
("sub-units")?
724. What is explicit memory?
725. What is implicit memory?
726. What are 2 examples of explicit memory?
-What you did on your last birthday
-How to tie your shoes
-Your phone number from childhood
Explicit and implicit memory
The processes involved when people remember specific information → information
that we are consciously aware of 746. What can function like a schema? Pictures (e.g. some stories make more sense with them)
The system underlying unconscious memories → memories we acquire without 747. The act of remembering is often: Social
awareness or intention and do not even know that we know
1. Episodic memory

727. Give an example of implicit memory in
classical conditioning:
728. What are 3 types of implicit memory?
729. What is priming in terms of memory?
2. Semantic memory
748. _____ remembering both facilitates and inhibits Collaborative
Knowing that certain music is associated with bad things
memory recollection
749. What is core to the field of decision making? Understanding how we depart from perfection or rationality in systematic
1. Classical conditioning
and predictable ways (then we can also identify strategies for making better
and more effective decisions)
2. Priming
750. In his Nobel Prize-winning work, psychologist Rationality
3. Procedural memory Herbert Simon argued that our decisions are
bounded in their:
Improvement in identifying or processing a stimulus that has been experienced
previously (e.g. complete the word: ___ory) 751. What is bounded rationality? Model of human behavior that suggests that humans try to make rational
decisions (such as weighing the costs and benefits of a choice) but are
bounded due to cognitive limitations
752. Give examples of some cognitive limitations: -Time and cost constraints limit the quantity and quality of the information 763. What are heuristics? Cognitive (or thinking) strategies that simplify decision making by using
that is available to us mental short-cuts (shortcuts or "rules of thumb" used to reduce the
-We only retain a relatively small amount of information in our usable amount of thinking that is needed to make a decision or solve a
memory problem)
-Limitations on intelligence and perceptions constrain the ability of even 764. Heuristics allow us to: Cope with the complex environment surrounding our decisions
very bright decision makers to accurately make the best choice based on the
information that is available 765. What is a downfall of heuristics? They also lead to systematic and predictable biases

753. What are biases? The systematic and predictable mistakes that influence the judgment of even 766. What are some benefits of heuristics? -Require minimal cognitive resources
very talented human beings -Allows us to decide quickly
-Often lead to reasonably good decision
754. Who produced Nobel-prize winning research Tversky and Kahneman
about specific systematic and predictable biases? 767. Heuristics are adaptive, but can also do what to our Bias it
thinking?
755. What are 6 steps you need to follow to make a 1. Define the problem
rational decision? 768. What is an availability heuristic? Estimating the frequency of an EVENT based on how EASILY examples
2. Identify the criteria necessary to judge the multiple options of it come to mind (based on examples readily "available" to you/ones
you can think of right away)
3. Weight the criteria 769. Give an example of an availability heuristic: Which is more frequent in the English language?
A. Words that begin with the letter K
4. Generate alternatives B. Words that have K as the third letter
-B is right answer-people say A because it is easier to think of words
5. Rate each alternative on each criterion beginning with the letter K than thinking of words with K as the third
letter
6. Compute the optimal decision 770. What is a representativeness heuristic? Making judgments of likelihood based on how similar the person or
756. Who came up with the 6 steps to create a rational Bazerman and Moore object is to our prototype for that category
decision? 771. Give an example of a representativeness heuristic: Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in
757. Give an example of how the 6 steps can be used 1. Define the problem (i.e. selecting the right graduate program) philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of
to decide which university to attend after being discrimination and social justice, and also participated in antinuclear
accepted into many: 2. Identify the criteria necessary to judge the multiple options (location, demonstrations. Which is more likely?
prestige, faculty, etc.) A. Linda is a bank teller
B. Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement
3. Weight the criteria (rank them in terms of importance to you) -People are more likely to choose B
772. What is the conjunction fallacy? The mistaken belief that finding a specific member in two overlapping
4. Generate alternatives (the schools that admitted you) categories (bank tellers & feminists) is more likely than finding any
member of one of the larger, general categories (bank tellers)
5. Rate each alternative on each criterion (rate each school on each criteria
that you identified) 773. The conjunction fallacy (representativeness heuristic):

6. Compute the optimal decision

758. Many of us rely on our _____far more than we Intuitions
should
759. When we do try to think systematically, the way Biased
we enter data into such formal decision-making
processes is often:
774. What is the opposite of a heuristic? An algorithm

760. Simon's concept of bounded rationality taught us that How judgment is biased 775. What is an algorithm? Set of well-defined instructions for carrying out a particular task-must be sound and
judgment deviates from rationality, but it did not tell us complete (that means it must give you the correct answer and it must work for all
: cases)-"step-by-step"

761. Who helped to diagnose the specific systematic, Tversky and Kahneman 776. In the Alpert & Raiffa problem of 30-70%, overconfidence
directional biases that affect human judgment? answering questions with 98% confidence,
what is the actual number of correct
762. Biases that affect human judgment are created by the Heuristics answers and what does this represent?
tendency to short-circuit a rational decision process
by relying on a number of simplifying strategies, or 777. What is overconfidence? The bias to have greater confidence in your judgment than is warranted based on a
rules of thumb, known as: rational assessment
778. What is anchoring? The bias to be affected by an initial anchor, even if the anchor is arbitrary, and to 788. In what 2 different ways did Thaler suggest that 1. Willpower is bounded
insufficiently adjust our judgments away from that anchor/occurs when an individual decision making is not precisely captured by the
attempts to solve a problem involving numbers and uses previous knowledge to concept of bounded rationality? 2. Self-interest is bounded
keep (i.e. anchor) the response within a limited range 789. What is bounded willpower? -The tendency to place greater weight on present concerns rather than future
779. How can anchors be introduced? Either be internally generated or introduced by other people concerns
-Our immediate motivations are often inconsistent with our long-term interests
780. Give an example of an anchor: In what year was Julie Andrews born?
in a variety of ways
-Think of the "Sound of Music"
-Use that information to figure it out 790. Give an example of bounded willpower: -The common failure to save adequately for retirement
-Was she born before or after 1940? -The difficulty many people have staying on a diet
781. Describe the executive fraud problem and -Most think that 10 out of 1,000 is too low 791. What is bounded self-interest? -The systematic and predictable ways in which we care about the outcomes of
how it has to do with anchoring: -Half of the students respond to the question that I asked you to answer, the other others
half receive a similar problem, but instead are asked whether the correct answer is -Sometimes we positively value the outcomes of others, and we sometimes are
higher or lower than 200 rather than 10 willing to forgo our own benefits out of a desire to harm others
-Most people think that 200 is high (most people claim that this "anchor" doesn't 792. Give an example of bounded self-interest: Giving people more of a commodity than is necessary out of a desire to be fair
affect their estimate)
793. What other 2 important bounds have been 1. Bounded ethicality
-On average, people who are presented with the question that focuses on the
added to the list?
number 10 (out of 1,000) give answers that are about one-half the size of the
2. Bounded awareness
estimates of those facing questions that use an anchor of 200
794. Who added bounded ethicality? Chugh, Banaji, and Bazerman (2005) and Banaji and Bhaskar (2000)
782. When we are making decisions, any Initial (we insufficiently adjust our judgments away from the anchor)
_____anchor that we face is likely to 795. Who added bounded awareness? Chugh and Bazerman (2007)
influence our judgments, even if the anchor 796. What is bounded ethicality? The systematic ways in which our ethics are limited in ways we are not even
is arbitrary aware of ourselves
783. What is framing? The bias to be systematically affected by the way in which information is presented, 797. What is bounded awareness? The systematic ways in which we fail to notice obvious and important
while holding the objective information constant information that is available to us (focusing failures that affect our judgment)
784. Describe the problem of Program A&B and -Most people choose Program A, which saves 200 lives for sure, over Program B 798. Give examples of fields that have been -Behavioral economics
C&D and how it relates to framing: -Careful review of the two versions of this problem clarifies that they are transformed by applying and extending -Behavioral finance
objectively the same research from the judgment and decision- -Behavioral marketing
-Saving 200 people (Program A) means losing 400 people (Program C), and making literature:
Programs B and D are also objectively identical
-Yet, in one of the most famous problems in judgment and decision making, most 799. Does awareness of bias reduce them? No
individuals choose Program A in the first set and Program D in the second set 800. One critical path to fixing our biases is provided System 1 and System 2
-People respond very differently to saving versus losing lives—even when the in Stanovich and West's (2000) distinction
difference is based just on the "framing" of the choices between:
-The problem that was asked to respond to was framed in terms of saving lives, and 801. What is System 1? Our intuitive decision-making system, which is typically fast, automatic,
the implied reference point was the worst outcome of 600 deaths effortless, implicit, and emotional
-Most of us, when we make decisions that concern gains, are risk averse; as a
consequence, we lock in the possibility of saving 200 lives for sure 802. What is System 2? Our more deliberative decision-making system, which is slower, conscious,
-In the alternative version, the problem is framed in terms of losses-now the implicit effortful, explicit, and logical
reference point is the best outcome of no deaths due to the avian disease, and in 803. Would the 6 steps to making a rational decision System 2
this case, most people are risk seeking when making decisions regarding losses be categorized into System 1 or System 2?
785. What are the 3 biases discussed? 1. Overconfidence 804. Do we use System 1 or System 2 for most System 1
decisions in life?
2. Anchoring

3. Framing

786. Give examples of other types of biases: -We are biased in favor of information that is easy for our minds to retrieve 805. Explain why we use System 1 for most -System 1 thinking is quite sufficient
-We are insensitive to the importance of base rates and sample sizes when we decisions in life as opposed to System 2: -System 2 process is not required for every decision we make
are making inferences -It would be impractical, for example, to logically reason through every choice we
-We assume that random events will always look random make while shopping for groceries
-We search for information that confirms our expectations even when 806. What decisions should System 2 Our most important ones
disconfirming information would be more informative influence?
-We claim a prior knowledge that didn't exist due to the hindsight bias 807. Do we rely on System 1 even when Yes
787. What is hindsight bias? Also known as the "knew-it-all-along effect" or "creeping determinism", is the making important decisions?
inclination, after an event has occurred, to see the event as having been 808. The key to reducing the effects of bias Trusting our intuitive System 1 thinking toward engaging more in deliberative System 2
predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis for and improving our decisions is to thought
predicting it transition from:
809. What prevents people from using
System 2?
810. What kind of thinking are people with a
frantic professional life most likely
using?
811. Give an example of how System 1
thinking was replaced with System 2
thinking within baseball:
The busier and more rushed people are, the more they have on their minds, and the 820. Give an example of where children Deaf children in Nicaragua raised separately in various locations came together and
more likely they are to rely on System 1 thinking who had had little language were started using hand signalling to communicate-became Nicaraguan Sign Language
System 1- suggests that executives often rely on this kind of thinking brought together and developed
their own language spontaneously:
821. The primary form of language use is: Interpersonal (that's how we learn & use language)
-Comes from journalist Michael Lewis' (2003) account of how Billy Beane, the general 822. In order for people to carry out a Common ground
manager of the Oakland Athletics, improved the outcomes of the failing baseball team conversation, they must keep track
after recognizing that the intuition of baseball executives was limited and of:
systematically biased and that their intuitions had been incorporated into important
823. What is common ground? Information that is shared by people who engage in a conversation/a set of knowledge
decisions in ways that created enormous mistakes
that the speaker and listener share and they think, assume, or otherwise take for granted
-Lewis (2003) documents that baseball professionals tend to overgeneralize from their
that they share
personal experiences, be overly influenced by players' very recent performances, and
overweigh what they see with their own eyes, despite the fact that players' multiyear 824. Thus, the pair of utterances by Adam Adjacency pair, proposition
records provide far better data and Ben (called an _____) together
-By substituting valid predictors of future performance (System 2 thinking), the with Adam's affirmative nod jointly
Athletics were able to outperform expectations given their very limited payroll completes one _____

812. What do Thaler and Sunstein talk about
in their book "Nudge: Improving
Decisions about Health, Wealth, and
Happiness"?
813. Describe how Beshears, Choi, Laibson,
and Madrian (2008) have shown that
simple changes to defaults can
dramatically improve people's decisions
in terms of retirement plans:
814. Describe Johnson and Goldstein's (2003)
cross-European organ donation study:
815. As we understand more about our own
biases and thinking shortcomings we can
begin to:
Rather than setting out to debias human judgment, Thaler and Sunstein outline a 825.
strategy for how "decision architects" can change environments in ways that account
for human bias and trigger better decisions as a result
826.
-They tackle the failure of many people to save for retirement and show that a simple
change can significantly influence enrollment in 401(k) programs 827.
-In most companies, when you start your job, you need to proactively sign up to join
the company's retirement savings plan
-Many people take years before getting around to do so 828.
-When, instead, companies automatically enroll their employees in 401(k) programs
and give them the opportunity to "opt out," the net enrollment rate rises significantly
-Reveals that countries that have opt-in organ donation policies, where the default is 829.
not to harvest people's organs without their prior consent, sacrifice thousands of lives
in comparison to opt-out policies, where the default is to harvest organs
-The United States and too many other countries require that citizens opt in to organ 830.
donation through a proactive effort; as a consequence, consent rates range between
4.25%-44% across these countries
- In contrast, changing the decision architecture to an opt-out policy improves consent
rates to 85.9% to 99.98% 831.
-Designing the donation system with knowledge of the power of defaults can
dramatically change donation rates without changing the options available to citizens
(in contrast, a more intuitive strategy, such as the one in place in the United States,
inspires defaults that result in many unnecessary deaths) 832.
Take them into account or to avoid them
What is an adjacency pair?
Does common ground change as we
talk?
How does common ground change
as we talk?
What does common ground help
people do?
What is audience design?
Give an example of how audience
design works:
Describe the research done by
Fussel and Krauss (1992) on audience
design and public figures:
Describe the research done by Isaacs Showed that people who were familiar with NYC could gauge their audience's familiarity
and Clark (1987) on audience design with NYC soon after they began conversation and adjusted their descriptions of NYC
and New York City:
A unit of conversation that contains an exchange of one turn each by two speakers-turns
are functionally related to each other in such a fashion that the first turn requires a certain
type or range of types of second turn (ex. greeting-greeting pair, question-answer pair)
Yes
-Gathering new information that we agree on and have evidence that we share
-Evolves as people take turns to assume the roles of speaker and listener, and actively
engage in the exchange of meaning
Coordinate their language use (when a speaker says something to a listener, he or she
takes into account their common ground, that is, what the speaker thinks the listener
knows)
Constructing utterances to suit the audience's knowledge/speakers design their
utterances for their audiences by taking into account the audiences' knowledge
If their audiences are seen to be knowledgeable about an object (such as Ben about
Gary), they tend to use a brief label of the object (i.e., Gary); for a less knowledgeable
audience, they use more descriptive words (e.g., "a friend of mine") to help the audience
understand their utterances
When communicating about PUBLIC FIGURES, speakers included more descriptive
information (e.g. physical appearance, occupation) about lesser known and less
identifiable people (e.g. Kevin Kline, Carl Icahn) than better known ones (e.g. Woody
Allen, Clint Eastwood), so that their listeners can identify whom they're talking about
landmarks to help the audience identify such landmarks as the Brooklyn Bridge and
Yankee Stadium more easily

816. Language is not only used for
communication, but also to:
817. If psychology is a science of
behaviour, scientific investigation of
_____ _____ must be one of the most
central topics
818. Human infants learn at least one
language without:
819. Even when children who don't have
much language to begin with are
brought together, they can:
Construct and maintain our social world 833. What are 4 rules (conversational maxims) Grice (1975) 1. Trying to be informative (maxim of quantity)
proposed that speakers follow?
2. Truthful (maxim of quality)
Language use
3. Relevant (maxim of relation)
4. Clear and unambiguous (maxim of manner)
Being taught explicitly
834. How do we coordinate our language use in a Have a conversation in small groups
conversational setting?
Begin to develop and use their own language
835. The number of people engaging in a conversation at a 4
time is rarely more than:
836. More than __% percent of conversations happen in a 90%
group of four individuals or less
837. We typically have a conversation by: Rapidly exchanging words and utterances in real time in a noisy 855. What is imitating? Executing the same action as another person
environment
856. What does it mean to infer? One idea leading to other ideas
838. We achieve our conversational coordination by what 3 1. Virtue of our ability to interactively align each other's actions at
857. A staggering 60%-70% of everyday Gossip (people talk about themselves and others whom they know/their social
things? different levels of language use: lexicon (i.e., words and expressions)
conversation, for both men and women, turned world)
out to be:
2. Syntax (i.e., grammatical rules for arranging words and expressions
together) 858. What is gossip? Activities to think and communicate about our social world
859. Is gossip considered trivial or one of the most One of the most critical uses of language
3. Speech rate and accent critical uses of language?
839. When one person uses a certain expression to refer to The same expression 860. Dunbar (1996) conjectured that gossiping is the Grooming, monkeys and primates attending and tending to each other by
an object in a conversation, others tend to use: human equivalent of: cleaning each other's fur
840. Give an example of how people are likely to use the -Saying "the cowboy offered a banana to the robber," rather than "the 861. Why does Dunbar argue that gossiping is a -Argues that it is an act of socializing, signalling the importance of one's
same syntactic structure as the person they are cowboy offered the robber a banana" good thing? partner
conversing with: -Saying "the girl gave a book to the boy" rather than "the girl gave the -Argued that it is these social effects that have given humans an evolutionary
boy a book" advantage and larger brains, which, in turn, help humans to think more
841. People in conversation tend to exhibit similar accents People's social identity complex and abstract thoughts and, more important, maintain larger ingroups
and rates of speech, and they are often associated with: 862. What are other reasons for why gossiping can -By gossiping, humans can communicate and share their representations about
842. Give an example of how people in conversation tend to If you have lived in different places where people have somewhat be considered a positive thing? their social world—who their friends and enemies are, what the right thing to
exhibit similar accents and rates of speech: different accents (e.g. United States and United Kingdom), you might do is under what circumstances, and so on
have noticed that you speak with Americans with an American accent, -They can regulate their social world—making more friends and enlarging
but speak with Britons with a British accent one's own group (often called the ingroup, the group to which one belongs)
against other groups (outgroups) that are more likely to be one's enemies
843. What is lexicon? Words and expressions
863. What is an ingroup? Group to which a person belongs
844. What is syntax? Grammatical rules for arranging words and expressions together
864. What is an outgroup? Group to which a person does not belong
845. Who suggested these 3 interpersonal alignments of Pickering and Garrod (2004)
language? 865. What is Dunbar's equation? Predicts average group size of nonhuman primate genera from their average
neocortex size (the part of the brain that supports higher order cognition)
846. Pickering and Garrod (2004) suggest that these Situation models
interpersonal alignments at different levels of 866. What is social brain hypothesis? The hypothesis that the human brain has evolved, so that humans can maintain
language use can activate similar _____ in the minds of larger ingroups
those who are engaged in a conversation 867. What did Dunbar use his social brain hypothesis To show that those primate genera that have larger brains tend to live in larger
847. What are situation models? A mental representation of an event, object, or situation constructed at for? groups
the time of comprehending a linguistic description (representations 868. What is the group size that human brains can 150
about the topic of a conversation) support?
848. Give an example of situation models using the Gary If you are talking about Gary and Mary with your friends, you might 869. What is Dunbar's argument about language, They have co-evolved—language and human sociality are inseparable
and Mary situation: have a situation model of Gary giving Mary a ring in your mind brain, and human group living?
849. Pickering and Garrod's theory is that as you describe a Use similar words and grammar, and many other aspects of language 870. Our everyday language use often ends up: Maintaining the existing structure of intergroup relationships
situation using language, others in the conversation use converge
begin to:

