APPLICATION

GUIDE

LIGHTING
IN HOSTILE AND
HAZARDOUS ENVIRONMENTS
1983

© The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

Delta House, 222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS
ISBN 0 900953 26 8

Printed by The Yale Press Limited, London SE25 SLY

FOREWORD
Lighting in hostile and hazardous environments is a complex subject which is
constantly changing. This guide deals with the many technical aspects which are
likely to be of interest to users of lighting equipment in these particular conditions.
The guide should not be construed as replacing the official regulations, standards
or specifications governing or related to the use of lighting equipment. Cognisance
has been taken of the relevant British Standards relating to the design and
installation of luminaires, in particular for use in hazardous areas, BS5345 “Code of
Practice for the Selection, installation and maintenance of electrical apparatus for
use in potentially explosive atmospheres (other than mining applications or
explosive processing and manufacture)“. It is intended that the guide will comple-
ment these documents highlighting and discussing the many aspects particularly
relevant to lighting and lighting installation.

Since IES Technical Report No. 1, which was first published in 1958, and revised in
1965, there have been many changes with the introduction of new National (B.S.),
European (EN) and International (IEC) standards, covering locations onshore and
offshore. New light sources have been introduced and lighting levels revised which
make for more efficient but cost-effective lighting installations.

These changes will continue for many years but this guide brings the readers up to
date and gives guidance on some of the unresolved issues.

P. A. STEWART
Task Group Chairman

Task Group
P. A. Stewart (Chairman) B. B. Moore
R. Bell R. J. Nicholson
R. F. Chatt C. D. Poole
A. E. Fothergill W. N. Povall
J. C. Grant O. T. Preece
J. H. Greenway J. Roberts
P. J. Lamb T. Underwood
R. J. Loveland
Co-ordinating Editor Technical Secretary
V. P. Rolfe K. J. Butcher

The CIBSE wishes to acknowledge the help provided by the following organisa-
tions in the compilation of this document.

The Association of Consulting Engineers

The Department of Energy
The Electric Cables Manufacturers Association
The Electrical Contractors Association
The Energy Industry Council
The Engineering Equipment Users Association
The Health and Safety Executive
The Lighting Industry Federation Limited

In addition, assistance in the illustration of the document was provided by the

following:
BASEEFA
BP Chemicals PLC
The Electricity Council
Imperial Chemical Industries PLC
Thorn-EMI Lighting PLC
Victor Products PLC
CONTENTS

5
1. Introduction

2. Explanation of Terms
2.1 Definitions 6
2.2 Abbreviations 9

3. Hostile Environments
3.1 The Nature and Assessment of the Problem 10
3.2 Selection of Equipment 12
3.3 Protective Finishes 13
3.4 Fixing and Glands 14
3.5 Integral Wiring 14
3.6 Environmental Conditions 14
3.7 Approvals/Certification and Standards 14

4. Hazardous Environments
4.1 Assessment of Risk 16
4.2 Classification of Hazardous Areas 17
4.3 Methods of Safeguarding 18
4.4 Approvals, Certification and Standards 24
4.5 Selection of Equipment 27

5. Light Sources
5.1 Introduction 32
5.2 Temperature 32
5.3 Luminous Efficacy 33
5.4 Operation 33
5.5 Lamp Prefixes/Identification 33
5.6 Lamp Caps 34
5.7 Characteristics of Lamps 34
5.8 Lamp Interchangeability for Discharge Lamps 37
5.9 Lamp Selection 37
5.10 Planned Lamp Replacement 38
5.11 Flicker 38
5.12 Control Gear for Discharge Lamps 38

6. Lighting Design
6.1 Introduction 40
6.2 Defining the Problem 40
6.3 Choice of Equipment 52
6.4 Method of Calculation 58
6.5 Measurement of Illuminance 67
6.6 Energy Conservation 67
 7. Emergency and Standby Lighting
7.1 Introduction 69
7.2 Design Concepts 69
7.3 Levels of Illumination 69
7.4 Equipment/Systems 69
7.5 Duration of Power Source and Re-charging of Batteries 70
7.6 Light Source 70
7.7 Mode of Operation 70

8. Wiring Systems and Installations

8.1 Hostile Environments 72
8.2 Hazardous Environments 72
8.3 Installation of Wiring Systems 76

9. Inspection and Maintenance 79

Appendices
1. Ingress of Liquids and Dusts – IP Rating 82
2. Check List for Assessment of Luminaires 83
3. Legal Requirements for Installation in Great Britain 84

Bibliography 85

Index 88

4
1. INTRODUCTION

The requirements of law place considerable onus not only on the user, but also on
the installer and manufacturer, to ensure worker and plant safety.
The guide sets out, therefore, to discuss the design, selection, installation and
maintenance of lighting systems in hostile (non-hazardous) and hazardous (poten-
tially explosive) environments both onshore and offshore.
Due to the specialist operational requirements, covered by specific legislation
and/or specifications, the lighting of ships, explosives processing and manufacturing
industries, and underground coal mining activities are excluded from this guide.
It is essential that the installation is in accordance with the recognised safety
standards and current legislation and the guide covers these requirements within its
general framework.
Corrosion develops, in some form, in most installations, and consideration is given
to examples where the corrosive effect is the main source of hazard whilst still
ensuring electrical safety. In some locations, such as those with potentially
flammable or explosive atmospheres, corrosion may affect the degrees of protec-
tion and special considerations are required to maintain the equipment within the
design specification. The guide can only discuss corrosion in a general form due to
the complexity of the problem but has attempted to cover the salient points.
Protection of electrical equipment in potentially explosive areas is essential and this
very important subject is given considerable coverage to ensure the reader is aware
of all the relevant standards and considerations when lighting such areas.
The introduction of new light sources has enabled the users of luminaires to
re-think the types that can be installed and the guide gives coverage to light sources
and lighting design so that the most cost effective but efficient lighting installation
can be utilised.
Correct wiring of installations is essential if the installation is to operate efficiently
and a number of points are specifically discussed.
Inspection and maintenance of the lighting system is vital if the installation is to
continue to operate safely, reliably and in good working order, and recommenda-
tions are given in the guide as these considerations tend to be overlooked due to
operational priorities.
Emergency and escape lighting have to be planned into the lighting scheme and this
is discussed within the framework of existing standards and the type of systems
available.
The scope of the guide is therefore broad based in an endeavour to give the reader
a wider understanding of lighting as applied to the title of the guide. It is in no way a
complete coverage due to the complexity of the subject but it is hoped it will
provide the reader with sufficient guidance which will explain, supplement and
complement the many other recognised sources of information that are part of this
complex subject.

5
 2. EXPLANATION OF TERMS

2.1 DEFINITIONS

Accessible Surface A surface to which an explosive gas-air mixture has access, and that is not explosion
protected other than by temperature limitation.
Candela SI unit of luminous intensity equal to one lumen per steradian.
Certified Apparatus Apparatus which is certified by a National Certifying Authority to a relevant
British Standard or to foreign and international standards, where these are
applicable or to the National Certifying Authority specification where a national
specification is not available.
Chemical Compatibility The term implies that material used for the construction of the apparatus and its
installation should be chosen having regard to the solvent and corrosive agencies
that may be present.
Clearance The shortest distance through air between two conducting parts.
Control Gear Components for controlling the current and voltage or both in a discharge lamp.
e.g. ballast, capacitors, lamp holders etc.
Creepage Distance The shortest distance between two conducting parts along the surface of the
insulating parts.
Daylight Factor The ratio of the illuminance at a point on a given plane within an interior due to the
light received directly and indirectly from a sky of assumed or known luminance
distribution, to that on a horizontal plane due to an unobstructed hemisphere of
this sky. Direct sunlight is excluded from both values of illuminance.
Degree of Protection of Enclosures A system of evaluating and indicating standard degrees of protection provided by
enclosures in regard to the protection of persons against contact with live or moving
parts inside the enclosure and the protection of apparatus against ingress of solid
foreign bodies and liquids. (See Appendix on IP Ratings).
Efficacy, Luminous The ratio of the luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power consumed by it.
Emergency Lighting Lighting provided for use when the supply to the normal lighting fails.
Enclosed-break Device A device incorporating an electrical contact that is made and broken, the enclosure
of which will withstand an internal explosion of the flammable gas or vapour which
may enter it without suffering damage and without communicating the internal
flammation to the external flammable gas or vapour, the net volume of the
enclosure being not greater than 20 cm3.
Escape Lighting That part of emergency lighting that is provided to ensure that an escape route can
be effectively identified and used.

Explosion Protected (Flameproof) Apparatus which is certified to type of protection ‘d’ (Ex ‘d’).
Explosive Gas-Air Mixture A mixture of flammable gas or vapour with air under atmospheric conditions in
which, after ignition, combustion spreads throughout the unconsumed mixture.

Factory Sealed A piece of electrical apparatus that is not intended by the manufacturer to be
opened by the user.

Flammable Atmosphere A mixture of flammable gas, vapour, mist or dust with air.

Flashpoint The lowest temperature at which sufficient vapour is given off from a flammable
material to form an explosive gas-air mixture.

Flicker A fundamental cyclic variation of 100 Hz that is present in the light emitted by
discharge lamps operating on the normal 50 Hz a.c. supply. (see Light Sources).

Glare The discomfort or impairment of vision experienced when parts of the visual field
are excessively bright in relation to the general surroundings.

6
Grouping of Apparatus
Grouping of Gases and Vapours
Hazard
Hazardous Area
Hermetically Sealed
Hostile Environment
Ignition Temperature
Illuminance
Intrinsically Safe Circuit
Grouping of apparatus is divided into two parts, Group I and Group II. Group I is
reserved for mining use only. Group II is used for all other industrial applications.
Group II is divided into three sub-groups, A, B and C, depending on the type of
flammable gas present (see Table 4.1)
A system of assigning gases or vapours into one of four groups. (see Table 4.1)
The presence, or the risk of the presence, of an explosive gas-air mixture.
An area in which explosive gas-air mixtures are, or may be expected to be, present
in quantities such as to require special precautions for the construction and use of
electrical apparatus.
Closed completely, i.e. made air-tight by fusing the glass to a base.
An environment where there is likely to be a corrosive atmosphere present, in
sufficient concentration to warrant protection of apparatus within the environment.
The lowest temperature of a flammable gas or vapour at which ignition occurs
under test conditions specified in IEC Publications 79-4 and BS 4056.
The luminous flux density at a surface, i.e. the luminous flux incident per unit area.
Sometimes known as ‘planar illuminance’ when related to a flat surface. (Unit:
lux Equal to 1 lumen per sq.m)
A circuit in which no spark or any thermal effect produced under prescribed test
conditions (which include normal operation and specified fault condition) is
capable of causing ignition of a given explosive atmosphere.

IP Classification The International Protection system for classifying the degrees of protection
provided by the enclosures of electrical equipment. (See Appendix 1 on IP
Ratings).
Isolux Diagram A diagram showing lines of equal illuminance on a plane.
Limiting Temperature The maximum permissible temperature for apparatus or parts of apparatus. It is
determined by:
(a) the danger of ignition of the explosive gas-air mixture;
(b) the thermal stability of the materials used.
The lower temperature is the one to be taken into consideration as the critical
limiting temperature.
Lumen SI unit of luminous flux, used in describing the quantity of light emitted by a source
or received by a surface.
Lumen Method A commonly used method of lighting design. Its object is to determine a lighting
layout that will provide a specified service illuminance on the horizontal working
plane, using a regular array of luminaires. (see Section 6 – Lighting Design).
Luminaires Apparatus which controls the distribution of light given by a lamp or lamps and
which includes all the components necessary for fixing and protecting the lamps and
for connecting them to the supply circuit.
Lux SI unit for illuminance, equal to one lumen per square metre.
Maintained Lighting Emergency lighting that is on at the same time as the normal lighting and remains
on when the supply of the normal lighting fails.
Maximum Surface Temperature The highest temperature attained under practical conditions of operation within the
rating of the apparatus (and recognised overloads, and including defined fault
conditions, if any, associated therewith) by an accessible surface, the exposure of
which to an explosive atmosphere may involve a risk.
Non-Sparking The term applied to apparatus which under normal operating conditions, and
except when subject to electrical or mechanical failure, will not produce arcs or
sparks capable of igniting a surrounding flammable atmosphere.
Pressurizing A method of safeguarding whereby air or inert gas, in a room or enclosure, is
maintained at a pressure sufficient to prevent the ingress of the surrounding
atmosphere.

7
Proof Luminaire
Restricted-breathing Enclosure
Source of Release
Standby Lighting
Stroboscopic Effect
Temperature Classification
Totally Enclosed
Type of Protection
Utilization Factor
Zonal Classification
8
A luminaire able to withstand the particular hazards of a given application.
An enclosure which is not hermetically-sealed but which is designed to prevent or
restrict the entry of gases and which is capable of passing the type-test specified in
BS 4683: Pt.3.
Any point from which flammable material may be released into the atmosphere.
That part of emergency lighting that is sometimes provided to enable normal
activities to continue.
The effect caused by flicker in lighting, so that smooth motion may appear
discontinuous or, in the case of cyclical motion, stationary.
A classification system for maximum surface temperature (T-class) of apparatus
(see Section 4.5.2).
The term applied to apparatus within an enclosure which is so constructed that the
risk of entry of a flammable atmosphere which may surround it for a short period is
small.
A technique of explosion protection that is applied to an apparatus or part of an
apparatus to provide an assurance of safety. (see Section 4.3 Methods of Safe-
guarding).
The ratio of the total flux received by the surface (directly and by inter-reflection)
to the total lamp flux of the installation.
A system of grouping the probability with which explosive (flammable) concentra-
tions of flammable gas or vapour may arise in installations in terms of both the
frequency of occurrence and the probable duration of existence on each occasion.
The definitions of the zones are:
Zone 0 In which an explosive gas-air mixture is continuously present, or present
for long periods.
Zone 1 In which an explosive gas-air mixture is likely to occur in normal operation.
Zone 2 In which an explosive gas-air mixture is not likely to occur in normal
operation, and if it occurs, it will exist only for a short time.
2.2 ABBREVIATIONS
BASEEFA British Approvals Service for Electrical Equipment in Flammable Atmospheres.
BS British Standard.
BSI British Standards Institution.
CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation.
EEC The European Economic Community.
EEx Internationally agreed letter code to indicate a product is certified to a specified
European standard.

EN European Norm, a harmonised European standard issued by CENELEC.

ERA Electrical Research Association (ERA Technology Ltd.).
Ex A Health and Safety Executive Certification Mark (See Section 4.4).
Code Symbol Description
‘d’ Flameproof enclosure
‘e’ Increased safety
‘p’ Pressurised enclosure
‘S’ Special protection
‘i’ Intrinsic safety
‘N’ (n) Non-sparking; (n) Reserved for international use.
‘m’ Encapsulation.
FLP A Health and Safety Executive Certification Mark (to denote flameproof) (See
Section 4.4).
GRP Glass reinforced polyester
HG Heavy gauge
HMFI Her Majesty’s Factory Inspectorate
HSE Health and Safety Executive

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

IEE Institution of Electrical Engineers
LIF Lighting Industry Federation Ltd.
MICS Mineral Insulated Copper Cable with Copper Sheath
MICV Mineral Insulated Copper Cable with Copper Sheath and PVC oversheath
OCMA Oil Companies Materials Association
PF Power Factor
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride

SI Systeme Internationale

SMR Spacing to Mounting Height Ratio

SWA Single Wire Armoured
UF Utilisation Factor

9
 3. HOSTILE ENVIRONMENTS

Corrosion is probably one of the major causes of failure of equipment and costs
operators of major industrial plants a large amount of money in maintenance in an
endeavour to combat it.
Luminaires, essential on all types of plants, are no exception and every precaution
possible should be taken to ensure corrosion is at least reduced to a minimum, as it
cannot be completely eradicated.

Fig. 3.1 Schematic illustrations of different types of corrosion.

3.1 THE NATURE AND Corrosion is with us in many forms. It can be caused by atmospheric corrosion
ASSESSMENT OF THE PROBLEM which rusts steel and forms green film on copper and bronze or, with the use of
plastic, we have the decomposition or erosion due to solvent attack. Some of these
are illustrated in Fig. 3.1 and Plates 14 to 16.
The problem of protecting luminaires against corrosion is so complicated that no
simple solution is possible. One protective system being effective against attack by
acids may well break down in the presence of the many other corrosive agents given
off in manufacturing processes.
Corrosion generally depends on three factors:
(a) The nature and concentration of the corrosive agent,
(b) The design of the equipment including the overall shape, the materials from
which it is made and the finishing processes used.
(c) The extraneous factors such as the presence of moisture, mechanical stress,
heat and dust.
Usually the lighting/electrical engineer will have little or no control over the first
point, although positioning may be critical on some installations. The design of the
luminaire is obviously a major point to be considered when selecting a luminaire for
installation in such an environment and this is reviewed in some detail in Section
3.2.
He may, however, be able to take certain actions which limit corrosion by
extraneous factors.
Moisture is essential to most corrosive actions; if the equipment and the atmos-
phere are perfectly dry, chemical attack will rarely take place with the concentra-
tions of gases and vapours normally present even in such places as foundries,
chemical works and process plants. Corrosion is therefore negligible in hot desert
regions of very low humidity although oxidation caused by overheating of electrical
equipment should be considered. In polar regions even where water is continually
present in the form of ice and snow, corrosion is minimal due to the lack of a moist
atmosphere.
However, in temperate climates and on installations where steam and heat are part
of the process, it is likely that moisture, together with the products formed by
pollution of the atmosphere during the process, will ensure the relative humidity
becomes high enough for rusting to occur.
If the Iuminaires must be installed in warm humid conditions then operating the
luminaire continuously will prevent temperature cycling which tends to increase
10
 corrosion. Many luminaires operate at temperatures sufficiently high to drive off
moisture, so that the rate of any corrosive action may well be reduced if the
luminaires are operated more or less continuously; few luminaires are operated
continuously, and during the ‘off’ periods when the temperature falls to lower
levels, moisture may condense, be absorbed by the corrosive products and so
enable attack to start or continue.
Luminaires that operate at lower surface temperatures such as tubular fluorescent
luminaires are therefore more susceptible to corrosion as they do not have the same
opportunity to drive off moisture under normal running conditions.
Mechanical stress can increase the probability of corrosion taking place and the
severity of attack, as the corrosive agents can penetrate into the body of the
luminaire causing a serious reduction in mechanical strength.
Heat generated by the process can result in a rise of temperature in the atmosphere
and may therefore cause the corrosive reaction to increase. Luminaires should,
therefore, not be in positions that are directly affected by an external heat source
and should, if possible, be located where there is good ventilation. Dusts and other
similar agents can form a deposit or film on the surface of a luminaire and these can
absorb moisture from the atmosphere, creating a corrosive agent directly on the
surface of the luminaire. In such conditions it is important when selecting the
luminaire that notice is taken of the overall shape and position of such things as
fasteners, so that any deposits are kept to a minimum.

Table 3.1 Chemical resistance of some materials used for luminaires.

The strengths referred to are not concentrations but degrees of dissociation, eg. Nitric acid is a strong acid, highly dissociated in solution, whereas
Acetic acid is a weak acid. Both can be concentrated.

Table 3.2 Resistance of some Aluminium Materials used for Luminaires

11
3.2 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT The selection of luminaires and other ancillary equipment such as junction boxes,
cables and glands needs to be carefully assessed to ensure that the equipment
selected will meet all the task criteria laid down in the specification for the
installation. Careful selection at the initial lighting design stage may well prove an
investment if maintenance and/or replacement is to be kept to the acceptable
minimum level of cost. The quality of luminaire will be determined by the task to
be illuminated and the expected ‘life’ of the luminaire during which time minimal
work will be done on the installation except routine replacement of lamps.
The information given can only be a guide as the subject is very diverse, depending
on the type of installation and the concentration of the corrosive agents. The major
considerations that must be given to the selection of luminaires for an installation in
a hostile environment are the materials used in the construction of the luminaire
and/or accessories, the design of the luminaire and the environmental conditions in
which the luminaire will be installed.
Table 3.1 lists many different metals, plastics and other materials which are
currently in regular use in the manufacture of luminaires for installation in hostile
environments and is intended as a guide only to the reaction of certain materials
when attacked by various corrosive agents (acids, alkalis and organic substances).
Table 3.2 lists some common aluminium materials indicating the types of environ-
ment in which they are commonly applied.

The level of attack will depend on a wide number of variables and may be spread
over a large surface area, or concentrated in a local area (e.g. around a fastener). A
small break in a paint, plated or plastic coating can often be just as severe, as
intense local corrosion takes place.
It is not always possible to see where corrosion is taking place and therefore regular
inspection and maintenance are required, particularly on installations where a
hostile environment is continually present in a measurable or recognised form, such
as the marine environments of offshore structures where saline corrosion is
prevalent.
After deciding what form of lighting is required for the particular situation, suitable
luminaires of the right type of protection/classification should be very carefully
chosen and assessed. The choice may not be very great but a consistent evaluation
will lead to the correct decision. For example:
(a) Carry out a bench examination of the luminaires most likely to meet your
requirements, followed by a trial installation if necessary in the corrosive
environment.
(b) Form judgements with the assistance of the manufacturer and examine their
design data and site experience.
(c) A mixture of both.
A methodical appraisal of the process design and the expected physical condition
should be carried out and wherever possible take into account local knowledge.
The old maxim that the heavier and/or thicker the materials the longer the life does
not now apply. The developments in the fields of plastics and metals mean that
luminaires can be light in weight and extremely durable and as a result directly
affect initial and running costs.
Selection should therefore take account of:-
Materials, Cost, Safety, Ease of Maintenance, Control Gear, Enclosure.
Obviously the importance of each of these items varies according to the situation
under consideration. A typical assessment checklist is shown in Appendix 2.

3.2.1 Aluminium Aluminium and aluminium alloys, particularly those containing magnesium, man-
ganese or silicon as the main alloying elements, exhibit a high resistance to
corrosion under a wide range of conditions. This is due principally to the tenacious
oxide film which forms on the surface of the metal and which immediately reforms
should the surface be damaged.
There will obviously be variations in surface appearance following atmospheric
exposure depending on the particular environment encountered, i.e. rural, indust-
rial or marine. (See Table 3.2).
In rural atmospheres, the change in surface appearance is hardly detectable and
aluminium will retain its shiny pristine look for many years. Even with the less
resistant aluminium copper alloys, experience has shown that these will also
perform satisfactorily and will gradually take on a dull grey appearance with
increasing time of use.
In industrial conditions, the most common corrosive pollutant is sulphur dioxide
produced mainly from burned fuels. The sulphur dioxide content of the atmosphere

12
 increases, with the degree of industrialisation of the location and varies with the
season, being greatest during the winter months. Aluminium and most aluminium
alloys have a high resistance to industrial atmospheres although the acid conditions
produced by sulphur dioxide and water can give rise to some minute surface pitting
and roughening. However, the level of pitting falls off rapidly with time, due in part
to the self-stifling action of the oxide film, gradually coming to a standstill. Under
such conditions, there is virtually no change in the structural integrity of the metal.
In the case of the strong heat treatable alloys, principally those with copper as one
of the main alloying elements, there may, in a heavily industrialised environment,
be a need for surface protection which can take the form of painting or other
applied coatings.
Under marine conditions, sodium chloride is the major corrosion pollutant likely to
be encountered. This can roughen the surface of aluminium although in normal
climatic conditions where the structure is regularly washed with rain, this effect will
be considerably lessened. As previously mentioned, the corrosion attack of
aluminium will be self-stifling with no significant effect on the structural strength.

3.2.2 Plastics The general resistance of plastics materials to attack by inorganic acids has led to
their increasing use in luminaires, where their low weight is an important
advantage.
Where organic chemicals are present, however, plastics must be used with
discretion as the wrong choice may quickly result in breakdown. For all applica-
tions it is essential to know the exposure conditions if unnecessary costs or
maintenance are to be avoided.
One solution to many corrosive situations involving weak acids and alkalis and
common organic solvents is the use of glass fibre reinforced polyester (GRP)
luminaires provided the glass fibres are adequately covered.
The most common plastics in use on luminaires are shown in Table 3.1. It is
emphasised that the chemical compatibility data should be used as a guide as it is
impossible to generalise with complete accuracy.
Other effects closely linked to the end of life/use of all plastic materials are due to
oxidation resulting in yellowing, embrittlement, softening, crazing and cracking.
These effects may result from light, ozone and high energy radiation such as ultra
violet.
Regular maintenance and checking, although expensive and difficult, can in many
instances prevent premature failure or prolong the life of luminaires.
3.2.3 Rubber Butyl rubber has many qualities that make it, for the right conditions, a very
suitable material from which to make luminaires. Its resistance to the wide range of
corrosive agents depends primarily on the synthesis (structure) of the mixture,
duration and concentration of the corrosive agent, temperature and surface
contact. Quantitative data can only be given for specific mixtures where the
conditions are precisely indicated and discussion is therefore recommended with
the manufacturer before installation takes place. For example, many rubber
products swell more or less to a sizeable extent in mineral oils without being
actually destroyed or embrittled. However, swelling is often connected with a
clearly adverse effect on the physical characteristics and as such can be used as a
form of measurement as to the suitability for installation. Specific attention may
need to be paid to the method of support, cable entry and any bezel clamps.
3.2.4 Glass A wide range of luminaires incorporating prismatic glass diffusers and metal
housings are available on the market and have proved to be extremely satisfactory.
Glass, whilst withstanding normal chemical attack better than plastics, is also more
reliable because of its extra rigidity when incorporated into designs which must also
ensure the luminaires remained sealed against the ingress of foreign bodies and
moisture.
The housings of such luminaires are now usually cast in one of the corrosion-
resistant silicon-aluminium alloys, which have tended to replace designs made in
cast iron.

