Lighting Guide

LIGHTING GUIDE
THE INDUSTRIAL
ENVIRONMENT
LG1 : 1989
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

Delta House, 222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS
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No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the
Institution.
© 1989
THE CHARTERED INSTITUTION OF
BUILDING SERVICES ENGINEERS
LONDON
ISBN 0 900953 38 1
This document is based upon the best knowledge available at the time of publication. However no responsibility of any kind for any injury, death, loss, damage or delay however caused resulting from
the use of these recommendations can be accepted by the Chartered lnstitution of Building Services Engineers, the authorities or others involved in its publication In adopting these recommendations
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Typeset and printed in Great Britain by The Yale Press Limited, SE25 5LY.
Foreword This is the first Guide on Lighting for Industry published by the Lighting
Division of CIBSE (or its predecessor, The Illuminating Engineering
Society). It is intended as a introduction to the subject of industrial lighting
for lighting engineers, specifiers, users and students. It is essentially a
compendium of experience. With the aim of making the guide suitable for a
wide readership the task group has concentrated upon the practical
applications of lighting in industry and on giving proven solutions to
practical problems.
The task group would like to acknowledge the help of W Burt, Esq., and
the time and facilities provided by the City of Manchester Council, the
Electricity Council Research Centre, Engineering Design and Procurement
Limited, the Merseyside and North Wales Electricity Board, Philips
Lighting Ltd and Thorn Lighting Ltd.
Task Group
A Wilson Chairman
PR Boyce Technical Editor
B Hill
MAC Heanly
R Hoey
GD Worthington
Publications Secretary
KJ Butcher
Co-ordinating editor
VP Rolfe
Page
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Lighting for industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1 The illuminance on the task ................................................... 2
2.2 The plane of the task ............................................................ 2
2.3 Illuminance uniformity ........................................................ 2
2.4 Obstruction ...................................................................... 3
2.5 Lighting of the general surround ............................................. 3
2.6 Surface reflectances ............................................................. 3
2.7 Direct glare ....................................................................... 4
2.8 Glare by reflection ............................................................... 4
2.9 Colour properties ................................................................ 5
2.10 Stroboscopic effects ............................................................. 5
2.11 Environmental conditions ..................................................... 6
2.12 Maintenance ..................................................................... 6
2.13 Energy Consumption ........................................................... 6
2.14 Emergency lighting ............................................................. 7
3 Recommendations interior lighting ................................................. 7
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 7
3.2 Workshop units .................................................................. 8
3.3 Fuel industries ................................................................... 8
3.4 Metal manufacture ............................................................. 13
3.5 Ceramics ......................................................................... 16
3.6 Chemicals ........................................................................ 19
3.7 Mechanical engineering ....................................................... 21
3.8 Electrical and electronic engineering ....................................... 25
3.9 Food, drink and tobacco ...................................................... 26
3.10 Textiles ........................................................................... 29
3.11 Leather industry ................................................................ 33
3.12 Clothing and footwear ......................................................... 33
3.13 Timber and furnishing ........................................................ 34
3.14 Paper making and printing ................................................... 35
3.15 Plastics and rubber ............................................................ 40
3.16 Distribution and storage ...................................................... 41
3.17 Ancillary areas .................................................................. 44
3.18 Techniques of visual inspection .............................................. 46
3.19 Emergency lighting ............................................................ 51
4 Exterior lighting recommendations ................................................ 53
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 53
4.2 Loading bays .................................................................... 53
4.3 Outdoor working and storage ................................................ 56
4.4 Factory roadway lighting ..................................................... 60
4.5 Security lighting ................................................................ 62
4.6 Sidings, marshalling yards and goods yards .............................. .65
4.7 Dockyards, terminals, jetties and quays .................................... 67
5 Equipment ............................................................................. 69
5.1 Light sources .................................................................... 69
5.2 Luminaires ...................................................................... 71
5.3 Control systems ................................................................. 75
5.4 Maintenance of lighting equipment ......................................... 75
6 Lighting design ....................................................................... 79
6.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 79
6.2 Objectives ....................................................................... 79
6.3 Specification ................................................................... .79
6.4 General planning ............................................................... 80
6.5 Detailed planning .............................................................. 85
Appendix 1 Light source colour ............................................................ 99
Appendix 2 Illuminance at a point reference diagrams ............................... 100
Appendix 3 Field measurements of illuminance ...................................... 103
Glossary ...................................................................................... 105
Bibliography ................................................................................. 109
Index .......................................................................................... 111