850. What happens when people use similar words
and grammar in a conversation, and many other
aspects of language use start to converge?
851. What is priming in terms of language?
852. Priming occurs when:
853. Describe how priming works and what it results
in in the Gary and Mary situation:
854. making use of our highly developed
interpersonal ability to imitate and cognitive
ability to infer, we humans:
Similar situation models begin to be built in everyone's mind through the
mechanism known as priming
A stimulus presented to a person reminds him or her about other ideas
associated with the stimulus
Your thinking about one concept (e.g., "ring") reminds you about other related
concepts (e.g., "marriage", "wedding ceremony")
If everyone in the conversation knows about Gary, Mary, and the usual course
of events associated with a ring—engagement, wedding, marriage, etc.—
everyone is likely to construct a shared situation model about Gary and Mary
Coordinate our common ground, share situation models, and communicate
with each other
871. There are subtle cues that people use to
convey the extent to which someone's action
is either what of 2 things?
872. According to Semin and Fiedler (1988),
someone's action can be described in what 4
ways?
1. Is just a special case in a particular context
2. A pattern that occurs across many contexts and more like a character trait of
the person
*Used to distinguish ingroup and outgroup
1. By an ACTION VERB that describes a concrete action (e.g. he runs)
2. A STATE VERB that describes the actor's psychological state (e.g. he likes
running)
3. An ADJECTIVE that describes the actor's personality (e.g. he is athletic)
4. A NOUN that describes the actor's role (e.g. he is an athlete)
873. Depending on whether a verb or an adjective Permanence, stability 886. Describe the experiment done by -Used a story that contained a sequence of events that described a young couple's
(or noun) is used, speakers can convey the Kashima (2000) to display how stories interaction that included both stereotypical and counter-stereotypical actions (e.g., a
_____ and _____ of an actor's tendency to act in become conventionalized: man watching sports on TV on Sunday vs. a man vacuuming the house)
a certain way -After the retelling of this story, much of the counter-stereotypical information was
874. Verbs convey _____, whereas adjectives Particularity, permanence dropped, and stereotypical information was more likely to be retained
convey _____ -Because stereotypes are part of the common ground shared by the community, this
finding too suggests that conversational retellings are likely to reproduce conventional
875. How do people describe the actions of their People tend to describe positive actions of their ingroup members using
content
ingroup members? adjectives (e.g. he is generous) rather than verbs (e.g. he gave a blind man some
change) 887. When people use language to describe The linguistic representation that they have produced rather than the original
an experience, their thoughts and experience per se
876. How do people describe the actions of People tend to describe negative actions of outgroup members using adjectives
feelings are profoundly shaped by:
outgroup members? (e.g. he is cruel) rather than verbs (e.g. he kicked a dog)
888. Describe the study done by Halberstadt -Showed a picture of a person displaying an ambiguous emotion
877. What is linguistic intergroup bias? A tendency for people to characterize positive things about their ingroup using
(2003): -Examined how people evaluated the displayed emotion
more abstract expressions, but negative things about their outgroups using more
-When people verbally explained why the target person was expressing a particular
abstract expressions
emotion, they tended to remember the person as feeling that emotion more intensely
878. Linguistic intergroup bias can produce and Painting a picture favouring the ingroup (ingroup members are typically good, than when they simply labeled the emotion
reproduce the representation of intergroup and if they do anything bad, that's more an exception in special circumstances; in -Constructing a linguistic representation of another person's emotion apparently biased
relationships by: contrast, outgroup members are typically bad, and if they do anything good, the speaker's memory of that person's emotion (language affected their thought)
that's more an exception)
889. Linguistically labeling one's own The speaker's neural processes
879. What kinds of stories spread easily? Stories that evoke strong emotions (e.g. urban legends that evoke feelings of emotional experience appears to alter:
disgust, etc.)
890. Describe what happens to the A brain structure that is critically involved in the processing of negative emotions such
880. Give an example of an emotional story that -Group of 33 psychology students visited a city morgue amygdala when people linguistically as fear—was activated less than when they were not given a chance to label them
spread quickly and easily: -Told their experience to about 6 people on average label negative images:
-Each of these people who heard about it told one person, who in turn told
891. What are the effects of verbalizing Linguistic reconstructions of negative life events can have some therapeutic effects on
another person on average
emotional experiences? those who suffer from the traumatic experiences
-By 3rd retelling or morgue visit, 881 people had heard about this in their
community within 10 days 892. Describe the study done by Found that writing and talking about negative past life events improved people's
Lyubomirsky, Sousa, and Dickerhoof psychological well-being, but just thinking about them worsened it
881. Everyone is connected with one another by __ 6
(2006) on verbalizing emotional
degrees of separation
experiences:
882. When people exchange their gossip, it can Social networks (if gossip is transmitted from one person to another, the second
893. There are many examples of effects of Language, decision making
spread through broader: person can transmit it to a third person, who then in turn transmits it to a fourth,
_____ use on memory and _____
and so on through a chain of communication)
894. If a certain type of language use Their thoughts and action
883. What is a social network? Networks of social relationships among individuals through which information
(linguistic practice) is repeated by a
can travel
large number of people in a
884. When stories travel through communication Conventionalized (to make something ordinary rather than different or original) community, it can potentially have a
chains, they tend to become: significant effect on:
895. What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? The hypothesis that the language that people use determines their thoughts

885. Give an example of how stories become -A Native American tale of the "War of the Ghosts" recounts a warrior's encounter with
conventionalized? ghosts traveling in canoes and his involvement with their ghostly battle
-He is shot by an arrow but doesn't die, returning home to tell the tale
-After his narration, however, he becomes still, a black thing comes out of his mouth,
and he eventually dies
-When it was told to a student in England in the 1920s and retold from memory to
another person, who, in turn, retold it to another and so on in a communication chain,
the mythic tale became a story of a young warrior going to a battlefield, in which
canoes became boats, and the black thing that came out of his mouth became simply
his spirit
-Information transmitted multiple times was transformed to something that was easily
understood by many, that is, information was assimilated into the common ground
shared by most people in the linguistic community
896. Give an example of the Sapir-Whorf - For instance, if you are given a description of a man, Steven, as having greater than
hypothesis: average experience of the world (e.g., well-traveled, varied job experience), a
strong family orientation, and well-developed social skills, how do you describe
Steven? Do you think you can remember Steven's personality five days later? It will
probably be difficult
-But if you know Chinese and are reading about Steven in Chinese, as Hoffman, Lau,
and Johnson (1986) showed, the chances are that you can remember him well
-This is because English does not have a word to describe this kind of personality,
whereas Chinese does (shì gù)
-This way, the language you use can influence your cognition
897. Describe the study done by Boroditsky
(2000) concerning the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis and the difference between
English and Mandarin speakers with how
they convey time:
898. From the study done by Boroditsky (2000)
with the Mandarin and English speakers,
describe how the difference in language
use affected their language
comprehension:
899. The language you use can influence your
cognition-in its strong form, it has been
argued that language _____ thought, but
this is probably wrong
900. Why doesn't language determine our
thought? Instead what does it do?
901. Give an example of how language can
influence our thought in terms of cultural
values and social institution:
902. Linguistic practice may act as a constant
reminder of the cultural value, which, in
turn, may encourage people to:
903. Much of contemporary human civilization
wouldn't have been possible without the
human ability to:
904. Is our ability to use language innate?
905. What is one of the oldest and longest
studied topics in psychology?
906. What is intelligence?
907. What are some characteristics that
people normally associate "smart"
people with?
-In English, time is often metaphorically described in horizontal terms 908. What are apes and chimpanzees capable -Complex problem solving
-For instance: good times are ahead of us, hardship can be left behind us, we move a of in terms of intelligence? -Sophisticated communication
meeting forward or backward 909. Scientists point to the _____ of primates as Social nature-primates live together in troops or family groups and are, therefore,
-Mandarin Chinese speakers use similar horizontal metaphors too, but also use one evolutionary source of their highly social creatures
vertical methods intelligence
-For instance: the last month is called shang ge yue or "above month" and the next
month xia ge yue or "below month" 910. What is a result of primates being very -Tend to have brains that are better developed for communication and long term
-The arrow of time flies horizontally in English, but it can fly both horizontally and social creatures? thinking than most other animals
vertically in Chinese -The complex social environment has led primates to develop deception, altruism,
numerical concepts, and "theory of mind"
-When presented with a picture that implies horizontal positioning (the black worm is
ahead of the white worm) they could read and understand them faster than when 911. What is a theory of mind? A sense of the self as a unique individual separate from others in the group/ a the
they were presented with a picture that implies vertical positioning (the black ball is child's understanding that other people have minds in which are located desires and
above the white ball) beliefs, and that desires and beliefs, thereby, motivate behaviour
-This implies thinking that horizontal positioning (ahead or behind) equally 912. When we talk about intelligence we Intellectual ability
primed/reminded both English and Chinese speakers of the horizontal metaphor typically mean:
used in the sentence about time 913. What constitutes intellectual ability? -Ability to learn
-However, English and Chinese speakers' comprehension differed for statements that -Ability to remember and use new information
do not use a spatial metaphor such as "August is later than June" -Ability to solve problems
-When primed with vertical spatial positioning, Chinese speakers comprehend these -Ability to adapt to novel situations
statements faster, but English speakers more slowly, than when they were primed
914. What did Charles Spearman propose -Intelligence was one thing, a "general factor" sometimes known as simply "g"
with the horizontal spacial positioning
about intelligence? -He based this conclusion on the observation that people who perform well in one
-Apparently English speakers were not used to thinking about months in terms of a
intellectual area such as verbal ability also tend to perform well in other areas such
vertical line, above or below
as logic and reasoning
-But when they were trained to do so, their comprehension was similar to Chinese
speakers' 915. What is "g"? Short for "general factor" and is often used to be synonymous with intelligence itself
Determines 916. Who established intelligence as a Francis Galton
variable that could be measured?
917. What other psychological characteristics -Ability to judge distance
did Galton measure? -Ability to discriminate colours
-Our thoughts are far too flexible for that 918. Galton thought intelligence was _____ in Heritable
-Habitual uses of language can influence our habit of thought and action much the same way that height and eye
-Pronoun drop color are
-Pronouns such as "I" and "you" are used to represent the speaker and listener of a 919. Describe rudimentary methods Galton -He carefully tracked the family tree of the top-scoring Cambridge students over the
speech in English used for assessing whether his hypothesis previous 40 years
-In an English sentence, these pronouns cannot be dropped if they are used as the was true that intelligence is heritable: -Although he found specific families disproportionately produced top scholars,
subject of a sentence intellectual achievement could still be the product of economic status, family culture
-However, in other languages such as Japanese, pronouns can be, and in fact often or other non-genetic factors
are, dropped from sentences
920. Galton was also the first to popularize First to popularize the idea that the heritability of psychological traits could be
-It turned out that people living in those countries where pronoun drop languages
what about how we can study intelligence studied by looking at identical and fraternal twins
are spoken tend to have more collectivistic values than those who use non-pronoun
and heritability?
drop languages such as English
-It was argued that the explicit reference to "you" and "I" may remind speakers the
distinction between the self and other, and the differentiation between individuals
Perform the linguistic practice
Develop and use language 921. The person best known for formally Alfred Binet
pioneering the measurement of intellectual
ability is:
Yes 922. Give an example of how Binet studied He blindfolded chess players and saw that some of them had the ability to
individual differences in intelligence: continue playing using only their memory to keep the many positions of the pieces
Intelligence (the development of assessments to measure this concept is at the core in mind
of the development of psychological science itself)
923. Binet was particularly interested in the _____ Development
An individual's cognitive capability. This includes the ability to acquire, process, recall of intelligence
and apply information/the human ability to use knowledge, solve problems,
understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges 924. Binet's interest in the development of Led him to observe children carefully in the classroom setting
intelligence led him to study what?
-Good memory
-Quick thinking 925. Theodore Simon and Alfred Binet were the A test of children's intellectual capacity
-Knowing a lot of information first to create what?
926. Give examples of questions on the -Created individual test items that should be answerable by children of given ages 936. What was a major advantage of the new
intelligence tests made by Simon and Binet: -A child who is three should be able to point to her mouth and eyes Standford-Binet test?
-A child who is nine should be able to name the months of the year in order 937. What does standardized mean?
-A twelve year old ought to be able to name sixty words in three minutes
927. The test created by Simon and Binet became IQ Test
the first:
928. Example of an old IQ test: 938. Based on a large sample of children Terman
was able to plot the scores how?
939. Give an example of how normal distribution
works with height & how Terman used it for
intelligence:
940. Bell curve, normal distribution IQ:
It is standardized
Assessments that are given in the exact same manner to all people . With
regards to intelligence tests standardized scores are individual scores that are
computed to be referenced against normative scores for a population (see
"norm").
In a normal distribution, shaped like a "bell curve"
Most people are average in height with relatively fewer being tall or short, and
fewer still being extremely tall or extremely short (Terman laid out intelligence
scores in exactly the same way, allowing for easy and reliable categorizations
and comparisons between individuals)

929. Infamous SAT question: 941. What is an example of another modern Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
intelligence test?
942. Sample WAIS-IV question:

Perceptual reasoning (weights)

930. IQ" or "intelligence quotient" is a name
given to the score of the _____ test
931. How is the IQ score derived?
943. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Answer is C-this was a problem because many people from different can provide clues to:
socioeconomic backgrounds didn't know what a regatta was
944. Why was the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Binet-Simon Scale (WAIS) created?
945. What criticisms did Wechsler have of the
By dividing a child's mental age (the score from the test) by their chronological Stanford-Binet test?
age to create an overall quotient
946. How did Wechsler fix the issues in the
Standford-Binet test in his new test?
A definition of intelligence itself
Motivated by several criticisms of the Stanford-Binet test, psychologist David
Wechsler sought to create a superior measure of intelligence
He was critical of the way that the test relied so heavily on verbal ability and was
also suspicious of using a single score to capture all of intelligence
Created a test that tapped a wide range of intellectual abilities such as people's
ability to remember, compute, understand language, reason well, and process
information quickly

932. These days, the phrase "IQ" does not apply
specifically to the _____ test and is used to _____
denote intelligence or a score on any
intelligence test
933. What is IQ?
934. IQ tests have a standard deviation of:
935. In the early 1900s the Binet-Simon test was
adapted by a Stanford professor named Lewis
Terman to create what is, perhaps, the most
famous intelligence test in the world, the:
Binet-Simon, generally 947. How did Wechsler's understanding of -Wechsler: made up of a pool of specific abilities
intelligence differ from Spearman's -Spearman: general intelligence
understanding?
948. What is general intelligence (g)? The idea that one general factor underlies all mental abilities
Short for "intelligence quotient." This is a score, typically obtained from a widely 949. One interesting by-product of measuring Chart changes over time
used measure of intelligence that is meant to rank a person's intellectual ability intelligence for so many years is that we
against that of others (a score on a normed test of intelligence (i.e. how your can:
score compares to other people who have taken the test before you) 950. IQ tests have an average score of: 100
15
951. When new waves of people are asked to Outperform
Standford-Binet take older tests they tend to _____ the
original sample from years ago on which
the test was normed
952. What does normed mean?
953. What is the Flynn effect?
954. Who was the Flynn effect named after?
955. What are some hypotheses as to why IQ
stores are rising?
956. Is there a perfect agreement among
psychological researchers with regards to
the causes of increases in average scores
on intelligence tests?
957. David Wechsler's approach to testing
intellectual ability was based on the
fundamental idea that:
958. Other scholars have echoed Wechsler's
idea by going so far as to suggest that
there are actually even:
959. What are "street smarts"?
960. What are "book smarts"?
961. What is believed to be the best currently
existing single source for organizing
various concepts related to intelligence?
962. How many levels/strata did Carroll divide
intelligence into and how were they
organized?
963. Caroll's Model of Intelligence:
Assessments are given to a representative sample of a population to determine the 964. Describe Carroll's Model of Intelligence using the -Stratum III: Car is a general word that denotes all types of motorized
range of scores for that population. These "norms" are then used to place an analogy of cars: vehicles
individual who takes that assessment on a range of scores in which he or she is -Stratum II: At the more specific level under "car" might be various types
compared to the population at large. of cars such as sedans, sports cars, SUVs, pick-up trucks, station wagons,
The 'Flynn effect' refers to Flynn's finding that the average intelligence scores and so forth
increased steadily over the past century in the U.S. and other Western industrialized -Stratum I: More specific still would be certain models of each such as a
nations Honda Civic or Ferrari Enzo
Named after James Flynn, the researcher who first identified it 965. What composes the highest level stratum (stratum III) The general factor "g"
in Carroll's Model of Intelligence?
-Better nutrition (healthier brains!)
966. Give some examples of what would fall under stratum -Fluid intelligence
-Greater familiarity with testing in general
II of Carroll's Model of Intelligence: -Visual perception
-More exposure to visual stimuli
-Processing speed
No
967. Give some examples of what would fall under stratum -Spatial scanning
I of Carroll's Model of Intelligence: -Reaction time
-Word fluency
968. Give an example of how Carroll's Model of Horn and Cattell (1966) distinguish between "fluid" and "crystallized"
There are many aspects to intelligence
Intelligence helped people conceptualize intelligence intelligence, both of which show up on stratum II of Carroll's model
in new ways:
969. What is fluid intelligence? Ability to "think on your feet", solve problems (information processing in
Different types of intelligence
novel or complex circumstances-e.g. the ability to think quickly and
flexibly → working memory)
970. What is crystallized intelligence? Ability to use language, skills and experience to address problems
-Refers to practical wisdom accumulated through experience
(knowledge acquired through experience, and the ability to use this
-Superior ability to catch a person in a lie, to persuade others, or to think quickly
knowledge to solve problems → long-term memory)
under pressure
971. Which type of intelligence out of fluid and crystallized Fluid-younger people can adapt to new situations and use trial and error
-Formal education
is associated with youth? to quickly figure out solutions
-Have a large vocabulary and be able to remember a large number of references
to classic novels 972. Which type of intelligence out of fluid and crystallized Crystallized-older people tend to rely on their relatively superior store
increases with age? of knowledge to solve problems
Carroll 's (1993) review of more than 400 data sets
973. Who is also a well-known figure in psychology who is Howrd Gardner
well-known for championing the notion that there are
different types of intelligence?
3, descending from the most abstract down to the most specific
974. What is Gardner's theory? "Multiple intelligences"
975. What are 8 intelligences identified by Gardner? 1. Logic-math
2. Visual-spatial
3. Music-rhythm
4. Verbal-linguistic
5. Bodily-kinesthetic
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalistic
976. Why are many people attracted to Gardner's Because it suggests people learn in unique ways 992. What are a few possibilities of -It might be the result of inequalities in the educational system
model? why women make up only 3-15% -It might be due to differences in socialization wherein young girls are encouraged to
977. What is another type of intelligence that deviates Emotional intelligence of all faculty in math-intensive develop other interests
from the traditional models? fields at the 50 top universities? -It might be the result of that women are—on average—responsible for a larger portion of
childcare obligations and therefore make different types of professional decisions
978. Unlike traditional models of intelligence that Cognition (thinking), the experience and expression of emotion
-Might be due to innate differences between these groups
emphasize _____ the idea of emotional
intelligence emphasizes: 993. Which possibility in the previous Being due to innate differences-many people see it as either the product of or the
flashcard is most controversial foundation for sexism
979. What are some definitions of emotional -A set of skills in which an individual can accurately understand the emotions
and why?
intelligence? of others, can identify and label their own emotions, and can use emotions
-A mixture of abilities, such as stress management, and personality, such as a 994. Describe the review of research -Argue against the hypothesis that biological and genetic differences account for much of
person's predisposition for certain moods on intellectual abilities and sex the sex differences in intellectual ability
(A social intelligence that emphasizes the ability to manage one's emotions, done by Ceci and colleagues -They believe that a complex web of influences ranging from societal expectations to test
recognize emotions in others, understand emotional language, and use (2009): taking strategies to individual interests account for many of the sex differences found in math
emotions to guide thoughts and actions) and similar intellectual abilities