3.3 PROTECTIVE FINISHES Many new finishing processes have been developed to control corrosion such as
plastic or metal coating of the base metal or the use of stoved epoxy paints.
Any finishing process depends on the whole process and not only on the qualities of
the final paint finish or plating metal; it is always wise to make sure that the
pre-treatment processes and under-coating systems used are satisfactory.
Although these processes help to delay corrosion it would be wrong to rely on them
as a major barrier and countenance the use of unsuitable base materials; their life is
13
 often limited and it is difficult to prevent some damage to the coating during
erection and servicing. For example, when luminaires are opened for cleaning and
lamp replacement their clips and hinges suffer abrasion and once, a coating surface
has been broken, attack may be rapid and severe.
There are two fundamental means whereby coatings achieve their objective of
effective control of corrosion. Firstly, they may act as a barrier between the base
material and the environment by a dependence upon a continuous and pore-free
layer with a low inherent rate of corrosion. Electroplated chromium and vitreous
enamel fall into this category of coating.
The second method of corrosion control is the application of coating metals which
are less noble than the protected metal and so control corrosion sacrificially.
For example, galvanising provides a high level of cathodic protection to the surface
of steel for a variety of corrosive environments by the application of a metallic zinc
coating. Whilst such coatings continue to protect the base metal by electrolytic
action at small breaks in the coating, excessive removal of the coating by abrasion
or wear will result in corrosion of the base metal.
3.4 FIXING AND GLANDS Care has to be taken in the use of various metals when in contact with aluminium
alloys. It is essential to use a protective paste or barrier on the threads to prevent
metal to metal contact between the steel and aluminium to avoid seizure due to
electro-chemical corrosion. Special precautions are required to ensure electrical
continuity and to check that this has been preserved during assembly and mounting
of the fitting at the required location. Using copper or brass glands in contact with
aluminium will result in excessive electro-chemical corrosion.
3.5 INTEGRAL WIRING In general, the luminaire manufacturer will select the integral wiring from the types
covered in BS 6141.
Whilst the two main criteria will be the correct voltage grade and a material with a
suitable operating temperature, other factors may need to be considered. For
example, some of the plasticisers used in the manufacture of PVC insulated cables
(which are the most commonly used of the “plastic” types) may not be compatible
with other plastic components in fully enclosed luminaires. Increasing use is being
made of EVA (ethyl-vinyl-acetate) insulated cables. Other cables whose use is
increasing include those insulated with silicone rubber and PTFE (polytetra-fluoro-
ethylene) the latter being very inert with superior abrasion resistance and max-
imum operating temperature.
3.6 ENVIRONMENTAL If luminaires are to be installed in humid, damp or outdoor environments,
CONDITIONS consideration should be given to using luminaires with an appropriate IP rating
suitable for the installation to prevent the ingress of foreign bodies such as dust and
rain. (see Appendix 1).
A suitably protected luminaire will also enable the internal components to resist the
effects of the corrosive agents which could attack them causing early breakdown
and failure.
3.7 APPROVALS/CERTIFICATION For hostile environments, i.e. non-explosive, the recognised design standard for
AND STANDARDS luminaires is BS4533, suitable for use with tungsten filament, tubular fluorescent
and other discharge lamps on supply voltages not exceeding 1 kV. The standard
covers all aspects of safety (electrical, mechanical and thermal) incorporating type
tests for checking compliance of the design of a product with the requirements of
the specification. The BSI Safety Standards Mark Scheme is related to the
parameters of the standard and is identical in all other respects to the Kitemark
scheme which incorporates performance as well as safety. Luminaires bearing the
Safety Mark have been certified by BSI as conforming to stringent safety standards
based on BS 4533 and that numerous safety tests have been performed on
production samples covering general construction; thermal endurance; protection
against electric shock; resistance to impact; resistance to heat, fire and tracking;
provision for earthing and insulation resistance. The appearance of the Safety Mark
indicates that every effort has been made to ensure that the product is safe and
gives an independent assurance to the user that luminaires have been designed,
manufactured, and type-tested in accordance with the relevant standard.
There are other methods of claiming compliance with a Standard. These are,
firstly, manufacturer’s self-certification of conformity with the Electrical Equip-
ment (Safety) Regulations only. Secondly, the manufacturer’s declaration of
conformity with the accepted standards in the absence of a Safety Mark. In both
cases such claims are subject to the provisions of the Trades Description Act and
the enforcement authority, e.g. H.M. Factory Inspectorate has the power to
investigate whether manufacturers have complied with Section 6 of the Health and
Safety at Work etc. Act 1974. The luminaire manufacturer may choose any of the
three methods best suited to the product. The purchaser or installer however,

14
would be advised to protect himself by buying luminaires with the BSI Safety Mark
or a suitable declaration of conformity from a reliable supplier.

Fig. 3.2 British Standard Kitemark and Safety Mark

15

4.1 ASSESSMENT OF RISK
4.1.1 Cause of Ignition
4.1.2 Preventive Measures
4.1.3 Types of Hazard
4.1.3.1 Gases, Vapours and Mists
16
4.0 HAZARDOUS ENVIRONMENTS
There is always a danger of explosion wherever flammable materials are manufac-
tured, produced, processed or stored if they can form an explosive mixture with air.
Although the prime requirement must be the avoidance of the creation of such
conditions, where this is not practicable, special methods of safeguarding electrical
apparatus, including luminaires, must be employed to avoid possible ignition, as
both a flammable atmosphere and means of ignition must exist simultaneously to
produce a fire or explosion.
The duty is placed on industry to recognise and assess an explosive hazard and to
take all the necessary precautions to meet it.
The Electricity Regulations of 1908 and 1944 and more lately the Health and Safety
at Work etc, Act 1974 both stipulate and require the danger to be recognised and
the necessary action taken to ensure, primarily, the safety and welfare of the
workforce and the public by ensuring the safe operation of the installation.
The responsibility for hazardous area classification of a plant, whether it be a
petrochemical complex or a garage pit installation, rests jointly with the engineer-
ing, processing and other departments concerned with its design and operation.
Consultation should also take place before the introduction of a different process in
an established production area which might give rise to a hazard, or one of a greater
degree than already covered, requiring re-assessment of the risk.
It is appreciated that many firms have neither the staff nor the expertise to carry out
such a combined operation. Major contractors are well fitted to provide necessary
‘know-how’ and expert advice is available from such sources as the Health and
Safety Executive; (Factory Inspectorate Branch), the Local Authority Licensing
Board and engineering insurance companies.
The onus for the safe operation of the plant rests not only therefore with the
operator but also all those involved in the engineering, design and construction. It
is their assessment of risk and the taking of the necessary precautions that leads to
the classification of the hazardous areas.
A fire or explosion, due to the ignition by some cause of electrical origin, can occur
only if two conditions co-exist:-
(a) Firstly, there is an explosive atmosphere and
(b) secondly, there is a source of ignition. Typical examples are naked
flames, electric sparks, (these may be electrostatic in origin) and hot
surfaces. In luminaires these could occur in faulty lampholders, failed
ballasts or the lamp in a failed condition. The latter two conditions could
possibly alter the temperature classification (see 4.5.2) of the luminaire.
A further condition is incendive sparking by friction when the luminaire is
struck by another metal object possibly giving a resulting very hot spark.
Although a recognised problem the chance of an incident is very much
reduced by the fact that the surfaces of luminaires are processed and
painted to prevent corrosion.
Preventive measures aim to eliminate the coincidental occurrence of the above
conditions:–
(a) By the complete suppression or avoidance of an explosive atmosphere to
render unnecessary any additional specific electrical precautions.
(b) By provision of approved electrical equipment and installations designed
for use in the specified explosive atmosphere.
(c) By affording such attention to both conditions, that the probability of an
explosive atmosphere and a dangerous electrical condition occurring
simultaneously in normal circumstances is so remote as to be in practice
negligible.
Explosive gases and vapours are grouped according to the grade of risk and two
main apparatus groups are internationally agreed and specified in BS4683:Part 2
and BS5501:Part 1 (EN50.014), see table 4.1.
GROUP I For application in Coal Mines
GROUP II For application in surface industries. This comprises sub-divisions A, B
and C, depending on the gas or vapour.

4.1.3.2 Flammable Liquids
In BS229, 1957 the groups were divided into four and these comprised Groups I, II,
III and IV. (See Table 4.1).
Flammable liquids give rise to explosive vapours, according to their flash-point and
the temperature to which they are subjected.
Liquids, however, constitute a further risk in that fires may occur as a result of
unvapourised liquids in the form of spray, coming into contact with electrical
equipment and then being ignited by a spark or other agency.

Table 4.1 Grouping of Gases by explosion hazard

*Apparatus marked IIC to BS5501 may not necessarily be suitable for Acetylene. Ethyl Nitrate and Carbon Disulphides. It is advisable to check with the
manufacturer before using.
†Methane above ground (e.g. sewage or LNG plants) is apparatus group IIA.
‡Manufacturing dimensions not in the standard

4.1.3.3 Dusts It should be recognised that the behaviour of flammable dusts is not as predictable
as that of flammable gases or vapours.
When a dust is released into the atmosphere it disperses in the air as a cloud and
may become widespread by air movement. A cloud of flammable dust with its
flammable range can be ignited and flash-fire or, in a confined space, explode. A
light dust remains in suspension longer than a heavy dust but both eventually settle
and lie dormant in a layer on exposed surfaces. Should these surfaces be hot, or
should another source of ignition be present, a layer of flammable dust is a constant
risk and may be ignited producing a fire the severity of which is dependent on the
burning characteristics of the bulk material.
Some flammable dusts in layer form when ignited have the ability to propagate
combustion by flame or smouldering, the latter particularly when the dust is
present in bulk. In some cases when the ignition source is removed, combustion of
the dust layer ceases. In other cases, it continues and the dust layer is said to train
fire.
A layer of flammable dust can be disturbed to form a dust cloud which may spread
and eventually settle again to form another layer. This cycle can be repeated from
time to time. Should a small explosion occur, layers of flammable dust over a large
area can be disturbed to form a cloud which on ignition can create a secondary
explosion and/or fire of considerably greater damage potential than the small
primary explosion. In a plant handling flammable dust a high standard of
‘housekeeping’ is therefore essential.
At the present time there is no British Standard or international standard on this
subject, although work has commenced at both national and international level
with the object of issuing a document to cover both constructional and code of
practice aspects.
Until such documents are available it is recommended that advice be sought from
such organisations as the HSE and ERA as to suitable types of luminaires that
should be used where particular dusts are present.
Additional guidance can be obtained from such documents as Fire Research
Technical Paper No.21 and Health and Safety at Work publication No. 22 which
lists some examples of dusts which can ignite in certain circumstances.
4.1.3.4 Possible Combination of All On plants where flammable dusts are present as well as flammable gases, vapours
Three or liquids, the necessary precautions should be taken to cover both types of risks.
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF Having established, therefore, that there is a risk (See 4.1) it is possible to grade
HAZARDOUS AREAS some areas according to the probability of existence of dangerous concentrations of
flammable substances in the atmosphere. Dusts are not included but will be
included at some future date in a separate document.
17
 The British Standard Code of Practice CP1003 1964 was concerned with electrical
apparatus and associated equipment, for use in industrial hazardous atmospheres
of gas or vapour.
This has now been replaced by a multi-part British Standard BS5345 – Code of
Practice for the selection, installation and maintenance of electrical apparatus for
use in potentially explosive atmospheres.
Part 1, which covers the basic requirements for all parts of the code, recognises the
different degrees of probability with which explosive concentrations of flammable
gas or vapour may arise in installations. Detailed considerations given in Part 2 of
the Code, Classification of Hazardous Areas, recognises three sets of conditions
called zones.
Zone 0 – In which an explosive gas-air mixture is continuously present, or present
for long periods.
Zone 1 – In which an explosive gas-air mixture is likely to occur in normal
operation.
Zone 2 – In which an explosive gas-air mixture is not likely to occur in normal
operation and if it occurs it will only exist for a short time.

Figure 4.1 Typical Zonal Classification diagram of plant

18
4.2.1 Gases, Vapours and Liquids It should be noted that the above area classification deals only with flammable
gases and vapours and by implication, flammable liquids or mists (BS5345:Part 2
refers).
In determining the extent of a classified area this can be broken into two
considerations, outdoor and indoor.
A typical example is shown in Figure 4.1.
Each source of hazard will be surrounded by an area appropriately classified and so
determined that beyond the boundary of the area no hazard can reasonably be
expected to arise. In deciding the classification area boundary, consideration must
be given to the quantity of the flammable substances which could be released in a
given time.
Where the source of hazard exists within a room or enclosed area, then classifica-
tion appropriate to the source of hazard would normally apply to the whole room or
enclosed space. Any openings from a classified hazardous area shall be regarded as
a source of hazard when considering adjacent areas.
An exception to these conditions is where there is adequate ventilation, but
interlocking of electrical supplies and provision of alarms is advisable to prevent a
dangerous condition occurring if the ventilation system fails.
It must be borne in mind that the illustrations are based on conditions where gases
and vapours are heavier than air. This is the condition normally encountered in the
oil and petrochemical industry.
Heavier than air gases will tend to spread downwards and outwards. For this reason
the vertical extent of the dangerous area is reduced.
Occasionally consideration must be given to gases such as hydrogen which are
lighter than air and will therefore rise on discharge. Particular note should be given
to any vertical obstructions which may prevent gas dispersal or heat sources that
could cause ignition.
4.2.2 Dusts The above area classification does not deal with dusts for which an area classifica-
tion concept is being developed.
4.2.3 Gases, Vapours, Liquids and Plants in which flammable dusts are present as well as flammable gases, vapours or
Dusts liquids should be considered separately for both types of risk, ensuring that the
worst condition is catered for.
4.3 METHODS OF Where lighting in hazardous areas is required, special means of safeguarding must
SAFEGUARDING be applied. The types of protection usually used are:-
Flameproof Enclosure – Code Symbol Ex ‘d’
Increased Safety – Code Symbol Ex ‘e’
Pressurised Enclosure – Code Symbol Ex ‘p’
Special Protection – Code Symbol Ex ‘s’
Intrinsic Safety – Code Symbol Ex ‘i’
Non-Sparking – Code Symbol Ex ‘N’
The types of protection are covered in the International Electrotechnical Commis-
sion (IEC), European (EN) and British Standard (BS) specifications. (See Table
4.2).

4.3.1 Flameproof Enclosure –
(Ex ‘d’)
The term ‘flameproof’ is applied to luminaires certified by the British Approvals
Services for Electrical Equipment in Flammable Atmospheres (BASEEFA) as
having been examined, type-tested where necessary and found to comply with
BS5501:Part 5, BS4683:Part 2, or the earlier standard BS229 and BS889 –
Flameproof Lighting Fittings (under revision). Alternatively other approved
national authorities may certify luminaires in accordance with their appropriate
national standard (See 4.4.2). (See Plates 3, 5, 6, 7).
Prior to BASEEFA being formed, certification to BS229 was granted after test by
the Ministry of Power and such certificates are still valid.
A flameproof enclosure is defined as ‘able to withstand an internal explosion of
flammable gas or vapour which may enter without suffering damage and without
communicating the internal flammation to the external flammable gas or vapour for
which it is designed through any joints or structural openings in the enclosure’. It is
thus necessary to control the length of path and gap width to cool the products of
combustion and to inhibit their transmission from the inside to the outside
surrounding hazardous atmosphere. Flameproof luminaires are therefore grouped
according to specified maximum permissible dimensions for gaps between joint
surfaces and the surfaces of the openings in the enclosure. In practice, joints are
fitted as closely as possible and checked that under no circumstances can the
maximum value be exceeded.
19
Table 4.2 Type of Protection for Explosive Gas Hazards

*Type ‘N’ protection confirmed to relevant BS only but the type of protection is under consideration by an IEC Standards Committee and Ex ‘n’ has
been reserved for future use.

The grouping system has changed somewhat to line up with international agree-
ment. The relationship between apparatus groups, the former gas groups and
apparatus class are indicated in Table 4.1, with, in addition, comparison with
certain international standards.
It should be noted that luminaires certified for a particular gas group may be used
where a gas allowing a larger gap dimension would be appropriate i.e. IIB would
meet IIA requirements and IIC would meet IIA and IIB requirements.
Flameproof luminaires are primarily intended for Zone 1 areas: when used in
Zone 2 areas no relaxation may be made in the application, installation and
maintenance of flameproof equipment. Flameproof luminaires must not be used in
Zone 0 areas. When luminaires are to be used outdoors, exposed to the weather or
a wet environment, they should be of the flameproof type, but with gasketed joints
separate from the flamepaths or by suitable weather shrouding to shed water away
from flamepaths (see Fig. 4.2). A limited degree of weather protection on other
flameproof luminaires may be achieved by the use of a suitable approved grease, or
flexible non-setting compound in the flamepath so long as there is no chemical
corrosive effect. Gaskets in service should not be placed in flamepaths or any
material used which will harden (See 4.5.4 and 10.2).
It should be recognised that the presence of obstacles such as steelwork, pipes etc.
near the flanged joints or other openings may interfere with the protection offered
by a flameproof (Ex ‘d’) enclosure, and a minimum of 40mm should be maintained
between the obstacle and the luminaire.
It should be especially noted that no modifications are permitted to the approved
design without reference to the manufacturer, and that the luminaire must be
installed and operated in the manner prescribed on the certificate, and in
accordance with BS5345:Part 3.

20

4.3.2 Increased Safety – (Ex ‘e’)
Fig. 4.2 Typical methods of protecting flameproof flanges.
This protection is covered by BS4683:Part 4 and BS5501:Part 6 and is defined as ‘A
method of protection by which additional measures are applied to electrical
equipment so as to give increased security against the possibility of excessive
temperatures and of the occurrence of arcs and sparks during the service life of the
apparatus. It applies to electrical equipment, no part of which produce arcs, sparks
or exceed the limiting temperatures in normal service’. (See Plates 1, 2 and 4).
The additional measures taken include the provision of non-sparking cable
terminations, enhanced creepage and clearance values related to the type of
insulation used, the limitation of temperature on ballast windings and heated
surfaces, and the use of special lampholders. In addition the luminaire enclosure
must meet minimum strength and protection standards against the ingress of
moisture and dust (see IP rating Appendix 1).
21

4.3.3 Pressurised – (Ex ‘p’)
4.3.4 Special Protection – (Ex ‘s’)
22
Only certain light sources are permissble for use in luminaires designed for mains
supply.
(a) Cold starting tubular fluorescent lamps with single pin caps (TLX)
(b) General lighting services filament lamps.
(c) Mixed light (MBT) lamps.
(d) Other lamps for which there is no danger that parts of the light source
may attain a higher temperature than the limiting temperature (T-rating)
following breakages of the bulb. However, lamps containing free metallic
sodium (SOX) are not permitted.
Ex ‘e’ luminaires may be used in Zone 1 and Zone 2 areas, but must not be used in
Zone 0 areas
The protection type ‘e’ is suitable for use in all gases and vapours so far as explosion
risk is concerned, as long as the temperature class is acceptable and the materials of
construction are compatible with vapours, etc., in the surrounding environment. It
should be noted that installation in acetylene atmospheres requires the protection
of any bare copper by coating with insulating varnish to avoid the possible
formation of acetylides.
It should be especially noted that no modifications are permitted to the approved
design without reference to the manufacturer, and that the luminaire must be
installed and operated in the manner prescribed on the certificate, and in
accordance with BS5345: Part 6.
Pressurising is a method of safeguarding whereby a protective gas in the enclosure
is maintained at a pressure sufficient to prevent the ingress of the surrounding
atmosphere.
This method of protection involves a system of inter-connected enclosures with
safety devices such as time-delay relays and devices for monitoring the flow of
protective gas. These safety devices must themselves be incapable of causing an
explosion or be mounted outside the potentially explosive area. Although there has
been an international recommendation for sometime (IEC 79-2), it is only with the
introduction of CENELEC specifications EN 50.016 issued under BS5501:Part 3
that a specification has been laid down in this country defining specific require-
ments for the construction and testing of pressurised apparatus.
Although rarely used as a form of protection certain luminaires are capable of
being pressurised but further safeguards have to be built into the system and these
are now therefore defined for the first time. The most important consideration is
that before re-establishing the electrical supply after loss of pressure it is necessary
to purge the system for some time to scavenge any dangerous atmospheres which
may have accumulated during the shut-down.
Type ‘p’ luminaires may be used in Zone 1 and Zone 2 areas but should not be used
in Zone 0 areas. For Zone 1 associated pressure failure alarms should be used if the
internal apparatus is non-sparking and if normally sparking a pressure failure
isolator and alarm should be used.
For Zone 2 a pressure failure alarm is sufficient only if the internal apparatus is
non-sparking or if immediate action can be taken on loss of
(BS5345:Part 5 refers). The type of protection ‘p’ is suitable for use in all gases and
vapours, if the temperature class is acceptable and the materials of construction are
compatible with vapours etc. in the surrounding atmosphere.
It should be especially noted that no modifications are permitted to the approved
design without reference to the manufacturer, and that the luminaire must be
installed and operated in the manner prescribed on the certificate, and in
accordance with BS5345:Part 5.
This concept is used when the protection cannot be related to the recognised
techniques and to enable development of new ideas prior to standard specifications
being available. Examples of type ‘s’ protection are the factory sealed handlamps
and the use of encapsulated components.
The certificate will normally describe the special types of protection and the
conditions of use which must be closely observed, with particular reference to the
use in particular zones. (BS5345:Part 8 refers).
Apart from encapsulation which reduces and controls free volume and therefore
reduces the risk of an explosive mixture forming, a further example is the use of
sintered plugs on battery packs to allow for the safe release of an explosive mixture
(oxygenated hydrogen) from the battery pack to the surrounding atmosphere.
4.3.5 Intrinsic Safety – (Ex ‘i’)
4.3.6 ‘Non-Sparking’ Protection –
(Ex ‘N’)
Intrinsic safety is a method of protection that is widely used in instrumentation but
has not yet been incorporated into luminaire designs for use in industrial
applications, although luminaires incorporating miniature fluorescent lamps are
available for use in coal-mining applications.
Intrinsic safety is a technique based on the restriction of electrical energy, within
the apparatus, to a level below that which can cause ignition by either sparking or
heating effect.
The level of electrical energy required to energise the normal range of lamps used
in industrial applications is too high to meet the limiting conditions laid down in
relevant apparatus design standards. It is therefore unlikely that luminaires for
industrial applications will be made available.
Type of protection ‘N’ is defined as ‘a type of protection applied to electrical
apparatus such that, in normal operation, it is not capable of igniting a surrounding
explosive atmosphere and a fault capable of causing ignition is not likely to occur’.
The general requirements are detailed in BS4683: Part 3, which refers to BS4533:
Part 2, Section 2.1: 1976 for luminaires, and related to luminaires which do not arc
or spark or generate hot surfaces in normal operation with their specified rating.
Constructional requirements include either a restricted breathing enclosure which
controls the rate of intake or release of gas over a given time interval by some form
of sealing gasket, or an enclosure with a degree of protection against the ingress of
dust and moisture at least equivalent to IP54 (BS5490 refers).
However the enclosure cannot be considered independently, the components to be
used inside the enclosure and their mode of operation must also be considered.
This is to ensure that the simultaneous occurrence of a flammable atmosphere and
ignition source is unlikely.
Luminaires incorporating fluorescent lamps will tend to be of an unrestricted
breathing nature due to their low surface temperature which will result in a low
external surface temperature of the luminaire. However, if the light source is of the
type e.g. MBF, SON, T-H etc., where the surface temperature of the lamp is
usually well above 200°C then the enclosure will tend to be of the restricted
breathing nature. A number of luminaires have a double enclosure design which
effectively separates the lamp chamber which is restricted breathing and the control
gear/terminal enclosure which is unrestricted breathing. Reference to the manufac-
turer will confirm.
Prior to the introduction of Type ‘N’ as an independent protection concept in 1971,
a similar protection concept, which had been introduced in 1965 was in common
use, particularly in the onshore oil and petrochemical industry. A luminaire was
designed in accordance with specifications available at the time, such as the OCMA
specification Elec. No. 7 or BS4137, and following tests were authorised for use in
the then defined Division 2 (now Zone 2) area by a “letter of no objection” issued
by HM Factory Inspectorate. Luminaires, and other equipment, approved by this
method were commonly called Division 2 equipment and such approvals are still
valid. Such equipment is still used extensively although it is recommended that all
new installations should install Type ‘N’ luminaires in preference to Division 2
versions where practicably possible.
With the introduction of Type ‘N’ standards (BS4683:Part 3 and BS4533: 2.2.1) this
had led to certain divergencies from the requirements laid down in the standards
and specification in use originally.
In particular the temperature rating has been formalised in accordance with
BS4683: Part 1 within the range Tl-T6 (see 5.3.2) indicating its temperature class.
‘Division 2’ luminaires were limited to a maximum surface temperature of 200°C
and particular attention is required therefore in areas where combustible gases or
vapours having ignition temperatures below 200°C may be present. These are
limited (BS4137 refers) and reference to the manufacturer will confirm the actual
surface temperature in such cases.
In addition the test conditions covering the impact test and restricted breathing
tests have been made more onerous and enclosed-break devices, such as lamphol-
ders, are tested to demonstrate a higher factor of safety.
Type ‘N’ luminaires are suitable for use in Zone 2 areas only but cover all gases and
vapours as long as the temperature class is acceptable and the materials of
construction are compatible with the vapours, etc., in the surrounding environ-
ment. It should be noted that installation in acetylene atmospheres requires the
protection of any bare copper by coating with insulating varnish to avoid the
possible formation of acetylides.
23
 It should be especially noted that no modifications are permitted to the approved
design without reference to the manufacturer, and that the luminaire must be
installed and operated in the manner prescribed on the certificate, and in
accordance with BS5345: Part 7.