The Industrial Environment
1 Introduction The scope of this guide is concerned with lighting for industry. Industry is
taken to be those activities involved in the production, treatment,
manufacture and distribution of products. Associated areas such as offices
and sales rooms are not considered in this guide. By lighting is meant those
facilities whose primary purpose is to enable people to see to perform work.
Light as a direct part of the production process is not considered in this
guide. Given the myriad of different products produced by industry it is
impossible to consider each one separately and even if it was the resulting
document would be extremely large and very repetitious. Therefore, the
approach adopted here is to consider each industry separately, bringing out
the specific lighting problems posed by that industry. If you cannot find a
mention of the activity which interests you in this guide then examining the
discussion of an analogous activity will often be worth while.
Lighting, as used in industry, has three objectives: to facilitate quick and

accurate work, to contribute to the safety of those doing the work and to
create a good visual environment. These three objectives are not mutually
exclusive. Indeed, if quick and accurate work is to be possible then visual
discomfort needs to be eliminated and safety ensured.
The lighting conditions needed to facilitate rapid and accurate work are
determined by several different factors. First amongst them are the
capabilities of the human visual system in different lighting conditions. As
the luminance to which the visual system is adapted increases, people’s
abilities to discriminate fine detail, identify small contrasts and see
significant differences in form and colour all improve. Second, is the
stimulus presented to the visual system; the smaller the size of detail, the
lower the contrast of those details, the shorter the time for which the
stimulus is presented and the less predictable the position where the
stimulus will appear, the more difficult will be the situation faced by the
visual system. Most of these variables are determined by the task itself but
lighting conditions can have an effect as for example when veiling
reflections change the contrast of the task or the directional properties of
the lighting change the perception of form. Third, is the role of the
information obtained visually in the performance of the overall task. Some
tasks are largely visual but others can almost be done with the eyes shut.
The greater the significance of the visual part of the task to the speed and/or
accuracy with which the task can be done, the greater is the importance to
be attached to the lighting conditions.
It must be stressed that it is as important to apply the correct colour and