980. Studies have shown a link between emotional
intelligence and:
981. Why is there a link between emotional
intelligence and job performance?
982. Describe the results of research done by Schmidt -Intelligence is the single best predictor of doing well in job training
and Hunter (1998) on intelligence in the
workplace:
983. What is a good predictor of performance?
984. What are 2 different types of mindsets?
985. What is a growth/incremental mindset?
986. What is a fixed/entity mindset?
987. Describe the study done by Carol Dweck to
discover why some kids have high IQ's and why
some kids have lower IQ's:
Job performance 995. In what ways are women superior
to men in terms of intelligence?
Emotional intelligence is similar to more traditional notions of cognitive
intelligence with regards to workplace benefits
996. In what ways are men superior to
programs, of learning on the job
women in terms of intelligence?
-General intelligence is moderately correlated with all types of jobs but
especially with managerial and complex, technical jobs
The way an individual thinks about his or her own intelligence (their "mindset")
997. Who noted the intelligence
1. Growth (or "incremental") differences between men and
women?
2. Fixed (or "entity") mindsets 998. Halpern also notes that men are
You don't believe intelligence is fixed, can be improved upon (people with disproportionately represented
this are more likely to ask questions when they don't do as well, stay on the low end of cognitive
encouraged, etc.) functioning including in:
Believing that your intelligence is fixed (stays the same/can't be changed- 999. Give examples for why sex
people with this are more likely to be devastated by failures/be discouraged differences in intellectual ability
by them) occur:
-It is not gender or social class that sets apart the high and low performers 1000. What is stereotype threat?
-Instead, it is their mindset
-Children who believe that their abilities in general—and their intelligence
specifically—is a fixed trait tend to underperform
-Kids who believe that intelligence is changeable and evolving tend to handle
failure better and perform better 1001. Why is stereotype threat
problematic?
-Fine motor skill
-Acquired knowledge
-Reading comprehension
-Decoding non-verbal expression
-Generally have higher grades in school
-Fluid reasoning related to math and science
-Perceptual tasks that involve moving objects
-Tasks that require transformations in working memory such as mental rotations of physical
spaces
Halpern (1997)
Mental retardation, dyslexia, and attention deficit disorders
-Genetic factors
-Social factors
-Stereotype threat
The phenomenon in which people are concerned that they will conform to a stereotype or
that their performance does conform to that stereotype, especially in instances in which the
stereotype is brought to their conscious awareness/stereotype threat is the idea that mental
access to a particular stereotype can have real-world impact on a member of the
stereotyped group (fear of confirming a negative stereotype about an ingroup)
Because it tends to lead to confirmation of the stereotype/impairs working memory capacity

988. According to Dweck, having a Growth 1002. Describe the study done by Spencer, Women who were informed that women tend to fare poorly on math exams just
growth or fixed mindset appears Steele, & Quinn (1999) with stereotype before taking a math test actually performed worse relative to a control group who
to be healthier? threat and women with math: did not hear the stereotype

989. There is some evidence that _____
is an important factor for
intelligence
990. What 2 things can help with
intellectual performance?
991. Carol Dweck's research on the
mindset of children also brings
one of the most interesting and
controversial issues surrounding
intelligence research to the fore:
Genetics (a number of studies on genetics in adults have yielded the result that intelligence is 1003. One possible antidote to stereotype threat
largely, but not totally, inherited ) is to:
1004. Describe the study done by Martens and
-Having a healthy attitude about the nature of smarts and working hard her colleagues (2006) with stereotype
-Helps to have the genetic leaning toward intelligence threat and using self-affirmations to
combat it:
Group differences (such as men and women)
1005. Common use of bias denotes (in terms of
IQ tests):
1006. Scientific bias is related to (in terms of IQ
tests):
1007. Validity is the idea that:
Make a self-affirmation (such as listing positive personal qualities) before the threat
occurs
-Had women write about personal qualities that they valued before taking a math
test
-The affirmation largely erased the effect of stereotype by improving math scores
for women relative to a control group but similar affirmations had little effect for
men
A prejudice based on group membership
The psychometric properties of the test such as validity and reliability
An assessment measures what it claims to measure and that it can predict future
behaviours or performance
1008. Intelligence tests are not biased because: They are fairly accurate measures and predictors (have high validity) 1026. Basic level categories:
1009. Can a supportive social environment aid Yes
intelligence?
1010. What is savant syndrome? A condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional
specific skill such as in computation or drawing
1011. What are Grice's (1975) maxims of Conversational norms (ex. weird if you talk about subject A, and then randomly -Located in the middle of the hierarchy
conversation? present another subject B-norm is to stick to current discussion-maxim of relation) -Are the terms most often used in conversation
1012. What is the maxim of quantity? Try to be as informative as possible without adding unnecessary information -Are the easiest to pronounce
-Are the level at which prototypes exist
1013. What is linguistic determinism? Thinking is entirely determined by our language/particular words or language that
-Are the level at which most thinking occurs
we speak-little evidence for this notion (by this, people who speak 2 different
-E.g. If asked what you had for breakfast, you would probably answer cereal rather than food which is
languages share 2 different realities/you wouldn't be able to translate which isn't
higher, or Lucky Charms, which is more specific
true)
1027. What is classical Objects are categorized according to a certain set of rules or specific set of features
1014. What is linguistic relativism? Language has impact on understanding/thinking/the way we categorize information
categorization?
(weaker form of determinism)
1028. Membership within a An all-or-none basis (e.g. "A triangle is a figure having three angles and three sides", "A bird lays eggs,
1015. What was the view of bilingualism a Negative-used to think that bilingualism would confuse a child
category determined on: has wings, and can fly")
century ago?
1029. What are 3 problems of 1. We often make exceptions to our rules (e.g. penguins can't fly but we know they are birds)
1016. What have the past 50 years in researching -Good for mental flexibility (Pearl & Lambert, 1962)
classical categorization?
bilingualism discovered? -Advantages in executive control
2. Some attributes are more important for defining category membership than others (e.g. has wings
-May contribute to cognitive reserve (e.g. studies examining the onset of dementia
vs. is a vertebrate)
in Toronto hospital patients)
-Bilingual individuals have a later onset of dementia than monolingual people
3. Some concepts appear to be better category members than others (e.g. when we think of triangle,
1017. What is a representation? Anything that stands in for, or corresponds to, something else (e.g. a map is a we normally think of a perfectly equilateral triangle, not other forms of one)
representation of city streets; a portrait is a representation of a person)
1030. What is a prototype Objects are categorized according to how closely they resemble the "prototype" (or best example)
1018. What is a mental representation? A hypothetical 'internal' cognitive symbol that represents external reality model? of the category
1019. What are 2 types of mental 1. Analogical 1031. Prototype model allows Flexibility
representations? for _____ in the
2. Symbolic representation of
1020. What are analogical representations? Mental representations which have some of the physical characteristics of (i.e. they concepts
are analogous to) actual objects (e.g. maps) 1032. What explains why some Prototype model
1021. What are symbolic representations? Abstract mental representations which do not correspond to the physical category members are
characteristics of actual objects (e.g. the word "princess" does not look like an better than others?
actual princess) 1033. What is the problem with How is the prototype chosen?
the prototype model?

1022. What do mental images -Allow us to answer questions about objects that are not in our presence (e.g. how many pillows are 1034. What is the exemplar model? Instead of a specific prototype, ALL members of the category that we have encountered
allow? typically on your couch at home?) form the concept (e.g. your representation of bird consists of all of the birds you have
encountered-if you see something new, and it most closely resembles the birds you have
-Also allows us to solve problems (e.g. hHow many people do you think can comfortably fit in your encountered, you conclude that it is a bird)
living room?) 1035. We can follow either a _____-based Rule, resemblance (e.g. A seven year old child sees a whale: initial reaction may be
(defining attribute) or _____-based "fish"→ based on resemblance, but then they might remember what they learned in school
-We can manipulate these mental images (e.g. see if a letter is a mirror image or not) (prototype or exemplar) approach, it about fish and mammals and realize whales share more features with mammals (e.g.
1023. How do we use our We use symbolic representations (words) to represent much of our knowledge just depends on the situation warm-blooded, gives birth to live young, etc.) → based on rules)
knowledge efficiently? 1036. What are 2 types of categorization 1. Taxonomic
1024. What is categorization? The process of grouping things based on shared information strategies
2. Thematic
1025. What is a concept? A mental representation that groups object, events, or relations around common themes, so you don't
have to store everything individually (e.g. your knowledge of apples is grouped with your general 1037. What are 2 types of thinking styles? 1. Analytic thinking
knowledge about "fruit"-you wouldn't have to store apple individually)
2. Holistic thinking
1038. Nisbett & Miyamoto (2005) study on 1056. What is a drive state? An affective experience (something you feel, like the sensation of being tired
cultural differences in perception and or hungry) that motivates organisms to fulfill goals that are generally
organization: beneficial to their survival and reproduction
1057. Give other examples of drive states: -Fear
-Holistic (family resemblance) vs. analytic (rule based) -Thirst
-Group 2: Rule (share same stem); Group 1: Share more features overall, but is no single -Exhaustion
common feature -Exploratory and maternal drives
-Drug cravings
1039. What is reasoning? Using information to determine if a conclusion is valid or reasonable
-Sexual arousal
1040. What is deductive reasoning? Moves from generalized principles that are known to be true to a true and specific
1058. Hunger affects psychological processes, such as: -Perception
conclusion
-Attention
1041. What is inductive reasoning? Moves from specific instances into a generalized conclusion -Emotion
1042. What is judgment and decision Attempting to select the best alternative among several options -Motivation
making? -Influences the behaviours that these processes generate
1043. What is problem solving? Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal (restructuring, overcoming functional 1059. Drive states differ from other affective or Biological
fixedness) emotional states in terms of the _____ functions
they accomplish
1044. Overcoming functional fixedness:
1060. What are 2 characteristics of all affective states? 1. Possess valence (i.e., they are positive or negative)

2. Serve to motivate approach or avoidance behaviours

1061. How are drive states different from other They generate behaviours that result in specific benefits for the body (e.g.
affective states? hunger directs individuals to eat foods that increase blood sugar levels in the
body, thirst causes individuals to drink fluids that increase water levels in the
body)
1062. Different drive states have different: Triggers
1063. Most drive states respond to both _____ and _____ Internal, external, combinations, types
-Using things in other ways than their normal purpose
cues, but the _____ of internal and external cues,
-Overcome mental set
and the _____ of cues, differ between drives
1045. What is functional fixedness? An example of a mental set-getting 'stuck' or 'fixed' in a particular approach to solving a
1064. What kinds of cues does hunger depend on? Hunger depends on internal, visceral signals as well as sensory signals, such
problem or completing a task
as the sight or smell of tasty food
1046. Does being intelligent guarantee No
1065. Different drive states also result in different _____ Cognitive, emotional, behaviours
rational behaviour or sound
and _____ states, and are associated with different
reasoning?
_____
1047. What is Stanovich's notion of Inability to think and behave rationally despite adequate intelligence
1066. What is homeostasis? The tendency of an organism to maintain a stable state across all the
"dysrationalia"?
different physiological systems in the body
1048. What is confirmation (or myside) The tendency to search for, interpret, favour, and recall information in a way that
bias? confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, while giving disproportionately less
consideration to alternative possibilities

1049. What is illusion of explanatory depth? People feel they understand complex phenomena with far greater precision, 1067. Homeostasis is maintained by what 2 key factors? 1. The state of the system being regulated must be monitored
coherence, and depth than they really do (they are subject to an illusion) and compared to an ideal level, or a set point

1050. What are framing effects? Changes in the way information is perceived as a result of the way in which
2. There need to be mechanisms for moving the system back
the information was presented (e.g. framing a decision to emphasize either
to this set point—that is, to restore homeostasis when
the potential LOSSES or the potential GAINS of a decision alternative)
deviations from it are detected
1051. Give some examples of framing: -"ObamaCare" vs. "Affordable Care Act"
1068. What is a set point (homeostatic set point)? An ideal level that the system being regulated must be
-95% fat-free is more appealing than 5% fat
monitored and compared to
1052. Our thoughts and behaviours are strongly Drive states
1069. Give an example of homeostasis being regulated with an analogy -It detects when the current temperature in the house is
influenced by affective experiences known as:
of a thermostat: different than the temperature you have it set at (i.e., the set
1053. Drive states motivate us to fulfill goals that are Survival, reproduction point)
beneficial to our _____ and _____ -Once the thermostat recognizes the difference, the heating
1054. Humans rely critically on food for nutrition and Thoughts and behaviours or air conditioning turns on to bring the overall temperature
energy, and the absence of food can create back to the designated level
drastic changes, not only in physical appearance, 1070. Many homeostatic mechanisms are _____, and the ones that aren't Nonconscious, drive states (deliberate action)
but in: involve _____
1055. Hunger is a: Drive state
1071. Most drive states motivate action to restore homeostasis using Punishments, rewards 1081. Describe how the APA got in -APA issued a report concluding that psychologists could ethically play a role in the
both "_____" and "_____" trouble in 2005 for being interrogation of people captured in Afghanistan and elsewhere
1072. Describe how drive states use "punishments" and "rewards" to -Imagine that these homeostatic mechanisms are like accused of helping with torture -In 2014, following critical media publicity documenting the APA's involvement in torture, the
maintain homeostasis: molecular parents (by using the knowledge of drive APA commissioned a law firm to independently investigate APA involvement in interrogation
-When you behave poorly by departing from the set point states and attention narrowing): -Firm's report was damaging to the APA because it suggested that APA leaders colluded with
(such as not eating or being somewhere too cold), they raise the Department of Defense, CIA, and other government officials not only to aid in the
their voice at you interrogation itself, but to provide justification for government guidelines that defined torture
-You experience this as the bad feelings, or "punishments," (which is banned by international treaties signed in the US) in a narrow fashion that excluded,
of hunger, thirst, or feeling too cold or too hot for example so-called "stress positions" and sleep deprivations
-When you behave well (such as eating nutritious foods 1082. Despite serving the same Their specific properties
when hungry), these homeostatic parents reward you with broader goals, different drive
the pleasure that comes from any activity that moves the states are often remarkably
system back toward the set point different in terms of:
-When body temperature declines below the set point, any 1083. What are 2 different drive states 1. Hunger
activity that helps to restore homeostasis (such as putting that play very important roles in
one's hand in warm water) feels pleasurable determining behaviour and in 2. Sexual arousal
1073. As drive states intensify, they direct attention toward: Elements, activities, and forms of consumption that satisfy the ensuring human survival?
biological needs associated with the drive (e.g. Hunger 1084. Hunger is a drive state that The consumption of food
draws attention towards food, outcomes and objects that results in thoughts and
are not related to satisfying hunger lose their value) behaviours related to:
1074. Give an example of how drive states work with drug addiction -Cocaine addicts "report that virtually all thoughts are 1085. Hunger is generally triggered Low glucose levels in the blood
and why: focused on cocaine during binges nourishment, sleep, by:
money, loved ones, responsibility, and survival lose all
1086. Behaviours resulting from Restore homeostasis regarding glucose levels
significance"
hunger aim to:
-Individuals will sacrifice almost any quantity of goods that
do not address the needs signaled by the drive state 1087. Give an example of another When fats are broken down in the body for energy, this initiates a chemical cue that the body
internal cue that causes hunger: should search for food
1075. Drive states also produce a 2nd form of attention-narrowing: A collapsing of time-perspective toward the present (they
make us impatient) 1088. Give examples of external cues -Time of day
that cause hunger: -Estimated time until the next feeding (hunger increases immediately prior to food
1076. While the collapsing of time-perspective toward the present is General concerns for the future as well
consumption)
particularly pronounced for the outcomes and behaviours
-The sight, smell, taste, and even touch of food and food-related stimuli
directly related to the biological function being served by the
drive state at issue (e.g., "I need food now"), it applies to: 1089. While hunger is a GENERIC The eating of specific foods that correct for nutritional imbalances we may not even be
feeling, it has nuances that can conscious of (e.g. a couple who was lost adrift at sea found they inexplicably began to crave
provoke: the eyes of fish-they later found out it was rich in vitamin C, which they were deprived of
when lost at sea)