4.4 APPROVALS, Certain changes have taken place over the years as regards the testing and
CERTIFICATION AND certifying authorities in the United Kingdom.
STANDARDS In the past all flameproof equipment was certified by a Ministry Department after
4.4.1 United Kingdom explosion tests had been carried out at the Safety in Mines Research Establishment
Testing Station at Buxton.
If all the fitting was found satisfactory on design and performance a certificate of
flameproofness (Buxton certificate) was issued.
All apparatus thus certified was then marked with the letters FLP inserted in the
outline of a crown (See Fig. 4.3)
The FLP crown was used for all groups of flameproof apparatus (i.e. mining and
non-mining), until the formation of BASEEFA in 1969. Since that date it has only
been used for Group I flameproof (mining) apparatus.
In 1969 the certification of all new equipment, and supplements to existing
certificates, for use in surface industrial hazardous areas (other than coal mining
and explosives processing and manufacturing installations) were taken over by
BASEEFA, now part of the Health and Safety Executive.
Testing is still carried out at Buxton and if the equipment complies with the
relevant standard a Certificate of Assurance is issued to the manufacturer together
with a license to apply the certified mark, the licence being valid for three years,
thereafter renewable.
A new mark is used – a crown containing the letters ‘Ex’ (See Fig. 4.3), this being
the registered mark of BASEEFA and is only used for Group II (non-mining
apparatus.

Fig. 4.3 International Certifying Authorities and Registration Marks (this list is not
exhaustive).

24
 The certificate will basically concern itself with the hazardous area protection
concept and may not consider any other aspects of the design e.g. not indicate the
degree of protection against dusts, liquids (See 4.5.4.1), or resistance to corrosion
(See 4.5.4.2). The manufacturer will usually provide other indications of these
factors.
The original certificate issued for the apparatus will indicate the manufacturers
name and address, the certificate number, type number, temperature rating,
specification number, a short description of the apparatus and where applicable the
groups of gases. Also, where appropriate a schedule of variations which apply to
the use of the equipment.
BASEEFA will normally test the apparatus to the relevant British Standard (e.g.
BS5501:Part 6 or BS4683:Part 4 for type ‘e’ luminaires or BS4533:Part 2,
Section 2.1 for Type ‘N’ luminaires), issuing the certificate of assurance which
indicates the apparatus complies with the design standard.
If there is not a recognised standard covering the specification of a particular form
of protection, BASEEFA have the power to raise an interim standard of their own
until such time as a British Standard is issued.
Although legislation does not required that apparatus for use in hazardous areas be
certified, it is strongly recommended that all luminaires used in such areas be
certified and/or approved to the relevant standards covering the various types of
protection.
It should be noted that the luminaires can only be used in accordance with the
certificate and therefore it is recommended that anybody considering using such
equipment clarifies such conditions before installation. Such conditions may be the
T-rating, mode of mounting, cable termination, type of internal cable required to
compensate for a high internal temperature, or type of sealing plug required to be
fitted into each unused cable entry. Certification numbers followed by -/B or -/X
indicates that special installation requirements should be noted. (See 4.5.5.1).
4.4.2 International A major problem, in not only the lighting market, but all the electrical field is the
wide range of national standards available for ostensibly the same type of
equipment or protection. (See Table 4.3).
For example, for type ‘d’ (flameproof) luminaires, there are manufacturers making
to German, French, Japanese, Belgian, Italian or American standards as well as to
British standards specifications.
The majority of luminaires in question are certified by the relevant national test
house, such as PTB (Germany) and LCIE (France), to their own national
standards.
The introduction of a set of European standards which define construction and test
requirements for each of six well established protection concepts, will form part of
the mechanism for dismantling technical barriers to trade, at least within Europe,
thus enabling similar equipment to be made and tested to the same standard. These
have been issued under the EEC directive 79/196/EEC.
Six of the standards issued, numbered EN50 014 to EN50 020 inclusively, deal with
oil immersion, pressurised apparatus, powder filling, flameproof enclosures,
increased safety and intrinsic safety respectively, and are issued in the UK as parts
of a multipart British Standard BS5501. Table 4.3. lists the EN standards together
with the relevant countries equivalent national standards number.
With the publication of the CENELEC standards it is now possible for BASEEFA,
together with other European test houses, to issue certificates of compliance to the
European harmonised standard.
Equipment certified to EN standards is indicated by the use of symbol E preceding
the Ex and certification number (See 4.5.5.2).
The current British Standards will continue to be used for all the types of protection
relevant to luminaires and whereas new equipment will no doubt be designed,
constructed and tested to the latest specifications, luminaires certified or approved
to other recognised but older standards will continue to be used extensively for
many years to come. It must be recognised that the issuing of a new standard does
not automatically supersede or cancel the older standard or change the basic
principle of the type of protection covered in the standard. For example
BS5501:Part 5, 1977 which covers type ‘d’ equipment will be employed alongside
BS4683:Part 2 and BS229, although preference should be given to equipment
certified to the latest standard.
Whilst the EEC is issuing directives (e.g.79/166/EEC) for implementation within
the Common Market, the ultimate aim and object will be to obtain harmonisation

25
 of standards on a world basis, Through the International Electrotechnical Commis-
sion (IEC) the proposals are to issue standards acceptable to all the national
authorities like IEC Publication 79 - Electrical apparatus for explosive gas
atmospheres. For example BS4683:Part 2 is similar to, but not identical with IEC
Publication 79:Part 1.
As with all national and international standards there are always minor variances
on certain aspects which may therefore preclude automatic certification or approval
to both the corresponding national and international standards.
This situation creates considerable problems for the user as well as the manufactur-
er. The user must be aware of the changes in standards that are taking place not
only in this country, but also at other national and international levels and seek
constant guidance as to what is acceptable for installation.
If consideration is being given to the use of luminaires (and accessories) which are
manufactured and/or approved to a foreign national standard whether harmonised
or not, the user must not rely totally on the fact that they have a ‘certificate’ issued
by the foreign national certifying agency but ensure the luminaire (or accessory) is
suitable for installation in the hazardous environment and is safe when installed
under the relevant national installation practices. Particular care should be taken
when coupling luminaires and/or accessories from different countries to ensure the
interface meets the level of protection required for that installation.
The introduction of the CENELEC standards are the first real major step in
bringing a little order to a very disordered scene but it will be many years before full
harmonisation will be reached by the IEC. Each country will try and maintain its
own thinking, thus possibly protecting its own industry, which will continue to pose
problems for the manufacturer who must decide to which standard he is to design,
construct and certify his luminaire so as to ensure the type of market penetration
required.

Table 4.3 International Standards

26
4.4.3 Test Houses
4.5 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
4.5.1 Zonal Classification
4.5.2 Temperature Classification
It is appropriate to note that the changes taking place within, in particular, the EEC
that in future it will be possible for luminaires to be tested by a recognised test
house in Europe to either the CENELEC specifications or to the equivalent
standard of another country.
To date, with only a few exceptions, luminaires have tended to be to a particular
national standard, the certification also being issued by the same national test
house.
Users should always obtain a copy of the certificate from the manufacturer to check
if there are restrictions on the use of the luminaire and any specific installation
requirements.
When selecting luminaires for use in hazardous areas a number of factors or criteria
should be considered and these are detailed in BS5345, Section 1.
These are:-
(1) The type of protection of the luminaire in relation to the zonal classifica-
tion of the hazardous area.
(2) The temperature classification of the luminaire in relation to the ignition
temperature of the gases and vapours involved.
(3) The apparatus sub-group (where applicable) in relation to the relevant
properties of the gases and vapours involved.
(4) The apparatus constructions and enclosure in relation to the environmen-
tal conditions.
It should be noted that this code of practice is applicable only to new permanent
installations and to changes to existing installations where reasonably practicable,
though it is recognised that some changes and additions to certain existing
installations may need to be made in accordance with the recommendations of
CP1003, Parts 1, 2 and 3 as appropriate. It is intended, however, that CP1003, Parts
1, 2 and 3 should eventually be withdrawn from use.
It has already been mentioned earlier in the guide that it is not the responsibility of
the Electrical or Lighting Engineer to classify the areas of hazard, this should be
done by a multi-disciplined team comprising process and engineering personnel
who are familiar with all the likely risks. (See 4.1).
Having established the Zones, the type of protection to be applied to the luminaire
can be selected.
Table 4.2 illustrates other forms of protection, not all of them being discussed in
this guide as the Code of Practice BS5345 covers all forms of electrical apparatus
not just luminaires.
Temperature classification, as defined in BS5501:Pt. 1 and BS4683:Pt. 1, is one of
the criteria considered when selecting the type of luminaire to be used. The user
must ensure the maximum surface temperature (T-class) of the luminaire does not
exceed the ignition temperatures of the gases or vapours involved, or when the
luminaire is marked with a particular maximum surface temperature, that this
temperature does not exceed the ignition temperature of the gas or vapour
involved. Ignition temperature varies considerably e.g. town gas/air is over 600°C,
petrol/air about 250°C whilst carbon disulphide is about 102°C.
Six temperature grades T1-T6 have been established and are listed in Table 4.4,
with the ambient temperature assumed as 40°C unless stated and clearly marked on
the luminaire.
All luminaires made to BS4683 or BS5501 (EN) series are now marked with the
temperature class and reference to BS5345:Pt. 1 which lists gases, vapours and
liquids in their related temperature class and apparatus grouping will aid in the
selection of luminaires for the task envisaged.
Table 4.4 Temperature Classification
27

4.5.3 Apparatus Sub-Grouping
4.5.4 Environmental Conditions
4.5.4.1 Ingress of Liquids and Dusts
- IP Rating
28
Earlier designs of flameproof (BS229/BS889) luminaires were marked differently,
as the maximum external surface temperature rise was originally restricted to 50°C,
then later amended to three categories of temperature rise “X”=125°C, “Y”=75°C
and “Z”=50°C. The ambient temperature was also specified at 35°C peak. Such
apparatus is still valid and widely used.
The ignition temperature of the gas (which is the criterion to be considered) is
defined as the lowest temperature determined by the standardised method, at
which the most explosive mixture of the given substance and air will just ignite at a
heated surface. The ignition temperature must not be confused with the flash-point
of a gas/vapour which is the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient
vapour to form a flammable mixture with air giving a momentary flash on the
application of an ignition source).
The question of apparatus sub-grouping has already been discussed under the
techniques of flameproofing (See 4.1.3 and Table 4.1). The protective features of
other types of protection apply equally to all industrial gases, subject only to
temperature classification and therefore apparatus sub-grouping is therefore not
normally necessary.
A very important aspect in the selection of equipment is the consideration of the
environmental condition on the plant in question. Special care should be taken to
ensure that the luminaire and its installed and maintained component parts, are
constructed so as to guard against electrical and mechanical failure in the intended
conditions of use.
Particular attention should be given to the need for the protection against the
ingress of liquids and solids, (See 4.5.4.1), the effects of corrosion (See 4.5.4.2) and
the possible effects of heat from adjacent plant or the operation in ambient
conditions outside the normal range covered by certification requirements (See
4.5.4.3).
In addition two other conditions need careful consideration.
(1) Ensure that all light alloy materials e.g. aluminium alloys are fully
protected to ensure there is no untreated metal that could cause a spark
due to friction sparking. The majority of luminaires and accessories
which are manufactured in light alloys have some degree of chemical
pretreatment prior to the application of paint processes which will tend
to give adequate protection (BS5345:Part 1).
(2) There is now available on the market a wide range of luminaires and
accessories manufactured in various grades/forms of plastics which if
installed in a dry atmosphere and exposed to an electrostatic charging
mechanism could result in electrostatic charges formed on the enclosure
remaining at a hazardous level for an appreciable time. Detailed
information is given in BS5958 as to action and recommendations in
dealing with this condition.
If the luminaires are to be exposed to a humid, damp or outdoor environment,
those with an appropriate IP rating should be used so as to prevent the ingress of
foreign bodies such as dust or rain. It is recommended that approved luminaires
with a minimum IP54 rating be used. (See Appendix 1)
These conditions are continually present in hostile and hazardous area installations
and particular care should be taken in these situations. For certain types of
explosion protection it is a requirement of the design standard that a minimum IP
rating be obtained.
Type ‘d’ Flameproof
Whilst flameproof-only luminaires are available on the market, there is now a
considerable range of flameproof luminaires with sealing devices designed to
give a high IP rating but which do not interfere with the flameproof joint.
An alternative method to the use of seals is to provide some suitable shroud.
This form of protection permits better natural breathing of the luminaire and
therefore the effects of humidity can be limited. (See Fig. 4.2)
The term “weatherproof”, which appeared in BS2817 (now withdrawn) is not
included in the present IP system although the terminology will, no doubt,
continue to be used for some period, being a generalisation for luminaires
suitable for use outdoors.
Other forms of protecting the luminaire from the ingress of moisture and dusts
may be used, such as the use of approved forms of tape, but these are not
officially recognised nor incorporated in the design considerations at the time
of certification, and are usually applied by the user/installer. Therefore no
confirmed IP rating could be given.

4.5.4.2 Corrosion/Materials
4.5.4.3 Ambient
Conditions/Temperature Markings
4.5.5 Product Marking &
Identification
4.5.5.1 Complete luminaires
Type ‘e’ Increased Safety
The design requirements of increased safety luminaires require the enclosure
to have a minimum of IP54 rating, and therefore are normally suitable for
outdoor installations. In exceptionally severe atmospheric conditions consid-
eration should be given to the use of a higher degree of protection.
Type ‘N’ Non-sparking
Similarly Type ‘N’ luminaires, which can only be used in Zone 2 areas, require
the enclosure to be to a minimum IP54 and therefore are normally suitable for
an outdoor installation.
BS5345 Part 1 mentions corrosion as one of the criteria to be considered when
selecting equipment according to environmental conditions.
Section 3 of this guide has discussed this question in some detail, with many of the
points discussed being applicable to the luminaires installed in hazardous areas
which have corrosive environments.
Corrosion may however, particularly affect the safe and proper operation of type
‘d’ flameproof luminaires because the enclosure is the main part of the method of
protection.
As it is not permitted to paint the flanges of a flameproof joint it is advisable to
counteract corrosion by greasing the joints on installation of the luminaires using an
approved form of non-setting grease, or approved anti-corrosive agents.
If severe corrosion is expected, e.g. in the offshore industry, special chemical
treatments are available which will, for example, protect the flamepaths of type ‘d’
luminaires but do not interfere with the flameproof qualities of the luminaires. The
extra costs of this special treatment may prove beneficial in the long run by
effectively reducing maintenance costs.
In addition corrosive resistant paints such as epoxides are generally available.
However, if special conditions have to be met, discussion with the manufacturer is
advisable to ensure the continuing safe operation of the luminaires.
Site temperatures vary considerably around the world and therefore luminaires
have to be capable of operating in a wide range of ambient temperatures, from
-40°C in Alaska to +50°C in the Middle East.
The user should therefore be aware of the operating limits of the luminaires being
installed.
Current standards assume in general an ambient temperature of 40°C maximum.
It is now normal practice for the temperature classification (T-rating) (See 4.5.2)
and the maximum ambient temperature to be marked on the luminaires alongside
other certification and manufacturers markings (See 4.5.5).
If a luminaire has been tested to a higher ambient temperature than that specified
in the relative standard this should be marked on the luminaire. Luminaires are
normally tested and rated for continual operation at the ambient temperature
indicated, with the luminaires marked Ta 40°C.
Occasionally luminaires may be tested for a specific condition and then the peak
surface temperature is marked (e.g. T185°C) and this must be used after considera-
tion of the ignition temperature of the gases involved to determine the suitability of
the luminaire for the application.
If the ambient temperature is above 40°C (or the assumed temperature in the
certification documents) or below -5°C, discussions with the manufacturer is
advisable to ensure the continuing safe operation of the luminaire.
To clearly identify that the type of luminaire installed is suitable for use in the
hazardous area certain information must be clearly marked on the equipment by
the manufacturer, and those responsible for installing and maintaining luminaires
in these installations need to know the significance of the markings to avoid the
wrong application of explosion-protected lighting apparatus.
In addition to the manufacturer’s name and address, type number of the luminaires
(which covers the range) and catalogue number, other information such as the type
of protection, certification details and temperature rating must be clearly marked.
The registered mark of the test house will also be shown e.g. BASEEFA (See Fig.
4.3).
29
 This information will normally be shown in the format given in the following
examples - all for type ‘d’ flameproof luminaires.
(1) BS5501: Part 4a EExbde IIBfT6g BASh811182i/1j/Xk
(2) BS4683: Part 2a Excde IIBfT6g BASh76014i/2j/Bk
(3) BS229a FLPde (in crown) Groups II and IIIf Zg 5369i
a BS5501: Part 4, BS4683: Part 2 and BS229 indicate the standard to which the
luminaire is designed and approved. There is no requirement to mark the
European Norm Standard Number or the equivalent harmonised British Stan-
dard Number on equipment to the European (EN) standards although manufac-
turers may do so to indicate the relevant standard.
b EEx indicates the luminaire conforms to the harmonised European (EN)
standard.
c Ex indicates the luminaire is to the relevant British Standard only.
d FLP (in crown) indicates the luminaire is to the original flameproof standard,
BS229.
e ‘d’ indicates the equipment is of flameproof type of protection, FLP also
indicates flameproof as all luminaires to BS229 were flameproof.
f IIB or Groups II & III indicate the apparatus (or gas) sub-group.
g T6 indicates the Temperature classification. Earlier designs of luminaires to
BS229/889 which were restricted to flameproof type of protection, were res-
tricted to a maximum external surface temperature rise of 50°C and then
amended to three categories of temperature rise X = 125°C, Y = 75°C and
Z = 50°C. The ambient was then specified as 35°C peak.
h Indicates the equipment has been tested and approved by BASEEFA.
i Indicates the certificate number which can be interpreted as follows.
Year
(1)81....
(2)76...
Indicates the year the certificate was initially issued, the certificate licence being
valid for three years from the date of issue. The manufacturer must then re-apply to
BASEEFA to extend the licence for a further 3 years. If successful a supplement
extension will then be issued by BASEEFA although the original year will remain
on equipment nameplate. A copy of the supplement extension(s) should be
available with the certificate from the manufacturers.
Users and/or installers should ensure that a new licence has been reissued every
three years and is currently valid before purchasing the relevant type of luminaire.
Under BS229 the original certificate number e.g. 5369 was issued for the duration
of the luminaire design and does not require renewal every three years.
Certificate Year Number
The final three digits in examples (1) . . . 182 and (2) . . 014 indicate the number
of the certificates issued in that particular year.
Type of Protection
In example (1) the third digit . . 1 . . . indicates the type of protection of the
luminaire in addition to the relevant letter reference (‘d’ in this example).
The complete list of relevant types of protection are as follows:-
. . 1 . . .-EExd or EExp
. . 2 . . .-EExi
. . 3 . . .-EExe
j /1 or /2 indicate a supplement or variation have been issued to the original
certificate, or variations to the original.
k /X or /B indicate there are special conditions of safe use and the certificate
documents must be studied before the luminaires are put into operation.
Further information includes the voltage and frequency of the power supply and
lamp wattage to ensure the luminaire is operating within the design rating, as well
as the IP rating.
Other examples of marking for different types of explosion protection for surface
industries are as follows:-

30
 Increased Safety Ex e, II, T3
Non-Sparking Ex N, II, T4
Intrinsic Safety Ex ia, IIC, T4
Pressurised Ex p II, T5
4.5.5.2 Hybrid designs With a number of protective measures now possible hybrid designs incorporate
different types of protection in a single design.
The marking could therefore be as follows:-
Exe (d ib) IIC, T3
which indicates that it is increased safety apparatus having an internal flameproof
(d) component and an intrinsically safe (ib) circuit, suitable for IIC grouping and a
temperature class of T3 (200°C).
4.5.5.3 Component A component e.g. a cable gland as suitable for use in association with a complete
approval/certificate luminaire which is not designed to one of the harmonised standards under the EEC
directive e.g. BS889, BS229, BS4683 etc. is certified with a 4-figure number
prefixed BAS and suffixed U e.g. BAS4126U.
A component suitable for use in association with luminaires certified to the
European Harmonised standards e.g. BS5501 will have six-figure certificate
number prefixed BAS e.g. BAS813091.
All these relevant marks and symbols ensure the correct type of luminaire is
installed to give the required level of protection in the potentially hazardous area.

31
 5. LIGHT SOURCES

5.1 INTRODUCTION From the wide range of light sources available the most commonly used light
sources in hostile and hazardous environments are:
Incandescent lamps including tungsten halogen.
Fluorescent lamps - bi-pin (MCFE or MCFA) and single pin (TLX).
High pressure discharge lamps including:
High Pressure Mercury (MBF),
High Pressure Sodium (SON, SON-T).
High Pressure Mercury Halide (MBI, MBIF) and self-ballasted mercury lamps
(MBTF).
Low Pressure discharge lamps including low pressure sodium (SOX). There
are however, restrictions on their use.
These lamps are related as shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Lamp Categories

However development in lamp technology is continuing to take place and may

modify some of the properties quoted. In addition new types of lamps are likely to
be introduced and some current types become obsolete.
Consequently it is impossible to cover all relevant data in this guide and is therefore
essential to consult the lamp manufacturers’ latest published data to ascertain
differences in construction, wattage, luminous efficacy, colour rendering, life and
lumen maintenance.
5.2 TEMPERATURE All light sources generate heat both from the light source itself and, where relevant,
its associated control gear (ballasts etc.) and this may affect the choice of luminaire
as the attained surface temperature (T-rating) may not allow the use of certain
luminaires. (See Section 4.5.2).

Fig. 5.1 A guide to the efficacy of lamp types.

32
5.3 LUMINOUS EFFICACY, The lamps available vary considerably in luminous efficacy (i.e. the light output per
watts consumed) and the information shown in Fig. 5.1 gives a general guide.
It should be noted the power consumption of a discharge lamp circuit consists of
the sum of the lamp power and the ballast power loss. It is not possible to quote
standard values for circuit power because of the differences in ballast design and
hence in ballast losses. Reference to the luminaire manufacturer will confirm the
relevant detail. For lamp types without control gear the efficacy will be relevant to
the lamp wattage.
5.4 OPERATION The operating characteristics of lamps also vary considerably and concern such
considerations as run-up time, re-ignition time, operating positions, and suscepti-
bility to other environmental conditions.
Care should be taken when high pressure light sources are used as most of these
sources take some time to produce their maximum light output after switch on.
Also in the event of a short supply interruption certain of these lamps may need to
cool before they re-strike, which could take several minutes. This particularly
applies to High Pressure Mercury lamps, whereas High Pressure Sodium lamps
with external ignitors fitted in the circuit will restrike after about one minute.
It may therefore be necessary to intersperse incandescent or low pressure tubular
fluorescent light sources if areas of significant importance requires constant
illumination. This particularly applies to emergency or escape lighting where
instantaneous illumination is vital in the event of supply failure. It is worth noting
that not all lamp types can operate in all positions but this again will be confirmed
by either the luminaire and/or lamp manufacturer.
In addition certain lamps are sensitive to such external environmental factors as air
temperature and vibration. The luminous efficacy of most lamps is not affected by
changes in the ambient temperature, tubular fluorescent lamps being the excep-
tion. Consequently when used in totally enclosed luminaires and operated at high
ambient temperatures the light output is less than maximum. However, in low
ambient temperatures the use of totally enclosed luminaires will help to maintain
the lamp at its operating temperature and so maintain light output.
5.5 LAMP For ease of reference lamp types are identified by prefix letters as detailed below.
PREFIXES/IDENTIFICATION The prefix letters are then followed by the rating (watts) and if necessary, by lamp
length, colour and cap (See 5.6) to clearly identify the lamp type to be used.
Example are:
MCFE 40W 1200 mm Warm White
MBTF 160W BC
Some of the more important prefixes are:
TUBULAR FLUORESCENT LAMPS
MCF Switch start lamp
(Also used for Tubular Fluorescent lamps in general).
MCFE Starterless lamp. Silicone coat.
(Also suitable for switch start operation).
MCFA Starterless lamp. Earth strip. (Also suitable for switch start
operation).
Restricted range, mainly for cold environments.
TLX Cold starting tubular fluorescent lamps with single pin caps.
LOW PRESSURE SODIUM LAMPS
SOX Single-ended. U-shaped arc tube.
SLI Double-ended. Linear arc tube.
HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM LAMPS
SON Diffused ellipsoidal outer bulb. Single ended.
SON-T Clear tubular outer bulb. Single-ended.
SON-TD (SONL) Clear tubular outer bulb. Double-ended.
SON-R SON with internal reflector.
HIGH PRESSURE MERCURY LAMPS
MB High-pressure mercury. No phosphor coating.
MBF High-pressure mercury with phosphor coating.
MBFR MBF with internal reflector.
HIGH PRESSURE MERCURY BLENDED LAMPS
MBTF Combination of MBF lamp and filament lamp.
METAL HALIDE LAMPS
MBI High-pressure discharge with metallic halides.
MBIF MBI with phosphor coating.
MBR Double-ended linear arc tube.