form of lighting as it is to accurately achieve a specified illuminance. The
success of an installation should not be judged by light meters but through
the eyes of those who have to perform the work. Similarly, efficiency should
not be rated simply by the effectiveness of gathering all the lamp lumens
and exclusively directing them onto the working plane, but rather by the
ease with which the task can be seen and by the contribution of the lighting
installation to making the workplace more agreeable.
The reader is urged to read through the whole of this guide and not simply
to turn to the tables of recommendations. Throughout the text, successful
lighting techniques are discussed. Learn to analyse the visual task and the
lighting problem. If an operative has moved a lamp by tying it into position
with a piece of string think why and build on it. If certain jobs can only be
1
CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE
carried out at a particular time of day with the aid of daylight try to
understand why.
The recommendations and advice given in this guide are representative of
good practice and are based on practical experience, scientific knowledge
and economic reality.
2 lighting for industry In order to provide good lighting conditions for industry it is necessary to
consider carefully the following aspects.
2.1 The illuminance of The illuminance in the task is the main quantitative criterion used for all
the task forms of functional lighting, including industrial lighting. It is the
illuminance on the task which, in combination with the reflectness of the
materials from which the task is constructed and the immediate surround-
ings to the task, determines the sensitivity of the visual system. The
illuminance recommended in this guide are given in the form of standard
service illuminances, that is, the illuminances on the task averaged over the
relevant area and over one complete maintenance cycle of the installation.
The relevant area can be the immediate task or a part of a workshop or the
complete factory floor.
The illuminances recommended in this guide are consistent with those
recommended in the CIBSE Code for Interior Lighting 1984. As such, they
represent good lighting practice. The illuminances recommended here are
generally greater than those recommended in the recent Health and Safety
Guidance Document 38, Lighting at Work, published by the Health and
Safety Executive. This is because the recommendations published in the
Health and Safety Guide quite properly consider only the effects of lighting
conditions on health and safety. The illuminances recommended in this
guide are based on additional considerations, such as task performance and
the appearance of the workplaces. As an example, it is recommended that
the minimum average illuminance in any continuously occupied interior
should not be less than 200 lx, for reasons of amenity.
2.2 The plane of the task It is common in industry for tasks to occur on different planes, horizontal,
vertical and anywhere in-between. The illuminance recommendations
given in this guide are to be produced on the plane in which the task lies.
A common failing of lighting in industry is the provision of low illumi-
nances on the vertical plane. The usual causes are the use of narrow
distribution luminaires and/or the overspacing of luminaires. Illuminance
on the vertical plane is much more sensitive to changes in spacing between
luminaires than is illuminance on the horizontal plane. Therefore it is
possible to have conditions in which the illuminance on the horizontal plane
meets the illuminance recommendations but the illuminance on the vertical
plane is much reduced and markedly non-uniform. Typically, the best
approach to avoiding this problem is to use luminaires with a batwing or
similar wide distribution, at a reduced spacing. Higher room surface
reflectances can also help (see Section 2.6).
2.3 llluminance uniformity The standard service illuminances recommended in this guide are averages
over the relevant area. For such values it is always necessary to consider the
range of illuminances that should be allowed to occur about the average.
This is the purpose of the illuminance uniformity criterion. This criterion
2
THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
takes two forms. First, the ratio of minimum illuminance to average

illuminance over the relevant area should not be less than 0.8.