1077. Describe the study done by
Ariely and Loewenstein (2006)
with drive states and the
collapsing of time-perspective
toward the present (sexual
arousal):
1078. Describe the study done by
Giordano et al. (2002) with drive
states and the collapsing of time-
perspective toward the present
(heroin addiction):
1079. What is a 3rd form of attention-
narrowing?
1080. Give an example of how the 3rd
form of attention-narrowing with
drive states is used to someone's
advantage:
-Investigated the impact of sexual arousal on the thoughts and behaviours of a sample of 1090. What is the hypothalamus and where is it
male undergraduates located?
-These undergraduates were lent laptop computers that they took to their private residences,
where they answered a series of questions, both in normal states and in states of high sexual
arousal 1091. The hypothalamus plays a very important role in
-Found that being sexually aroused made people extremely impatient for both sexual _____ behaviour
outcomes and for outcomes in other domains, such as those involving money 1092. What is the lateral hypothalamus (LH) concerned
-Heroin addicts were more impatient with respect to heroin when they were craving it than with?
when they were not 1093. What happens when there is damage to the
-They were also more impatient toward money (they valued delayed money less) when they lateral hypothalamus (LH)?
were actively craving heroin
1094. What happens when the lateral hypothalamus
(LH) is artificially stimulated?
Involves thoughts and outcomes related to the self versus others (intense drive states tend to
1095. Describe the study done by Brendl, Markman,
narrow one's focus inwardly and to undermine altruism—or the desire to do good for others)
and Messner (2003) on hunger:
-People who are hungry, in pain, or craving drugs tend to be selfish
-Popular interrogation methods involve depriving individuals of sleep, food, or water, so as to
trigger intense drive states leading the subject of the interrogation to divulge information that
may betray comrades, friends, and family
-A portion of the brain involved in a variety of functions, including the
secretion of various hormones and the regulation of hunger and sexual
arousal
-Located in the lower, central part of the brain
Eating
With hunger
Can eliminate the desire for eating entirely—to the point that animals starve
themselves to death unless kept alive by force feeding
Can generate eating behaviour if food is available, can also reduce the
desirability of nonfood-related items
-Found that participants who were given a handful of popcorn to trigger
hunger not only had higher ratings of food products, but also had lower
ratings of nonfood products—compared with participants whose appetites
were not similarly primed
-Because eating had become more important, other non-food products lost
some of their value
1096. Whereas the feeling of hunger gets you to start
eating, the feeling of _____ gets you to stop
1097. What is satiation?
1098. Perhaps surprisingly, hunger and satiation are 2
_____ processes, controlled by _____ circuits in the
brain and triggered by _____ cues
1099. What is the role of the ventromedial
hypothalamus (VMH)?
1100. What can damage to the ventromedial
hypothalamus (VMH) cause?
1101. Rats with VMH lesions can also be _____ about
their food
1102. Which parts of the brain are responsible for
identifying food items?
1103. The sensory cortices provide _____ value,
however, not _____ evaluations
1104. What is the difference between informational
value and hedonic evaluations?
1105. While many sensory functions are roughly _____
across different psychological states, other
functions are _____ when the organism is in a
hungry drive state
1106. Give an example of a sensory function that is
enhanced when an organism is in a hungry drive
state:
Satiation 1117. Describe what happens when the preoptic area is damaged in -Rats that have had prior sexual experiences will still seek out
male rats: sexual partners after their preoptic area is lesioned
The state of being full to satisfaction and no longer desiring to take on more -However, once having secured a sexual partner, rats with
lesioned preoptic areas will show no further inclination to
Distinct, different, different actually initiate sex
1118. What role does the preoptic area fulfill in females? Fulfills different roles, such as functions involved with eating
behaviors
Plays an important role in satiety
1119. What is a region in the brain for females that is the same thing The ventromedial hypothalamus (the lower, central part)
as the preoptic area in males?
Can cause an animal to overeat to the point of obesity
1120. What do the neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamus do in Determine the excretion of estradiol, an estrogen hormone
females? that regulates sexual receptivity (or the willingness to accept a
Finicky sexual partner)
1121. In many mammals, the ventromedial hypothalamus neurons The periaqueductal gray (a region in the midbrain)
The sensory cortices (visual, olfactory, and taste) send impulses to:
1122. What is the function of the the periaqueductal gray? Responsible for defensive behaviors, such as freezing
Informational, hedonic immobility, running, increases in blood pressure, and other
motor responses
-Informational: help tell a person what is good or safe to eat 1123. Typically, the defensive responses from the periaqueductal Keep a female from mating with a male
-Hedonic: provide the pleasure (or hedonic) sensations that actually eating gray might:
the food produces
1124. What happens to the defensive responses during sexual These defensive responses are weakened and lordosis
Stable, enhanced arousal in females? behaviour, a physical sexual posture that serves as an invitation
to mate, is initiated
1125. While the _____ encourages males to engage in sexual activity, Preoptic area, ventromedial hypothalamus
the _____ fulfills that role for females
Detection of food-related stimuli
1126. Other differences between males and females involve Neural modules
overlapping functions of:

1107. After identifying a food item, the brain also Reward value 1127. Neural modules often provide clues about: The biological roles played by sexual arousal and sexual
needs to determine its _____, which affects the activity in males and females
organism's motivation to consume the food 1128. Areas of the brain that are important for male sexuality overlap Aggression
1108. What is reward value? A neuropsychological measure of an outcome's affective importance to an to a great extent with areas that are also associated with:
organism 1129. Areas important for female sexuality overlap extensively with Nurturance
1109. The reward value ascribed to a particular item is The level of hunger experienced by the organism (the hungrier you are, the those that are also connected to:
sensitive to: greater the reward value of the food) 1130. One region of the brain that seems to play an important role in Septal nucleus
sexual pleasure for both males and females is the:

1110. The neurons in which areas of the brain fire more rapidly at the Where reward values are processed, such as the orbitofrontal 1131. What is the function of the septal An area that receives reciprocal connections from many other brain regions, including the
sight of food when someone is hungry compared to when cortex nucleus? hypothalamus and the amygdala (a region of the brain primarily involved with emotions),
they're satiated? shows considerable activity, in terms of rhythmic spiking, during sexual orgasm

1111. Sexual arousal results in thoughts and behaviours related to: Sexual activity 1132. What is one of the brain regions that Septal nucleus
rats will most reliably voluntarily
1112. Sexual arousal is generated by a large range of internal and -After the extended absence of sexual activity self-stimulate?
external mechanisms that are triggered by what things? -By the immediate presence and possibility of sexual activity
(or by cues commonly associated with such possibilities) 1133. In humans, placing a small amount of Produce a feeling of imminent orgasm
acetylcholine into this region, or
1113. Do sexual mechanisms differ between men and women? Yes (indicates important evolutionary differences in the stimulating it electrically, has been
biological functions that sexual arousal serves for different reported to:
sexes)
1134. What are 2 key properties of drive 1. Homeostasis
1114. Sexual arousal and pleasure in males, for example, is strongly Preoptic area states?
related to the: 2. Narrowing of attention
1115. What is the preoptic area and where is it located? A region in the anterior hypothalamus (or the front of the 1135. One key difference between drive Internal, external
hypothalamus) involved in generating and regulating male states is the extent to which they are
sexual behaviour triggered by _____ as opposed to
1116. What happens if the preoptic area is damaged? Male sexual behavior is severely impaired _____ stimuli
1136. What is thirst induced by? Is it an
internal or external stimulus?
1137. What is fear induced by? Is it an
internal or external stimulus?
1138. What are drug cravings induced by?
Is it an internal or external stimulus?
1139. What maternity drive states induced
by?
1140. Why can there be real-world
consequences of drive states?
By decreased fluid levels and an increased concentration of salt in the body, internal 1151. What is the system Ekman and Facial Action Coding System (FACS)
Wallace Friesen devised to
By perceived threats in the external environment, external measure people's facial muscle
activity when making a facial
expression?
BOTH by internal homeostatic mechanisms and by external visual, olfactory, and
contextual cues 1152. How did Ekman and Friesen use
FACS for their study? What did
Triggered by specific events in the organism's life
they do with it?
-Hunger, sexual arousal, and other drive states are all psychological mechanisms that have
evolved gradually over millions of years (evolutionary mechanism)
-These drive states, at times, lead us to behave in ways that are ill-suited to our modern -Analyzed people's facial expressions and identified specific facial muscle configurations
lives associated with specific emotions, such as happiness, anger, sadness, fear, disgust
-E.g. obesity is a product of drive states that are too easily fulfilled: homeostatic -Then took photos of people posing with these different expressions
mechanisms that once worked well when food was scarce now backfire when meals rich -Showed these pictures to members of vastly different cultures, gave them a list of emotion
in fat and sugar are readily available words (translated into the relevant languages), and asked them to match the facial
-Other e.g. unrestricted sexual activity, school massacres, drug addiction expressions in the photos with their corresponding emotion words on the list

1141. What is lordosis?
1142. There is disagreement about the
extent to which culture shapes
people's:
1143. In the 1950s and 1960s, social
scientists fell into what 2 camps?
1144. What is universalism?
1145. What did universalists believe about
how our emotions came to be?
1146. What supports the belief that
emotions are universal?
A physical sexual posture in females that serves as an invitation to mate 1153. What were the results of Ekman
and Friesen's study?
Emotions and feelings—including what people feel, what they express, and what they do
during an emotional event
1. Universalist
2. Social constructivist
Universalism proposes that there are single objective standards, independent of culture, in
basic domains such as learning, reasoning, and emotion that are a part of all human 1154. How did Eckman and Friesen
experience (despite cultural differences in customs and traditions, at a fundamental level interpret their results from the
all humans feel similarly) study?
Believed that emotions evolved as a response to the environments of our primordial 1155. Give an example of a finding from One prominent example of such differences is biting one's tongue. In India, this signals
ancestors, so they are the same across all cultures Matsumoto and his colleagues in
People often describe their emotions as "automatic," "natural," "physiological," and cultural differences in display
"instinctual," supporting the view that emotions are hard-wired and universal rules:
1156. What do the findings from Ekman
and colleagues and Matsumoto
and colleagues suggest?
1157. Increasing research has
demonstrated cultural
differences not only in display
rules, but also:
-Across cultures, participants "recognized" the emotional facial expressions, matching each
picture with its "correct" emotion word at levels greater than chance (which lead them to
conclude that there are universally recognized emotional facial expressions)
-At the same time, though, they found considerable variability across cultures in recognition
rates
-Whereas 95% of U.S. participants associated a smile with "happiness," only 69% of Sumatran
participants did
-86% of U.S. participants associated wrinkling of the nose with "disgust," but only 60% of
Japanese did
Interpreted this variation as demonstrating cultural differences in "display rules," or rules
about what emotions are appropriate to show in a given situation
embarrassment; however, in the U.S. this expression has no such meaning
These findings suggest both cultural similarities and differences in the recognition of
emotional facial expressions
the degree to which people focus on the face (versus other aspects of the social context),
and on different features of the face when perceiving others' emotions (e.g. people from the
United States tend to focus on the mouth when interpreting others' emotions, whereas people
from Japan tend to focus on the eyes)

1147. What is social constructivism?
1148. What did Lutz (1988) argue for
social constructivism?
1149. How did social constructivists
explain why people aren't aware
that culture affects their
emotions?
1150. Who conducted one of the first
studies on the universalist-
constructivist debate?
Social constructivism proposes that knowledge is first created and learned within a social 1158. Emotions and other related states are _____, and Multifaceted, facet
context and is then adopted by individuals (claims that despite a common evolutionary that cultural similarities and differences exist
heritage, different groups of humans evolved to adapt to their distinctive environments, and for each _____
because human environments vary so widely, people's emotions are also culturally variable) 1159. Rather than classifying emotions as either The specific similarities and differences of emotional life across cultures
-Argued that many Western views of emotion assume that emotions are "singular events universal or socially-constructed, scholars are
situated within individuals" now attempting to identify:
-However, people from Ifaluk (a small island near Micronesia) view emotions as "exchanges 1160. Social scientists have focused on North They differ in obvious ways, including their geographical locations, histories,
between individuals" American and East Asian contexts because: languages, religion, overall values and attitudes, such as the prioritization of
Social constructivists contended that because cultural ideas and practices are all- personal vs. group needs (individualism vs. collectivism)
encompassing, people are often unaware of how their feelings are shaped by their culture- 1161. North American contexts encourage members Personal, group
therefore emotions can feel automatic, natural, physiological, and instinctual, and yet still be to prioritize _____ over _____ needs (to be
primarily culturally shaped "individualistic")
Paul Ekman 1162. East Asian contexts encourage members to Group, personal
prioritize _____ over _____ needs (to be
"collectivistic")
1163. Markus and Kitayama (1991) proposed that Different models of the self—or one's personal concept of who s/he is as a
previously observed differences in person
individualism and collectivism translated into:
1164. In North American contexts, the dominant Independent 1179. In North American contexts that promote an EXPRESS, influence others
model of the self is an _____ one independent self, individuals tend to _____ their
1165. What does it mean to be independent? Being a person means being distinct from others and behaving accordingly emotions to:
across situations 1180. In East Asian contexts that promote an CONTROL/SUPPRESS, adjust to others (which is why they don't display
1166. In East Asian contexts the dominant model of Interdependent interdependent self, individuals tend to _____ their smiles as much when they're happy, etc.)
the self is an _____ one emotions to:

1167. What does it mean to be interdependent? Being a person means being fundamentally connected to others and being 1181. People suppress their emotions across cultures, but The consequences of suppression for psychological well-being
responsive to situational demands culture influences:

1168. Describe the classic study done by Cousins -American and Japanese students were administered the Twenty Statements 1182. If the cultural ideal in North American contexts is to Negative
(1989) and the Twenty Statements Test: Test, in which they were asked to complete the sentence stem, "I am ______," express oneself, then suppressing emotions (not
twenty times showing how one feels) should have _____
-U.S. participants were more likely than Japanese participants to complete the consequences
stem with psychological attributes (e.g. friendly, cheerful) 1183. What is a hydraulic model of emotion? The idea that emotional suppression and repression impair psychological
-Japanese participants, on the other hand, were more likely to complete the functioning
stem with references to social roles and responsibilities (e.g. a daughter, a 1184. Suppressing emotions can have negative North American
student) consequences for psychological well-being in which
1169. Different models of the self result in: Different principles for interacting with others culture?
1170. An independent model of self teaches people Express themselves and try to influence others (i.e. change their environments 1185. With European Americans, emotional suppression is -Higher levels of depression and lower levels of life satisfaction
to: to be consistent with their own beliefs and desires) associated with what and why? -In these individualistic societies, the expression of emotion is a
1171. An interdependent model of self teaches Suppress their own beliefs and desires and adjust to others' (i.e. fit in with their fundamental aspect of positive interactions with others
people to: environment) 1186. What effect does emotional suppression have in -Emotional suppression is needed to adjust to others (in this
1172. Markus and Kitayama (1991) argue that these People in Western and East Asian contexts feel Chinese cultures? interdependent community, suppressing emotions is how to appropriately
different models of self have significant interact with others)
implications for how: -Simply a part of normal life and therefore not associated with depression
or life satisfaction
1173. People's physiological responses to emotional Facial expressive behaviour
events are similar across cultures, but culture 1187. European Americans diagnosed with depression Dampened or MUTED emotional responses
influences people's: show:

1174. Studies of emotional response tend to focus on 1. Physiology (e.g. how fast one's heart beats) 1188. Describe what happens when a sad film is shown to -When shown sad or amusing film clips, depressed European Americans
what 3 components? depressed vs. non-depressed people in both North respond less intensely than their nondepressed counterparts
2. Subjective experience (e.g. feeling intensely happy or sad) American and East Asian cultures: -Depressed East Asian Americans (i.e. people of East Asian descent who
live in the United States) demonstrate similar or increased emotional
3. Facial expressive behaviour (e.g. smiling or frowning) responses compared with their nondepressed counterparts
-Depressed European Americans show reduced emotional expressions,
but depressed East Asian Americans do not—and, in fact, may express
more emotion

1175. Studies that simultaneously study all 3 aspects tend
to observe more similarities than differences in _____
between cultures
1176. Describe the study done on emotion between
European American and Hmong American
participants:
1177. While the physiological aspects of emotional
responses appear to be similar across cultures, their
accompanying _____ are more culturally distinctive
1178. These differences in facial expressions during
positive emotional events are consistent with
findings from cross-cultural studies of _____, and stem
from the models of self-description
Physiological responses (regardless of culture, people tend to respond 1189. Muted responses (which resemble European American, East Asian
similarly in terms of physiological (or bodily) expression) suppression) are associated with
depression in _____ contexts, but not _____
contexts
-Were asked to relive various emotional episodes in their lives
-At the level of physiological arousal there were no differences in how 1190. Studies indicate that culture affects Bad
the participants responded whether people are likely to feel _____
-However, their facial expressive behaviour told a different story during good events
-When reliving events that elicited happiness, pride, and love, European 1191. In which context do people rarely feel bad North American
Americans smiled more frequently and more intensely than did their after good experiences?
Hmong counterparts—though all participants reported feeling happy, 1192. East Asian contexts are more likely to feel Bad and good (mixed emotions)
proud, and in love at similar levels of intensity _____ during positive events
-Similar results between European Americans and Chinese Americans
1193. Why do East Asians have mixed emotions -East Asians engage in more dialectical thinking (i.e. they are more tolerant of
Facial expressions during positive events? contradiction and change)
-They accept that positive and negative feelings can occur simultaneously
1194. Whereas North Americans value A greater balance between the two
Display rules maximizing positive states and minimizing
negative ones, East Asians value:
1195. Give an example of how North Americans -In North American contexts, such success is considered an individual achievement 1199. What affective state do Excited, enthusiastic, energetic, and other "high arousal positive" states
and East Asians would feel after a positive and worth celebrating North Americans lean
event such as getting a top score on a test: -But what about the other students who will now receive a lower grade because you toward?
"raised the curve" with your good grade? 1200. What affective state do Calm, peaceful, and other "low arousal positive"
-In East Asian contexts, not only would students be more thoughtful of the overall East Asians lean toward?
group's success, but they would also be more comfortable acknowledging both the
positive (their own success on the test) and the negative (their classmates' lower 1201. In what age groups have -In young children between the ages of 3 and 5
grades) the cultural differences in -College students
affective states been -Adults between the ages of 60 and 80
1196. Explain how the suppression of emotions is -An interdependent model encourages people to think about how their observed?
linked to cultural differences in models of accomplishments might affect others (e.g. make others feel bad or jealous)
the self (interdependent and independent): -Thus, awareness of negative emotions during positive events may discourage 1202. What is ideal affect? The emotional states that people believe are best
people from expressing their excitement and standing out (as in East Asian 1203. Describe how ideal affect -Independent selves want to influence others, which requires action (doing something), and action
contexts)-such emotional suppression helps individuals feel in sync with those correspond to the involves high arousal states
around them independent and -Interdependent selves want to adjust to others, which requires suspending action and attending to
-An independent model, however, encourages people to express themselves and interdependent models: others—both of which involve low arousal states
stand out, so when something good happens, they have no reason to feel bad 1204. The more that individuals Excitement, enthusiasm, and other high arousal positive states
1197. Everyone welcomes positive feelings, but Positive affective states and cultures want to
cultures vary in the specific types of _____ influence others (as in
their people favour North American contexts),
the more they value (in
terms of ideal affect):
1205. The more that individuals Calm, peacefulness, and other low arousal positive states
and cultures want to adjust
to others (as in East Asian
contexts), the more they
value (in terms of ideal
affect):
1206. Because one's ideal affect Different emotional lives
functions as a guide for
behaviour and a way of
evaluating one's emotional
states, cultural differences
in ideal affect can result in:

1198. What are affective states? 1207. Several studies have shown that people engage in Their cultural ideal affect
activities (e.g. recreational pastimes, musical styles)
consistent with:
1208. People from North American contexts who value _____ High, skydiving (thrilling activities)
arousal affective states tend to prefer activities like:
1209. People from East Asian contexts who value _____ Low, lounging on the beach (tranquil activities)
arousal affective states prefer activities like:
1210. People base their conceptions of well-being and Their ideal affect
happiness on:
1211. European Americans are more likely to define well- Excitement, calmness
being in terms of _____, whereas Hong Kong Chinese are
more likely to define well-being in terms of _____
1212. Among European Americans, the less people High
Feelings that can be described in terms of two dimensions, the dimensions of arousal and valence.
experience _____ arousal positive states, the more
For example, high arousal positive states refer to excitement, elation, and enthusiasm. Low arousal
depressed they are
positive states refer to calm, peacefulness, and relaxation. Whereas "actual affect" refers to the
states that people actually feel, "ideal affect" refers to the states that people ideally want to feel. 1213. Among Hong Kong Chinese the less people experience Low
(the type of emotional arousal one feels coupled with its intensity—which can vary from pleasant to _____ arousal positive states, the more depressed they
unpleasant (e.g. happy to sad), with high to low arousal (e.g. energetic to passive)) are
1214. People base their happiness on similar factors across
cultures, but culture influences:
1215. Discrepancies between how people actually feel (actual Depression
affect) and how they want to feel (ideal affect)—as well
as people's suppression of their ideal affect—are
associated with:
1216. Describe what Kwan, Bond, & Singelis (1997) found on
their study of life satisfaction and the difference
between European Americans and Hong Kong Chinese:
1217. Describe the study done by Oishi and colleagues (1999)
and self esteem in different cultures:
1218. Individualistic cultures people rated life satisfaction
based on their _____ more so than on _____
1219. Rather than using social norms as a guideline for what
constitutes an ideal life, people in individualistic
cultures tend to evaluate their satisfaction according
to:
1220. In collectivistic cultures people's life satisfaction tends
to be based on a _____ between their emotions and
norms
1221. How does it affect people in North American contexts
when one has poor mental and physical health?
1222. How does it affect people in Japanese contexts when
one has poor mental and physical health?
1223. Describe how the findings on life satisfaction in North
American and East Asian cultures relate to the models
of self:
The WEIGHT placed on each factor 1229. Give an example of how cultural ideas are reflected in
practices, institutions, and products:
1230. Describe the study done by Tsai, Louie, et al. (2007) on
culture and emotion with children:
-While European Americans and Hong Kong Chinese subjects both
based life satisfaction on how they felt about themselves (self-esteem)
and their relationships (relationship harmony), their weighting of each
factor was different
- European Americans based their life satisfaction primarily on self-
esteem, whereas Hong Kong Chinese based their life satisfaction
EQUALLY on self-esteem and relationship harmony
Found in a study of 39 nations that self-esteem was more strongly
correlated with life satisfaction in more individualistic nations
compared to more collectivistic ones
Emotions, social definitions/norms
1231. What do the results from the study done by Tsai, Louie, et al.
(2007) suggest?
How they feel emotionally
1232. An alternative explanation for cultural differences in
emotion is that they are due to _____ factors
1233. Do most models of emotion acknowledge that both culture
BALANCE
and temperament play roles in emotional life? Or is it one or
the other?
1234. Despite genetic differences in founder populations (i.e. the
More likely to feel negative
migrants from a population who leave to create their own
societies), _____ has a greater impact on emotions
Don't have a negative association
1235. What does Affect Valuation Theory propose?
-In North American, independent contexts, feelings about the self
1236. What is the opposite of Affect Valuation Theory?
matter more
-In East Asian, interdependent contexts, feelings about others matter as
much as or even more than feelings about the self
Bestselling children's storybooks in the United States often
contain more exciting and less calm content (smiles and activities)
than do bestselling children's storybooks in Taiwan (also has to
do with cultural differences in ideal affect)
-Randomly assigned European American, Asian American, and
Taiwanese Chinese preschoolers to be read either stories with
exciting content or stories with calm content
-Across all of these cultures, the kids who were read stories with
exciting content were afterward more likely to value excited
states, whereas those who were read stories with calm content
were more likely to value calm states
-As a test, after hearing the stories, the kids were shown a list of
toys and asked to select their favourites
-Those who heard the exciting stories wanted to play with more
arousing toys (like a drum that beats loud and fast), whereas those
who heard the calm stories wanted to play with less arousing toys
(like a drum that beats quiet and slow)
These findings suggest that regardless of ethnic background,
direct exposure to storybook content alters children's ideal affect
Temperamental (biological predispositions to respond in certain
ways) (e.g. Might European Americans just be more emotional
than East Asians because of genetics?)
Both
Culture
That cultural factors shape how people want to feel ("ideal
affect") more than how they actually feel ("actual affect")
Conversely, temperamental factors influence how people actually
feel more than how they want to feel

1224. Understanding cultural similarities and differences in
emotion is critical to:
1225. Give an example of cultural miscommunications:
1226. Findings from a recent series of studies suggest that calm
states are easier to elicit than excited states, suggesting:
1227. Because more and more people are being raised within
multiple cultural contexts (e.g. for many Chinese Americans,
a Chinese immigrant culture at home and mainstream
American culture at school), more research is needed to
examine how:
1228. Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952), cultural ideas are reflected in Practices, institutions, and products
and reinforced by:
-Understanding emotions in general
-Understanding the flexibility of emotional processes
-Preventing potentially harmful miscommunications
-Across a variety of North American settings, Asian Americans are
often characterized as too "quiet" and "reserved," and these low
arousal states are often misinterpreted as expressions of
disengagement or boredom—rather than expressions of the ideal
of calmness
- Asian Americans may be perceived as "cold," "stoic," and
"unfriendly," fostering stereotypes of Asian Americans as
"perpetual foreigners" (may be one reason Asian Americans are
often overlooked for top leadership positions)
One way of increasing happiness in cultures that value excitement
may be to increase the value placed on calm states
People negotiate and integrate these different cultures in their
emotional lives
1237. Describe a study done to
test the hypothesis of the
difference between Affect
Valuation Theory and
temperament:
1238. Affect Valuation Theory:
1239. What is culture?
1240. What are emotions?
-European American, Asian American, and Hong Kong Chinese participants completed measures
of temperament (i.e. stable dispositions, such as neuroticism or extraversion), actual affect (i.e. how
people actually feel in given situations), ideal affect (i.e. how people would like to feel in given
situations), and influential cultural values (i.e. personal beliefs transmitted through culture
-Found that differences in ideal affect between cultures were associated more with cultural
factors than with temperamental factors
-When researchers examined actual affect, they found this to be reversed: actual affect was more
strongly associated with temperamental factors than cultural factors
Thicker lines indicate stronger predicted relationships
Shared, socially transmitted ideas (e.g. values, beliefs, attitudes) that are reflected in and
reinforced by institutions, products, and rituals
Changes in subjective experience, physiological responding, and behaviour in response to a
meaningful event. Emotions tend to occur on the order of seconds (in contract to moods which
may last for days)-immediate responses to environmental events
1241. What are feelings? A general term used to describe a wide range of states that include emotions, moods, traits and 1258. What is extrinsic motivation? Motivation stemming from the benefits associated with achieving a goal such as
that typically involve changes in subjective experience, physiological responding, and behaviour in obtaining a monetary reward
response to a meaningful event. Emotions typically occur on the order of seconds, whereas 1259. Give examples of extrinsic motivation: -The fame and fortune that come with being the first person on Mars
moods may last for days, and traits are tendencies to respond a certain way across various -A student working hard to get good grades, which will help land a good job
situations.
1260. Social psychologists recognize that goal An individual's personality
1242. What are 3 characteristics of 1. Adaptive pursuit and the motivations that underlie it do
emotions? not depend solely on:
2. Communicative
1261. Goal pursuit and motivations are products of: Personal characteristics and situational factors
3. Subjective 1262. Cues in a person's immediate environment— Activate/prime
1243. Give an example of how You would be scared in front of a lion, not calm including images, words, sounds, and the
emotions are adaptive: presence of other people—can _____ a goal

1244. Emotions involve both _____
and _____ components
1245. How do negative emotions
alter cognition?
Physiological, cognitive 1263. What does goal priming mean? The activation of a goal following exposure to cues in the immediate
environment related to the goal or its corresponding means (e.g. images, words,
sounds)
Narrow attention
1264. Activation can be _____ or _____ Conscious, nonconscious

1246. How do positive emotions Broaden attention 1265. What is conscious goal activation? When a person is fully aware of contextual influences and resulting goal-
alter cognition? directed behavior (the person is aware of the environmental cues influencing
his/her pursuit of a goal)
1247. Negative vs. positive
emotions: 1266. What is nonconscious goal activation? When activation occurs outside a person's awareness, such that the person is
unaware of the reasons behind her goal-directed thoughts and behaviors (may
not even realize they are pursuing it)
1267. What is self-regulation? The processes through which individuals alter their emotions, desires, and
actions (behaviour) in the course of pursuing a goal (factors that influence
individuals' motivation in the course of pursuing a goal)
1268. What is self-control? The capacity to control impulses, emotions, desires, and actions in order to resist
a temptation and adhere to a valued goal (what motivates individuals to keep
following their goals when faced with other conflicting desires)
-People with negative emotions tend to focus on the local aspects of the images (the top-would
1269. Self-regulation is difficult! Often involves Self-control
focus on squares, and say it is most similar to image on bottom right because it is focused on
postponing short-term rewards in the pursuit
squares)
of long-term goals →
-People with positive emotions would say its similar to bottom left because they are both in a
triangular shape

1248. What kind of action tendencies do negative Withdrawal 1270. What is the basic difference between self- Self-regulation is a broader construct, self-control is self-regulation under specific
emotions lead to? regulation and self-control? set of circumstances

1249. What kind of action tendencies do positive Lead to creativity and exploring 1271. Commitment stems from the sense that a -Both valuable and attainable
emotions lead to? goal is: -We adopt goals that are highly likely to bring positive outcome

1250. Your decisions and behaviors are often the A goal or motive you possess 1272. One's commitment = The VALUEof the goal × the EXPECTANCY it will be achieved
result of: 1273. Give an example of how the process of -People infer value and attainability, and will nonconsciously determine their
1251. What is a goal? The cognitive representation of a desired state (outcome)/ our mental idea of committing to a goal can occur without much commitment based on those factors, as well as the outcomes of past goals
how we'd like things to turn out conscious deliberation: -People observe their behaviors and draw inferences about their own preferences
(this is the same way people learn about others)
1252. This desired end state of a goal can be _____, Clearly DEFINED (e.g. stepping on the surface of Mars), ABSTRACT and
or it can be more _____ represent a state that is never fully completed (e.g. eating healthy) 1274. Give an example of how one might observe After taking a kickboxing class, you might infer from your efforts that you are
their behaviour and draw an inference from indeed committed to staying physically fit
1253. Underlying all goals is: Motivation
it:
1254. What is motivation? The psychological driving force that enables action in the course of goal pursuit 1275. What makes people adhere to a goal in any Cues in the immediate environment (e.g. objects, images, sounds—anything that
1255. Motivation can stem from what 2 places? 1. Intrinsic motivation given context (setting)? primes a goal) can have a remarkable influence on the pursuit of goals to which
people are already committed
2. Extrinsic motivation 1276. How do cues work? In memory, goals are organized in associative networks (each goal is connected
1256. What is intrinsic motivation? Motivation stemming from the benefits associated with the process of pursuing a to other goals, concepts, and behaviors)
goal such as having a fulfilling experience 1277. Each goal is connected to corresponding: Means
1257. Give examples of intrinsic motivation: -You might be driven by the desire to have a fulfilling experience while working 1278. What are means? Activities or objects that contribute to goal attainment (activities and objects that
on your Mars mission help us attain the goal)
-A student working hard on assignments because the act of learning is pleasing
1279. Give an example of how a goal works with
means:
1280. Cues related to the goal or means can:
1281. Give an example of how cues related to the
goal or means can activate/prime the pursuit puzzle, can activate the goal of staying physically fit and, hence, increase a
of that goal (increase motivation):
1282. What happens after goal priming?
1283. The activation of a goal and the
accompanying increase in motivation can
influence many aspects of behaviour and
judgment, including:
1284. Motivational states can even alter something Visual perception
as fundamental as:
1285. Describe the study done by Balcetis
and Dunning (2006) on how goals can
alter visual perception:
-Showed participants an ambiguous figure (e.g. "I3") and asked them whether they saw
because seeing a number required the participants to drink a gross tasting juice), they in
-It wasn't that the participants were simply lying, either; their goal literally changed how
The goal to stay physically fit may be associated with several means, including a 1286. Goals can also exert a strong Evaluate
nearby gym, one's bicycle, or even a training partner influence on how people _____ the
Activate or prime the pursuit of that goal objects (and people) around them
The presence of one's training partner, or even seeing the word "workout" in a 1287. Give an example of how goals can -When pursuing a goal such as quenching one's thirst, people evaluate goal-relevant
influence how people evaluate things objects (e.g. a glass) more positively than objects that are not relevant to the goal (e.g.
person's motivation to exercise (also e.g. an ad for running shoes, a comment and others: a pencil)
about weight loss) -Those with the goal of quenching their thirst rate the glass more positively than people
who are not pursuing the goal
Soon after goal priming, the motivation to act on the goal peaks then slowly
declines, after some delay, as the person moves away from the primer or after 1288. Priming a goal can lead to what kind of Evaluating things/people (consistent with the goal), even though the person isn't
s/he pursues the goal behaviours? necessarily aware of why (i.e. the source of the motivation)
How people perceive, evaluate, and feel about the world around them 1289. Give an example of how priming a goal After research participants saw words related to achievement (in the context of solving
can lead to nonconscious behaviour a word search), they automatically performed better on a subsequent achievement test
trying to reach that goal: —without being at all aware that the achievement words had influenced them
1290. Many of the behaviours we like to Inconsistent
engage in are _____ with achieving our
goals
1291. Give an example of how many of the You may want to be physically fit, but you may also really like German chocolate cake
behaviours we like to engage in are
inconsistent with achieving our goals:
1292. Give an example of how one might Filling up on fruits at a dessert party is one way someone might alter his or her actions to
self-regulate if they are trying to stay help with goal attainment
fit:
1293. Self-regulation involves what 2 basic 1. Deliberative phase
stages (each with a distinct mindset)?
2. Implemental phase
1294. What is the deliberative phase? The first of the two basic stages of self-regulation in which individuals decide which of
many potential goals to pursue at a given point in time
1295. What kind of a mindset comes with the A person often has a mindset that fosters an effective assessment of goals (one tends to
deliberative phase? be open-minded and realistic about available goals to pursue)
1296. What is a drawback of the -Such scrutiny of one's choices sometimes hinders action
deliberative phase? Give an -For example, in the deliberative phase about how to spend time, someone might consider
example: improving health, academic performance, or developing a hobby
-This deliberation involves considering realistic obstacles, such as one's busy schedule, which
may discourage the person from believing the goals can likely be achieved (and thus, doesn't
work toward any of them)
1297. What is the implemental phase? The second of the two basic stages of self-regulation in which individuals plan specific
actions related to their selected goal
1298. What kind of mindset comes with A person tends to have a mindset conducive to the effective implementation of a goal
the implemental phase? through immediate action—i.e. with the planning done, we're ready to jump right into attaining
our goal
1299. What is a drawback of the -This mindset often leads to closed-mindedness and unrealistically positive expectations
implemental phase? Give an about the chosen goal
example: -For example, in order to follow a health goal, a person might register for a gym membership
the letter B or the number 13 and start exercising-in doing so, s/he assumes this is all that's needed to achieve the goal
-The researchers found that when participants had the goal of seeing a letter (e.g. (closed-mindedness), and after a few weeks, it should be accomplished (unrealistic
expectations)
fact saw a B 1300. What is Regulatory Focus Theory Examines the relationship between the motivation of a person and the way in which they go
(Higgins, 1997)? about achieving their goal-posits 2 orientations: prevention and promotion
they perceived the world
1301. What are 2 distinct self-
regulatory orientations (or
perceptions of effectiveness) in
pursuing a goal?
1302. What is the prevention focus?
1303. For those who are prevention-
oriented, a goal is viewed as
something they:
1304. For those who are prevention
oriented, they tend to focus on:
1305. What is the promotion focus?
1306. People with the promotion focus
view their goals as something
they:
1307. Compare the strategies of
prevention and promotion with
the goal of saving money:
1308. Do both prevention and
promotion strategies result in
similar behaviours?
1309. Emphasizing potential losses will
motivate individuals with a _____
focus
1310. Emphasizing potential gains will
motivate individuals with a _____
focus
1311. Cultural differences of regulatory focus
(Lockwood et. al, 2005):
1312. And these orientations—responding better to
either a prevention or promotion focus—
differ across _____ and _____
1313. What is it called when the focuses differ
across individuals?
1314. What is it called when the focuses differ
across situations?
1315. Self-regulation depends on feelings that
arise from comparing _____ to _____
1. Prevention
2. Promotion 1316. During goal pursuit, individuals calculate the Their current state (i.e. all goal-related actions completed so far) and their
discrepancy between: desired end state (i.e. what they view as "achieving the goal")
One of two self-regulatory orientations emphasizing safety, responsibility, and security needs, 1317. What happens after the discrepancy is The person then acts to close that gap
and viewing goals as "oughts." This self-regulatory focus seeks to avoid losses (the presence calculated?
of negatives) and approach non-losses (the absence of negatives).
1318. What is a cybernetic process of self- Internal system directing how a person should control behaviour
SHOULD be doing regulation?
1319. A higher-than-expected rate of closing the Positive feelings
discrepancy creates a signal in the form of:
Potential problems (e.g. exercising to avoid health threats)
1320. Give an example of how a higher-than- If you're nearly finished with a class project (i.e., a low discrepancy between your
expected rate of closing the discrepancy progress and what it will take to completely finish), you feel good about yourself
One of two self-regulatory orientations emphasizing hopes, accomplishments, and creates a signal in the form of positive
advancement needs, and viewing goals as "ideals." This self-regulatory focus seeks to feelings:
approach gains (the presence of positives) and avoid non-gains (the absence of positives).
1321. What do the positive feelings from the These positive feelings tend to make individuals "coast," or reduce their efforts on
WANT to do that will bring them added pleasure (e.g. exercising because being healthy higher-than-expected rate of discrepancy the focal goal, and shift their focus to other goals (e.g. you're almost done with
allows them to do more activities) tend to do? your project for one class, so you start working on a paper for another)
1322. A lower-than-expected rate of closing the Negative feelings
-Prevention-focused people will save money because they believe it's what they should be gap elicits:
doing (an ought), and because they're concerned about not having any money (avoiding a
harm) 1323. What do the negative feelings from the Leads to greater effort investment on the focal goal (e.g. if it is the day before a
-Promotion-focused people, on the other hand, will save money because they want to have lower-than-expected rate of closing the cap project's due and you've hardly started it, you will likely feel anxious and stop all
extra funds (a desire) so they can do new and fun activities (attaining an advancement) cause? other activities to make progress on your project)
Yes 1324. When we've completed steps toward Looking back on the behaviours or actions that helped us make such progress
achieving our goal, what can have
implications for future behaviours and
actions?
Prevention
1325. What is commitment? The sense that both a goal is valuable and attainable
1326. Explain the difference between commitment COMMITMENT results from the perceived value and attainability of a goal,
Promotion and progress: whereas PROGRESS describes the perception of a reduced discrepancy between
the current state and desired end state (i.e. the cybernetic process)
1327. What happens after someone achieves a goal They tend to highlight the pursuit of that goal, prioritizing it and putting more
and interprets their previous actions in terms of effort toward it
commitment?
1328. What does highlighting a goal mean? Prioritizing a focal goal over other goals or temptations by putting more
effort into the focal goal
1329. What happens after someone achieves a goal They tend to balance between the goal and other goals, putting less effort
and interprets their previous actions in terms of into the focal goal
-Motivation by positive and negative role models progress?
-More prevention focused: more motivated by negative role model (they think of
1330. What does balancing between goals mean? Shifting between a focal goal and other goals or temptations by putting less
them as what not to do)
effort into the focal goal—usually with the intention of coming back to the
-Promotion focused: more motivated by positive role model (superstar student,
focal goal at a later point in time
etc.)
-People in interdependent cultures are more prevention focused 1331. Give an example of the difference between -If buying a product on sale reinforces your commitment to the goal of
-People in independent cultures are more promotion focused emphasizing commitment and progress: saving money, you will continue to behave financially responsibly
-If you perceive the same action (buying the sale item) as evidence of
Individuals, situations
progress toward the goal of saving money, you might feel like you can "take
a break" from your goal, justifying splurging on a subsequent purchase
1332. The more confident a person is about a Progress, commitment
Chronic regulatory focus
commitment to a goal, the more likely s/he is to
infer _____ rather than _____ from his/her actions
Momentary regulatory function
1333. What do we need to exercise when we come Self-control
across other goals that get in the way of our
Actual progress, expected progress ambitions?
1334. Self-control is a process of self-regulation in A clear trade-off between long-term interests (e.g. health, financial, or 1349. Give an example of poor identification of If you have a long-term goal of getting better sleep but don't perceive that staying
contexts involving: Martian) and some form of immediate gratification the self-control conflict: up late on a Friday night is inconsistent with this goal, you won't have a self-
1335. Give an example of the difference between self- Whereas reading each page of a textbook requires self-regulation, doing so control conflict
regulation and self-control: while resisting the tempting sounds of friends socializing in the next room 1350. The successful pursuit of a goal in the face Individuals first identify they are having impulses that need to be controlled
requires self-control of temptation requires that:
1336. Is self-control just a personal characteristic or Strengthened (it is like a muscle, in that it becomes drained by being used but 1351. Why do individuals often fail to identify Because many everyday temptations seem to have very minimal negative
can it be strengthened? is also strengthened in the process) self-control conflicts? consequences (e.g. one bowl of ice cream is unlikely to destroy a person's health,
1337. Mischel, Shoda, and Rodriguez (1989) identified Greater cognitive and social competence over the course of a lifetime but what about 200 bowls of ice cream over the course of a few months)
enduring individual differences in self-control 1352. People are more likely to identify a self- They think of a choice as part of a broader pattern of repeated behaviour rather
and found that the persistent capacity to control conflict, and exercise self-control, than as an isolated choice (e.g. rather than seeing one bowl of ice cream as an
postpone immediate gratification for the sake of when: isolated behavioural decision, the person should try to recognize that this "one
future interests leads to: bowl of ice cream" is actually part of a nightly routine)
1338. Describe the experiment conducted by Mischel & -Preschoolers 3-5 years old were asked to choose between getting a smaller 1353. When considering broader decision More problematic for long-term interests
Baker (1975) with preschoolers exhibiting self- treat immediately (e.g. a single marshmallow) or waiting as long as 15 minutes patterns, consistent temptations become:
control: to get a better one (e.g. two marshmallows) 1354. Conflict identification is more likely if: People see their current choices as similar to their future choices
-Some children were better-able to exercise self-control than others,
resisting the temptation to take the available treat and waiting for the better 1355. The protection of a valued goal involves Counteracting the PULL of temptations and PUSHING oneself toward goal-
one several cognitive and behavioural strategies related alternatives
-Following up with these preschoolers ten years later, the researchers found ultimately aimed at:
that the children who were able to wait longer in the experiment for the 1356. Give examples of how one can counteract -Decreasing the value of temptations and increasing the value of goal-consistent
second marshmallow (vs. those who more quickly ate the single temptation: objects or actions
marshmallow) performed better academically and socially, and had better -A precommitment to pursue goals and forgo temptation
psychological coping skills as adolescents -Establishing rewards for goals and penalties for temptations
1339. What were the strategies employed for the Turning hot cognitions into cold cognitions; ignoring; distraction (ignoring, -Physically approaching goals and distancing oneself from temptations
Marshmallow Test? distracting not as successful as cognitive reframing, i.e. pretending the 1357. Give an example of decreasing the value of Health-conscious individuals might tell themselves a sugary treat is less appealing
marshmallow is something else, like a rock) temptations and increasing the value of than a piece of fruit in order to direct their choice toward the latter
1340. Beyond personal characteristics, the ability to Context goal-consistent objects or actions:
exercise self-control can fluctuate from one _____ 1358. Give an example of a precommitment to Leaving one's credit card at home before going to the mall
to the next pursue goals and forgo temptation:

1341. What is ego-depletion? The exhaustion of physiological and/or psychological resources following the 1359. Give an example of physically approaching goals and Pushing away a dessert plate
completion of effortful self-control tasks, which subsequently leads to reduction in distancing oneself from temptations:
the capacity to exert more self-control 1360. Self-control processes can benefit individuals' long-term Consciously, conscious awareness
1342. Give an example of ego-depletion: Choosing not to eat a donut, then later in the day, again resisting a sugary treat interests, either _____ or without _____

1343. Give an example of something that ego- Just like bicycling for two hours would exhaust someone before a basketball game 1361. What can practicing self-control processes end up doing? Individuals automatically activate goal-related thoughts in
depletion is analogous to: response to temptation, and inhibit temptation-related thoughts
in the presence of goal cues
1344. Why is ego-depletion a great example of Because there is debate as to whether this theory has been debunked, lots of meta
"science-in-action"? analyses 1362. Even the most basic decisions take place within: A much larger and more complex mental framework

1345. Exerting self-control reduces or improves
individuals' capacity to exert more self-
control in a consequent task?
1346. Does exerting self-control in one domain
also reduce the capacity to exert more self-
control in a DIFFERENT domain?
1347. Describe the study done by Baumeister et
al. (1998) concerning ego-depletion:
1348. Although factors such as resources and
personal characteristics contribute to the
successful exercise of self-control, what
else is an important prerequisite?
Reduces 1363. Through understanding _____, we can help cognitively modify Our own mental representation of our goals (i.e. the values and
our behaviour to achieve our dreams expectancies behind them)
1364. Personality traits reflect: People's characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and
Yes (e.g. resisting a donut and then continuing to be financially responsible- behaviours, and basic dimensions on which people differ
different domains vs. resisting a donut and then continuing to eat healthy-same 1365. Personality traits imply: Consistency and stability (e.g. someone who scores high on a
domain) specific trait like Extraversion is expected to be sociable in
Research participants who forced themselves to eat radishes instead of tempting different situations and over time)
chocolates were subsequently less persistent (i.e. gave up sooner) at attempting 1366. Trait psychology rests on the idea that people differ from one Where they stand on a set of basic trait dimensions that persist
an unsolvable puzzle task compared to the participants who had not exerted self- another in terms of: over time and across situations
control to resist the chocolates 1367. What is the most widely used system of traits? Five-Factor Model
IDENTIFYING the self-control conflict inherent to a particular situation is an
1368. Each of the major traits from the Big Five can be: Divided into facets to give a more fine-grained analysis of
important
someone's personality
1369. Some trait theorists argue that there are other traits that The Five-Factor Model
cannot be completely captured by:
 1382. Distribution of Extraversion
scores from a survey of
1370. Critics of the trait concept argue that: People do not act consistently from one situation to the next thousands of people:
and that people are very influenced by situational forces
1371. What is one major debate in the field of personality traits? Concerns the relative power of people's traits versus the
situations in which they find themselves as predictors of their
behaviour
1372. Each time we use one of these words, words like "talkative," Personality
"quiet," "active," or "anxious," to describe those around us, we
are talking about a person's:
1373. What is personality? Enduring predispositions that characterize a person, such as
styles of thought, feelings and behaviour (the characteristic
ways that people differ from one another)-relatively stable in an Most people report being moderately, but not extremely, extraverted, with fewer people
individual over time and across circumstances reporting very high or very low scores (people score towards the middle of the extraversion
scale, with fewer people who are highly extraverted or highly introverted)
1374. Personality psychologists try to: Describe and understand differences in personality traits
1383. What are the 3 criteria that 1. Consistency
1375. Although there are many ways to think about the personalities Personality traits: are characterize personality
that people have, Gordon Allport and other "personologists" traits? 2. Stability
claimed that we can best understand the differences between
individuals by understanding their: 3. Individual differences
1376. What are personality traits? Enduring dispositions in behaviour that show differences across 1384. What does consistency mean -To have a personality trait, individuals must be somewhat consistent across situations in their
individuals, and which tend to characterize the person across in terms of personality behaviours related to the trait
varying types of situations traits? Give an example: -E.g. If they are talkative at home, they tend also to be talkative at work
1377. According to trait psychologists, there are a _____ number of Limited 1385. What does stability mean in -Individuals with a trait are also somewhat stable over time in behaviours related to the trait
these dimensions (dimensions like Extraversion, terms of personality traits? -E.g. If they are talkative, for example, at age 30, they will also tend to be talkative at age 40
Conscientiousness, or Agreeableness) Give an example:
1378. Each individual falls somewhere on each dimension, meaning Low, medium, or high on any specific trait 1386. What do individual -People differ from one another on behaviours related to the trait
that they could be: differences mean in terms of -E.g. Using speech is not a personality trait and neither is walking on two feet—virtually all
personality traits? Give an individuals do these activities, and there are almost no individual differences. But people differ on
example: how frequently they talk and how active they are, and thus personality traits such as Talkativeness
and Activity Level do exist
1387. A challenge of the trait Discover the major traits on which all people differ
approach was to:
1388. How did scientists try to -Generated hundreds of new traits, so that it was soon difficult to keep track and make sense of
discover the major traits on them
which all people differ? -One psychologist might focus on individual differences in "friendliness," whereas another might
focus on the highly related concept of "sociability"
1379. An important feature of Continuous distributions, distinct personality types (means that when personality psychologists talk -Scientists began seeking ways to reduce the number of traits in some systematic way and to
personality traits is that they about Introverts and extraverts, they are not really talking about two distinct types of people who discover the basic traits that describe most of the differences between people
reflect ____ rather than _____ are completely and qualitatively different from one another-they are talking about people who 1389. The way that Gordon Allport and his -Search the dictionary for all descriptors of personality
score relatively low or relatively high along a continuous distribution) colleague Henry Odbert approached -They took all the personality descriptors that they could find in the dictionary
1380. What are continuous Characteristics can go from low to high, with all different intermediate values possible. One does discovering traits on which all people differ (they started with almost 18,000 words but quickly reduced that list to a more
distributions? not simply have the trait or not have it, but can possess varying amounts of it. was to: manageable number) and then used statistical techniques to determine which
words "went together"
1381. When personality Somewhere in the middle, with smaller numbers showing more extreme levels
-In other words, if everyone who said that they were "friendly" also said that they
psychologists measure traits
were "sociable," then this might mean that personality psychologists would only
like Extraversion, they
need a single trait to capture individual differences in these characteristics
typically find that most
people score: 1390. Gordon Allport and Henry Odbert's approach Lexical hypothesis
was guided by:
1391. What is lexical hypothesis? The lexical hypothesis is the idea that the most important differences between
people will be encoded in the language that we use to describe people.
Therefore, if we want to know which personality traits are most important, we
can look to the language that people use to describe themselves and others.
1392. _____ were used to determine whether a small Statistical techniques
number of dimensions might underlie all of
the thousands of words we use to describe
people
1393. Research that used the lexical approach Many of the personality descriptors found in the dictionary do indeed overlap
showed that: (many of the words that we use to describe people are synonym)
1394. Give an example of how to find out what -If we want to know what a person is like, we do not necessarily need to ask 1408. Scores on the Big Independent
someone is like using a single term: how sociable they are, how friendly they are, and how gregarious they are Five traits are
-Instead, because sociable people tend to be friendly and gregarious, we can mostly dependant
summarize this personality dimension with a single term or independent?
-Someone who is sociable, friendly, and gregarious would typically be 1409. What does it mean A person's standing on one trait tells very little about their standing on the other traits of the Big Five (e.g. a
described as an "Extravert." Once we know she is an extravert, we can assume that scores on the person can be extremely high in Extraversion and be either high or low on Neuroticism, a person can be
that she is sociable, friendly, and gregarious Big Five traits are low in Agreeableness and be either high or low in Conscientiousness)-Two characteristics or traits are
1395. Statistical methods (specifically, a technique Factor analysis mostly separate from one another-- a person can be high on one and low on the other, or vice-versa. Some
called _____) helped to determine whether a independent? correlated traits are relatively independent in that although there is a tendency for a person high on one to
small number of dimensions underlie the also be high on the other, this is not always the case.
diversity of words that people like Allport and 1410. In the Five-Factor 5
Odbert identified Model, you need __
1396. What is factor analysis? A statistical technique for grouping similar things together according to how scores to describe
highly they are associated most of an
1397. The most widely accepted system to emerge "The Big Five" or "Five-Factor Model" individual's
from this approach of factor analysis was: personality

1398. What is the Five-Factor Model? (also called the Big Five) The Five-Factor Model is a widely accepted model of 1411. Traits are important Stable patterns of behaviour that persist for long periods of time
personality traits. Advocates of the model believe that much of the variability in and interesting
people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours can be summarized with five broad because they
traits. These five traits are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, describe:
Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. 1412. Stable patterns of Consequences
1399. What are the five major traits that comprise 1. Openness behaviour can have
the Big Five? broad-ranging _____
2. Conscientiousness for many areas of
our life
3. Extraversion

4. Agreeableness

5. Neuroticism
1400. What's a way to remember the Big Five? Using the acronym, OCEAN
1401. What is Openness? A personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to seek out and to
appreciate new things, including thoughts, feelings, values, and experiences

1402. What is A personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to be careful, organized, hardworking, and to follow 1413. Use the example of conscientiousness to describe why -Personality researchers have also found the personality traits like
Conscientiousness? rules stability of traits is important to psychologists: Conscientiousness play an important role in college and beyond,
probably because highly conscientious individuals study hard, get
1403. What is A personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to be sociable, outgoing, active, and assertive
their work done on time, and are less distracted by nonessential
Extraversion?
activities that take time away from school work
1404. What is A personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to be compassionate, cooperative, warm, and caring to -Highly conscientious people are often healthier than people low in
Agreeableness? others. People low in agreeableness tend to be rude, hostile, and to pursue their own interests over those conscientiousness because they are more likely to maintain healthy
of others. diets, to exercise, and to follow basic safety procedures like
1405. What is A personality trait that reflects the tendency to be interpersonally sensitive and the tendency to experience wearing seat belts or bicycle helmets
Neuroticism? negative emotions like anxiety, fear, sadness, and anger -Over the long term, this consistent pattern of behaviours can add
up to meaningful differences in health and longevity
1406. The Big Five:
-Thus, personality traits are not just a useful way to describe people
you know; they actually help psychologists predict how good a
worker someone will be, how long he or she will live, and the types
of jobs and activities the person will enjoy
1414. The fact that there are different ways of being extraverted Facets
or conscientious shows that there is value in considering
1407. Example lower-level units of personality that are more specific than
behaviours for the Big Five traits-these more specific, lower-level units of
those scoring low personality are often called:
and high for the big 1415. What are facets? Broad personality traits can be broken down into narrower facets or
5 traits: aspects of the trait. For example, extraversion has several facets,
such as sociability, dominance, risk-taking and so forth.
1416. It is important to note that although personality Widely accepted list of facets that should be studied 1428. HEXACO model is similar to the Big Five, but it Honesty-Humility
researchers generally agree about the value of the Big posits slightly different versions of some of the
Five traits as a way to summarize one's personality, there traits, and its proponents argue that one
is no: important class of individual differences was
1417. Facets can be useful because: They provide more specific descriptions of what a person is like omitted from the Five-Factor Model:

1418. Use the example of Extraversion and how someone can If we take our friend who loves parties but hates public speaking, 1429. People high in Honesty-Humility are: Sincere, fair, and modest
possess different facets of it: we might say that this person scores high on the "gregariousness" 1430. People low in Honesty-Humility are: Manipulative, narcissistic, and self-centred
and "warmth" facets of extraversion, while scoring lower on facets
1431. Other traits beyond those included in the Big
such as "assertiveness" or "excitement-seeking"
Five:
1419. How could the description of the person on the previous For example, jobs that require public speaking versus jobs that
flashcard allow us to predict how they will do in different involve one-on-one interactions with customers
job situations, for example?
1420. Do different facets within a broad, global trait tend to go Yes (therefore broad trait often provides a useful summary of what
together? a person is like)
1421. Facets of Big Five Traits:

1422. Hans Eysenck suggested that _____ and _____ are most
important in the Big Five traits:
1432. Trait theorists are agreed that personality traits The exact number and composition of the traits that are most important
are important in understanding behaviour, but
there are still debates on:
1433. Describe what Mischel suggested in his book
"Personality and Assessment":
Extraversion, neuroticism
-If one looks closely at people's behaviour across many different situations, the
consistency is really not that impressive
-E.g. children who cheat on tests at school may steadfastly follow all rules
when playing games and may never tell a lie to their parents
-There may not be any general trait of honesty that links these seemingly
related behaviours
-Observers may believe that broad personality traits like honesty exist, when in
fact, this belief is an illusion