33
 TUNGSTEN FILAMENT
GLS General lighting service, incandescent lamp which may have clear,
diffused or colour finished bulb.
PAR Parabolic. aluminised reflector, pressed glass reflector floodlamp.
PAR 38 indicates lamp with bulb diameter of 38 x 1/8 = 4¾ inches.
IR Internal reflector (blown glass).
M Tungsten filament with halogen gas filling - single-ended
K Tungsten filament with halogen gas filling - double-ended.
5.6 LAMP CAPS It is important that not only the correct lamp is fitted in the luminaire but also the
lamp has the correct type of lamp cap compatible with the luminaire lampholder.
This is particularly relevant if luminaires and/or lamps from a foreign source are
used. For example, the pitch of the Edison Screw (ES) or Goliath Edison Screw
(GES) may vary i.e. E27: E26 or E40: 39 and bind in the screw of the lampholder.
Reference to the luminaire manufacturer will confirm the lampholder used. (see
Fig. 5.2)

Fig. 5.2 Common types of lamp caps. Reproduced with kind permission of the
LIF.

5.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF The following table details, for easy reference, the various characteristics of the
LAMPS lamps covered by this Guide.
5.7.1 All Types Excluding Tubular
Fluorescent Lamps

34
Table 5.2 Lamp characteristics
CIE Colour
Lamp Type Rendering Group
Tungsten Filament GfS
Reflector
Tungsten Hafogen
High Pressure Mercury
Discharge (Blended) (MBTF)
High Pressure Mercury
Discharge (Fluorescent)
(MBF, MBFR)
High Pressure Mercury
Discharge (Metal Halide)
MBI, MBIF, BMIL)
High Pressure Sodium
Discharge (SON, SONR,
SON-T, SON-TD)
Low Pressure Sodium Not applicable
Discharge (SOX, SLI)
Colour Rendering
Characteristic/Lamp appearance
1 Emphasises reds
Lamp warm appearance
1 Emphasises reds
Lamp warm appearance
3 Emphasises yellows/blues
Subdues reds
Lamp intermediate appearance
4 Emphasises yellows/blues
Subdues reds
Lamp cool appearance
Vary according to formulation of
lamp type.
4 Emphasises yellows strongly, reds
to lesser extent. Greens
acceptable but blues strongly
subdued. Lamp warm appearance
Emits yellow light only. All other
colours appear brown or black,
light colours grey.
Construction
A tungsten filament heated to
incandescence in a glass bulb usually
filled with an inert gas; does not
require any control gear. Reflector
lamps are similar to GLS lamps; but
have a specially shaped bulb with a
reflector coating.
A tungsten filament heated to
incandescence in a small bulb usually
of fused silica (quartz) which act as
cleaning agents to prevent bulb
blackening, containing an inert gas
and a trace of halogen; does not
require any control gear except low
voltage types.
An electric discharge in a high
pressure mercury atmosphere
contained in a silica tube in series
with a tungsten filament heated to
incandescence, the whole contained
within a glass bulb with a fluorescent
coating. Does not need control gear.
An electric discharge in a high
pressure mercury atmosphere
contained in a fused silica (quartz)
tube within a glass envelope
internally coated with a phosphor
coating. MBFR lamps are MBF
lamps with an internal reflector
coating; needs control gear.
‘An electric discharge in a high
pressure mercury atmosphere with
metal halide additives in a quartz are
tube; an outer bulb maybe used
having a fluorescent coating; needs
control gear.
An electric discharge in a high
pressure sodium atmosphere in a
sintered alumina tube contained in a
clear or diffuse outer bulb. Needs
control gear.
An electric discharge in a low
pressure sodium atmosphere in a
glass arc tube contained in a glass
bulb; needs control gear,
Operation
Immediate full Iight output, operates
in all positions, easily dimmed, light
output and life sensitive to small
voltage variations, filament sensitive
to vibration.
Immediate full light output, some
types have restricted operating
position, light output and life
sensitive to small voltage variations,
filament sensitive to vibration; Note:
bulb surface liable to weaken if
touched with bare bands,
Some light output immediately but
run-up period to 90%. full light
output about 4 minutes, re-ignition
after about 10 minutes. Restricted
operating position, filament sensitive
to vibration.
Run up period to full light output
about 4 minutes, Re-ignition after
about 10 reins; operates in all
positions,
Run up period to 90% of full light
output about 2 minutes; re-ignition
after about 10minutes unIess special
circuits are used; restricted operating
positions.
Run-up time to 90% of light output
from 4 to 7 reins. Re-ignition within
1 minute if an external ignitor is
used. Operates in any position.
Run-up to 90% of full light output
from 6-12 minutes; re-ignition
typically Within 3 minutes; restricted
operating positions.
Range of Luminous Life/Replacement Cycle
Efficacy
8-18 lumens/watt. Limited by failure of the filament;
most types have an average life of
1000 hrs, but others are designed for
2003 or 2500 hrs with lower light
outputs than the equivalent 1000
hour life types when this exists.
17-24 Iumens/watt. Limited by failure of filament. for Area floodlighting where use is
most types the average is 2003 hours. intermittent.
8-26 Iumens/watt. Limited by failure of filament,
typically S000 hours.
35-55 lumens/circuit Time to 30% reduction in light
watt. output is about 9000 hours.
65-85 lumens/circuit Likely to be limited by economic
watt factors; Time to 30% reduction in
light output about 7000 hrs. (MBI,
MBIF) shorter for special types.
65-110 Iumens/watt. Time to 30% reduction in light
output approx. 15,000 hours.
65-130 lumens/watt. Time to 30% reduction in efficacy is
typically 10,000 hours.
Typical Application
Local Lighting
May be used as a replacement for
some tungsten filament lamps where
longer service period important, e.g.
because access is difficult. Note:
check that where appropriate the
certification of flameproof Ex’N
luminaires permit the use of such
lamps.
Processing plants. outside areas,
roadway, tank farms, area flood
lighting.
Area floodlighting, process plants,
outside areas, tank farms where
good colour rendering is required.
Area floodlighting, process plants,
outside areas. roadways, tank farms.
Roadways and industrial areas
where high efficacy is required and
distortion of most colours is
acceptable. Not permitted for use in
hazardous areas because of danger
of spontaneous combustion on
breakage of lamp.
5.7.2 Tubular Fluorescent Lamps The range of tubular fluorescent lamps available on the market is changing
considerably with the Argon-filled 38 mm diameter tube being replaced with
Krypton-filled Energy Saving 26 mm or 38 mm tubes.
Due to the fact that the majority of Iuminaires currently installed or available for
use with the new tubes in the market covered by this Guide are limited, reference
to the luminaire manufacturers’ literature is imperative to ensure the correct lamp
is fitted.
Wherever possible on new installations consideration should be given to energy-
saving lamps such as Krypton-filled which can be used as a possible alternative to
the Argon-filled lamp.
Luminous efficacy ranges from 20-80 lumens/circuit watt. Lamp replacement cycle
calculated on the time to 30% reduction in light output is about 8000 hours
Fluorescent lamps will operate in any position, have prompt starting and restarting
characteristics with a wide range of colour temperature and rendering. The
principal ‘white’ colours are listed in Table 5.3. In the past, for a given colour
appearance (e.g. warm) a choice had to be made between high output (e.g. Warm
white) and improved colour rendering (e.g. Warm white Deluxe). Modern
phosphors (Triphosphors) combine high output with deluxe colour rendering. They
are especially suited to 26 mm diameter lamps, since they are more temperature
stable than ordinary phosphors and have a lower depreciation rate..

Table 5.3 Colour Appearance of Tubular Fluorescent Lamps

Colour Triphosphors Halophosphate
Appearance High Output Deluxe
(Nominal colour Deluxe Krypton-filled Argon-filled Argon-filled
temperature) High output 26 mm (1”) dia. 38 mm (1½”) dia. 38 mm (1½”) dia.
Krypton-filled and 100W 38 mm
(1½”) dia.

Cool Appearance 4000 K (Cool) Cool White Natural

(4000 K)
(3500 K) 3500 K (White) White
Intermediate
Warm Appearance 3000 K (Warm) Warm White Warm White
(3000 K) Deluxe

Table 5.4 Colour Properties of Tubular Fluorescent Lamps with Special Properties

Lamp CIE Colour Colour Rendering Typical Applications

Rendering Characteristics (Based on
Group visual assessment)

Special applications
Northlight Colour
Matching
Artificial Daylight
Tri-phosphor Lamps
cool
Halo-phosphate Lamps
1 Similar to North skylight;
emphasises blues, and to a
lesser extent, greens.
1 Similar to Northlight/Colour
Matching but emits more
ultraviolet to conform with
natural skylight.
2 Emphasises orange, greens and
blue-violets, subdues yellows
and deep reds.
3 Emphasises yellows, and to a
lesser extent, greens and blues;
red subdued shifts slightly
towards orange.
Used where colour
rendering similar to
North sky daylight is
needed.
Used where critical
colour matching to BS950
Part 1 is required.
Process areas, catwalks,
access ways, general
purpose where high
efficacy is required.
General purpose,
catwalk, access way

36
5.8 LAMP
INTERCHANGEABILITY FOR
DISCHARGE LAMPS.
5.8.1 High Pressure Mercury
Lamps
5.8.2 Metal Halide Lamps
5.8.3 Low Pressure Sodium Lamps
5.8.4 High Pressure Sodium Lamps
5.8.5 Plug-in SON Lamps
5.8.6 Tubular Fluorescent Lamps
5.9 LAMP SELECTION
5.9.1 Basis of Lamp Selection
5.9.2 Principal Characteristics
5.9.2.1 Efficacy and Light Output
5.9.2.2 Colour Appearance and
Colour Rendering
5.9.2.3 Lamp Service Period
The following notes provide general guidance on the interchangeability of
corresponding Discharge lamps. The notes deal only with electrical inter-
changeability and apply only where the control gear, especially the ballasts and
ignitors, are made in the U.K. Users should also check mechanical compatibility
(e.g. the caps of the double ended linear High Pressure Sodium lamps).
Almost all of these lamps and their ballasts are covered by British Standards or
IEC Specifications, and corresponding lamps are electrically interchangeable.
Note: Care should be taken to distinguish between the High Voltage and the Low
Voltage versions of the MBF 1000W lamp.
Different lamp makers use different mixtures of halides and the lamps are not
interchangeable. A Metal Halide lamp must only be used on control gear as
indicated by the lamp maker.
Almost all these lamps and their control gear (of conventional type) are covered
by British Standards or IEC Specifications, and corresponding lamps are electri-
cally interchangeable. This is also likely to apply where lamps are operated on
partly-electronic (hybrid) control gear made in the U.K.
Note: For SLI lamps reference should be made to the data sheets of the lamp
makers.
The principal ratings and their control gear are covered by specifications, or are in
draft specifications. Corresponding lamps of different makes are electrically
interchangeable, but are of two types according to method of starting; lamps with
an internal starting device are used on circuits without an ignitor; lamps without
internal starting device are used on circuits which include an ignitor.
These lamps are for replacing High Pressure Mercury lamps on ballasts which
comply with specifications. Care should be taken in ensuring the correct use of this
type of replacement lamp and guidance should be sought from the lamp
manufacturer.
Whilst the use of Argon-filled lamps will continue in use for many years until a
wider range of luminaires for use in hostile and hazardous environments are
available and current installations are replaced it is worth noting there are
technical considerations concerning Krypton-filled lamps which should be raised
with the manufacturer.
Although there are economic benefits to be gained by using light sources with the
highest efficacies, the fact that there is such a wide range of lamp types available
indicates that they all have their applications.
For example the lighting requirements of process plants and control room lighting
are different from the functional and economic requirements of street lighting.
In maintaining standards (e.g. level of illumination, colour rendering, reduction of
glare) guidance may be obtained from the CIBSE Code. Subject to these
requirements, efforts should be made to use lamps with as high an efficacy as
possible.
When lamp types are being selected for a new installation, the following are the
principal characteristics which should be taken into consideration.
The ratio of light output (lumens) to lamp power (watts). For lamps operating on
control-gear total circuit power, where known, should be taken into calculations.
The quantity of light (lumens) emitted by the lamp under standard conditions. For
tubular fluorescent and discharge lamps measured at 2000 hours (Lighting Design
Lumens).
This indicates what the lamp looks like e.g. warm white, cool white. The colour
appearance of white lamps may be expressed in terms of colour temperature e.g.
3000K corresponding to warm white and 4000K to cool white. Colour appearance is
no guide to colour rendering.
Colour rendering indicates how a lamp renders coloured objects compared with,
(say) daylight.
‘Life’, when applied to electric lamps, has two distinct meanings:
(a) the time after which the lamp ceases to operate,
(b) the time after which the light output is reduced, by normal deterioration
processes, to such a low level that it is more economic to replace the lamp, even
though it is still operating electrically. This is the ‘economic service period’.
37
 Filament lamps fall under the first definition of ‘life’. The rated life of common
types under specified conditions is defined in international standards and is
accepted as a practical life/efficacy compromise. The depreciation of light output is
small. Life expectancy in a practical installation is affected by supply voltage
variation.
Discharge and fluorescent lamps fall under the second definition. The life of
discharge lamps is a complicated subject and there are no international standards
on the meaning of ‘life’. Present day fluorescent lamps and discharge lamps will
survive for many thousands of hours, but during that time the light output steadily
depreciates so that if the lamps are operated until they fail electrically the light
output could be half or less of what it was initially. In practice discharge and
fluorescent lamps should be changed at the most economic time for the particular
installation.

Other characteristics include: shape, need for control gear, starting and restarting
time, operating position, and relative cost (initial and running).

5.10 PLANNED LAMP In all but the smallest installations it is sensible to replace the lamps as a group at
REPLACEMENT planned intervals, The following comments refer to replacement of fluorescent
lamps, but apply also to the majority of discharge lamps. The advantages of
planned replacement are as follows:
(a) Labour cost can be substantially reduced by phasing the replacement cycle to
fit the cleaning cycle.
(b) Where lamp quantities are large, special delivery arrangements may be
possible.
(c) Where there would be an interruption to a production process, replacement
can be planned for a non-production period.
(d) Lamps will be of matching output and colour initially and over the service
period.
(e) Replacing lamps before electrical wear-out reduces the possibility of failure of
control gear.
(f) The value of lumens to be used in lighting calculations is increased compared
with the value applicable to schemes using random replacement. This means
that the installation will require fewer luminaires with consequent savings in
capital costs and running costs. Savings in electricity cost alone are likely to be
greater than the extra cost of replacing lamps at shorter intervals.
The optimum replacement period depends on the energy costs and labour costs of
the particular installation. A common rule is that the lamps should be group-
replaced when the cost of wasted energy has become as high as the cost of lamp
replacement. A further limit is that lamps should be replaced before their output
has depreciated 20% below the Lighting Design value (equivalent to about 30%
below the initial value).

5.11 FLICKER The light output of all lamps on an a.c. supply has a cyclic variation which is
negligible for filament lamps but more marked for discharge lamps including
fluorescent lamps. However, after-glow on phosphors of fluorescent lamps reduce
the effect.
Stroboscopic patterns may be produced in synchronously rotating machinery and
may be annoying if the pattern is apparent on a task that is being closely examined.
If these patterns are produced, the effect may be diminished by mounting
incandescent lamps near to the task to supplement the light over the critical area, or
placing adjacent lamps on separate supply phases.

5.12 CONTROL GEAR FOR Control gear is the collective term for the ballasts, capacitors and starting devices
DISCHARGE LAMPS used in discharge lamp circuits. Ballasts control the arc current, capacitors are used
to improve the power factor of the circuit and/or suppress radio interference, and
starting devices provide high-voltage pulses to initiate the discharge through the
vapour or gas. The capacitor is sometimes used as an integral part of the ballast.

38
All ballasts consume some power and, for a given type, some consume more than
others. The service period of a ballast depends on its design and operating
conditions. Thermal performance under normal and fault conditions is particularly
important to ensure long ballast life. Luminaires could be left in the fault condition
for prolonged periods and control gear must safely withstand this. The efficacy of
the lamp circuit as a whole depends on the total power taken by the lamp and
control gear. The ballast may not necessarily operate the lamp at its nominal
wattage, and this can affect the lamp light output and luminous efficacy. The
change in light output is included in the ‘light output ratio (working)’ of the
luminaire which incorporates the ‘ballast lumen factor’. Manufacturers of the
luminaire or control gear will usually provide this data.
With the increasing complexity of modern high pressure discharge lamps it is
essential to ensure that lamps are correctly matched to control gear and luminaire.
The power factor of most discharge lamp circuits is less than unity even with power
factor correction. When the tariff is partly based on VA there could, in some
circumstances, be an economical case for fitting extra bulk P.F. correction in order
to reduce the kVA demand. The current rating of cables, fuses and switchgear must
be related to the total current in the circuit, including the reactive component. It is
also necessary to allow for starting transients and for the starting current. Lamp
manufacturers will provide data on starting and running electrical characteristics.
Harmonic currents may be present, and are additive in the neutral of a three-phase
system. Manufacturers will usually supply information about the power factor and
harmonic currents of their control gear. Electrical installations should comply with
the latest edition, including all subsequent amendments, of the ‘Regulations for
Electrical Installations’ published by the Institution of Electrical Engineers.

39
 6. LIGHTING DESIGN

6.1 INTRODUCTION This Guide is not intended to cover all aspects of design but rather to introduce the
subject to the engineer for further reading or to provide sufficient information for
elementary design and basic understanding of the problems involved.
There are many good guides to lighting design as a subject and the reader is
referred to the CIBSE Code for Interior Lighting and also to “Interior Lighting
Design,” published by the Lighting Industry Federation Ltd. and the Electricity

The majority of lighting design for interior work areas is prepared with only the
knowledge that can be obtained from the plans of the building and the purpose for
which it is to be employed. In most cases however, a general lighting system can be
established which will provide good visual conditions irrespective of the final layout
of machines, desks and other equipment.
Open plants, such as chemical works, usually have small working areas at different
levels which require individual treatment using local luminaires, and a number of
other luminaires to provide illumination for safety of movement only. Numerous
obstructions in the form of pipe runs have to be taken into consideration and the
positioning of any luminaire will depend upon the steelwork construction.
It follows that detailed drawings are necessary to enable a close study to be made of
the relevant structures before any lighting system can be planned, also a model of
the plant would provide an even more accurate guide when planning the lighting
design. It will be found that the straight-forward lighting design calculations
applicable to large symmetrical interior work areas can rarely be used and design
mainly concerns the location of individual luminaires. The location of a luminaire
found by calculation may not, in practice, prove to be satisfactory due to steelwork
or pipework obstructions and inaccessibility for maintenance. Therefore, two
luminaires of a similar lumen output or even one of a higher output may have to be
installed in a preferable location. The choice of lamps and luminaires depends on
the application, the type of plant being illuminated and the environmental
conditions, but for both practical and economic reasons, high efficacy light sources
are to be preferred, even though the initial capital expenditure using these sources
is generally higher. The reduced maintenance and longer lamp life are added
advantages of the discharge lamp. There are a few applications where tungsten
filament sources are preferred – these will be discussed in the relevant sections.
The hazardous area classification of the plant must be carefully considered for both
safety and economic reasons. The degree of hazard must be carefully considered
and the appropriate equipment utilised. Thought should be given to illuminating
the area from luminaires located outside or above the hazardous area limit. The
lighting circuits should be so arranged that the failure of a circuit does not
completely black-out any section of the plant.
Individual switching is usually of little value and group switching of luminaires
reduces the capital cost. Whilst attention is given to designing the most economic
lighting scheme, regard should also be given to the method of switching from
automatic timers. In particular, dark areas will require illuminating earlier than
more open areas into which twilight can still penetrate.
Emergency lighting must be considered for certain plant areas, namely control
rooms, switch rooms, plant stairways and areas where operational tasks have to be
undertaken under power failure conditions. (See Emergency Lighting, Section 7).

6.2 DEFINING THE PROBLEM

6.2.1 General Before considering the type and number of luminaires which have to be used for a
lighting scheme, there are many factors which have to be determined, and it will be
found that some of the items given below will have a greater influence on the design
than others, depending on the particular project. Each of the items should
therefore be checked and the quality of the lighting scheme balanced against the
cost involved.

6.2.2 Visual Performance It is unlikely that visual performance will be a problem in many situations covered
by this guide since most of the complicated tasks will be carried out in specially
designed areas. The standards of lighting will be related to safety requirements, for
example, reading of signs or gauges, colour identification, etc.
40

6.2.3 Illuminances
6.2.4 Environmental Conditions and
Maintenance Factor
6.2.5 Maintenance of Equipment
The level and type of lighting is related to the task to be performed. All tasks have
to be carried out with a certain speed and accuracy and without undue strain to the
eyes. In general, the more complicated the task becomes, the higher tends to be the
required illuminance level. It is possible to measure the visual performance by tests
and it can be shown that increasing the illuminance improves the visual efficiency
until a point is reached where it becomes uneconomic to increase the level further.
Very high levels cannot therefore be justified and these will also tend to produce
glare unless correctly designed. Size and contrast will also affect the visual
performance.
The colour of the light source can also have an influence on the task. If part of the
task is to assess a colour then a lamp with a strong colour component in the colours
of the task should not be used. Colour matching lamps are available for these
problems. Contrast may also be affected so that objects become more difficult to
see.
Illuminances have been quoted in Table 6.3 and should be used as a guide for
general design. There are recommended steps in illuminance which have been
chosen to give a subjective increase.
These are as follows:-
50 lux. – access areas such as walkways, platforms, etc.
100 lux. – access areas which include obstacles such as ladders
150 lux. – storage areas, plant rooms, where continuous operation is not
required
300 lux. – rough work involving assembly of large plant and rough machinery
500 lux. – routine work for offices, control rooms
750 lux. – demanding work for inspection.
It is usual to increase the level to the next value if contrast or reflectances are low or
serious problems would occur following damage to expensive plant due to mistakes
by an operator. Areas of extreme danger should also be well illuminated. Care
should also be taken on how the levels are applied and each scheme should be
examined on its own. The levels recommended in Table 6.3 may have to be varied
to suit particular problems and the scheme must be viewed as a whole. It is not
good practice for instance to have large differences in levels between adjacent
areas: a control room illuminated to 500 lux should not have a walkway of 50 lux
forming its access, particularly if steps are involved. A maximum ratio of 3:l will
generally be found to be a good guide to avoid extreme values.
The illuminance refers to the working plane (850 mm above the floor), the floor,
the operating point or the vertical face of a panel, as appropriate.
The illuminance also assumes the total effect of all sources such as borrowed light
from other areas or daylight.
This guide is concerned with the lighting in hazardous and hostile environments and
the environmental conditions are likely to be severe with regard to deterioration of
the luminaires and the light output. Normal lighting design techniques have
therefore to be modified.
As will be shown in 6.4, the number of lumens required to give a particular
illuminance have to be increased to allow for the reduction of light due to deposits
on the luminaire between periods of cleaning. This allowance is termed the
“maintenance factor” and for normal conditions it is usually set at 0.8. The severe
conditions in chemical plants may require a factor of 0.6. The nomogram in Fig 6.1
indicates the maintenance factor to be used for a given cleaning cycle and location.
The effect of the environment on the construction and materials used for the
luminaire may determine that only certain types of luminaires can be considered in
the design. It may not be possible therefore to use the most efficient source for the
particular application, since the designer is restricted to what is available on the
market. Section 3 gives advice on the type of materials to look for in the
construction of the luminaire and the degree of protection required for a particular
zone classification or corrosive environment.
When designing lighting layouts consideration should be given to the location of the
luminaire since this affects the output and the access for lamp changing and
cleaning. Luminaires, near a source giving off fumes, will quickly deteriorate in
light output and will have a reduced life. The luminaire may therefore have to be
located in a position which is not ideal and two luminaires may have to be used
instead of one in order to achieve the illuminance required at the task.
41
 Fig. 6.1 Nomogram for estimating maintenance factor for outdoor floodlighting
installations.

Luminaires should be arranged so that an overlap in the light distribution from an

adjacent unit will provide a nominal amount of illumination so that work can
continue in the area if there should be a lamp failure. It is not economic to have
staff immediately available for lamp changing so that a production process is not
affected. Maintenance will be organised so that miscellaneous items such as lamp
changing can be fitted in with the normal work programme.
Consideration should be given to changing lamps, cleaning and attention to control
gear, during a works’ shutdown or at a predetermined time based on the fall in
output from the luminaire. As explained in section 6.2.4 the lighting scheme has to
assume a value for the ‘maintenance factor’ and the lower the factor the higher the
running costs and the initial capital cost. These costs have to be set against the cost
of maintenance.
As an alternative to local lighting it may be possible to provide lighting from
floodlighting towers which are located away from the corrosive areas and give a
central point for maintenance and also enable a higher maintenance factor to be
used. With this scheme, a small number of local luminaires in the area of the plant
could provide additional illumination for reading gauges, areas requiring inspection
and fill-in for shadowed areas. The maintenance costs can also be affected by the
choice of lamp. Some lamps, such as tungsten halogen have a relatively short lamp
life and will require changing more frequently. A longer period of use can be
obtained from discharge or fluorescent lamps.
A long lamp life is, however, not the only factor and consideration should be given
to the lumen maintenance of the lamp. Mercury discharge and fluorescent lamps
tend to have a higher lumen depreciation factor than high pressure sodium
discharge lamps. This means that after, say, 12,000 hours of operation the output
from the mercury lamp would not be sufficient for the task, whereas the high
pressure sodium lamp would still be producing a high output.
Lamp life can also be affected by the voltage and the amount of switching.

42
Plate 1, above, Increased Safety (type ‘e’) 2 x 40 watt fluorescent luminaires
installed in an offshoreproduction platform module. Note also flameproof
junction boxes and flame and gas detector in ceiling.

Plate 2, above right, Increased Safety (type ‘e’) 2 x 40 watt fluorescent

luminaires installed in an offshore production process module.

Plate 3, right, Flameproof (type ‘d’) platforms status indicator lights installed on
an offshore production platform. Note also the German design flame detector
and flameproof junction box.