This criterion is appropriate for a space which is to be lit uniformly.

However, some industrial premises can conveniently be divided into
working and non-working areas. A typical non-working area would be one
used for storage, either of incoming materials or completed manufactures.
If this is the situation then it is possible to light the working and non-
working areas to different illuminances but both to the same uniformity and
limiting Glare Index standards. It is then recommended that the ratio of the
illuminances of the working area to the illuminance of the non-working area
should not be greater than 3: 1.
Of course, sub-dividing any space into working and non-working areas

limits the flexibility of use of that space. An alternative approach would be
to use either switching or one of the increasingly sophisticated dimming
systems available to allow the illuminance produced by a single installation
to be varied to match the location of activities in the space.
2.4 Obstruction It is a common feature of many industries that there is extensive obstruction
to the distribution of light from the lighting installation. Large pieces of
machinery, overhead conveyers, cranes and pipework can all cause such
obstruction. If obstruction and the consequent possibility of shadowing is
thought likely to be a problem then special care is required in the design of
the installation.
There are a number of approaches which can be used to reduce the
problems caused by obstructions. First, if the obstruction is by overhead
conveyers, etc., the possibility of positioning the lighting below the
obstruction should be considered. Second, if there are a few large
obstructions in the space, a suitable approach is to check that all parts of the
space are lit by at least two luminaires. These luminaires can be roof
mounted or can be flood lights mounted on the walls. This, approach,
together with high surface reflectances in the interior, should eliminate any
patches of low illuminance. Third, and most generally, the spacing between
luminaires can be reduced, the amount of reduction being greater the larger
the size and number of obstructions and the lower the reflectances of the
obstructions. Typically a one-third reduction in the maximum spacing/
mounting height ratio is required.
2.5 Lighting of the Except in those areas where it is detrimental to efficient performance of the
general surround task, illuminance of the walls and overhead surfaces will improve the
appearance of the workplace. Luminaires having a sharp cut-off, i.e. with
no upward light component, when used in areas with low reflectance create
a tunnel-like appearance which can be depressing, as in Figure 2.1.
2.6 Surface reflectances The reflectances of the surfaces in an individual interior can make an
important contribution to the quality of the lighting. By making use of high
reflectances for the surfaces in the interior, the installation will be made
more efficient, the shadowing effect of any obstructions will be reduced and
the magnitude of discomfort glare will be reduced. Ideally, the reflectance
of the floor should be at least 0.2 and the walls at least 0.5. If light is
reflected off the ceiling or roof to a significant degree, then this surface
should have a reflectance of at least 0.7. The cover photograph showing the
military vehicles, illustrates the appearance of an interior using high
3
reflectance surfaces.
Figure 2.1 Tunnel like appearance caused by luminaires with no upward light
2.7 Direct glare Direct glare is the glare occurring because of a direct view of the luminaires.
Two forms of glare are known to exist, disability glare and discomfort glare.
Disability glare occurs when the presence of a bright light source close to
the line of sight makes the task more difficult to see. The most common
experience of disability glare is meeting a car with headlights on full beam at
night. This is likely to occur on factory roads, construction sites and other
places where traffic moves. The presence of road lighting or site lighting
will considerably reduce disability glare except in extreme cases. Disability
glare can also occur indoors, for example, to a fork-lift driver looking up
towards a luminaire when attempting to place a pallet on some high level
racking, but careful selection and positioning of luminaires will eliminate
this problem.
Discomfort glare occurs when people experience discomfort without any