1423. What did Eysenck believe that extraversion By combining people's standing on these two major traits, we could account 1434. The debate that followed the Person-situation debate
and neuroticism were most important? for many of the differences in personality that we see in people (e.g. a neurotic publication of Mischel's book was
introvert would be shy and nervous, while a stable introvert might avoid social called the:
situations and prefer solitary activities, but he may do so with a calm, steady 1435. Why was it called the person- Because it pitted the power of personality against the power of situational factors as
attitude and little anxiety or emotion) situation debate? determinants of the behaviour that people exhibit
1424. How did Eysenck attempt to link extraversion He suggested that introverts experienced too much sensory stimulation and 1436. What is the person-situation The person-situation debate is a historical debate about the relative power of personality
and neuroticism to underlying differences in arousal, which made them want to seek out quiet settings and less stimulating debate? traits as compared to situational influences on behaviour. The situationist critique, which
people's biology? environments (on the other hand, extraverts don't have enough stimulation, started the person-situation debate, suggested that people overestimate the extent to
therefore they seek it out in their environment) which personality traits are consistent across situations.
1425. What did Jeffrey Gray suggest about They are related to fundamental reward and avoidance systems in the brain— 1437. Instead of studying broad, context- People's distinctive reactions to specific situations
extraversion and neuroticism? extraverts might be motivated to seek reward and thus exhibit assertive, free descriptions, Mischel thought
reward-seeking behavior, whereas people high in neuroticism might be that psychologists should focus on:
motivated to avoid punishment and thus may experience anxiety as a result of 1438. Mischel thought that specific 1. Very specific, psychologically meaningful features of the situation in which people found
their heightened awareness of the threats in the world around them behaviours were driven by the themselves
1426. Another revision of the Big Five is the _____ of HEXACO model interaction between what 3 things?
traits 2. The person's unique way of perceiving that situation
1427. What is the HEXACO model? The HEXACO model is an alternative to the Five-Factor Model. The HEXACO
model includes six traits, five of which are variants of the traits included in the 3. His or her abilities for dealing with it
Big Five (Emotionality [E], Extraversion [X], Agreeableness [A],
Conscientiousness [C], and Openness [O]). The sixth factor, Honesty-Humility
[H], is unique to this model.
1439. Give an example of how behaviours
vary across different situations with
children and cheating:
1440. Mischel and others argued that it
was these 3 social-cognitive
processes that underlie:
1441. Research conducted after the
person-situation debate shows that
on average, the effect of the
situation and personality traits:
1442. It is also true that if psychologists
assess a broad range of behaviours
across many different situations,
there are:
1443. Personality traits give an indication
about how people will act:
1444. Personality traits are not so good at
predicting how a person will act:
1445. To best capture broad traits, one
must assess _____ behaviours,
averaged over time and across
many different types of situations
1446. Personality is the field within
psychology that studies:
1447. What do humanistically oriented
theoretical models for personality
argue? How would they assess
someone's personality?
1448. What do psychodynamically oriented
theoretical models for personality argue?
How would they assess someone's
personality?
1449. What personality tests represent the most
familiar and widely used approach to
assessing personality?
1450. Objective tests involve administering:
1451. How are responses to objective tests scored?
1452. What makes an objective test "objective"?
1453. What are 2 basic types of objective tests?
1454. Which type of objective test is most widely
used in modern personality research?
1455. How do self-report measures work?
-Although there may not be a broad and general trait of honesty, some children may be 1456. Give 2 key advantages of self-report 1. Self-raters have access to an unparalleled wealth of information (self-raters
especially likely to cheat on a test when the risk of being caught is low and the rewards measures: have direct access to their own thoughts, feelings, and motives, which may not be
for cheating are high readily available to others)
-Others might be motivated by the sense of risk involved in cheating and may do so even
when the rewards are not very high 2. Asking people to describe themselves is the simplest, easiest, and most cost-
-The behaviour itself results from the child's unique evaluation of the risks and rewards effective approach to assessing personality
present at that moment, along with her evaluation of her abilities and values 1457. The ITEMS included in self-report measures -Single words (e.g. assertive)
-The same child might act very differently in different situations may consist of: -Short phrases (e.g. am full of energy)
People's reactions to specific situations that provide some consistency when situational -Complete sentences (e.g. I like to spend time with others)
features are the same 1458. Sample self-report personality measure:
Are relatively equal
General tendencies that emerge
On average
In a specific situation at a certain moment in time
-A sample self-report measure assessing the general traits comprising the
influential five-factor model (FFM) of personality: neuroticism, extraversion,
Aggregate
openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
-Sentences shown are modified versions of items included in the International
Personality Item Pool (IPIP)
1459. Self-report personality tests show impressive Validity
The thoughts, feelings, behaviours, goals, and interests of individuals (covers a very wide
_____ in relation to a wide range of important
range of important psychological characteristics)
outcomes
-People have clear, well-defined goals and are actively striving to achieve them
-Makes sense to ask them directly about themselves and their goals
-Propose that people lack insight into their feelings and motives, such that their 1460. What is validity (in terms of self-report Evidence related to the interpretation and use of test scores. A particularly
behaviour is influenced by processes that operate outside of their awareness measures)? important type of evidence is criterion validity, which involves the ability of a test to
-Given that people are unaware of these processes, it does not make sense to predict theoretically relevant outcomes.
ask directly about them-one, therefore, needs to adopt an entirely different 1461. Give an example of how self-report A presumed measure of conscientiousness should be related to academic
approach to identify these nonconscious factors measures are high in validity: achievement (such as overall grade point average)-self-ratings of conscientiousness
Objective tests are significant predictors of both overall academic performance and job
performance
1462. Roberts, Kuncel, Shiner, Caspi, and -Occupational attainment
A standard set of items, each of which is answered using a limited set of Goldberg (2007) reported that self-rated -Divorce
response options (e.g. true or false; strongly disagree, slightly disagree, slightly personality predicted: -Mortality
agree, strongly agree) 1463. Friedman, Kern, and Reynolds (2010) -Happiness/well-being
In a standardized, predetermined way (e.g. self-ratings on items assessing showed that personality ratings collected -Physical health
talkativeness, assertiveness, sociability, adventurousness, and energy can be early in life were related to what later in -Mortality risk
summed up to create an overall score on the personality trait of extraversion) life?
Refers to the method that is used to SCORE a person's responses, rather than to 1464. Self-reported personality has important Psychopathology
the responses themselves and pervasive links to:
1. Self-report measures 1465. Self-ratings of neuroticism are associated A wide array of clinical syndromes, including anxiety disorders, depressive
with: disorders, substance use disorders, somatoform disorders, eating disorders,
2. Informant ratings personality and conduct disorders, and schizophrenia/schizotypy
Self-report measures
Asks people to describe themselves
1466. In what 3 ways are self-report measures 1. Raters may be motivated to present themselves in an overly favourable, socially 1482. Sample spouse-report personality measure:
limited? desirable way (a concern in "high-stakes testing")

2. Personality ratings reflect a self-enhancement bias (people are motivated to

ignore (or at least downplay) some of their less desirable characteristics and to
focus instead on their more positive attributes)

3. Self-ratings are subject to the reference group effect (we base our self-
perceptions, in part, on how we compare to others in our sociocultural reference
group)
1467. What are high-stakes testing? Settings in which test scores are used to make important decisions about individuals
1468. Give examples of high-stakes testing: -Test scores may be used to determine which individuals are admitted into a college
or graduate school, or who should be hired for a job
(Illustrates how the self-report instrument shown in Table 1 can be
-Tests also are used in forensic settings to help determine whether a person is converted to obtain spouse-ratings )
competent to stand trial or fits the legal definition of sanity.
1483. Informant ratings are particularly valuable when: -Self-ratings are impossible to collect (e.g. when studying young children
1469. What is self-enhancement bias? The tendency for people to see and/or present themselves in an overly favourable or cognitively impaired adults)
way -When their validity is suspect (e.g. as noted earlier, people may not be
1470. What 2 forms can self-enhancement bias 1. Defensiveness (when individuals actually believe they are better than they really entirely honest in high-stakes testing situations)
take? are) 1484. They also may be combined with self-ratings of the Reliable
same characteristics to produce more _____ and
2. Impression management (when people intentionally distort their responses to try valid measures of these attributes
to convince others that they are better than they really are)
1485. What is reliability? The consistency of test scores across repeated assessments. For example,
1471. Who can also show enhancement biases? Informants test-retest reliability examines the extent to which scores change over
1472. What is it called when informants show Letter-of-recommendation effect time.
enhancement biases? 1486. What are some advantages of informant ratings? -A well-acquainted informant presumably has had the opportunity to
1473. What is the letter-of-recommendation The tendency of informants who like the person they are rating (e.g. friends, observe large samples of behaviour in the person he or she is rating
effect? relatives, romantic partners) to describe them in an overly favourable way. In the -These judgments presumably are not subject to the types of
case of newlyweds, this tendency has been termed the honeymoon effect. defensiveness that potentially can distort self-ratings
-Informants typically have strong incentives for being accurate in their
1474. What is the reference group effect? The tendency of people to base their self-concept on comparisons with others
judgments
1475. Give an example of the reference group If you tend to work harder than most of your friends, you will see yourself as
1487. Informant personality ratings have demonstrated a Important life outcomes that is comparable to that discussed earlier for
effect: someone who is relatively conscientious, even if you are not particularly
level of validity in relation to: self-ratings
conscientious in any absolute sense
1488. Informant ratings outperform self-ratings in certain The assessed traits are highly evaluative in nature (e.g. intelligence, charm,
circumstances, particularly when: creativity)
1476. Who else can display the reference group effect? Informants
1489. Oh et al. (2011) found that informant ratings were Job performance
1477. Give an example of how informants can display the The sibling contrast effect-refers to the tendency of parents to more strongly related to _____ than were self-ratings
reference group effect: exaggerate the true extent of differences between their children 1490. What did Oltmanns and Summarized evidence indicating that informant ratings of Air Force cadets predicted early,
1478. What are informant ratings? Asking someone who knows a person well to describe his or her Turkheimer (2009) find involuntary discharge from the military better than self-ratings
personality characteristics about informant ratings vs.
1479. In the case of children or adolescents, the informant A parent or teacher self-ratings?
is most likely to be: 1491. What are some limitations -The level of relevant information that is available to the rater (even under the best of
1480. In studies of older participants, informants may be: Friends, roommates, dating partners, spouses, children, or bosses of informant ratings? circumstances, informants lack full access to the thoughts, feelings, and motives of the person they
are rating)-problem is magnified when the informant does not know the person particularly well
1481. Are informant ratings similar to self-ratings? If so, Yes, and/or only sees him or her in a limited range of situations
how? -Items may consist of single words, short phrases, or complete sentences -Subject to some of the same response biases noted earlier for self-ratings
-Many popular instruments include parallel self- and informant-rating -Individuals are allowed to nominate (or even recruit) the informants who will rate them-it most
versions, and it often is relatively easy to convert a self-report measure so often is the case that informants (who, as noted earlier, may be friends, relatives, or romantic
that it can be used to obtain informant ratings partners) like the people they are rating (means that informants may produce overly favourable
personality ratings-their ratings actually can be more favourable than the corresponding self-
ratings)
1492. What is the sibling contrast The tendency of parents to use their perceptions of all of their children as a frame of reference for
effect? rating the characteristics of each of them. More generally, this effect causes parents to exaggerate
the true extent of differences between their children. This effect represents a specific manifestation
of the more general reference group effect when applied to ratings made by parents.
1493. Give an example of the -Suppose that a mother has three children; two of these children are very sociable and outgoing,
sibling contrast effect: whereas the third is relatively average in sociability
-Because of operation of this effect, the mother will rate this third child as less sociable and
outgoing than he/she actually is
1494. What is the honeymoon
effect?
1495. When does the honeymoon
effect disappear?
1496. In addition to the source of
the scores, there are 2 other
important dimensions on
which personality tests
differ:
1497. What is
comprehensiveness?
1498. Give 2 types of measures of
comprehensiveness:
1499. Give examples of tests used
to assess a single core
attribute:
1500. Give examples of tests used
to assess a large number of
attributes:
1501. What is breadth of target
characteristics?
The tendency for newly married individuals to rate their spouses in an unrealistically positive 1508. What is projective hypothesis based Based on the Freudian notion of projection, which is the idea that people attribute their
manner. This represents a specific manifestation of the letter of recommendation effect when on, in turn? own undesirable/unacceptable characteristics to other people or objects
applied to ratings made by current romantic partners. 1509. Has the theoretical rationale for Yes
As marital satisfaction declines (i.e. when the "honeymoon is over") projective tests evolved over time?
1510. What are 2 examples of projective 1. Rorschach Inkblot Test
1. Comprehensiveness tests?
2. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
2. Breadth of the target characteristics 1511. What is the Rorschach Inkblot Test?
The extent to which an instrument seeks to assess personality in a reasonably comprehensive
manner
1. At one extreme, many widely used measures are designed to assess a SINGLE core attribute
2. At the other extreme, a number of omnibus inventories contain a LARGE NUMBER of specific
scales and purport to measure personality in a reasonably comprehensive manner
-Toronto Alexithymia Scale
Asks respondents to interpret symmetrical blots of ink
-Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
-Multidimensional Experiential Avoidance Questionnaire 1512. What is the Thematic Apperception Asks people to generate stories about a series of pictures
Test (TAT)?
-California Psychological Inventory
-Revised HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI-R) 1513. Give some examples of TAT -Depicts an elderly woman with her back turned to a young man; the latter looks
-Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire pictures: downward with a somewhat perplexed expression
-NEO Personality Inventory-3 (NEO-PI-3) -Displays a man clutched from behind by three mysterious hands
-Personality Research Form 1514. In comparison to objective tests, Cumbersome and labor intensive to administer
-Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire projective tests tend to be
Personality characteristics can be classified at different levels of breadth or generality somewhat:
1515. What is the biggest challenge of To develop a reliable and valid scheme to score the extensive set of responses generated
projective tests? by each respondent