Plate 4, right, Increased

Safety (type ‘e’) 2 x 40
watt fluorescent
luminaires installed in an
analysis laboratory
(Zone 1) on a
pharmaceutical plant.
Plate 5, Top left, Flameproof (type ‘d’)
2 x 65 watt fluorescent luminaire
installed in a process unit (Zone 1) in the
oil industry. Note the Flameproof (type
‘d’) 20 watt emergency fluorescent
luminaire complete with integral battery
pack mounted on the handrail, at top of
stairs.

Plate 6, Top right, Flameproof (type ‘d’)

400 watt high pressure sodium luminaires
installed on an oil company tank farm,
(Zone 1) utilising the height of the tanks
and inner-connecting walkways to give
the required height for effective
floodlighting.

Plate 7, Above right, Flameproof (type

‘d’) 250 watt MBFR and 2 x 85 watt
Fluorescent luminaires installed in a
whisky distillery (Zone 1).
Plant 8, above, Tungsten restricted breathing (type ‘N’) luminaires installed
around the perimeter of an offshore production helideck (Zone 2).
Plate 9, above, Increased Safety (type ‘e’) 2 x 40 watt fluorescent luminaires Plate 10, above, 80 watt MBF
installed in a control room on an offshore platform. Note nearest luminaire with totally enclosed (IP66) bulkhead
integral battery pack for emergency lighting. luminaire installed on the loading
ramp of a ferry terminal, subject
to a severely hostile saline
atmosphere.

Plate 11, left, Specially

designed totally enclosed
(IP55) 2 x 65 watt
fluorescent luminaires
installed in a hostile
(non-hazardous)
environment in a food
factory.

Plate 13, below, totally enclosed

(IP54) 2 x 85 watt corrosion
resistant fluorescent luminaires
installed in a sugar refining
factory. The original mixed
incandescent and fluorescent
Plate 12, below, Totally enclosed (IP54) 2 x 85 watt corrosion resistant installation was converted to the
fluorescent luminaires installed in a hostile (non-hazardous) environment in a below to give an economic and
modern automatic fish processing factory. corrosion resistant solution.
Plates 14 a and b, above, show a ‘stress crack’ caused by corrosion.

Plate 15, below, shows corrosion pitting and seal failure.

Plate 16, above, shows corrosion causing

disintegration of luminaire.
6.2.6 Glare
6.2.7 Spacing and Mounting Heights
Glare occurs when light sources, luminaires, windows or other sources, seen either
directly or by reflection are too bright compared with the general brightness of the
surrounds. Glare can impair vision (disabling glare) and cause visual discomfort
(discomfort glare). The two effects may be experienced separately or simultaneous-
ly depending on the light sources in the field of view.
Chemical plants have a large number of luminaires mounted in the open and care
has to be taken in the siting of floodlights, wellglass and bulkhead luminaires since
many of them may be mounted at a low level or be viewed against a dark sky.
Interior installations tend to give lower values of glare because the source
illuminates the background and the contrast is reduced. Glare becomes more
important if the worker has a fixed direction of view for long periods.
CIBSE Technical Memoranda TM10 gives guidance on the Limiting Glare Index
for interior installations and other formulae are available for assessing glare in
exterior locations. The Glare Index enables the discomfort glare from lighting
installations to be ranked in order of severity and the permissible limit of
discomfort glare from an installation to be quantified.
The methods of calculation are however, more of interest to the lighting specialist
than to the general engineer interested in a broad appreciation of the subject. If the
recommendations given in this Guide are followed, it is unlikely that there will be
serious problems with glare.
In order to reduce the glare, luminaires without special diffusers should be
mounted above the recommended minimum mounting heights and not be directed
towards a person so that it is in his normal line of sight. Accidents can occur if the
luminance of the source prevents an obstacle being seen clearly such as steps or
pipes. The glare can sometimes be reduced by attaching a shield to the luminaire if
no alternative solution can be found.
Certain luminaires have diffusers or lenses which control the brightness and
manufacturers’ recommendations should be used for spacing and mounting heights
ratios.
As stated in section 6.2.6, low mounting heights can cause glare particularly if the
light distribution and cut-off from the luminaire are not controlled. Additionally,
low mounting heights can result in unacceptable diversity in illuminance. A
compromise has therefore to be found in order to give an even illuminance over the
area. Since the amount of light arriving at a surface is related to the square of the
distance from the source and the cosine of the angle, it will be necessary to consider
different luminaires at varying mounting heights and spacing in order to arrive at
the most practical and economical arrangement. It is therefore usual to start with
the minimum mounting height which should avoid glare. Table 6.1 shows the
mounting heights for different lamps below which glare could be a problem unless
special luminaires are used. A separate table (6.6) is to be used for floodlighting
applications.
Table 6.1 Non-Floodlighting Application
Fluorescent luminaires have lower levels of luminance and can generally be
mounted at low heights without causing glare.
Where an even level of illuminance is required, the “spacing to mounting height”
ratio should be 1:1 to 2:1 as recommended by the manufacturer. For exterior
installations where the uniformity is not so important the ratio can be increased to
3:1 or 4:1. Special luminaires are also available to give wide angle light distribution.
For outdoor lighting considerations, further details are given in section 6.4.4.
47
6.2.8 Type of Installation A major problem with the type of installation covered by this guide is that they
differ so much in size, shape and content. At one end of the scale lies what may be
described as Task Areas such as paint spray booths and garage pits, whilst at the
other end are the giant chemical plants and petroleum refineries.
In the case of the smaller units referred to above, it is usually a simple task to
ascertain the illuminance required and to appreciate the task and conditions. From
this information, conventional design calculations will produce a satisfactory
solution and it is only then necessary to ensure that materials and equipment are
suitable for the conditions. On large projects, the designer must first of all ensure
that he can visualise the whole of the scene as particularly on outdoor plants,
uniformity of illumination is, to some extent, more important than illuminance.
Although a study of plant drawings will provide a great deal of information, a
model is of much greater advantage. The next stage should be to decide on logical
areas and clear cut examples would be roads, paths, and parking areas for which
parameters can be obtained from BS 5489.
Progress can then be made to buildings where the information obtained indicates
that plant is set out in a uniform pattern and floor levels, staircases, etc., are clearly
defined. In such buildings, if luminaires have not been specified, the type will often
be dictated by available mounting heights or the degree of congestion from
pipework, etc., at high level. It may well be the case that within a building there are
several critical areas requiring high illuminance, e.g. pump bases and valve
chambers, but it does not necessarily follow that the whole of a building should be
illuminated to the same extent. However, care should be taken to ensure that
variation in illuminance conforms to the recommendations given in section 6.2.3.
Major problems exist on outdoor structures which may consist of storage tanks,
high towers, silos, cracker plants, etc. Again, it is essential to distinguish the vital
areas of equipment and also stairways, high walkways and access platforms.
Lighting in such areas will almost always consist of a mixture of flood lighting and
local lighting and very often layouts will be dictated by the configuration of the
whole of the plant.
Upon completion of the design, as outlined above, the total scheme should then be
re-examined with a view to co-ordination of what, at this stage, amounts to a
number of different lighting layouts. Whilst traffic routes, by their very nature,
should be illuminated in a uniform pattern, it could well prove that spillage from
roadway lighting is sufficient for other adjacent areas; that the columns could be
utilised for the mounting of floodlights; that pipe bridges and catwalks, etc. are
suitably placed for use as supports.
6.2.9 Switching Once the locations and types of luminaires have been finalised, unless mass
switching is required, the overall scheme must be studied and broken down into
logical blocks to enable switching arrangements to be decided upon. In particular,
isolated areas that will be subject to infrequent visits should be separately switched;
stairways and catwalks etc., should be switched at all access points; road and
footpath lighting should be switched from common points.
If, as is usual on large plants, automatic control of lighting is required, similar
principles to the above should be applied and, when photocells are employed, care
must be taken with regard to the positioning to ensure that they are not affected by
light from other areas.
Where a plant is not in use at night or contains large areas where staff would not
normally be working, it is usual to provide patrol lighting on certain routes through
the plant so that security or maintenance staff can walk the route to check that all is
well.
This will substantially reduce running costs, since general areas will only require
background lighting, and the switching can be arranged to raise the level in case of
the odd night when maintenance is necessary.
Safety lighting should not form part of the normal switching circuits; it is generally
operated from a time switch or photocell.
If certain areas require frequent switching then care should be taken in the
selection of the type of luminaire. Mercury and sodium discharge lamps take 4 – 7
minutes to reach their full output and do not restrike immediately if the supply is
interrupted (See table 5.2).
Areas requiring frequent switching should be illuminated by tungsten, fluorescent
or tungsten halogen lamps.
The time to restrike can be a problem in critical areas and a secondary form of
lighting may have to be installed to ensure safety to operators. Certain types of high
pressure discharge lamps can take about 10 minutes to re-strike, but for high
pressure sodium lamps with external igniters this can be reduced to one minute.

48
 Where a standby supply is used, a battery inverter feeding a proportion of the
luminaires will maintain the continuity to the lighting until the diesel generator or
other standby plant has time to run up and take over the supply.
6.2.10 Daylight With the increasing costs of energy, it is important that the artificial lighting system
is not used for longer periods than necessary. Photoelectric cells will therefore
produce a more accurate means of switching than a solar dial time switch with
manual over-ride. Switching can also be arranged so that areas within buildings are
manually controlled and the areas adjacent to windows are automatically con-
trolled.
The use of light colours for walls and installation of roof lights both assist in
allowing daylight to penetrate into the darker areas of a building.
Unfortunately, chemical plants tend to produce dust or fumes which quickly
discolour walls and obstruct glazing.
The change in colour of coded pipework, danger labels, or manufactured material,
between daylight and artificial light should be considered. It may be necessary to
screen the daylight from an area and use permanent artificial lighting from a good
colour rendering source such as fluorescent, metal halide or tungsten lamps, so that
constant conditions can be maintained.
For interior lighting design, a “daylight factor” is taken into account. This defines
the percentage of daylight on a horizontal plane within the building interior. The
external illuminance is usually taken as 5000 lux, which is known to be reached
throughout 85% of the year, and hence a ‘daylight factor’ of 2% would give at least
100 lux. 3% is about the maximum figure which can be achieved in most side-lit
building layouts.
6.2.11 Economics The true economic cost of a lighting scheme should take into account the initial
capital cost, the maintenance cost and running costs projected over the life of the
equipment.
When making comparisons it is essential to first make sure that the schemes being
considered will provide equal lighting performance.
6.2.11.1 Capital Cost The capital cost depends on: unit cost per luminaire installed, amortization
allowance, spacing/mounting height ratio, illuminance, maintenance factor
assumed, cost of the wiring installation, environmental conditions.
All the factors have to be considered for each installation and it is not always the
case that the cheapest form of luminaire gives the cheapest overall cost. Whilst
tungsten flameproof luminaires will be cheaper than fluorescent or discharge
luminaires, they may result in a more expensive installation. High mounting heights
will require discharge type luminaires rather than fluorescent. There are many
more examples of how costs can vary and only experience in examining different
schemes will lead to the best solution.
6.2.11.2 Maintenance Costs Having determined the life of the installation, the cost of maintenance can be
examined. The maintenance factor has to be taken into account during the initial
design which assumes a certain cleaning cycle. Apart from the self-cleaning
luminaires which allow the convection air current to carry dust particles through the
reflector, most luminaires will deteriorate at the same rate depending on their
mounting arrangement, and therefore the cleaning costs will be similar. However,
cleaning is generally left until lamp changing is necessary or attention is required to
the control gear and maintenance engineers tend to use long life lamps such as
tubular fluorescent or other discharge lamps to reduce the number of visits. As a
consequence, the cost of maintenance is reduced but the illuminance will fall well
below the design level. This practice is not to be recommended but tends to happen
due to the wide variation in levels which can be tolerated.
It should also be noted that lamps can be very costly and should be taken into
account in the projected estimates. As mentioned previously, group lamp replace-
ment should be considered and many firms tend to employ outside contractors to
carry out the replacements so that their own staff can concentrate on more
specialised tasks. It can also be shown that group replacement can be cheaper than
individual replacement.
Care should be taken in all maintenance procedures that the degree of protection of
the luminaires is not lowered.
6.2.11.3 Running Costs It may be found that the running costs can considerably exceed the initial capital
cost and become critical with rising energy costs.
Experience has shown that failure to take account of running costs can force a plant
manager into a relighting scheme before the end of the useful life of the luminaires
has been reached.
49
6.2.11.4 Comparison of Lighting
Cost
The following is one method of assessing the total through life cost of a lighting
installation. The symbols used are for the quantities listed in Table 6.2. For the
purpose of comparison the data in Table 6.2 should be completed for each scheme
considered.
It should be assumed that inflation costs will not affect the comparison and that
energy costs will keep pace with inflation. Amortization costs may also be ignored.
The total cost of the scheme in T years will be the sum of the capital cost,
maintenance cost and energy cost for the period.
(a) Capital Cost
Cost of luminaires =AxI
Cost of installing luminaires =AxJ
Cost of wiring =AxK
Total capital cost = A (I + J + K)

(b) Maintenance Cost for T Years

Cost of lamp replacement = A x (L + N) x

Cost of control gear

replacement = A x (M + N) x

Cost of cleaning (twice-yearly) = 2 x A x P x T

Total maintenance cost
(c) Energy Costs for T Years
Total annual energy
consumption (kWh)

Total energy cost for T years (£)= AEFQT x 10-5

50
51
6.3 CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT Having examined the various factors which are relevant in a lighting scheme, it is
then necessary to establish which types of luminaires are available from manufac-
turers. It will be found that the more severe, corrosive, or flammable, the
atmosphere becomes, the less will be the choice of luminaires and the higher the
cost. As stated in Section 4, luminaires to be installed in explosive or flammable
areas should have received a certificate from a recognised authority. In some cases
where certification is not required, it may be necessary to prepare a specification
for a manufacturer so that special luminaires can be built.
Figure 6.2 summarises the various points which have to be considered when
selecting luminaires for hazardous atmospheres. If the hazard is in the accepted
general form of explosive or flammable material, sub-division of the dust, gas or
liquid can be made and cross reference made to known national or international
regulations relating to the material in question.
The nature of the occurrence of the material will determine the area classification
into Zones O, 1 and 2, with additional cross reference, when considering dust, to
Ministry of Defence or Home Office regulations if applicable to the installation.
The type of protection and the light source suitable to the classification can now be
determined which will enable the luminaire to be finalised.
Table 6.3 gives examples of lighting requirements for specific industrial applica-
..
tions.

Fig. 6.2 Luminaire selection flow chart.

52
Table 6.3
Specific Industry Applications
This list is not exhaustive but gives typical examples of installations in hostile and/or
hazardous environments. Further recommendations can be obtained from the
CIBSE Code for Interior Lighting.
Notes
1. IP Rating
The IP Rating given in the table is the minimum recommended for the
particular installation and environment. It may be that luminaires with this
rating are not commercially available and a luminaire with a higher rating must
be used. (See Appendix 1).
2. Plant Conditions
If extremes of climatic and environmental conditions are expected it is
advisable to consult with the manufacturer.
3. Position of Measurement
The position of measurement for the illuminance is taken to be at the task
under consideration.

53
 Industry Standard Service Plant Recommended Minimum
Illuminance (lux) Conditions Luminaires Recommended
(see note 2) 1P Rating Wiring Remarks
(see Appendix 1 & System
Note 2) (see Section 9)

Aircraft Factories See S1. No. 1689

and The Factories (Testing of Aircraft and Accessories)
Maintenance Hangars Spec, Reg. 1952
Aircraft Engine Testing 750 Clear/Good Portable and/or ‘Ex’ protected 44 PVC/SWA/PVC Cable
may be required
Inspection/Repairs 500 44 MICV, PVC in HG conduit
Breweries and Distilleries
Process Areas 300 Warm/Humid ‘Ex’ protected maybe required 44 PVC/PVC Cable or MICS Cable
Bond Stores 150 Dry Storage 42
Chemical Works (Non-Hazardous) See S.R. and O No.731 Chemical Works Regs. 1922.
Exterior Walkways, Platforms, Stairs and ladders 50 Dusts and Steam continuously Totally enclosed 44 PVC/SWA/PVC Cable, MICV: Possible low maintenance factor.
present PVC in HG Galvanised Conduit Consider local lighting for valves and meters.
Exterior pump and valve areas 100 44 High level of corrosive activity may require special
materials,
Pump and compressor housings 150 44
Interior Plant Areas – General 260 Totally enclosed/dustproof 55
Coal Handling Plants
(Surface areas only) Possible low maintenance factors
Cracking Houses, Hoppers, Bunkers 100 Very dirty: large accumulation of ‘Ex’ protected maybe required 65 PVC/SWA/PVC cable, PVC in
dust and water and/or totally enclosed. dust-tight. HG galvanised conduit
Platforms and Stairways 50 65
Coke Ovens Possible low maintenance factors
Oven top 30 Very dirty: Large accumulation of Totally enclosed Dust-tight Ex’ 65 High temperature insulated SWA Refer to BCRA Special
dust protected may be required cable, PVC in HG galvanised Publications 22 and 23
High humidity and temperature. conduit
Chemical Pollution
Gas Alleys 50 65
Stairs, Platforms, Walkways 50 65
Quenching Station 50 65
Paddle Feeder Pit 100 65
Benzole Scrubbers 50 65
Cold Stores Possible high level of corrosive activity. Lamps
suitable for low temperature operation may be
General 300 Cold and Wet Totally enclosed 44 MICV, PVC in Conduit required.
Loading Bays 150 44
Farm installations High levels of corrosive activity.
PVC in insulated conduit, Possible hosing down of installations,
General farm buildings 20 Warm, humid and dirty, Chemical Totally enclosed 55 PVC/SWA/PVC cable
Pollution
Milking premises 100 55
Flour mills Consider surface temperatures of Iuminaires with
PVC in conduit dust deposits. Possible low maintenance factor.
Milling, filtering and packing 300 High levels of dust Totally enclosed, dust-tight 65 PVC/SWA/PVC cable
Food Factories See SI No. 1172, Food Hygiene (General)
PVC/SWA/PVC cable, PVC in Regulations 1970, If hosing down of installation on a
Preparation 500 Good/Clean Totally enclosed. No glass. 55 conduit. MICV regular basis, a higher 1P ratings is required.

Canned and Bottled Goods: -

Retorts 300 55
Automatic Processes 200 55
 Industry Standard Service Plant Recommended Minimum
Illuminance (lux) Conditions Luminaires Recommended
(see note 2) 1P Rating Wiring Remarks
(see Appendix 1 & System
Note 2) (see Section 9)

Furniture Factories
Spray booths:
Colour finishing 500 Good/Clean ‘Ex’ protected maybe required 44 PVC in conduit, PVC/SWA/ See Highly Flammable Liquids and Liqufied
PVC cable, MICS Petroleum Gases Regulations 1972. See also Local
Clear finishing 300 44 Authority Regulations
Garages/Petrol Stations

Forecourt: See Petroleum (consolidation) Act 1928. and Local

General 50 Good/Clean ‘Ex’ protected maybe required 44 MICV, PVC in galvanised conduit Authority Regulation
Pumps 300 44 Hazardous area if Iuminaires installed in pits where
petrol engines are serviced Possible hosing down of
Servicing Pits 330 Tends to become dirty 55 installation.
Gas Plants See Chemical Works Regulations 1922. Possible low
maintenance factors.
Exterior Stairs/Walkways/Platforms 50 Enclosed and possibly ‘E,x’ 54 PVC/SWA/PVC cable, PVC in
protected HG galvanised conduit.
Process Areas 150 ‘Ex’ protected 54
Industrial Kitchens See SI No. 1172. Food Hygience (General)
Regulations 1970. Special Iuminairies maybe
Working area 500 Hot and Humid 55 MICV, PVC/SWA/PVC cable required for high ambient temperatures.
Laboratories Position luminaires over working surface or area
Possible corrosive agents present in atmosphere.
General 200 Good/lClean ‘Ex’ protected maybe required 44 PVC overall cable or conduit.
PVC/SWA/PVC cable if Ex”
Bench 500 44 protection required.
Laundries and Dry Cleaning Works
Sorting, washings, drying, ironing, despatch, dry 300 High level of humidity Totally enclosed and possibly ‘Ex’ 54 PVC in galvanised conduit,
cleaning, hulk machine wink. protected MICV. PVC/SWA/PVC cable.
Leather Working Factories/Tanneries
General/Processing mess 300 Highly corrosive and humid Totally enclosed and possibly ‘Ex’ 54
protected PVC in conduit
Offshore Installations Possible low maintenance factors.
Special consideration given to fire-protection of
Exterior Walkways and Platforms 50 High levels of saline corrosion. Totally enclosed. ‘Ex’ protected 55 PVC/SWA/PVC cable cables,
extreme weather conditions may be required 66 on exposed Elastomeric braided cable Special consideration to emergency Iighting.
Drilling areas: positions

Rotary Table and Draw Works 500 55 MICS Cable on light-duty circuits
Shale shakers 200 55
Cement and Mud Tank Area 100 High levels of saline corrosion, Totally enclosed .Ex” protection 55 MICS cables on light-duty circuits
extreme weather conditions may be required in all areas
Lifeboat and Liferaft Stations 100 55
Oil Jetties/installations
Exterior Walkways, Stairs, Platform 50 High levels of saline corrosion. Totally enclosed, ‘Ex’ protection 65 PVC/SWA/PVC cable Possible low maintenance factors
extreme weather conditions may be required
Exterior pump and valve areas 100 65
Loading manifolds 150 65
See S.R. and O No. 731 Chemical Works
Oil Refineries and Petrochemical Plants Regulatlons 1922.
Possible low maintenance factors
Exterior Walkways, Stairs and Platforms 50 Corrosive agents and steam tend Totally enclosed. ‘Ex’ protection 54 PVC/SWA/PVC cable, PVC in
to be continually present may be required HG galvanised clrcuit
Exterior pump and valve areas 100 54
Pump and compressor houses 150 44
Interior Plant areas 200 44
Tank farms 50 54 Possible me of portable equipment
 Industry Standard Service Plant Recommended Minimum
Illuminance (lux) Conditions Luminaires Recommended
(see Note 2) 1P Rating Wiring Remarks
(see Appendix 1 & System
Note 2) (see Section 9)

Paint Factories See Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied

Petroleum Gases Regulations 1972. Local igbting
Automatic processes 200 Totally enclosed ‘Ex’ protection 44 PVC/SWA/PVC cable, PVC in may be required.
may be required conduit, MICS

General 300 44

Special Batch mixing 750 44

Colour matching 1000 44

Paint Shops and Spray Booths See Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied
Petroleum Gases Regulations 1972
Dipping, firing, rough spraying 300 ‘Ex’ protected maybe required 44 PVC/SWA/PVC cable, PVC in
conduit, MICS
Rubbing, painting spraying and finishing 500/750 44

Paper Mills
Paper and board making:
General 300 Dust Totally enclosed 54 PVC/SWA/PVC cable PVC in
galvanised conduit, MICS
Automatic Processes 200 54

Pulps, mills. preparation plants 300 Wet Conditions 54

Inspection. Sorting 500 54

Paper converting processes:

General 300 54

Associated Printing 500 54

Pharmaceuticals and Fine Chemical Works See S.R. and 0. No. 731 Chemical Regulations 1922.
Possible requirement to hose down.
Pharmaceutical general manufacture and 500 GoodlClean Totally enclosed and/or Ex’ 54 MICS, PVC in conduit,
inspection protected PVC/SWA/PVC for 'Ex'
protected Iuminaires
Fine Chemical Manufacture:
Exterior Walkways/Stairs/Platforms 50 Corrosive agents and steam Totally enclosed 44 Possible low maintenance factor
continually present
Raw materials Store 200 44

Fine Chemical finishing, Inspection 500 44

Plating Shops
Vats and baths 300 High level of corrosion and ‘Ex’ protected maybe required 54 PVC/SWA/PVC cable Possible low maintenance factor
humidity
Buffing, polishing and burnishing 500 54

Fine buffing and polishing 750 54

Ports Installations
Jetties, quays 50 Salt-laden atmosphere Totally enclosed 66 PVC/SWA/PVC cable
Possible severe weather conditions

Loading ramps 100 Salt-laden atmosphere Totally enclosed 66 PVC/SWA/PVC cable

Possible severe weather conditions
Printing Works
Hand and machine casting 300 Good/Clean ‘Ex’ protected maybe required PVC/SWA/PVC cable, MICS. Colour rendering maybe important. Consider
PVC in conduit volatile nature of inks being used.
Presses 500 Local lighting in machines maybe required.
Font assembly, sorting, hand composing 750
Railway Maintenance
Service Pits 300 Damp/corrosive conditions Totally enclosed 55 PVC/SWA/PVC cable Consider Special Iuminaires to withstand hosing
down using corrosive agents in cleaning fluid. _
 Industry Standard Service Plant Recommended Minimum
Illuminance (lux) Conditions Luminaires Recommended
(see note 2) 1P Rating Wiring Remarks
(see Appendix 1 & System
Note 2) (see Section 9)

Sewage Works
Walkways 50 Damp/corrosive conditions ‘Ex’ protected maybe required 54 PVC in galvanised conduit, Possible high level of corrosive agents
MICV, PVC/SWA/PVC cable
Process areas 100 54
Slaughter Houses
See S1 No. 2168 Slaughterhouses (Hygiene)
General 500 Damp Totally enclosed 55 PVC in galvanised conduit Regulations 1958
Inspection 750 Possible hosing down.
55

Soap Factories See S1 No. 1172 Food Hygiene (General)

Regulations 1970
General, Machines, Edible product processing and 300 Damp/Humid Totally enclosed 55 PVC in galvanised conduit, MICS
packing
Swimming Pools Consider access for maintenance.
Consider stainless steel Iuminaires
Pool-club recreation 300 Damp/Humid/corrosive Totally enclosed 54 PVC in galvanised conduit,
MICV.
Spectator areas 150 54
Changing areas 150 54
Underwater lighting Water-tight 68 ,,
6.4 METHOD OF CALCULATION The particular problems identified in the initial appraisal of the scheme and the
type of luminaires available will determine the method of calculation. Two basic
methods are used: the Lumen Method by which the average illuminance from a
regular array of luminaires can be calculated or, the Point-by-Point Method by
which the contribution from individual luminaires to the illuminance at a specific
point or points is calculated. The methods described below are intended to give
sufficient information on how to perform basic calculations.
The accuracy of these lighting calculations is not only determined by the accuracy
of the photometric data used but also by the precision with which the installation
details can be specified. Furthermore, strict adherence to the specified illuminances
is not critical: it is more important to design a satisfactory lighting scheme than to
obtain the precise illuminance specified.
The following symbols have been used in the calculation:
Ah - Area of horizontal reference plane - m2
At - Total area of room surfaces - m2
E - Illuminance - lux
Eh - Horizontal Illuminance - lux
EhA - Horizontal Illuminance from luminaire A - lux
EhB - Horizontal Illuminance from luminaire B - lux
EhC - Horizontal Illuminance from luminaire C - lux
E ind - Indirect Illuminance - lux
Ev - Vertical Illuminance - lux
I - Luminous Intensity - candela
L - Length of room - m
MF - Maintenance Factor - -
RI - Room Index - -
UF - Utilization Factor - -
W - Width of room - m
h - Mounting height of luminaires above
reference plane - m
l - Distance from luminaire to reference point - m
n - Number of luminaires - -
r av - Average reflectance of room surfaces - -
θ - Angle between locus of l and vertical - degrees
φ - Lighting design lumens per lamp - lumen

6.4.1 The Lumen Method The lumen method for calculating average illuminance is commonly used for
interior lighting when a regular array of luminaires is required to give a reasonably
uniform level of illuminance.
The illuminance on a working plane is, amongst other factors, related to the
luminous flux emitted from the lamps and to the area of the plane. The full formula
for horizontal illuminance is:

The wall, ceiling or vertical illuminance can be obtained in a similar manner but the
Utilisation Factor is taken for the wall, ceiling or vertical surface instead of the
horizontal plane and the area of the illuminated surface is used.
Lighting design lamp lumens are obtained from manufacturers’ published data and
utilisation factors from tables of Room Indices provided in lighting manufacturers’
catalogues for particular luminaires.
The utilisation factor is found by calculating the Room Index where:

Allowance is made in the calculations for the effect of depreciation in light output
by using the design lumens rather than the initial lumens of the lamp and also
choosing a suitable maintenance factor (see section 6.2.4).
Unacceptable variations in illuminance will occur if the luminaires are spaced too
far apart. To provide information to prevent this happening, Technical Memoran-
dum No. 5 issued by the CIBSE recommends that manufacturers publish a
maximum spacing to mounting height ratio.
The spacing between luminaires in either of the two principal directions divided by
the mounting height above the working plane should not exceed the maximum
spacing/mounting height ratio.