detrimental effects of vision. In this guide, discomfort glare is controlled by
ensuring that the Glare Index of the lighting installation does not exceed the
limiting Glare Index recommended, (see Section 6.5.6).
2.8 Glare by reflection Glare by reflection occurs when a high luminance luminaire is reflected
from a glossy surface. It can be a particularly serious problem when critical
viewing of highly polished surfaces or newly machined metal is called for.
Sometimes the high luminance reflections forming the reflected glare can
be useful for revealing form but if they are not useful they can be reduced by
using low luminance luminaires, or by arranging the luminaire/work/
viewer geometry so that reflections are not directed along the normal line of
sight. Reflected glare can be eliminated by changing from glossy (specular)
surfaces to matt surfaces for the material being worked.
4
2.9 Colour properties In some industrial work people are required to make accurate colour
judgements. Where this is the case light sources with a CIE General Colour
Rendering Index of greater than 80 are recommended (see Appendix 1 for
details of the CIE General Colour Rendering Index). These light sources
can be used either for the complete installation or, if the colour judgements
are to be done in a specified location, an inspection booth can be
constructed in which the articles being examined are largely shielded from
light from the general lighting installation. The inspection booth should be
lit by the correct lamp and surfaces should be of medium reflectance and
neutral in colour. It should be noted that with modern light sources it is
possible to have a high CIE General Colour Rendering Index as well as a
high luminous efficacy (amount of light per watt).
2.10 Stroboscopic effects The stroboscopic effect is an illusion which makes rotating or reciprocating
machinery appear as stationary or moving at a different speed than that at
which it really is. It occurs when the light source produces a regular
oscillation in light output. Such oscillations occur with all light sources fed
from an a.c. supply but are almost always insufficient in magnitude to cause
any perceptible stroboscopic effect. However, when a stroboscopic effect
does occur it can cause considerable discomfort and possibly danger. The
key to eliminating it is to reduce the magnitude of the oscillations in the
light source reaching the rotating or reciprocating machinery. Figure 2.2
shows the variation in the magnitude of these oscillations using different
control circuits on fluorescent lamps. This can be done by (a) using high
frequency control gear, where this is available, (b) by having alternate
luminaires on different electrical phases and ensuring that the critical area
receives light in roughly equal proportions from more than one luminaire,
(c) supplementing the lighting of machinery by local luminaires using
lamps, such as incandescent lamps, which have only a small oscillation in
light output. For this approach to work the illuminance provided by the
local luminaire must be significantly greater than that of the general room
lighting.
Figure 2.2 Variation in light output with control circuit
5
2.11 Environmental Many industries involve conditions which are hostile and/or hazardous. By
conditions hostile is meant an environment in which damage to lighting equipment can
occur. Damage can be caused by excessive heat, cold, vibration or a
corrosive atmosphere. By hazardous is meant an environment in which the
operation of the lighting equipment poses the risk of fire or explosion.
Where such conditions occur the lighting equipment has to be selected with
care. Full guidance is given in the CIBSE Application Guide: Lighting in
Hostile and Hazardous Environments.
2.12 Maintenance Lighting installations start to deteriorate from the moment they are first
switched on. The light output from lamps reduces with increasing hours of
use. The light emitted from luminaires will diminish as the luminaires
become increasingly dirty. The inter-reflected light in an interior will
reduce as the interior becomes more dirty. To maintain the light output of a
lighting installation it is necessary to carry out maintenance of the
installation. The first requirement of such maintenance is ease of access.
This is something that should always be considered when designing an
installation. Figure 2.3 shows a scheme for a bulk handling plant where the
luminaires have been positioned to facilitate ease of maintenance, whilst
still paying regard to the lighting requirements. Furthermore, the most
suitable cleaning intervals for lamp replacement and luminaire and surface
cleaning and the best means of carrying out this maintenance should also be
considered when designing the installation. Further advice is given in
Section 5.4.
Figure 2.3 Typical scheme for bulk materials handling plant
2.13 Energy consumption Lighting installations consume electricity and so cost money to run.
Therefore, the energy costs of an installation are important. Two aspects of
the installation determine the energy cost, the installed power of the
installation, and the number of hours the installation is used.
Installed power is determined by the choice of light source and luminaire,
the proportions of the interior and the reflectance of the rooms of the
interior surfaces. Table 2.1 gives some target installed power loadings for
uniform lighting installations in interiors using conventional equipment.
Table 2.1 Target installed power loadings for uniform industrial lighting of interiors W/m2
It should be noted that the power consumed by any control system