1502. Give an example of how personality
characteristics can be classified at
different levels of breadth or
generality:
1503. Give an example of a popular
personality instrument that is
designed to assess only the broad,
general traits:
1504. Give an example of some inventories
that were explicitly designed to
provide coverage of both general
and specific trait characteristics:
1505. What approach to personality
assessment is based on the belief
that important thoughts, feelings,
and motives operate outside of
conscious awareness?
1506. Projective tests originally were
based on the:
1507. What is the projective hypothesis?
-Many models emphasize broad, "big" traits such as neuroticism and extraversion 1516. What is the most widely used Rorschach
-These general dimensions can be divided up into several distinct yet empirically scoring scheme?
correlated component traits 1517. What is the most influential TAT scoring
-E.g. The broad dimension of extraversion contains such specific component traits as system?
dominance (extraverts are assertive, persuasive, and exhibitionistic), sociability (extraverts 1518. Most reviews acknowledge that Rorschach
seek out and enjoy the company of others), positive emotionality (extraverts are active, scores:
energetic, cheerful, and enthusiastic), and adventurousness (extraverts enjoy intense,
exciting experiences) 1519. What do critics of Rorschach scores argue?
The Big Five Inventory-contains brief scales assessing the broad traits of neuroticism,
extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (in contrast, many 1520. Validity evidence is more impressive for
instruments—including several of the omnibus inventories mentioned earlier—were Rorschach or TAT?
designed primarily to assess a large number of more specific characteristics) 1521. Reviews have concluded that TAT-based
-HEXACO-PI-R measures of the need for achievement
-NEO-PI-3-contains six specific facet scales (e.g. Gregariousness, Assertiveness, Positive show and provide what?
Emotions, Excitement Seeking) that then can be combined to assess the broad trait of 1522. Given the relatively weak associations
extraversion between objective and projective measures
Projective tests of motives, McClelland et al. (1989) argue
that they tap somewhat different processes,
with the latter assessing:
1523. What are implicit motives?
Projective hypothesis 1524. Because an individual cannot verbalize
these goals (implicit motives) directly, they:
The theory that when people are confronted with ambiguous stimuli (that is, stimuli that 1525. How can implicit motives be measured?
can be interpreted in more than one way), their responses will be influenced by their 1526. Implicit tests are based on the assumption
unconscious thoughts, needs, wishes, and impulses that:
The Comprehensive System developed by Exner (2003)
Developed by McClelland, Atkinson and colleagues between 1947 and 1953 which
can be used to assess motives, such as the need for achievement
Do show some ability to predict important outcomes
It fails to provide important incremental information beyond other, more easily
acquired information, such as that obtained from standard self-report measures
TAT
-Show significant validity to predict important criteria
-Provide important information beyond that obtained from objective measures of
this motive
Implicit motives
These are goals that are important to a person, but that he/she cannot consciously
express
Cannot be easily assessed via self-report
Using projective devices such as the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
People form automatic or implicit associations between certain concepts based on
their previous experience and behaviour
1527. If two concepts (e.g. me and assertive) are
strongly associated with each other, then
they should be sorted together more
quickly and easily than two concepts (e.g.
me and shy) that are:
1528. Back et al. (2009), for example, showed that
implicit measures of the FFM personality
traits:
1529. A final approach is to infer important
personality characteristics from direct
samples of:
1530. Describe the behavioural study done by
Funder and Colvin (1988) to assess
personality:
1531. Describe the behavioural study done by
Mehl, Gosling, and Pennebaker (2006) to
assess personality:
1532. Describe the behavioural study done by
Gosling, Ko, Mannarelli, and Morris (2002)
to assess personality:
1533. What are 3 advantages of
behavioural measures over other
approaches to assessing
personality?
1534. What are 3 disadvantages to
behavioural measures?
1535. By using a _____ of approaches,
researchers can overcome the
limitations of any single method and
develop a more complete and
integrative view of personality
1536. For human beings, the self is what
happens when:
Less strongly associated 1537. The central psychological question How does a person apprehend and understand who he or she is?
of selfhood is this:
1538. What are 3 central metaphors for the 1. Actor: social actor, who enacts roles and displays traits by performing behaviours in the
self? presence of others
Predicted behaviour even after controlling for scores on objective measures of 2. Agent: motivated agent, who acts upon inner desires and formulates goals, values, and
these same characteristics (shows that even though validity evidence for these plans to guide behaviour in the future
measures still is relatively sparse, the results to date are encouraging)
Behaviour 3. Author: autobiographical author, too, who takes stock of life, past, present, and future
to create a story about who I am, how I came to be, and where my life may be going
1539. The ancient Greeks (and William Reflexive
Brought opposite-sex pairs of participants into the laboratory and had them James) seemed to realize that the
engage in a five-minute "getting acquainted" conversation; raters watched self is inherently:
videotapes of these interactions and then scored the participants on various 1540. What is reflexivity? The idea that the self reflects back upon itself; that the I (the knower, the subject)
personality characteristics encounters the Me (the known, the object). Reflexivity is a fundamental property of
Used the electronically activated recorder (EAR) to obtain samples of ambient human selfhood.
sounds in participants' natural environments over a period of two days; EAR-based 1541. The philosopher Charles Taylor Reflexive project
scores then were related to self- and observer-rated measures of personality (e.g. (1989) describes the self as a:
more frequent talking over this two-day period was significantly related to both 1542. What is meant by "reflexive We often try to manage, discipline, refine, improve, or develop the self-we work on our
self- and observer-ratings of extraversion) project"? selves, as we might work on any other interesting project
-Sent observers into college students' bedrooms and then had them rate the
students' personality characteristics on the Big Five traits
-Averaged observer ratings correlated significantly with participants' self-ratings
on all five traits
-Follow-up analyses indicated that conscientious students had neater rooms,
whereas those who were high in openness to experience had a wider variety of
books and magazines
1. Because behaviour is sampled directly, this approach is not subject to the types of 1543. The I may encounter the Me as: -A social actor
response biases (e.g., self-enhancement bias, reference group effect) that can distort
scores on objective tests -A motivated agent
2. As is illustrated by the Mehl et al. (2006) and Gosling et al. (2002) studies, this approach -An autobiographical author
allows people to be studied in their daily lives and in their natural environments, thereby
avoiding the artificiality of other methods (i.e. many different ways you might reflect upon and try to improve the self,
it turns out that many, if not most, of them fall roughly into three broad
3. This is the only approach that actually assesses what people do, as opposed to what psychological categories)
they think or feel 1544. Human beings evolved to: Live in social groups
1. Much more cumbersome and labor intensive than using objective tests, particularly self- 1545. For a few million years, Homo sapiens and their -Virtue of their ability to live and work together in complex social groups
report evolutionary forerunners have survived and -Cooperating with each other to solve problems and overcome threats
flourished by: -Competing with each other in the face of limited resources
2. Similar to projective tests, behavioural measures generate a rich set of data that then 1546. As social animals, human beings strive to get _____ Along, ahead
need to be scored in a reliable and valid way and get _____ in the presence of each other
3. Even the most ambitious study only obtains relatively small samples of behaviour that 1547. Since evolution has prepared us to care deeply Social actor
may provide a somewhat distorted view of a person's true characteristics (e.g. your about social acceptance and social status, it
behaviour during a "getting acquainted" conversation on a single given day inevitably will makes consummate evolutionary sense, therefore,
reflect a number of transient influences (e.g., level of stress, quality of sleep the previous that the human "I" should apprehend the "Me" first
night) that are idiosyncratic to that day) and foremost as a:
Diversity 1548. For human beings, the sense of the self as a social 18 months
actor begins to emerge around the age of:
1549. Numerous studies have shown that by the time Recognize themselves in mirrors and other reflecting devices
they reach their second birthday most toddlers
are able to:
"I" encounters "Me"
1550. What do toddlers see when they are finally able
to recognize themselves in mirrors and other
reflecting devices?
1551. Many children begin to use words such as what in
the 2nd year of life? What does this mean?
1552. What kind of emotions do children start to
experience around the 2nd year of life and what
purpose do they serve?
1553. Many of the classic psychological theories of
human selfhood point to the second year of life
as:
1554. Freud and his followers in the psychoanalytic
tradition traced the emergence of an autonomous
_____ back to the second year
1555. What is the ego?
1556. What did Erikson (1963) argue about the ego?
1557. What did Mead (1934) suggest about the
development of the self as a social actor?
1558. Research has shown that when young children
begin to make attributions about themselves,
they start:
1559. From the previous flashcard, how would Jessica
start seeing herself once she hits 5th grade?
1560. By late childhood and early adolescence, the
personality traits that people attribute to
themselves, as well as those attributed to them
by others, tend to:
1561. By late childhood, moreover, self-conceptions
will likely also include:
1562. What is the main currency of the self as a social
actor?
1563. What is the self as a social actor?
An embodied actor who moves through space and time 1564. Trait terms capture:
-"Me" and "mine" 1565. Roles capture:
-Suggesting that the I now has linguistic labels that can be applied 1566. Together, traits and roles make up the main
reflexively to itself: I call myself "me" features of my _____, as I apprehend it in my own
-Begin to express social emotions such as embarrassment, shame, guilt, and mind
pride 1567. What is social reputation?
-These emotions tell the social actor how well he or she is performing in the
group (e.g. when I do things that win the approval of others, I feel proud of
myself; when I fail in the presence of others, I may feel embarrassment or
shame; when I violate a social rule, I may experience guilt, which may 1568. If you have ever tried hard to change yourself,
motivate me to make amends) you may have taken aim at:
A key developmental period 1569. Give an example of the path you would take to
become a more optimistic and emotionally
upbeat person:
Ego
1570. What kind of traits tend to be stubborn and
resistant to change?
Sigmund Freud's conception of an executive self in the personality. Akin to
this module's notion of "the I," Freud imagined the ego as observing outside 1571. People often have more success working
reality, engaging in rational thought, and coping with the competing directly on their:
demands of inner desires and moral standards. 1572. To become a more effective social actor, you
Argued that experiences of trust and interpersonal attachment in the first may want to:
year of life help to consolidate the autonomy of the ego in the second
1573. We can see actors act, but we cannot know for
sure what:
-Suggested that the I comes to know the Me through reflection, which may 1574. Many broad psychological theories of the self
begin quite literally with mirrors but later involves the reflected appraisals of prioritize:
others
-"I come to know who I am as a social actor by noting how other people in my 1575. These kinds of psychological theories (from
social world react to my performances-in the development of the self as a the previous flashcard) explicitly conceive of
social actor, other people function like mirrors—they REFLECT who I am back the self as a:
to me" 1576. To be an agent is to act with:
Simple (e.g. at age 4, Jessica knows that she has dark hair, knows that she lives
in a white house, and describes herself to others in terms of simple 1577. Give an example of how human beings are
behavioural TRAITS-she may say that she is "nice," or "helpful," or that she is "a agents even as infants and at what age?
good girl most of the time")
1578. It is one thing to act in goal-directed ways; it is
Sees herself in more complex ways (e.g. attributing traits to the self such as quite another for the I to know itself (the Me)
"honest," "moody," "outgoing," "shy," "hard-working," "smart," "good at math but as:
not gym class," or "nice except when I am around my annoying brother")
1579. In order to know itself (the Me) as an
Correlate with each other in ways that conform to a well-established intentional and purposeful force who moves
taxonomy of five broad trait domains, repeatedly derived in studies of adult forward in life in pursuit of self-chosen end-
personality and often called the Big Five states:
1580. According to a strong line of research in
Important social ROLES (e.g. "I am a good student," "I am the oldest daughter," developmental psychology, attaining this kind
or "I am a good friend to Sarah") of understanding (on the previous flashcard)
Traits and roles, and variations on these notions means acquiring a:
1581. When does a theory of mind occur?
The sense of the self as an embodied actor whose social performances may 1582. Once a child understands that other people's
be construed in terms of more or less consistent self-ascribed traits and social behaviour is often motivated by inner desires
roles and goals, it is a small step to:
1583. When do children start to construct the self as
a motivated agent?
Perceived consistencies in social performance-they convey what I reflexively
perceive to be my overall acting style, based in part on how I think others see
me as an actor in many different social situations
The quality, as I perceive it, of important structured relationships in my life
Social reputation
The traits and social roles that others attribute to an actor. Actors also have
their own conceptions of what they imagine their respective social reputations
indeed are in the eyes of others.
Your social reputation, targeting your central traits or your social roles
-Taking into consideration the reflected appraisals of others, you realized that
even your friends seem to avoid you because you bring them down
- In addition, it feels bad to feel so bad all the time (wouldn't it feel better to
feel good?)
- In the language of traits, you have decided to "work on" your "neuroticism"
Broad traits (such as the Big Five)
Social roles
Take aim at the important roles you play in life (e.g. What can I do to become
a better son or daughter? How can I find new and meaningful roles to perform
at work, or in my family, or among my friends, or in my church and
community?)
They want or what they value (what's in their head), unless they tell us
straightaway
The MOTIVATIONAL qualities of human behaviour—the inner needs, wants,
desires, goals, values, plans, programs, fears, and aversions that seem to give
behaviour its direction and purpose
Motivated agent
Direction and purpose-to move forward into the future in pursuit of self-chosen
and valued goals
By age 1 year infants show a strong preference for observing and imitating the
goal-directed, intentional behaviour of others, rather than random behaviours
An intentional and purposeful force who moves forward in life in pursuit of self-
chosen goals, values, and other desired end states
The person must first realize that people indeed have desires and goals in their
minds and that these inner desires and goals motivate (initiate, energize, put into
motion) their behaviour
Theory of mind
By the age of 4
Apprehend the self in similar terms
In elementary school years (layered over their still-developing sense of
themselves as social actors)
1584. What is the age 5-to-7 shift? Cognitive and social changes that occur in the early elementary school years 1602. Adolescence and young adulthood are periods in the Our values and life goals
that result in the child's developing a more purposeful, planful, and goal- human life course when many of us focus attention on:
directed approach to life, setting the stage for the emergence of the self as a 1603. In the realm of the motivated agent changing values Life goals
motivated agent. can influence:
1585. Schooling reinforces the age 5-to-7 shift in Teachers and curricula place increasing demands on students to work hard, 1604. A great deal of the identity work we do in adolescence Personal vision or dream for what we hope to accomplish in the future
that: adhere to schedules, focus on goals, and achieve success in particular, well- and young adulthood is about values and goals, as we
defined task domains strive to articulate:
1586. Their relative success in achieving their most Self-esteem 1605. Even as the "I" continues to develop a sense of the The autobiographical author
cherished goals, furthermore, goes a long way "Me" as both a social actor and a motivated agent, a
in determining children's: third standpoint for selfhood gradually emerges in the
1587. What is self-esteem? The extent to which a person feels that he or she is worthy and good adolescent and early-adult years:
1588. What is a strong determinant in self-esteem? The success or failure that the motivated agent experiences in pursuit of valued 1606. What is the 'I"? The self as knower, the sense of the self as a subject who encounters
goals (knows, works on) itself (the Me)
1589. Motivated agents feel good about themselves They believe that they are making good progress in achieving their goals and 1607. What is the "Me"? The self as known, the sense of the self as the object or target of the I's
to the extent: advancing their most important values knowledge and work
1590. Why do goals and values become even more Teenagers begin to confront what Erikson (1963) famously termed the 1608. The autobiographical author is a response to: Erikson's (1963) challenge of identity
important for the self in adolescence? developmental challenge of identity 1609. Besides becoming a social actor and motivated agent, Achieving a sense of TEMPORAL CONTINUITY in life
1591. What is identity? Sometimes used synonymously with the term "self," identity means many Erikson believed developing and identity involves:
different things in psychological science and in other fields (e.g., sociology). 1610. What is meant by "temporal continuity"? A reflexive understanding of how I have come to be the person I am
Here it is Erik Erikson's conception of identity as a developmental task for late becoming/how my past self has developed into my present self, and
adolescence and young adulthood. how my present self will, in turn, develop into an envisioned future self
1611. Erikson intimates that the development of a mature The I's ability to construct a retrospective and prospective STORY
identity in young adulthood involves (think of the "I" about the Me
and "Me"):

1592. Forming an identity in adolescence and young -EXPLORING alternative roles, values, goals, and relationships and
adulthood involves: eventually COMMITTING to a realistic agenda for life that productively
situates a person in the adult world of work and love (what I want and
value in life and how I plan to achieve it)
-COMMITMENTS to new social roles and reevaluation of old traits
-Bringing with it a sense of temporal continuity in life, achieved though
the construction of an integrative life story
1593. What is the greatest achievement for the self as a Committing oneself to an integrated suite of life goals and values
motivated agent?
1594. What is the self as a motivated agent? The sense of the self as an intentional force that strives to achieve
goals, plans, values, projects, and the like
1595. Establishing an adult identity has implications for: -How a person moves through life as a social actor, entailing new
ROLE commitments
-A changing understanding of one's basic dispositional TRAITS
1612. In their efforts to find a meaningful identity for life, Narrative identity
young men and women begin "to selectively
reconstruct" their past, as Erikson wrote, and
imagine their future to create an integrative life
story, or what psychologists today often call a:
1613. What is a narrative identity? Individuals form an identity by integrating their life experiences into an
internalized, evolving story of the self, which provides the individual with a
sense of unity and purpose in life
1614. The self typically becomes a(n) _____ in the early- Autobiographical author (layered over the motivated agent, which is
adult years layered over the social actor)
1615. In order to provide life with the sense of temporal Integrates our understanding of who we once were, who we are today, and
continuity and deep meaning that Erikson believed who we may become in the future
identity should confer, we must author a
personalized life story that:

1596. According to Erikson identity achievement is always:
1597. What is it mean that identity achievement is always
provisional?
1598. There is a sense whereby ANY time you try to change
yourself, you are assuming the role of:
1599. To strive to change something is inherently what a(n)
_____ does
1600. What particular FEATURE of selfhood you try to
change may correspond to your self as:
1601. When you try to change your traits or roles, you take
aim at the _____. By contrast, when you try to change
your values or life goals, you are focusing on yourself
as a _____.
Provisional 1616. What does the story help to explain? The story helps to explain, for the author and for the author's world, why
the social actor does what it does and why the motivated agent wants what
Adults continue to work on their identities as they move into midlife it wants, and how the person as a whole has developed over time, from the
and beyond past's reconstructed beginning to the future's imagined ending
A motivated agent 1617. By the time they are __ or __ years of age, children 5 or 6
can tell well-formed stories about personal events
Agent in their lives
1618. By the end of childhood, they usually have a good A typical biography contains and how it is sequenced, from birth to death
Actor, agent, or author, or some combination sense of what (in terms of a biography):
1619. It is not until adolescence, research shows, that Autobiographical reasoning
Social actor, motivated agent human beings express advanced storytelling skills
and what psychologists call:
1620. What is autobiographical reasoning? The ability, typically developed in adolescence, to derive substantive
conclusions about the self from analyzing one's own personal experiences
1621. Give an example of how a teenager is displaying
autobiographical reasoning:
1622. Once the cognitive skills are in place, young
people seek what to share and refine their
developing sense of themselves as storytellers
(the I) who tell stories about themselves (the Me)?
1623. Contemporary research on the self as
autobiographical author emphasizes the strong
effect of _____ on narrative identity
-A 16-year-old may be able to explain to herself and to others how
childhood experiences in her family have shaped her vocation in life
-Her parents were divorced when she was 5 years old, the teenager
recalls, and this caused a great deal of stress in her family
-Her mother often seemed anxious and depressed, but she (the now-
teenager when she was a little girl—the story's protagonist) often tried to
cheer her mother up, and her efforts seemed to work
- In more recent years, the teenager notes that her friends often come to
her with their boyfriend problems
-She seems to be very adept at giving advice about love and relationships,
which stems, the teenager now believes, from her early experiences with
her mother
-Carrying this causal narrative forward, the teenager now thinks that she
would like to be a marriage councillor when she grows up
-Demonstrates the ability to string together events into causal chains and
inductively derive general themes about life from a sequence of chapters
and scenes
-Interpersonal opportunities
-Adolescents and young adults author a narrative sense of the self by
telling stories about their experiences to other people, monitoring the
feedback they receive from the tellings, editing their stories in light of the
feedback, gaining new experiences and telling stories about those, and on
and on, as selves create stories that, in turn, create new selves
Culture
1633. Research has demonstrated that American adults who
enjoy high levels of mental health and civic
engagement tend to construct their lives as:
1634. What are some shortcomings that McAdams has
pointed out about redemptive narratives?
1635. For many people, the most dramatic and fulfilling
efforts to change the self happen when:
1636. Changing one's life story is at the heart of what certain
things?
1637. For human beings, selves begin as social actors, but
they eventually become:
Narrative redemptions (e.g. tracking the move from sin to salvation,
rags to riches, oppression to liberation, or sickness/abuse to
health/recovery)- these stories are seen as inspirational
-Mirror cultural biases and stereotypes in American culture and
heritage
-Redemptive stories support happiness and societal engagement for
some Americans, but the same stories can encourage moral
righteousness and a naïve expectation that suffering will always be
redeemed
-These same stories may not work so well in cultures that espouse
different values and narrative ideals (every culture offers its own
storehouse of favoured narrative forms)
The I works hard, as an autobiographical author, to construct and,
ultimately, to tell a new story about the Me (may be the most powerful
form of self-transformation that human beings have ever invented)
-Many forms of psychotherapy and counselling
-Religious conversions
-Vocational epiphanies
-Other dramatic transformations of the self that people often celebrate
as turning points in their lives
Motivated agents and autobiographical authors, too

1624. What is the self as autobiographical author? The sense of the self as a storyteller who reconstructs the past and 1638. To "know thyself" in 1. To apprehend and to perform with social approval my self-ascribed traits and roles
imagines the future in order to articulate an integrative narrative that mature adulthood,
provides life with some measure of temporal continuity and purpose then, is to do 3 things: 2. To pursue with vigour and (ideally) success my most valued goals and plans

1625. Culture provides what for the construction of self- A menu of favoured plot lines, themes, and character types
3. To construct a story about life that conveys, with vividness and cultural resonance, how I became the
defining life stories?
person I am becoming, integrating my past as I remember it, my present as I am experiencing it, and my
1626. How do people use culture for their life stories? Autobiographical authors sample selectively from the cultural menu, future as I hope it to be
appropriating ideas that seem to resonate well with their own life
1639. IQ is most closely Openness
experiences (therefore life stories reflect culture)
associated with what
1627. As one example of the tight link between culture and Redemptive narratives trait of the Big Five?
narrative identity, McAdams (2013) and others have
1640. What is the dark triad 1. Narcissism
highlighted the prominence of _____ in American culture
in personality?
1628. What are redemptive narratives? Life stories that affirm the transformation from suffering to an enhanced 2. Machiavellianism
status or state
1629. In American culture, redemptive life stories are highly Models for the good self, as in classic narratives of atonement, upward 3. Psychopathy
prized as: mobility, liberation, and recovery 1641. What are 2 ways to 1. Idiographic approaches
1630. Redemptive narratives also script: The development of a chosen protagonist who journeys forth into a assess/measure
dangerous and unredeemed world personality? 2. Nomothetic approaches

1631. Give examples by which means Americans are exposed -Hollywood movies (often have redemptive quests) 1642. What are idiographic Person-centred, focus on INDIVIDUAL lives, story of your life, experiences (e.g. narrative approach)
to narrative messages: -Self-help books approaches?
-12-step programs 1643. What are nomothetic Common traits, unique combinations, not looking at everyone as completely unique, but looking at shared
-Sunday sermons approaches? traits (looking at how multiple people fall into a certain trait, etc.), can measure Big Five, etc. (people have
-In the rhetoric of political campaigns unique combination of these shared traits) (e.g. projective and objective measures)
1632. Who could be considered the world's most influential -Oprah Winfrey
spokesperson for the power of redemption in human -Tells her own story of overcoming childhood adversity while
lives and why? encouraging others, through her media outlets and philanthropy, to
tell similar kinds of stories for their own lives
1644. Inkblot test: 1654. What is the biopsychosocial
model?

Lots of problems with inkblots, hard to interpret results, not really used anymore, found way too many
people were psychologically disturbed (which most likely wasn't true)
1645. TAT: -Behaviour is a product of biological, psychological and sociocultural factors
-No behaviour is fully explained by looking at only 1 of these circles
1655. What is the brain's master
regulatory structure?

People are asked to write a story based on what they see here, stories get coded by highly trained Hypothalamus
coders for certain things 1656. What is hyperphagia? What happens when you damage ventromedial region of hypothalamus so one doesn't stop
1646. The TAT is known to Need for achievement, power, affiliation (friendly relationships with other people) eating, no longer getting signals from that region (leads to being overweight)
be a valid indicator 1657. What is aphagia? Lateral region has been damaged, don't eat (leads to being underweight, will die from
of: starvation unless they are force-fed)
1647. What is the easiest The trait approach
way to approach
personality?
1648. What is a personality A characteristic; a dispositional tendency to act in a certain way over time and across circumstances
trait?

1649. The trait approach emphasizes: The extent to which individuals differ in personality dispositions 1658. Hyperphagia vs.
aphagia:
1650. Each Big Five trait exists along a: Continuum
1651. Walter Mischel emphasized (in
terms of personality):

1659. What does leptin do?
1660. What does ghrelin do? A hormone from the stomach that surges before eating and decreases after eating (makes stomach
Importance of the situation (just because you know a trait about someone doesn't mean it will
be consistent all over different situations) 1661. What is glucostatic
1652. Independent vs. interdependent theory?
self-constructs: 1662. What is lipostatic
theory?
1663. Having a greater
variety of food
1653. Interdependent items vs. available leads to:
independent items (Singelis, 1664. What is sensory
1994): specific satiety?
1665. How is sensory
specific satiety
adaptive?
A hormone released from fat which travels to the hypothalamus and inhibits eating behaviour
"growl")
Glucose levels in the bloodstream contribute to eating behaviour (if glucose is low, you go eat)
Set-point for body fat (level of fat your body wants to remain at-leads to difficulty dieting, etc.)
Increased eating
You're full of one thing, but you can eat something else (e.g. sick of savoury things, want something
sweet)
E.g. if food was scarce, and all you wanted to eat was blueberries, you would eventually run into
problems, so you get sick of blueberries and seek other nutritional content (signals a nutrient you need-
particularly with pregnant women)

(Can and do co-exist in individuals)

1666. Portion sizes-then vs.
now:

1667. How do sociocultural We have certain foods at certain times of the day
factors play into
hunger?
1668. What is Schachter's
Two-Factor Theory?

-Both our physiological response AND cognitive appraisal of the situation determines our emotional
experience (possibility for misattribution of arousal!)
-2 factors: physiological arousal and cognitive label