58
If this condition is satisfied, then the Uniformity of Illuminance (defined as
minimum illuminance/average illuminance) over the horizontal task area will be 0.8
or better. However, this only applies to unobstructed horizontal tasks, and for
other situations, closer spacing is essential.
Example of the Lumen Method
As an example of the lumen method it is proposed to calculate the number of
luminaires necessary to illuminate a room in a Distillery. The basic parameters are:
dimensions: length 10 m, width 8 m, height 4.5 m
reflectances: ceiling 30%, walls 30%, floor 20%
Using the method of defining the problem given in section 6.2, the steps are as
follows:-
Visual performance - large objects to be handled,
gauges to be examined.
Illuminance level - 300 lux (see table 6.3)
Environmental conditions - ethyl alcohol based liquids present at all times, failure
of the ventilation system would give explosive gas/air
mixtures, i.e. Zone 1 classification, no dust, lamp
replacements and cleaning every 12 months, i.e.
maintenance factor = 0.9 22 (see table 6.2.4).
Maintenance - no restriction on access to luminaires
Glare - high ceiling, glare index = 22
Mounting Height - floor to underside of trusses = 4.5 m, ideal mounting
height would be 4.5 x 0.75 = 3.4 m but suspended
luminaires would be required. It is preferable to fix the
luminaires to the structure to avoid flexible connections
in a flammable area. At 4.5 m fluorescent or high
pressure mercury or sodium luminaires could be used.
Spacing should not exceed 1.5 x 4.5 = 6.75 m.
Type of Installation - overall illumination required
Switching - no special requirements
Daylight - rooflights, safety lights not necessary with fluorescent
luminaires
Economy - shift work indicates that running costs will be impor-
tant, maintenance costs will be related to lamp changes.
In view of the Zone 1 classification there will only be a limited choice of suitable
luminaires available from manufacturers.
Having selected one or two luminaires it then becomes necessary to carry out a
number of calculations to determine which type of luminaire and lamp size gives
the best arrangement at an economical cost. It is, however, proposed to examine
only one of the possible luminaires, this being an 85 W 1800 mm flameproof
fluorescent with reflector. A typical luminaire with photometric data is given in
Figure 6.3
The calculation is carried out as follows:-
Room Index

= 0.99
From the photometric data it can be seen that the Utilization Factor corresponding
to the relevant reflectances is 0.39 or 0.4 according to the height of suspension.
The lighting design lumens for an 85W lamp is quoted as 6300 lumens for a white
tube.
As stated above, the maintenance factor is 0.9. The number of lamps required to
give an illuminance level of 300 lux is therefore:

= 10.5
Having determined the number of lamps, the optimum arrangement for the room
should be established. If single tube luminaires are used, two rows of luminaires
mounted end to end could be installed. However, since the spacing to mounting
height ratio is 1.5:1 i.e. 6.75 m, advantage could be taken of fewer luminaires at
wider spacings which would reduce the capital and installation costs.

59
 Description Flameproof single tube fitting with reflector 1800mm

Light Output Ratio Up .01 Down .67 Total .68

Max. Spacing to Height Ratio (SHR MAX) 1.70

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Utilisation Factors UF[F] SHR NOM =1.50
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Room Room Index
Reflectance:
C W F .75 1.00 1.25 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.00
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.70 .50 .20 .40 .45 .51 .54 .59 .63 .65 .68 .70
.30 .34 .40 .46 .50 .55 .59 .62 .65 .68
.10 .31 .36 .42 .46 .52 .56 .59 .63 .66
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.50 .50 .20 .38 .44 .49 .53 .57 .60 .62 .65 .67
.30 .34 .39 .45 .49 .54 .57 .60 .63 .65
.10 .30 .36 .41 .45 .51 .55 .57 .61 .64
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.30 .50 .20 .37 .43 .47 .51 .55 .58 .60 .63 .64
.30 .33 .39 .44 .47 .52 .55 .58 .61 .63
.10 .30 .35 .41 .45 .50 .53 .56 .59 .61
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.00 .00 .00 .28 .34 .39 .42 .47 .51 .53 .56 .58
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BZ Class 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CIE Flux Code 45/ 79/ 96/ 99/ 68
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Flux Fraction Ratio .Ol
----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Fig. 6.3 Example of luminaire data.

4m 8m

10 m

Fig. 6.4 Example of luminaire layout.

 For the example chosen, it will be found that twin lamp luminaires will give the
most economical solution. The arrangement in Fig.6.4 uses 6 twin tube luminaires
instead of 10 single tube luminaires. A check calculation should be performed to
show that the utilisation factor for a twin lamp luminaire gives a satisfactory
answer.
6.4.2 Point Source Method The point source and linear source methods of calculation will be found to cover
most installations where outdoor illumination is required. The calculation takes
account of the direct component of flux from the source and where reflective
surfaces are present, the indirect component.
If the luminous intensity distribution and position (relative to the feature or surface
being illuminated) of a luminaire are known, the illuminance at any given point can
be derived from the diagrams and formulae of Fig. 6.5.
The indirect or reflected component of illuminance can be calculated by assuming
that the component is uniform over the whole of the working plane, hence

Fig. 6.5 Illuminance at a point for given luminous intensity, distance and aiming
angle.

The calculated value of Eind can be used for the vertical or horizontal planes.
Example of Point Source Calculation
As a single example of the point source method, it is proposed to calculate the
illuminance on a platform at the bottom of a stairway when illuminated from three
luminaires, as indicated in Fig. 6.6.
Using the method of defining the problem given in Section 6.2, the more relevant
items are:
Illuminance level – 50 lux-Table 6.3
Environmental conditions – exposed outdoor location in chemical works, Zone 2
classification, no corrosive gases present.
Maintenance factor – 0.8
Mounting height – 2.5 m on steel posts
In order to be consistent with other light sources in the area, it was decided to keep
to high pressure mercury lamps, a typical luminaire polar curve is given in Fig. 6.7.
It will be noticed that the polar curve is symmetrical and axial and transverse angles
do not have to be considered separately.
The angle of elevation from luminaire A is 25° to the platform at the bottom of the
stairway, the intensity from the polar curve is 80 cd/1000 lm. The lighting design
lumens from the manufacturers catalogue for a 80W MBF/U lamp is 3350 lm.
61
Fig. 6.6 Example of lighting for a platform.

From luminaire B, the angle of elevation is 50° and the intensity at this angle is
85 cd/1000 lm.

For luminaire C, the angle of elevation is 40° and the mounting height is 4.5 m. The
intensity at 40° is 80 cd/1000 lm.

The total illuminance at the platform is therefore:

EhA + EhB + EhC = 50 lux
With a recommended maintenance factor of 0.8, the actual value will vary between
40 and 50 lux. In practice it was found that the measured value was 45 lux. It should
be noticed that the lighting level on the stairway would also be approximately 45 lux
which is acceptable for a stairway with open treads but would be insufficient for
closed treads where a level of 100 lux is recommended. (Table 6.3)

62
 Fig. 6.7 Typical representation of polar curve.

6.4.3 Linear Source Method Fluorescent lamps are considered to be a linear source and if the lamp is within five
times its length from the point to be illuminated, the Point Source Method of
calculation cannot be used. If it is necessary to calculate accurate levels of
illuminance at short distances, the methods given in Technical Report No.11 should
be used. As an approximate guide to the illuminance which may be expected in
service from 1500 mm fluorescent luminaires having enamelled trough type
reflectors mounted at heights up to 1.6 m above the working plane, the following
tables may be used.
Table 6.4 Single-Lamp Luminaire - Area over which diversity of illuminance does
not exceed 2:l

A continuous line of 1.5 m enamelled trough reflectors mounted 0.6 m above a

bench will give an average service illuminance of the order of 270 lux (per 1000
lumens of lamp output of each lamp) over a strip 0.6 m wide beneath the lamps.

63
 Table 6.5 Single Row of Single-Lamp Luminaires – Illuminance values on a bench
1.25 m wide

6.4.4 Area Lighting Methods
Outdoor areas are usually illuminated by one of two systems.
The most common is generally known as area lighting in which luminaires are
located around the perimeter of the area to be illuminated and light directed
inwards. The other system is usually applied to the lighting of very large areas using
high mounted floodlights aimed so as to give reasonably uniform illuminance over
the area; it is generally referred to as floodlighting.
Most area floodlighting installations use either linear tungsten halogen or high
intensity discharge lamps in trough reflectors. These produce fan shaped beams
with a wide angle distribution in the horizontal plane. With this type of light
distribution the floodlight positions along the side of the area can be spaced at two
or three times the mounting height. The choice of spacing is dependent on the
degree of uniformity required, the closer the spacing the better the uniformity.
Choice of mounting height, and selection of floodlight to give a suitable light
distribution, are interdependent.

Fig. 6.8 Area Lighting

(a) Spacing of luminaires to give acceptably uniform illuminance.
(b) Area lighting of large site using additional luminaires within the area to
supplement the perimeter luminaires.

Procedure
(1) Decide the design illuminance needed.
(2) By reference to Table 6.6 select a suitable mounting height and floodlight.
(3) Reference to Table 6.6 will give the types and maximum wattages of the lamps
suitable for use at the selected mounting height. The table also gives the
lighting design lumens needed for the calculation, though this should be
checked with manufacturer’s data.
(4) Decide on the most suitable type of floodlight.
(5) By reference to Table 6.7 decide on the utilization factor (UF)
(6) Ensure that the spacing to mounting height ratio comes within the limits laid
down in Table 6.8.
(7) Allow for a maintenance factor (MF) of 0.7 for average outdoor conditions.
(8) Calculate the total lamp lumens needed to provide the design illuminance using
the formula.
A E
Total lamp lumens = h h
UF MF
Total lamp lumens
The number of lamps required = φ
64
If the area is so large that it cannot be illuminated properly by luminaires at the
perimeter, additional luminaires should be mounted within the area (see Fig. 6.8).
The limitations on the spacing/mounting height ratio described above will still
apply. For even larger areas it may be necessary to use narrow angle floodlights to
provide light over the central parts of the area.
Table 6.6 shows the mounting heights for different lamps below which glare could
be a problem, unless special luminaires are used. Table 6.1 should be used for
non-floodlighting applications.
Table 6.6 Recommended Luminaire Mounting Height for Floodlighting Schemes

Lamp designation Normal Lighting Recommended minimum

and Code rating W design lumens mounting height (h) m

Tungsten: general 200 2720 4.5

lighting service 300 4300 6.0
GLS 500 7700 7.5
750 12400 9.0
1000 17300 9.0
1500 27000 12.0
Tungsten halogen 300 5100 6.0
TH 500 8500 7.5
1000 22000 9.0
1500 33000 12.0
2000 44000 15.0
High pressure mercury 125 5800 6.0
fluorescent 250 12500 7.5
MBF 400 21300 9.0
700 36500 12.0
1000 58000 15.0
2000 110000 18.0
Mercury-tungsten 160 2560 4.5
MBT, MBTF 250 4850 6.0
500 12300 9.0
High pressure sodium 150 15000 12.0
SON 250 25500 12.0
310 32000 12.0
360 36500 12.0
400 45000 15.0
600 62000 15.0
1000 110000 15.0

Table 6.7 Typical Utilization Factor for Area Floodlights

Type of asymmetric floodlight for use Ratio of area depth to mounting height
with horizontally mounted lamp, and 2:l 3:l 4:l
typical lamp range

Open tungsten halogen 0.5-0.6 0.5-0.6 0.5 - 0.6

300-l000WT/H
Enclosed projector, narrow beam, 0.5 0.5
specular reflector
300 - 2000 W T/H
240 - 400 W SON, MBF, MBIF
Enclosed projector, wide beam, diffused reflector 0.3-0.4 0.3-0.4
300 - 2000 W T/H
250 - 400 W SON, MBF, MB1

Table 6.8 Spacing of Floodlights Relative to Mounting Height (h)

Type of luminaire Maximum spacing Limit of throw Maximum end spacing

Wide angle 3h 3h h
Medium angle 1½ h 4h 2/3 h

65
6.4.5 Use of Isolux Diagrams Data produced by the point-by-point calculations can be used to derive a diagram
showing contours of constant illuminance, or illuminance at grid points, on a
horizontal plane for a floodlight at a given mounting height and angle of tilt.
These diagrams if available from the floodlight manufacturer can be used to
calculate the illuminances which will be provided by an installation. This method is
probably the simplest and most accurate for use by the non-specialist, though it is
laborious for anything other than a simple area lighting project. Diagrams of the
two kinds are shown in Fig. 6.9. In Fig. 6.9a an isolux diagram shows contour lines
connecting points of the same illuminance. In Fig. 6.9b the area to be illuminated is
divided into a number of squares and the average illuminance for each square
indicated.
When planning a floodlighting installation, whichever diagram is used should be
redrawn on tracing paper to the same scale as that of an available plan of the site
area. The diagram is then placed over the site plan and the illuminance at each
point noted. Where several floodlights are used to illuminate the area, the diagram
for each floodlight should be superimposed on the plan of the area, and the total
illuminance at each point derived by adding the illuminances provided at the point
by the individual floodlights. It is sometimes more convenient to place the diagrams
under a tracing of the site plan and to write the illuminances on the plan.

Diagram giving illuminance (Iux) in squares

(b) for mounting height, h, and throw, t

Fig. 6.9 Example of Floodlighting calculations.

66
6.5 MEASUREMENT OF The condition of a lighting installation can only be assessed with accuracy by using a
ILLUMINANCE light meter, or photometer. The human eye is most unreliable when it comes to
ascertaining actual lighting levels and a gradual deterioration in light output will go
unnoticed. The light meter is a photocell which generates an electric current when
light falls on its surface. The stronger the light, the higher the current.
New installations should have their illuminance levels recorded so that the
deterioration can be observed and an indication given of when the lams will
require to be replaced. Where a change in the type of work is to be made in a
certain area, it is possible that the lighting level may have to be improved and the
light meter will give an idea of the distribution and the extra luminaires needed for
the new process. There are many more examples which could be given for the use
of this relatively cheap instrument. In order to make a measurement of illumi-
nance, the following procedure is recommended.
The interior is divided into a number of equal areas which should be as nearly
square as possible. The illuminance at the centre of each area is measured (Fig.
6.10) and the mean value calculated. This gives an estimate of the average
illuminance. The accuracy of the estimate depends on the number of measurement
points and the uniformity of illuminance.
Table 6.9 relates the room index to the number of measurement points necessary to
give an accuracy better than 10 per cent; the data in the table is valid for
spacing/height ratios up to 1.5:1. Where an accuracy better than 5 per cent is
required, the number of measurement points should be doubled.
The only limitation on the use of Table 6.9 is when the grid of measuring points
coincides with the grid of lighting points; large errors are then possible and more
points than the number given in Table 6.9 should be used. The numbers of
measurement points suggested are minima, and it may be necessary to increase
their number to obtain a symmetrical grid to suit a particular room shape.
Table 6.9 Relationship between room index and the number of measurement points
for square rooms

Fig. 6.10 An array for measuring average illuminance.

The following examples illustrate the use of the method: For an interior measuring
20 m x 20 m and with luminaires mounted 4 m above the working plane
Room index = 20 x 20 = 2.5
4 (20 + 20)
Sixteen points of measurement are therefore required i.e. a 4 x 4 grid.
If the room measures 20 m x 40 m and the luminaires are mounted at the same
height, it should be treated as two 20 m x 20 m areas and thirty-two points of
measurement should be used.
If an outdoor installation is to be investigated, the meter can be used to plot a series
of values over an area and then the isolux curves can be drawn. Moving the source
or changing the aspect angle can be checked and the best distribution obtained.

6.6 ENERGY CONSERVATION
The increases in the price of energy have made the majority of industrialised
countries look at the various sources using energy in an endeavour to conserve the
energy used without losing benefit. Lighting is one of these and there are many
ways of improving, or at least maintaining, the lighting levels to maximise the
overall benefits of good lighting in terms of health, environment, productivity,
safety and security.
In most lighting situations there is room for making economies in energy usage and
energy can be saved in many different ways depending on the light source being
used originally and the various light sources that can be used as a suitable, and
energy saving, alternative.
Lighting is a complex matter, there being no simple answer for all lighting
situations, but if both existing and new installations are looked at logically in
relation to six rules, there is little doubt that most situations will provide
opportunities for savings both in energy and monetary terms.
67
 The six basic rules for good lighting coupled with Energy Conservation are:-
1. Use the most efficient light source practicable, 2. Use the lamp light output as
effectively as possible, 3. Maintain lighting equipment in good order, 4. Use well
designed energy effective lighting schemes, 5. Control switching operation and usage
of the lighting installations, 6. Consider the effect of surrounding installations
6.6.1 Use of the most efficient light The need is clearly to use lamp types giving the maximum light output for each watt
source practicable of electrical energy used consistent with the other needs of the lighting installation.
Of course not all lamps are suitable for all applications, for example, the colour of
the emitted light from a SOX type sodium lamp is normally unacceptable for
certain industrial applications in spite of their efficacy.
6.6.2 Use of the lamp output Careful selection of luminaires which give the required illuminance for the least
efficiently energy consumed should always be considered.
6.6.3 Maintain lighting equipment in A high standard of maintenance ensures not only safety but contributes to energy
good order saving. Poor maintenance and the accumulation of dust and dirt reduces the useful
light output and so in effect increases the cost. Planned maintenance provides the
best overall efficiency and with it real economies can be gained.
6.6.4 Use well-designed In Section 6.1 and 6.2 of the guide, we have illustrated ways of designing effective
energy-effective lighting schemes lighting schemes. After installation it should be maintained so as to ensure these
results are continuously achieved.
It is therefore essential to provide for maintenance schedules when the design is
being considered, so that the required illuminances can be achieved with the
minimum luminaires and consequently a lower consumption of energy.
6.6.5 Control the switching operation Controlled switching of the lighting installation offers a number of possibilities for
and usage of the lighting installation effective energy saving. Central switching from a control console or use of
photoelectric control are two methods which ensure the lighting is only on when it
needs to be.
6.6.6 Consider the effect of the The surrounding plant, particularly on industrial installations, can have a marked
surrounding installation effect on illuminances and needs to be taken into account, particularly at the design
stage.
Whilst reflection factors tend to be minimal, every advantage should be taken of
the use of light surface finishes which will reflect the light and consequently
produce energy saving.
A more detailed consideration can be obtained by reference to the CIBSE Code for
Interior Lighting (Section 4) and Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the CIBSE Building Energy

68
 7. EMERGENCY AND STANDBY LIGHTING

7.1 INTRODUCTION At the present time there is no specific mandatory requirement for emergency
lighting in onshore installations. However, for offshore installations as defined in
the Mineral Working (Offshore Installations) Act 1971 compliance with the
requirements are statutory (see Appendix 3). The Factories Act, Offices, Shops
and Railway Premises Act and Fire Precautions Act do not contain specific clauses
on emergency lighting. However, under the latter Act a local fire authority may
require emergency lighting to be installed in certain buildings before issuing a Fire
Certificate.
Most pertinent to this subject, is the ‘Health and Safety at Work Act’. Although
this far reaching Act makes only passing reference to lighting, its general provision
means almost anything can be taken as coming within its scope.
The following endeavours to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of the
various aspects concerned with emergency lighting and provides guidelines to
designers to select a system to meet their requirements. The normal permanent
installation should be kept in operation as long as possible in the event of an
emergency. In the event of supply failure to this system a second system powered
by an alternative source should be provided. This emergency lighting can be
achieved by various systems to meet a specific requirement.
All the emergency lighting provided should meet the relevant requirements of
BS 5266.
7.2 DESIGN CONCEPTS In addition to considering the application and type of emergency lighting, designers
should also bear in mind the zonal classification, environment, quality, reliability
and installed costs.
It is emphasised that all luminaires and ancillary equipment must comply with the
hazard zonal classification if relevant. (Refer BS 5345).

7.3 LEVELS OF ILLUMINATION The emergency illuminance should be provided within 5 seconds after the power
7.3.1 Escape Lighting supply failure and should maintain operation for between ½ hour and 3 hours
duration depending on the type of area involved.
Because the eye adapts fairly quickly to changes in luminance the average level of
emergency illuminance need only be about 1% of the normal service illuminance
with a minimum of 0.2 lux.
A diversity ratio of not more than 40:l between maximum and minimum
illuminance is essential in well defined unobstructed escape routes. A ratio of 10:l
however, should be adopted on staircases and high level walkways etc.

7.3.2 Standby Lighting In certain places standby lighting may be needed where a short duration task has to
be performed prior to vacating an area or where life is at risk. In these areas a
higher illuminance of 10 to 30 lux should be provided at the essential working
points.
Some typical examples of areas which may require standby lighting are:
Boiler Houses, Compressor Houses, Control Rooms/Panels, Fire Points, General
Process Areas, Sub-stations, Vital Valve Points.

7.4 EQUIPMENT/SYSTEMS The power source for emergency lighting systems fall into two broad categories:
1. Centralised
2. Individual (Self Contained)

7.4.1 Centralised Systems These systems involve three principal types and are:
Battery
This type of system tended to be restricted for use with tungsten luminaires on a
non-maintained basis but fluorescent luminaires with individual inverters are now
available.
Bulk Inverter
This type of system is similar to that above but incorporates a central inverter to
convert d.c. to a.c. This permits fluorescent luminaires to be used.
Generator
Where diesel sets are used to provide power for other ancillaries at times of power
failure it may be advantageous to use some of the available output for emergency
lighting.