necessary to operate the chosen lamps should be included in the total power
of the installation.
It is important to note that these power loading targets are secondary
criteria as far as lighting is concerned. The lighting conditions to be
achieved are the primary criteria. The purpose of the power loading targets
is to indicate the power within which it should be possible to provide the
6
recommended lighting conditions. With careful design it may be possible to

achieve lower power loadings. Conversely, there may be situations where
special requirements justify a power loading above the target value.
There are a number of circumstances where the power loading targets may
need to be increased. These are (a) where a Glare Index of less than 22 is
required, (b) where special luminaires, e.g. flameproof or corrosion-proof
luminaires are required, (c) where considerable obstruction to the lighting
is likely to occur.
As for the hours of use of the installation, these can be controlled by one of
the many different control systems which are available (see Section 5.3).
Simple time switches are all that is needed to match the use of the lighting to
the use of the space. Photocell switches can be used to match the use of the
lighting to the availability of daylight. Lamp types with long restrike times
and run-up times are not suitable for frequent switching so care is necessary
when considering the use of such control systems.
2.14 Emergency lighting Under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, emergency lighting may be
required in industrial premises wherever there is deemed to be a risk to the
safety, health or welfare of employees, should the normal lighting fail.
Failure of the normal lighting can cause three different types of hazard,
depending on the nature of the industry. For all industries, a hazard exists if
people have to evacuate the building in darkness. Emergency lighting
should be provided to allow people to safely and quickly leave the building.
For some industries, there is an additional requirement, namely to bring
plant or processes into a safe, stable state before evacuating the area. For
others, there is a need to continue operations, even though the normal
lighting has failed. The extent and nature of the emergency lighting
required in industrial premises is determined by the type of occupancy, the
size and complexity of the site and the processes undertaken. Detailed
guidance on emergency lighting is given in CIBSE Technical Memorandum
12, Emergency Lighting.
3 Recommendations interior lighting
3.1 Introduction Many different building types can be considered as industrial premises,
from the simple shells widely used for light industry to the large purpose-
built plant associated with computer aided manufacture. Further, many
industrial sites have a range of buildings as well as exterior areas requiring
lighting. This diversity makes it difficult to simply specify lighting
conditions appropriate to all forms of industry. The approach adopted here
is to split the recommendations into two parts, interior and exterior
lighting. Interior lighting ranges from simple workshop units to complex
storage and distribution facilities. Exterior lighting ranges from security
lighting on premises to site roads and marshalling yards. Even with such an
extensive range of applications it may be that some situations have not
been considered. If a search of the contents fails to reveal the set of
recommendations for the specific application that interests you, then the
best course to adopt is to search for an analogous situation where the nature
of the tasks, their layout and the environmental conditions are similar to
those of interest. For example, the problem of lighting quarries is similar to
those faced when attempting to light coal tips. If you are interested in
lighting quarries the recommendations on coal tips may be useful.
7
3.2 Workshop unit
Probably the most basic form of lighting for industry occurs in advanced
factory units. These are usually simple shed type buildings and occur on
industrial estates all over the country. Often these unit are built before they
are leased or sold or there is no knowledge of what they will be used for. The
lighting is almost always a combination of daylighting by rooflights and
electric lighting from a regular array of luminaires. The specification of the
electric lighting is simply to light the area uniformly using conventional
equipment. There are assumed to be no special requirements relevant to
lighting, such as accurate colour judgement or fine discrimination of form
or detail. Further, the area is assumed to be free from operation of lighting
equipment, such as extreme heat or cold, marked vibration, excessive dirt
or damp, or a corrosive or flammable atmosphere.
If the activity to be carried out in the space is known it is possible to use the
recommendations given in other parts of this guide when designing the
lighting. However, if the activity to be carried out in a space is unknown
then the recommended design conditions are as given above. An install-
ation which meets these recommendations will provide good quality
lighting for a wide range of activities.
3.3 Fuel industries Electricity generation, transmission and distribution
Gas Manufacture, storage and distribution
8
Coal Mining (Surface buildings) With Fuel Industries
3.3.1 Introduction Here we are concerned with the facilities used to produce and distribute
fuel. For electricity, these facilities cover power stations and the national
grid, including the associated transformer and switching complexes. For
gas, the facilities involve on-shore pumping stations and storage facilities.
Off-shore gas rigs are excluded. For oil, the facilities include on-shore
pumping stations and refineries. Again off-shore production and explor-
ation rigs are excluded. For coal, these facilities are limited to surface
buildings only. Mine lighting is a very specialised field which is not covered
by this guide.
9
3.3.2 Lighting problems The lighting techniques which may be required in these industries can vary
widely, from large scale area floodlighting, e.g. for a coal stockyard at a
power station, to the uniform lighting of high bay interiors, e.g. turbine
halls and conventional offices. Most situations within these industries can
be met by routine solutions but there are some situations which are
common to all fuel industries and which require special consideration.
3.3.2.1 Control rooms A common feature of these industries is the existence of control rooms.
These rooms are the nerve centres of the operation, controlling the
production of the fuel and/or its distribution. Such control rooms tend to be
occupied by few people but what they do influences the operation of the
whole facility. Further, the control room usually operates continuously, 24
hours a day, 365 days a year. The essence of the control room is to present
information to the operators on the state of the system so that they can make
any necessary adjustments. This information was, until recently, usually
presented on a large display board, often taking some form of mimic
diagram, but there is now a tendency to provide such information by means
of visual display units.
What this means for the lighting engineer is that he/she may be dealing with
information displayed on vertical or near vertical surfaces, presented either
by reflection from the surface or by self-luminous means, or by some
combination of the two.
For a mimic diagram, such as a network diagram, it is important to provide

an illuminance of at least 500 lx. This illuminance should be provided
uniformly, from top to bottom and from side to side of the diagram. The
ratio of the minimum illuminance to the average illuminance on the
diagram should be greater than 0.8. For large sized diagrams a special
lighting installation may be necessary to achieve such uniformity (see
Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1 Lighting control room showing (a) Mimic diagram;

(b) Self-illuminated mimic diagram above cut-off angle;
(c) VDU screens
10
It should be noted that while the illuminance recommended, 500 lx, is

adequate for most display boards, if small details have to be seen from a
relatively long distance, or some low contrast details have to be seen, a
higher illuminance will be required. Conversely, if the information on the
display is self-luminous, care will have to be taken to ensure that the general
diagram lighting does not make the self-luminous component of the display
ineffective. Thus the exact form of the lighting and illuminance provided
for a mimic diagram depends on the exact form of the diagram. However, if
this has not been decided at the time the lighting is designed (a not unusual
situation) it is important to provide some flexibility of illuminance, through
dimming, but to maintain uniformity.
For an interior where VDUs are widely used, care is necessary to avoid
reflections from the display screen and luminance imbalance between the
luminance of the display screens, of associated documents and of
surrounding areas. There are three lighting approaches by which these
problems can be avoided.
The first is by a careful choice of position for each luminaire. This is

sometimes a practical option because many control rooms are occupied by
only a few people, each with a large amount of space. Further, these people
are usually facing the same way, towards the mimic diagram. Therefore by
positioning luminaires forward of the display unit, reflections can be
avoided, although care is still necessary to avoid veiling reflections from
material on the horizontal surfaces. These can be avoided by positioning the
luminaires so they are forward and to the side of the control desks.
The second approach is to use uplighting (see Figure 3.2). This is a method
of lighting in which light is taken from the lamp and distributed evenly
across the ceiling, this surface thereby becoming a large area, low
luminance light source.
2
By ensuring that the average ceiling luminance is
less than 500 cd/m and the maximum ceiling luminance at any point is less
2
than 1500 cd/m and that the changes in luminance are smooth, any
reflections which occur from the display screens will be of low brightness
and so be less noticeable. Uplighting has been found to be effective for
control room lighting, particularly where VDUs with some form of screen
treatment to reduce the specularity of the screen are being used.
Figure 3.2 Control room lit by uplighters Figure 3.3 Silvered parabolic low brightness
system
The third approach is to use low luminance luminaires (see Figure 3.3).
These luminaires provide a closely controlled luminous intensity distri-
2
bution so that the luminance of the luminaire is less than 200 cd/m at angles
greater than 50° from the downward vertical. This luminous intensity
distribution means that high luminance reflections are not seen in
conventionally positioned display screens, i.e. screens standing on a desk
and viewed by someone sitting at the desk. It is important to realise that if
11
this assumption about the positioning of the VDUs is not met, then the use
of low luminance luminaires can make the situation worse rather than
better.
The choice between these approaches is governed by the circumstances. As
a general guide, it can be said that, where available, position is the most
certain approach to avoiding problems with high brightness reflections. If
careful positioning is not possible, and the VDUs are conventionally
mounted, then the choice between uplighting and low luminance lumin-
aires depends on the specularity of the display screens and the importance
attached to the appearance of the room. If a completely specular display
screen is being used, then the low luminance luminaire approach is the
better but the interior will tend to look rather gloomy unless a high floor
reflectance is used. If other types of display screen are in use then
uplighting will control high brightness reflections and provide a more
attractive interior. If the VDUs are not conventionally positioned then only
the uplighter system is available. However, recently a number of hybrid
luminaires providing both uplighting and closely controlled downlight-
ing have been produced.
Further advice on these problems can be obtained from CIBSE TM6