69
7.4.2 Individual Systems
7.5 DURATION OF POWER
SOURCE AND RECHARGING OF
BATTERIES
7.5.1 Recharging Time
7.6 LIGHT SOURCES
7.6.1 Tungsten Filament Lamps
7.6.2 Fluorescent Lamps
7.6.3 Discharge Lamps
7.7 MODE OF OPERATION
7.7.1 Maintained Emergency
Lighting
70
Luminaires with Individual Power Pack
These systems are self contained with the emergency power source being derived
from the individual power pack normally fitted within the luminaire. The system is
suitable for local ‘Health Condition’ monitoring, e.g. third wire. It should be noted
that where such luminaires are intended for hazardous areas the isolation features
of the battery supply should receive special consideration.
Self-Luminous Signs
Where electrically operated signs are either not suitable or not available, illumin-
ated legend type such as EXIT signs etc. which require no electricity supply may be
considered. The units are continuously illuminated by tritium gas, and a life of over
fifteen years is claimed. No harmful radiation is given off by these signs and they
are now accepted by most Fire Authorities. Their main disadvantage is their lack of
brightness and where used the legends should be of ample size. They are not
suitable for general lighting.
Before installating these signs they must be registered with the Department of the
Environment under the Radioactive Substances Act. Disposal of these signs also
presents problems and the usual procedure is to return them to the manufacturers
when they are no longer required. The vessels containing titrium are carefully
designed to minimise the risk of damage, and it is claimed that these units can be
subjected to very violent treatment whilst in service without impairing the
radioactive source.
The minimum of duration for which the power source should be available for
supplying the total load is as follows:
Escape Lighting: ½ hour minimum; sufficient time for personnel to escape after
the standby lighting period (when required) has expired should
be provided.
Standby Lighting: normally 3 hours, or to suit plant requirements.
If the source of emergency power is a secondary battery the charging system should
be designed as follows:
Central Battery System
After the period of discharge through the full connected emergency lighting load
for the period stipulated the associated charger should be capable of recharging the
battery within 14 hours.
Individual Sources
Most luminaires of this pattern contain sealed nickel cadmium batteries. These can
be easily damaged if recharged too quickly and whilst it is desirable that they be
restored to full power in fourteen hours this may not always be possible.
In the case of luminaires with a three hour emergency duration it is advisable to
seek reassurance from the manufacturers that the batteries are not being recharged
at too high a rate in an effort to achieve a 14 hours recharge time.
Advantages: Low cost; may be operated on d.c., thus the overall system is simple.
Disadvantages: Low efficacy; expected life is relatively short, therefore mainte-
nance and lamp replacement cost may be high; adversely affected by mechanical
vibration.
Advantages: Fluorescent lamps have a high efficacy; normally long expected life,
therefore, keeping maintenance cost to a low level; normally unaffected by
mechanical vibrations.
Disadvantages: High capital cost; low temperature striking problems
Discharge lamps are not suitable as an emergency light source because of the long
restriking time.
In this system the emergency lighting lamps are in operation at the same time as the
normal lighting system.
Advantages: Malfunction of a faulty light source can be observed. Efficiency of the
overall installation, is improved by utilisation of the emergency luminaire under
normal conditions.
Disadvantages: The life of the battery cells could be reduced either by: (i) The
continuous emission of heat from the lamps in the self-contained type of fitting.
(ii) The continuous load on a centralised battery system. This can be avoided by
arranging the circuity via an auto-changeover switch.
Lamp utilisation could be reduced through maintained usage, thus reducing system
reliability, particularly where tungsten filament lamps are used.

7.7.2 Non-maintained Emergency
Lighting
7.7.3 Combined Emergency
Luminaire
Even if the emergency luminaires are painted a different colour to the normal
fittings there is always the danger that plant operators or maintenance personnel
may not readily identify failure of the lamp/fitting.
Need for regular observation and inspection.
In this system emergency lighting is only in operation when the normal lighting
supply fails.
Advantages: The system permits positive and simple testing of the complete system
on a scheduled maintenance basis.
The life of the system is increased through the reduced time of operation and is
therefore more reliable.
Disadvantages: Need for regular testing. Unlikely possibility of complete failure
between test periods.
An emergency lighting luminaire containing two or more lamps at least one of
which is energised from the emergency lighting supply and the other(s) from the
normal lighting supply. A combined lighting luminaire may be either maintained or
non-maintained, and specialist wiring arrangements may be required to segregate
and identify both supplies.
Advantage: Ease of integrating emergency lighting into existing plants.
Disadvantage: Very limited choice available.
71
 8 WIRING SYSTEMS AND INSTALLATION

The types of wiring that may be used for installation in hostile and hazardous
environments are basically the same, whilst there are no defined standards for the
hostile environment, guidance can be obtained from the 15th Edition IEE
Regulation for Electrical Installations, and for hazardous environments the types
which may be used in principle are laid down in BS5345: Part 1. (see Table 6.3.)
The detailed requirements for permitted types of cable and their accessories are
described in the parts of BS5345 dealing with individual types of protection. All
cables, conduit and other accessories should be manufactured in accordance with
the appropriate British Standards.
8.1 HOSTILE ENVIRONMENTS As mentioned above, there are no defined standards for the types of wiring that
may be used: the only criterion is that the wiring system (cable or conduit) must be
able to withstand the effects of the hostile agents present.
Due account must be taken of the nature of the environment, including chemical
and thermal factors, particularly corrosive and solvent agencies.
PVC armoured cables to BS6346 provide a high degree of resistance to both
corrosion and mechanical damage, and are widely used by industry. Special grades
of flame-retardent PVC having a higher oxygen index than normal are readily
available if required. These can be substituted as outer sheath only, or alternatively
throughout the cable. Where armour corrosion may be a problem, for instance
where the outer sheathing may be damaged, cables having PVC insulation and
sheath, followed by a further sheath of hard grade PVC may be used; although they
are suitable for most situations, they are not so mechanically robust as the
armoured versions, and under all circumstances must be suitably protected from
mechanical damage.
Screwed steel conduit wiring systems are satisfactory for many applications but care
should be taken where vibration or stress may cause fracture or loosening of joints,
or where corrosion or excessive internal condensation of moisture is likely to occur.
8.2 HAZARDOUS BS5345: Part 1, and the relevant parts covering specific types of protection, cover
ENVIRONMENTS in considerable detail the types of wiring systems that may be used for installations
in a hazardous environment and should be closely studied to ensure all aspects of
the installation are covered.
However, two types of wiring systems are generally accepted:–
Cables drawn into screwed, cold drawn or seam welded steel conduit and cables
that are otherwise suitably protected against mechanical damage.
Conduit systems are not widely used in the oil and petrochemical industry in the
U.K. but are widely used in America and as such may therefore be used on
installations which have American influence or associated with American equip-
ment.
The more common practice is to use cables specifically protected against mechanic-
al damage with installations being in armoured (SWA) cable or mineral insulated
metal sheath (MICS) cable.
Whilst the above covers installation in both Zone 1 and Zone 2 areas certain
relaxations are permitted if the installation is a Zone 2 area.
The following sections are designed to give further details both generally or when
specifically applied to a particular type of protection which affects lighting and
associated equipment.
As in the case of hostile environments, due account must be taken of the nature of
the environment, including chemical and thermal factors, particularly corrosive and
solvent agencies, as well as the zonal classification of the area.
Care must be taken to select the type of sheath most suitable for the conditions and
temperatures in which the cable will be used.
In particular situations such as petrochemical plants, cables constructed generally
in accordance with BS6346, but with the addition of a lead or lead alloy sheath,
provide possibly the best protection of all and are particularly suitable for burial in
contaminated soils. The finish of these cables is covered by Oil Companies
Materials Association (OCMA) specification No. ELEC 4: Underground
Armoured Cable Protected against Solvent Penetration and Corrosive Attack. Of
the two types of PVC bedding allowed, namely lapped or extruded, the latter is
almost always chosen.

72

8.2.1 Conduit Systems
8.2.2 Cable System
8.2.3 Wiring Systems into Type of
Protection ‘d’ luminaires
Mineral insulated metal sheathed cables are suitable for many situations, particu-
larly where the metal sheath is protected from corrosion by an external PVC
covering, but should not be used where they are subjected to flexing.
Mineral insulated cables and other organic insulation cables, with or without
armouring, are particularly suitable for use in providing essential lighting supplies
in areas of high fire risk. These cables meet the requirements of IEC 331 “Fire
Resisting Characteristics of Electric Cables”.
Additionally, special types of organic insulation cables have been developed for use
where limited service in fire situations would be advantageous. Under conditions of
fire, these cables may be expected to maintain circuit integrity for periods longer
than cables of standard design.
Conduit should be screwed heavy gauge steel, solid drawn or seam welded in
accordance with the requirements of BS31 or BS4568.
All screwed joints should be pulled up tight and should be provided with locknuts.
After assembly all joints should be painted with good quality moisture resistant
paint to inhibit the development of rust. Particular attention should be given here
to maintaining efficient earthing and bonding of installations.
Any bends in conduit should preferably be machine-formed to facilitate easy
drawing-in of cables. It is important to realise that where a conduit run passes from
a hazardous area to a non-hazardous area an approved stopper box or sealing
device must be inserted at the hazardous area boundary.
The use of a plastic conduit is restricted to Zone 2 only. In this case, additional
earthing conductors must be provided to maintain the overall earthing integrity of
installations. It is important to note that the metal sheath, braid or armouring of a
cable must not be used as a neutral conductor.
In addition to the above requirements there are certain special requirements for
conduit systems used in conjunction with type ‘d’, type ‘e’ or type ‘N’ apparatus
which are discussed later.
Conductors may be of copper or aluminium, but plain aluminium 2
is not recom-
mended for conductors with cross-sectional areas of less than 16mm .
As far as possible, cable runs should be uninterrupted. Where discontinuities
cannot be avoided, the joint should be encapsulated or made in a compound filled
joint box or be protected in accordance with the requirements of the zone.
Certain types of protection require special types of cable glands and these special
requirements are discussed in more detail later.
All cables should be provided with adequate mechanical protection. Where single
core metal sheathed or armoured cables are used, precautions should be taken to
avoid dangerous sheath/armour voltages or currents.
Although PVC is still the most widely used material for protective sheathings, other
materials are available and reference is made to the relevant British Standards in
the Appendices. PVC compounds become increasingly stiff and brittle as the
temperature decreases and if cables are bent too quickly to too small a radius or are
struck sharply at temperatures in the region of 0°C or lower, there is a risk of
shattering the PVC components.
It is therefore desirable that the cables should be installed only when both the
cables and the ambient temperature are above 0°C and have been so for the
previous 24 hours, or where special precautions have been taken to maintain the
cable above this temperature.
Fittings for mineral insulated cables should be of a type approved for use with the
luminaires and should effectively seal the insulation and provide adequate earth
continuity. Care should be taken to ensure that the compound in the seal is not
exposed to temperatures which could affect its satisfactory operation.
Where there is a risk of mineral insulated cables being exposed to inductive surges,
suitable surge suppression should be fitted.
It is important to note that additional special requirements apply when cable
systems are used in conjunction with type ‘d’, type ‘e’ and type ‘N’ apparatus, and
these extra requirements are discussed in more detail below.
The changes in specification requirements for flameproof luminaires, particularly
in respect of cable and conduit entry, make it desirable to explain the permitted
conditions in the cases of luminaires manufactured and certified to (a) BS229,
(b) BS4683: Part 2, (c) Mixed installations and (d) BS5501: Part 5 (EN50018).
73
 BS229 Requirements On earlier designs of flameproof luminaires made in accord-
ance with BS229 requirements, the flamepath between the tapped boss and a
threaded compression cable gland had to be of 1″ axial length. Thus the practice
grew of providing a tapped hole in the boss of approximately 1 1/8″ to allow for a
path of 1″ with tolerance. Mechanical cable glands of the compression seal type
were designed with a male threaded portion of at least 1″ length.
In the 1957 edition of BS229, for metal to metal paths, the minimum allowable
length of flamepath was reduced to ½″ and some mechanical glands were made
with ¾″ length of threaded part. However, in general, manufacturers still made
luminaires with tapped bosses of length of at least ¾″ and even then allowed for
connection of a gland having a length of 1″ threaded part.
In the case of conduit entry, direct attachment of the conduit to the terminal
chamber by integral boss or adaptor plate was allowed for conduit up to and
including 1″ in diameter and locknuts were used to lock the conduit into place. In
these cases the conduit was treated as a flameproof protection and joints had to be
made with long threaded unions. Furthermore, a minimum axial length of engaged
thread of ¾″ was required for screwed conduit of up to 1″ diameter used with
flameproof enclosures. Long threaded stopping plugs are used with early BS229
apparatus.
The B.S. Code of Practice 1003 Part 1 gives recommendations for installation
requirements for cables and conduit associated with flameproof equipment to
BS229.
BS4683: Part 2 Requirements With the introduction of the later standard, BS4683:
Part 2, based on International recommendations, the cable entry conditions have
been modified from those of BS229. For threaded joints, the number of threads
engaged must be a minimum of 5 for Groups IIA and IIB, and 6 for Group IIC,
with minimum axial lengths of 8mm and 9.5mm respectively.
For the first time, a British Standard for metric threaded mechanical cable glands
(BS6121) was published including specific requirements for flameproof types and
specifying lengths of threaded parts to meet the BS4683: Part 2 requirements.
Flameproof enclosures can now have shorter entry bosses to accept the new glands
which may be tapped in ISO metric or other thread forms.
In the case of conduit entries it is now necessary to fit a sealing device at the entry
to the enclosure to prevent any explosion pressure from being transmitted into the
conduit (e.g. stopping gland). Thus the conduit system is now only a mechanical
protection for the conductors and is not part of the flameproof arrangements as in
the case of BS229.
Only BASEEFA approved glands and stopping glands may be used in association
with BS4683: Part 2 luminaires and BS4683: Part 2 is being amended to allow the
association of BS5501 glands.
Mixed Apparatus A problem arises in that the existing and new equipment have to
be interconnected. It has therefore been necessary to amend BS229 (Amd. No. 8)
to allow the cable entry conditions of BS4683: Part 2 to be applied to BS229
equipment. CP1003: Part 1 was also amended to allow for fitting sealing devices for
conduit entry.
If BS4683: Part 2 conduit entry conditions are being used, it is necessary to
incorporate an approved sealing device at each point of conduit entry into
flameproof apparatus.
With BS229 apparatus, if no sealing device is used, the minimum axial length of
conduit engagement is necessary i.e. ¾″ or 19mm for conduits up to 1″ or 25mm
diameter respectively. However, a screwed sealing device may be used with conduit
sizes up to 25mm diameter, in which case the device should be in accordance with
BS4683: Part 2.
Approved thread adaptors may be used with apparatus to either standard.
However, it should be noted that only short thread cable glands or stopping glands
may be accommodated. In the case of conduit entry without a sealing device, a
short thread adaptor is not acceptable. Stopper plugs may be used whether short or
long thread with apparatus to either standard so long as the boss length is adequate.
BS5501: Part 5 Requirements With the introduction of this standard (European Std.
EN50018) new problems arise.
In the first place only cable entries certified to this standard may be associated with
luminaires to the same standard, so that entries to BS229 or BS4683: Part 2 are not
valid with luminaires in accordance with BS5501: Part 5.
ISO threaded joints must have 5 full threads for all Groups with minimum engaged
lengths of 8mm.

74

8.2.4 Wiring Systems into Type of
Protection ‘e’ Luminaires
8.2.5 Wiring Systems into Type of
Protection ‘N’ Luminaires
8.2.6. Unused Cable Entries
In the case of conduit entry, a sealing device must be fitted at the entry to the
enclosure. The conduit is thus only a mechanical protection and is not part of the
flameproof consideration.
Thread adaptors and stopping plugs must be approved to BS5501: Part 5 and
certified for use in association with BS5501: Part 5 luminaires.
For installations using Type ‘e’ (Increased Safety) luminaires cable systems have
generally been used in preference to conduit. Continental practice has been to use a
non-armoured cable but in the U.K. preference has been given to the use of
armoured or, more recently, wire braided cables.
Cable systems may be entered into an increased safety enclosure by means of
glands appropriate to the type of cable used and that incorporate a suitable sealing
component to maintain a degree of protection IP54 (or better) of the terminal
enclosure. Additionally, a sealing washer or suitable thread sealant must be used to
provide a seal between the cable gland and the enclosure. Metal screwed glands
specified in BS6121 or BS6081 are recommended for cable entries although plastic
glands with suitable Component Approval may also be used. Mineral insulated
cables must be terminated with increased safety seals having suitable Component
Approval.
It would appear unlikely that conduit systems will be widely used with type ‘e’
luminaires. It is necessary to seal between the conduit and the enclosure, using a
sealing washer or thread sealant, and between inner cable conductors and the
conduit, by means of a special sealing device, in order to maintain degree of
protection IP54. Care must be taken to ensure the maintenance of efficient earthing
and bonding paths in all installations.
Cable conductors must only be connected to apparatus terminals using the
recommendations given in BS5345: Part 6. Direct and indirect connection using
lugs, spades etc.) is permitted providing that loosening or twisting of conductors
does not occur or that loose strands from conductors are avoided in order that
creepage and clearance distances are maintained. Particular care should be taken
where terminals permit entry of more than one conductor.
The insulation of each conductor should be maintained up to the metal of the
terminal to avoid risk of short circuits between adjacent conductors or terminals.
It is intended that type ‘N’ luminaires are used only in Zone 2 areas where the
requirements are less stringent than for Zone 1 areas. In addition to the types of
wiring acceptable for use in Zone 1 areas welded conduit and metallic or
non-metallic trunking are considered to give adequate protection in Zone 2 areas.
Where the risk of mechanical damage is slight, the plastic sheath of the cable may
be sufficient protection.
When restricted breathing is used in the design of a luminaire, the wiring and
glanding must allow this to be maintained. Sealing of conduit is necessary at the
point of entry to the luminaire, and where cable glands are used suitable seals must
be placed between the enclosure and the body of the gland. Furthermore
compression of the sheath must produce a satisfactory seal. Standard glands to
BS6081 or BS6121 with suitable seals are adequate for this purpose and may be
manufactured in either metal or suitable plastic materials. (See Section 15 of
BS5345: Part 7).
Mention must be made of the cable construction when associated with restricted
breathing luminaires. Leakage through the cable cores or filling cannot be tolerated
and a solid extruded construction is preferred.
If any cable entries provided on luminaires are not utilized for a particular
installation, the entries must be closed by the use of a proper screwed stopper plug
of approved design and construction so as to retain the mode of protection afforded
by the design.
Failure to do this will almost certainly invalidate the integrity of the enclosure.
The requirements are more specific when considering flameproof enclosures and
BASEEFA have detailed acceptable closing devices unless the luminaires have
been approved together with an acceptable device. Reference to the luminaire
manufacturer will confirm. Four typical methods of sealing are illustrated in Figure
8.1 and are as follows:–
a) The closing device shall be capable of being fitted or removed from the
outside or inside the enclosure. If removable from the outside this shall only
be possible after disengagement of an internally accessible retaining device.
b) Shall be separately secured by means of the special fasteners.
75
 c) Shall be capable of being fitted and removed only by the use of a special tool.
d) Shall be of special design in which the means of insertion cannot be used as
the means of removal and capable of being removed only by the use of one of
the other alternative methods or a special technique.
The plugging of un-used cable entries on ‘e’ & ‘N’ type luminaires can be done by
the use of metal or plastic sealing devices as long as the plug maintains degree of
protection IP54 for type ‘e’ and the degree of protection recommended, particular-
ly noting if the enclosure is restricted breathing, for type ‘N’ luminaires. A tool
should be used for insertion and removal.
It should be noted that a number of luminaires are fitted with plastic travelling
plugs to prevent the ingress of dust and moisture during transport and handling
prior to installation. Care must be taken to remove these and replace, as required,
with the appropriate sealing device.

8.3 INSTALLATION OF WIRING The main statutory requirements governing the installation and use of electrical
SYSTEMS apparatus in industries to which the Factories Act 1961 applies are given in the
Electricity Regulations 1908 as amended by the Electricity (Factories Act) Special
Regulations 1944. Amplification and comment on these regulations are given in the
Memorandum on the Electricity Regulations published by H.M.S.O.
(Form SHW928). In addition to the foregoing, wiring systems should conform with
the latest edition of the I.E.E. Regulations. Furthermore, all electrical installations
in potentially explosive atmospheres should be in accordance with British Standard
Code of Practice BS5345 “Selection, Installation and Maintenance of Electrical
Apparatus for Use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres”. Basic requirements are
given in Part 1 of the Code of Practice and further parts of the Code detail specific
requirements for the various types of protection that may be used to achieve
electrical safety. BS5345 is applicable to all new permanent installations and to
changes to existing installations, although it is recognised that some changes and
additions to certain existing installations, may need to be made in accordance with
earlier British Standard Code of Practice CP1003. It should be noted that CP1003
will eventually be withdrawn when all the parts of BS5345 are published.
The recommendations of BS5345 also apply to semi-permanent or temporary
installations, however, in some circumstances, it may be necessary to adopt
alternative safety measures and procedures.
Rubber insulated and PVC insulated single core cables to BS6007 and BS6004
respectively in screwed metal conduit or trunking are used in industry but where
corrosion is likely, additional precautions are necessary. Steel conduit should be
heavy gauge and care should be taken to ensure that it stands clear of the structure.
As it is virtually impossible to avoid damaging the external protective coating of
fittings and conduit during erection, the whole installation should be overpainted
after completion with a suitable corrosion resistant paint. Bitumastic paints are
often used for this final protection, but cold setting epoxide paints and chlorinated
rubber paints may also be suitable. When choosing the paint, the operating
temperature of the equipment and especially the luminaire must be considered.
One answer to the problem of corrosion may be to use non-metallic conduits made
from rigid PVC or pitch-impregnated paper and wood pulp fibres. These may prove
useful for some situations but care must be taken to ensure that they are suitable for
all the conditions existing throughout their length. For example, pitch-impregnated
paper conduit may be suitable for resisting the attack of sulphurous fumes, but
unsuitable if exposed to heat radiation from a nearby furnace. The use of any form
of non-metallic conduit necessitates special attention to the proper earthing of the
fittings to protect personnel from electric shock and to protect the structure from
fire in the event of a fault occurring in a luminaire. It is essential to provide a
separate earth continuity conductor in all installations employing non-conducting
conduit.

Fig. 8.1 Typical methods of sealing entries.

The use of proper sealing glands for cables, complete with shrouds, is essential.
After glanding, any armour which may be exposed must be protected by wrapping
with a suitable protective non-absorbent tape. A number of proprietary makes of
heat-shrinkable or flexible elastomeric gland shrouds are available, and these
provide excellent resistance against corrosive atmospheres, due to their intimate
surface contact with the gland.
76
 As with luminaires, the positioning of cable runs, switches and other control gear is
important, and as far as possible should be chosen to avoid exposing them to rain,
dripping or condensed water or to corrosives. The use of cable shields in exposed
situations may also be considered. Where exposure is unavoidable, all switches,
metal conduit, ducts and trunking, metallic sheaths or armour, glands, clips and
fixings and all earthing and bonding, should have a corrosion-resistant finish.
It is sometimes necessary to bury conduit or cables in the building structure and this
can lead to corrosion problems under certain conditions. Building materials
containing magnesium chloride and plaster undercoats contaminated with corrosive
salts can attack the metal; aluminium sheaths, armour and conduit are particularly
prone to attack if laid in contact with damp, unpainted walls. If fittings or conduit
are to be embedded in wet plaster walls they need protection by bitumastic or
similar paint. Corrosion can also occur where metal-sheathed cables, metal
conduit, fittings or glands are laid on oak or other acidic woods, or where they are
in contact with dissimilar metals.

Earthing The accepted practice in the U.K. for providing protection against both direct and
indirect shock, is the application of direct earthing back to the source of supply, the
requirements for which are detailed in the 15th Edition of the I.E.E. Regulations
(Part IV, Chapter 54 and Appendix 7 refer).
Although the Regulations do not differentiate between installations in various
situations – the basic concept being the same in all cases – practical considerations
dictate that more care should be taken to maintain Earthing Systems, where hostile
environments exist, to prevent deterioration. This is particularly applicable in those
cases where conduit, trunking, tray, etc. provide the earth return path, and also at
the terminations of bonding conductors.
Where non-metallic protection is provided for conductors and an independent
protective conductor installed, it is unlikely that problems could arise except at
terminations.
In hazardous areas, where metallic protection provides an earth return path, it is
essential to ensure that the maximum earth fault current cannot raise the
temperature of the metallic protection above the appropriate permitted safe level.

77
 9 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
Regular inspection and maintenance is particularly important to ensure the
luminaires and ancillary equipment are maintained in the installed mode, and any
maintenance procedure should aim at suppressing the speed of corrosion from any
centres of attack.
To ensure maintenance is carried out consideration must first be given to the
provision of adequate safe access to the location of each item of equipment for the
electrical maintenance staff at such regular intervals considered necessary for the
particular environment. Also the luminaire should be installed so that, as far as
possible, access is convenient for visual inspection of vital components that are
liable to corrode.
It must be remembered that the removal of a component may damage the
surrounding metal work and unless remedial action is taken might lead to
intensified corrosion in the future, requiring costly maintenance or even replace-
ment.
The period of inspection will depend on the nature of the installation with no
recommended period laid down but it may need to be at intervals as short as one
month if the environment is particularly hostile. For installations in hazardous
areas BS5345: Part 1 makes particular reference to this subject under Sections
27-32 recommending initial and periodic inspection and testing should be carried
out before energising and at regular intervals with a system devised to record the
results of inspection and action taken. The frequency of inspection must be left to
the discretion of the user but should be regular enough to ensure the luminaires
continue to operate in their designed manner.
Visual inspection will normally be all that is required, but the periodic inspection of
such parts as flame-paths on flameproof (Ex ‘d’) luminaires which are not visible
without opening the luminaire may be necessary to ensure adequate inspection
procedures.
The results of these inspections should be recorded and where equipment is found
to be faulty effective repair should be carried out as quickly as possible. If
necessary, some sort of repair priority system should be introduced to ensure that
the most potentially hazardous faults are rectified first. An example of an
inspection schedule is given in Fig. 9.1.
Different types of inspection can be used to cater for the particular circumstances of
the plant. For example, a “walk-round” inspection observing and recording the
condition of equipment without actually touching the equipment can be a very
useful check on the equipment in adverse environments. Such an inspection could
be used on older plants in hostile atmospheres where the rate of failure of
equipment would be expected to be high.
A more rigorous inspection, sometimes referred to as an external inspection could
be made at less frequent intervals. Such an inspection would involve the examina-
tion of anything which can be examined without opening up the equipment. This
would include such things as checking the tightness of glands and bolts, ensuring
the armouring is suitably protected, the correct gland is used, and the flamegap is
below the maximum acceptable.
The most rigorous inspection which could be applied is the internal or open-up
inspection in which the equipment is completely isolated and stripped down to
check on the state of all the component parts. Such an inspection could be done on
a random basis at the discretion of the engineer responsible.
Any changes that have occurred since the last inspection should be noted.
This ensures that any maintenance personnel are totally aware of any items of
equipment which are reported as faulty, as well as any other equipment that is no
longer used but must be either removed or made safe in some other way to ensure
the integrity of the installation is maintained.
The following list indicates some of the points that should be given particular
attention during the inspection programme. If faults are found then maintenance
work should be put in hand immediately to correct them.

1. Corrosion of the enclosure and its The degree of corrosion can be found initially by removing the surface dirt or loose
components which may result in loss paint by washing down and cleaning with a wire brush where appropriate. If only
of mechanical strength. the paintwork has deteriorated then it should be renovated to bring back to a good
condition. Any components which are beyond simple repair should be replaced.

2. Damaged light transmitting parts. Examine the cement around the lampglass assemblies of flameproof (type ‘d’)
luminaires carefully, inside and outside. If the cement is eroded or softened more
78

3. Missing fasteners.
4. Missing or damaged gaskets.
5. Loose mounting arrangements.
6. Terminations.
7. Check flamepaths.
than 4mm max. depth then the assembly must be replaced. If the cement erosion is
less than 4mm deep then a fillet of Herculite EN cement can be applied wiping off
to a smooth surface which when dry should be painted over and greased to prevent
further atmospheric attack. A new glass can only be recemented into the lampglass
mounting castings by the manufacturer.
Where plastic diffusers are part of the luminaire care must be taken in ensuring that
the cleaning agent is of the type which does not attack the diffuser. Dirty diffusers
can cause dangerously low levels of illumination therefore regular maintenance/
cleaning should be employed.
All components that are replaced must be in accordance with the manufacturers
specification.Failure to use such components may invalidate the certification/
approval of the luminaire and may make the apparatus dangerous.
These should be replaced with items of the correct quality and material. This is
important on approved luminaires as missing bolts, nuts etc. can invalidate the
certificate. Do not overtighten the fasteners as distortion of the flamepaths of type
‘d’ luminaires may occur, or gaskets may be forced off their seatings which will
allow the ingress of liquids and dusts. Overstressing of glass or plastic components
should be avoided.
These must be immediately replaced by the correct item/part number. On some
luminaires such as type ‘e’, or type ‘N’, the gasketting forms a required art of the
specification. Luminaires, which have an I.P. number, depend upon the gaskets
being fitted and in good condition to prevent the ingress of moisture and dust into
the interior of the luminaire.
These are generally overlooked during inspection and maintenance. Ensure that all
mountings are secure and in good condition and that the adjacent material or
surfaces to which the mountings are secured is inspected and maintained.
Cable and conductors must be properly terminated using the correct cable glands,
stopper boxes etc. Stopper boxes must be properly filled with the specified grade of
compound in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
All luminaires must be effectively earthed and all terminals and conductors should
be thoroughly cleaned and greased.
Check flamepaths on type ‘d’ luminaires for signs of pitting and that they are within
the required gap limits. Any damaged components should be replaced. If the
flamepath needs cleaning this should be done with a non-metallic scraper and/or a
suitable non-corrosive cleaning fluid. In addition wipe down with solvent to remove
old grease.
During maintenance it is recommended that all flamepaths and threaded compo-
nents are greased with an approved form of non-setting grease but care must be
taken to ensure that blind tapped holes are free from accumulated dirt or excessive
grease which can prevent the correct closure of, for example, flamepaths, or cause
damage to the tapped components.
In addition check the luminaire is installed in accordance with the requirements of
the installation, particularly the classification of the area if hazardous, and that the
correct lamp is fitted and is operating. Any lamps in the burnt-out condition should
be replaced. Check the supply voltage and frequency is correct.
No modifications should be made to the luminaire without reference to the
manufacturer as unauthorised modifications to an approved luminaire will invali-
date the certification. Any such fitting found in a hazardous area must be replaced
immediately.
Manufacturers installation/maintenance literature is usually provided with each
luminaire and should always be referred to for guidance when carrying out any
maintenance. If in doubt always consult the manufacturer.
79
80
Site
Frequency
Plant 6 Monthly Checks 2 Yearly Checks

Section Zone Class 0 1 2 SAFE

Electrical
Description TYPE Identification Circuit
Grid of
Ref. No for Approval
Enclosure Isolation and
Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
SB-1
SB-1
12.5 W. MBF Lum’
Junction Box
FLP
FLP
3-2550
3-2551 } Sub-Panel 3
Blue PH.
Pole Mounted
(4m)

SB-2
SB-2
12.5 W. MBF Luminaire FLP
Junction Box FLP
3-2552
3-2553 }
Sub-Panel 3
Yellow PH.
Pole Mounted
(4m)

}
SB-3A 400 W. SONR Lum’ FLP 3-2560 Sub-Panel 5 Access
SB-3A Switch FLP 3-2561 Yellow Tank
SB-3A Junction Box FLP 3-2562 PH. Top

}
SB-3B 400 W. SONR Lum’ FLP 3-2563 Sub-Panel 3 Access
SB-3B Switch FLP 3-2564 Blue Tank
SB-3B Junction Box FLP 3-2565 PH. Top

SB-4
SB-4
125 W. MBF Lum’
Junction Box
FLP
FLP
3-2554
3-2555 }
Sub-Panel 3
Blue PH.
Pole Mounted
(4m)

}
SB-5 125 W MBF Lum’ FLP 3-2556 Sub-Panel 3 Pole Mounted
SB-5 Junction Box FLP 3-2557 Red PH.

}
}
SB-6A 400 W. SONR Lum’ FLP 3-2566 Sub-Panel 5
SB-6A Switch FLP 3-2567 Red PH.
SB-6A Junction Box FLP 3-2568 Access

}
SB-6B 400 W. SONR Lum’ FLP 3-2569 Sub-Panel 5 Tank
SB-6B Switch FLP 3-2570 Yellow PH. Top
SB-6B Junction Bar’ FLP 3-2571

}
}
SB-7A 400 W. SONR Lum’ FLP 3-2572 Sub-Panel
SB-7A Switch FLP 3-2573 5
SB-7A Junction Box FLP 3-2574 Red PH. Access

}
SB-7B 400 W. SONR Lum’ FLP 3-2575 Sub-Panel Linking
SB-7B Switch FLP 3-2576 5 Cat-walk
SB-7B Junction Box FLP 3-2577 Yellow PH. Tanks

}
SB-7C 400 W. SONR Lum’ FLP 3-2578 Sub-Panel
SB-7C Switch FLP 3-2579 5
SB-7C Junction Box FLP 3-2580 Blue PH.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

SHEET NO 1/3 Issued Fig. 9.1 Lighting installation inspection schedule.

 APPENDIX 1

INGRESS OF LIQUIDS AND The IP system classifies the degree of protection given by an enclosure against
DUSTS - IP RATING persons touching live parts, contact with moving parts inside the enclosure and
protection of the equipment against the ingress of solid foreign bodies, as well as
the protection against the harmful ingress of liquids. This system was originally
formulated by the IEC under publication 144.1963 and is now issued under
BS.5490.
It is very important to note that this system of classifying protection of enclosure
relates to non-explosive environments and must not be confused with the types of
protection e.g. Ex‘d’, Ex‘N’ etc., specified for explosive atmospheres (see Section
4.3 - Methods of Safe-guarding).
The IP Coding system is being used increasingly on specifications issued by the
major organisations and, therefore, some explanation may be helpful.
The designation to indicate the degress of protection consists of the characteristic
letters IP followed by two numerals (the “characteristic numerals”) indicating
conformity with the conditions stated in Table A. 1.1.
The first characteristic numeral designates the degree of protection of persons
against touching live parts, contact with moving parts inside the enclosure and
protection of the equipment against ingress of solid foreign bodies. The second
designates the degree of protection inside the enclosure against harmful ingress of
water.
The higher the numeral of the first and second characteristic the greater the degree
of protection the enclosure offers, for example Jet-proof IP55 meets all the less
onerous degrees such as IP21, IP23, IP34 and IP54.
The term “weatherproof” which was frequently used as defined in BS.2817 (now
withdrawn) is not included at present in the IP system.
Table A.l.l

Characteristic First Characteristic Numeral Second Characteristic Numeral

Letters (Protection against Contact and (Protection against Ingress of Liquid)
Ingress of Foreign Bodies) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0 IP00 – – – – – – – –
1 IP10 IPll IP12 – – – – – –
2 IP20 IP21 IP22 IP23 – – – – –
IP 3 IP30 IP31 IP32 IP33 IP34 – – – –
4 IP40 IP41 IP42 IP43 IP44 – – – –
5 IP50 – – – IP54 IP55 – – –
6 IP60 – – – – IP65 IP66 IP67 IP68

The above table shows the IP ratings which will normally be used but those in bold type are relevant to luminaires for hostile and hazardous
environments

First Second
Digit Degree of Protection Digit Degree of Protection
Numeral (Foreign Bodies) Numeral (Liquids)

0 No protection of equipment against ingress of solid foreign 0 No protection

bodies.

1 Protection against ingress of large solid foreign bodies. 1 Protection against drops of condensed water.

2 Protection against ingress of medium size solid foreign bodies. 2 Protection against drops of liquid falling at any angle up to 15°
from the vertical.

3 Protection against ingress of small solid foreign bodies greater 3 Protection against rain falling at any angle up to 60° from the
in thickness than 2.5mm vertical.

4 Protection against ingress of small solid foreign bodies greater 4 Protection against splashing. Liquid splashed from any
in thickness than 1mm. direction shall have no harmful effect.

5 Protection against the ingress of dust in an amount sufficient 5 Protection against water projected by a nozzle from any
to interfere with satisfactory operation of the equipment direction.
enclosed.

6 Complete protection against ingress of dust. 6 Protection against conditions on ships’ decks.
7 Protection against immersion in water.
8 Protection against indefinite immersion in water.

81
 APPENDIX 2

CHECK LIST FOR ASSESSMENT At some point the designer or user should check systematically that he has taken
OF LUMINAIRES account of all the factors relevant to the design of the luminaire to ensure its
suitability for the installation it is to light. The following check list is given to help
him do this, the user having to assess the degree of importance of the installation in
question.
1. LUMINAIRE TYPE.
2. REFERENCE OR CATALOGUE NO.
3. MAKE.
4. MAKERS SPECIFICATION.
5. COMPONENTS AND/OR APPLICATION.
5.1 Materials of Construction
Body (or spine)
Paint Finish
Visor or Diffuser
Reflector
Fixings etc.
Fasteners
Lampholders
Gaskets/Seals etc.
5.2 Cost
Luminaire complete
Installation (estimated)
5.3 Safety
Electrical
Suspension
Effect of lamp or Component Failure
Captive Components
Sharp Edges
Vibration Resistance
5.4 Ease of Maintenance
Accessibility of Wiring
Terminal Chamber
Accessibility of Control Gear
Re-lamping
Dirt Collector
Ease of Cleaning
Weight
Terminal Block
Entries
5.5 Control Gear
Type and Make
Choke Losses and P.F.
Insulation
Separate or Integral
Replacement
Noise
5.6 I.P. Protection
5.7 Corrosion Resistance
5.8 British Standards/Approval/Certification

82
 APPENDIX 3
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR INSTALLATIONS IN
GREAT BRITAIN
A3.1 INTRODUCTION This section lists the main legal requirements for land-based and offshore installa-
tions, where electrical apparatus in hostile and potentially flammable atmospheres
is installed. Further guidance can be obtained from the Health and Safety
Executive for onshore and the Department of Energy for offshore installations.
A3.2 STATUTORY The main requirements are:
REQUIREMENTS FOR (1) The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
LAND-BASED ACTIVITIES (2) The Factories* Act 1961
(3) The Electricity (Factories Act) Special Regulations 1908 and 1944
(4) The Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied Petroleum Gases Regulations
1972
(5) The Petroleum (Consolidation) Act 1928
(1) The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, which provides a legislative
framework for the protection of the health and safety of people at work and
others affected by work processes.
Section 2 deals with the general duties of employers to their employees.
Section 3 deals with the general duties of employers and self-employed to
persons other than their employees.
Section 6 deals with the general duties of designers, manufacturers, impor-
ters, suppliers, erectors and installers.
Section 7 deals with the general duties of employees at work.
Section 8 deals with the duty not to interfere with or misuse things provided
pursuant to certain provisions.
(2) The Factories* Act, 1961 is embraced by the Health and Safety at Work etc.
Act 1974. Whilst it is applicable only to ‘factories’, it is good advice to other
places of work.
* N.B. The term ‘factory’ within the meaning of the Act, has far wider scope
than its everyday meaning.
(3) The Electricity (Factories Act) Special Regulations 1908 and 1944 is a
combined set of regulations initially made under the Factories Act in 1908 and
slightly modified in 1944.
Regulation 27 is particulairy relevant as it concerns the use of electrical
apparatus in potentially explosive atmospheres and states:- “All conductors
and apparatus exposed to . . . flammable surroundings or explosive
atmosphere . . . . shall be so constructed or protected, and such special
precautions shall be taken as may be necessary adequately to prevent danger
in view of such exposure or use”.
(4) The Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied Petroleum Gases Regulations
1972 were made under the Factories Act 1961. Note the term “highly
flammable liquid” means a liquid which has a flash point below 32°C (90°F).
Regulation 9 (i) is relevant to electrical apparatus and states:- “No means
likely to ignite vapour from any highly flammable liquid shall be present
where a dangerous concentration of vapour from highly flammable liquids
may reasonably be expected to be present”.
(5) The Petroleum (Consolidation) Act 1928 governs the storage and keeping of
petroleum spirit, whether in factory premises or not and provides for the
licensing of premises where petroleum spirit is stored.

A3.3 STATUTORY All installations must comply with:

REQUIREMENTS FOR
EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT
AND PRODUCTION OFFSHORE
(1) The Petroleum (Production) Act 1934 (Whilst this Act is relevant
legally, it has no technical implications).
(2) The Continental Shelf Act 1964
(3) The Mineral Workings (Offshore Installations) Act 1971
(4) The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 and Regulations made
under these Acts. (See sectionA3.2)
(5) The Offshore Installations (Construction and Survey) Regulations 1974
which require certification of offshore installations.
(6) The Offshore Installation (Operation and Safety, Health and Welfare)
Regulations 1976 which gives the requirements for the use of electrical
equipment offshore. Additionally, installations which are also British
Registered vessels must also comply with Section 2 – Marine Industry.
83

CIBSE PUBLICATIONS
REGULATIONS (AVAILABLE FROM
HMSO)
HEALTH AND SAFETY EXECUTIVE
PUBLICATIONS (AVAILABLE FROM
HMSO)
BRITISH STANDARDS
84
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CIBSE Code 1983 for Interior Lighting
CIBSE Lighting Guides
Building and Civil Engineering Sites
Sports
The Outdoor Environment
Hospital and Health Care Buildings
Shipbuilding and Ship Repair
Technical Reports (out of print)
TR4 Daytime Lighting
TRl0 Evaluation of discomfort glare
TR13 Industrial area floodlighting
Technical Memoranda
TM5 The calculation and use of utilisation factors
TM6 Lighting for Visual Display Units.
TM10 The calculation of glare indices
The Electricity Regulations of 1908 and 1944
The Chemical Works Regulations 1922
The Petroleum (Consolidation) Act 1928
The Slaughterhouse (Hygiene) Regulations 1958
The Food Hygiene (General) Regulations 1970
The Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied Petroleum Gasses Regulations 1972
The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
Guidance Note EH9 Spraying of Highly Flammable Liquids
Health and Safety Technical Paper 22
Memorandum on the Electricity Regulations (Form SHW 928)
BS 31 1940 (1979) Steel conduit and fittings for electrical wiring
BS 229 1957 Flameproof enclosure of electrical apparatus
BS 889 1965 Flameproof electric lighting fittings
BS 950 Artificial daylight for the assessment of colour.
BS 1259 1958 Intrinsically safe electrical apparatus and circuits for use in explosive atmospheres
BS 2817 1957 Types of enclosure of electrical apparatus (withdrawn)
BS 4056 1966 Method of test for ignition temperature of gases and vapours
BS 4137 1967 Guide to the selection of electrical equipment for use in Division 2
BS 4533 Electric luminaries (lighting fittings)
Pt 1 1971 General requirements and tests
Pt 2 1969 Detail requirements
BS 4568 Steel conduit and fittings with metric threads or ISO form for electrical installations.
Pt 1 1970 Steel conduit, bends and couples
Pt 2 1970 Fittings components
BS 4683 Electrical apparatus for explosive atmospheres
Pt 1 1971 Classification of maximum surface temperature
Pt 2 1971 The construction and testing of flameproof enclosures of electrical apparatus
Pt 3 1972 Type of protection N
Pt 4 1973 (1969) Type of protection e
BS 4727 Glossary of electrotechnical, power telecommunications and electronics.
Pt 1 (9 groups) Terms common to power, telecommunications and electronics.
Pt 2 (8 groups) Terms particular to power engineering
Pt 3 (10 groups) Terms particular to telecommunication and electronics.
Pt 4 (3 groups) Terms particular to lighting and colour
BS 5266 Emergency Lighting
 BS 5345 Code of practice for the selecting, installation and maintenance of electrical apparatus for
use in potentially explosive atmospheres (other than mining applications or explosive
processing and manufacture)
Pt 1 1976 Basic requirements for all parts of the code
Pt 2 1983 Classification of Hazardous Areas
Pt 3 1979 Installation and maintenance requirements for electrical apparatus with type of
protection ‘d’ flameproof enclosure
Pt 4 1977 Installation and maintenance requirements for electrical apparatus with type of
protection ‘i’ intrinsically safe electrical apparatus and systems.
Pt 5 1983 Installation and maintenance requirement for electrical apparatus with type of
protection ‘p’ pressurizing including continuous dilution and for pressurized rooms.
Pt 6 1978 Installation and maintenance requirements for electrical apparatus with type of
protection ‘e’ increased safety
Pt 7 1979 Installation and maintenance requirements for electrical apparatus with type of
protection N
Pt 8 1980 Installation and maintenance requirements for electrical apparatus with type of
protection ‘s’ special protection
BS 5489 Code of practice for road lighting (In nine parts)
BS 5490 1977 Specification for degrees of protection provided by enclosures
BS 5501 Electrical apparatus for potentially explosive atmospheres
Pt 1 1977 General requirements
Pt 2 1977 Oil immersion ‘o’
Pt 3 1977 Pressurized apparatus ‘p’
Pt 4 1977 Powder filling ‘q’
Pt 5 1977 Flameproof enclosure ‘d’
Pt 6 1977 Increased safety ‘e’
Pt 7 1977 Intrinsic safety ‘i’
BS 5958 1980 Code of Practice for the control of undesirable static electricity
BS 6004 1975 PVC-insulated cables (non-armoured) for electric power and lighting
BS 6007 1975 Rubber-insulated cables for electric power and lighting
BS 6081 1978 Specification for terminations for mineral insulated cables
BS 6121 1973 Mechanical cable glands for elastomer and plastics insulated cables
BS 6141 1981 Insulated cables and flexible cords for use in high temperature zones.
BS 6346 1969 PVC-insulated cables for electricity supply.
BS CP 1003 Electrical apparatus and associated equipment for use in explosive atmospheres of gas or
vapour other than mining applications.
Pt 1 1964 Choice, installation and maintenance of flameproof and intrinsically safe equipment
Pt 2 1966 Methods of meeting the explosive hazard other than by the use of flameproof or
intrinsically safe equipment.
Pt 3 1967 Division 2 areas

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS EN 50 014 1977 Electrical apparatus for potentially explosive atmospheres. General requirement.
EN 50 015 1977 Electrical apparatus for potentially explosive atmospheres. Oil immersion ‘o’.
EN 50 016 1977 Electrical apparatus for potentially explosive atmospheres. Pressurized apparatus ‘p’.
EN 50 017 1977 Electrical apparatus for potentially explosive atmospheres. Powder filling ‘q’.
EN 50 018 1977 Electrical apparatus for potentially explosive atmospheres. Flameproof enclosure ‘d’.
EN 50 019 1977 Electrical apparatus for potentially explosive atmospheres. Increased safety ‘e’.
EN 50 020 1977 Electrical apparatus for potentially explosive atmospheres. Intrinsic safety ‘i’.
IEC 79 Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres.
IEC 79-0 Part 0: 1971 General introduction.
IEC 79-1 Part 1: 1971 Construction and test of flameproof enclosures of electrical apparatus.
(Ex’d’).
IEC 79-1A 1975 First supplement: Appendix D: Method of test for ascertainment of maximum
experimental safe gap.
IEC 79-2 Part 2: 1975 Pressurised enclosures (Ex‘p’).
IEC 79-3 Part 3: 1972 Spark test apparatus for intrinsically safe circuits (Ex‘i’).

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 IEC 79-4 Part 4: 1975 Method of test for ignition temperature.
IEC 79-4A 1970 First supplement
IEC 79-5 Part 5: 1967 Sand-filled apparatus (Ex‘q’).
IEC 79-5A 1969 First supplement
IEC 79-6 1968 Oil-immersed apparatus (Ex‘o’).
IEC 79-7 1969 Construction and test of electrical apparatus, type of protection ‘e’ (Ex‘e’).
IEC 79-8 Part 8: 1969 Classification of maximum surface temperatures.
IEC 79-9 Part 9: 1970 Marking
IEC 79-10 1972 Classification of hazardous areas.
IEC 79-11 Part 11: 1976 Construction and test of intrinsically safe and associated apparatus (Ex‘i’).

OTHER PUBLICATIONS ‘Electrical installations in flammable atmospheres’ ICI Company Standard.

‘Explosibility tests for industrial ducts’.
Fire Research Station Technical Paper No. 21. 1975, HMSO.
‘Interior Lighting Design’
Lighting Industry Federation/Electricity Council 1977.
‘Regulations for Electrical Installations’
15th Edition – Institution of Electrical Engineers 1981.
‘Underground Armoured Cable Protected against Solvent Penetration and Corrosive Attack’
Document ELEC 4, Oil Companies Materials Association.
Factfinder No. 3, ‘Lamp Guide’
Lighting Industry Federation 1982
Factfinder No. 6, ‘Hazardous Areas Lighting’
Lighting Industry Federation.

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INDEX
Page numbers of normal references are marked in plain type, definitions are
marked in bold, and recommendations are marked in italic.
Aircraft factories 54 Ignition Temperature 7
Aluminium 12 Illuminance 7, 41
Breweries 54 Intrinsically Safe Circuit 7, 23
Cable systems 73 IP Rating 9, 81
Calculations 58 Isolux Diagram 66
Candela 6 Kitchens 55
CENELEC 9 Laboratories 55
Checklist 83 Lamps 32
Chemical compatibility 6 Lamp replacement 38
Chemical works (non-hazardous) 54 Leather 55
Chemical works (hazardous) 54 Limiting Temperature 7
Clearance 6 Liquids (flammable) 17
Coal handling works 54 Low pressure sodium lamps 37
Coke ovens 54 Lumen 7
Cold stores 54 Lumen Method 7
Conduit systems 73 Luminaire 7
Control gear 38 Lux 7
Daylight Factor 49 Maintained lighting 7
Degree of Protection 6 Maintenance 41, 78
Distilleries 54 Maintenance costs 49
Dusts 17, 19 Maintenance Factor 41
Economics 49 Maximum surface temperature 7
Efficacy 33 Measurement 67
Emergency lighting 69 Metal halide lamps 35, 37
Enclosed break device 6 Mists 16
Energy 67 Non-Sparking 7, 23
Environmental Conditions 14 Offshore installations 55, 88
Equipment 52 Oil installations 55
ERA 9 Paint 56
Explosive gas air mixture 6 Paper 56
‘Ex’ 9 Petrol stations 56
Ex ‘d’ 9, 19 Petrochemical plants 56
Ex ‘e’ 9, 21 Pharmaceuticals 56
Ex ‘i’ 9, 23 Plastics 56
Ex ‘n’ (‘N’) 9, 23 Plating shops 56
Ex ‘p’ 9, 22 Plug-in SON 37
Ex ‘s’ 9, 22 Ports 56
Factory Sealed 6 Pressurizing 7
Farms 55 Printing works 56
Finishings 13 Product marking 29
Fixings 14 Proof luminaire 8
Flammable atmosphere 6 Publications 84
Flameproof enclosure 18 Railways 56
Flicker 38 Restricted breathing 8
Flour mills 53 Rubber 13
FLP 9 Sewage works 57
Food 53 SHR 9
Furniture 53 Slaughter houses 57
Garages 53 Soap works 57
Gases 16, 19 Standby lighting 8
Gas Plants 53 Stroboscopic effect 8
Glands 14 Swimming pools 57
Glare 47 Switching 48
Glass 13 Temperature classification 8, 27
Grouping of apparatus 7 Totally enclosed 8
Hazard 7 Tubular fluorescent lamps 36, 37
Hazardous Area 7 Tungsten filament lamps 33
Hazardous environment 16 Type of Protection (see ‘Ex’)
High pressure lamps 33, 35 Utilization Factor 8, 58
High pressure mercury lamp 35, 37 Vapours 16, 19
High pressure sodium lamp 35, 37 Visual performance 40
Hostile environment 10 Wiring Systems 72
HMFI 9 Ex ‘d’ 73
HSE 9 Ex ‘e’ 75
IEC 9 Ex ‘N’ 75
Zonal classification 8, 18

87