Lighting of Visual Display Units, CIE Publication 60 Lighting and the Visual
Display Unit Work Station and other references given in the bibliography.
Whatever the form of room lighting adopted it is important to remember
three facts, all related to the fact that control rooms operate continuously.
The first is that in these situations people like some control over their
environment. Thus there is a lot to be said for providing as much flexibility
Figure 3.4 Luminaire column attached to
exterior handrail
as possible in an interior, either by dimming or switching, but preferably
the former. The second is that operators need to continue or to safely close
down the plant should the mains supply fail. The illuminances needed in
emergency situations would depend on the specific circumstances but may
be as high as the normal illuminance provided. The third is that the lighting
installation will have to be maintained, probably with the control room in
operation. This suggests that the installation should be designed for
infrequent maintenance but in such a way that maintenance procedures are
easy. In particular, access to lighting equipment should be straightforward.
3.3.2.2. Large outdoor plant The electricity oil and coal industries commonly have very large outdoor
plant, e.g. oil refineries, coal handling plant. Such plants tend to be
complex with many platforms at different levels. It is rarely possible to plan
any form of regular lighting array and it is difficult to assess the effect of
light spilling from one area to another. If the plant is existing it is best to
make a site visit and mark up suitable mounting positions on plans and then
carry out the calculation of direct illuminance to determine the type and size
of luminaire, followed by a further site visit to confirm the scheme. If the
plant does not exist then a series of plans drawn upon tracing paper laid on
top of one another will assist in determining suitable luminaire fixing
positions. Luminaires should be mounted away from the major sources of
dirt and corrosion and be accessible for maintenance. This may mean that
some form of directional luminaire mounted at the sides of the structure is
used. Where no suitable structure can be found for mounting it will be
necessary to provide brackets or columns for mounting luminaires (see
Figure 3.4).
Because such plants contain many stairways and platforms reflectance
factors are usually low and there is considerable obstruction. It is essential
to ensure that light is not obstructed and luminaires are not spaced beyond
cut-off angles causing dangerous dark spots.
12
3.3.2.3. Hazardous ureas All fuel industries have areas which are hazardous in the sense that the
operation of lighting installations in these areas may pose a risk of fire and/
or a risk of explosion. This is particularly true of the gas and oil industries
where whole installations, e.g. refineries, are considered hazardous areas.
This is a specialised field of lighting requiring specifically designed
equipment which meets all the relevant standards. Full details of the
problems faced by the lighting engineer and the relevant standards are
given in CIBSE Application Guide: Lighting in Hostile and Hazardous
Environments.
3.3.2.4 Hostile areas Again, all fuel industries will contain areas which are hostile to lighting
equipment, i.e. tend to pose the risk of damage by corrosion. Again, this is a
specialised area calling for the correct choice of equipment. Full details of
the solutions to this problem can be found in CIBSE Application Guide:
Lighting in Hostile and Hazardous Environments.
3.3.2.5. Maintenance All lighting installations need maintaining so lighting maintenance should
be considered in every design. However, there are some areas in the fuel
industry which pose particular problems of maintenance; a good example is
the coal and ash handling areas of a power station and coal preparation
plants. Lighting equipment capable of withstanding the associated
conditions should be selected using the ingress protection classification
system (see Section 5.2.1). Where hosing down is the common method of
cleaning, luminaires of IP55 or better should be used. But this alone is not
enough. By selecting the appropriate equipment, dirt and moisture can be
prevented from entering the luminaire but the outside surfaces will still
need to be cleaned regularly. An essential prerequisite for good main-
tenance is easy access to the lighting equipment. Once access has been
gained, the equipment can be cleaned.
3.4 Metal manufacture
13
3.4.1 Introduction Included under this heading are the manufacture of metals: aluminium,
brass, copper, iron, steel, etc., and their forming into products by casting,
rolling, drawing and annealing. For the lighting engineer these operations
imply two conditions: heat and dirt. In some areas, such as furnace and
casting bays, both these conditions will be present. In others, including
surrounding plant areas such as service roads, only dirt will be present. All
lighting engineers working in these areas will need to remember these
ubiquitous environmental conditions.
3.4.2 Lighting problems The general lighting solution for interior lighting in metal manufacture is
high bay industrial lighting, typically using high intensity discharge lamps.
However, metal melting sometimes requires accurate judgement of tem-
perature from the colour of the molten metal. This may be difficult under
high pressure sodium discharge lamps so these light sources should be used
with care. These installations have to be capable of operating at high
temperatures, sometimes over 50°C. Temperatures like this may occur
anywhere but much higher temperatures occur close to furnaces. It is
useless to attempt to mount luminaires near such localised ‘hotspots’ so the
position of luminaires needs to be considered carefully in relation to the
layout of the plant. Control gear should be mounted remotely from areas of
high ambient temperature. However, care should be taken over the
distance between the control gear and the lamp, particularly for ignitor
circuits. Manufacturers should be consulted about the maximum distance
that is allowable.
14
The equipment used also has to be chosen with care. The installation will be
expected to operate reliably over long periods with minimum maintenance.
Control gear should be of substantial construction. It should offer
maximum heat dissipation while preventing the ingress of dust. Similarly,
luminaires should be of substantial construction and selected with care.
Self-cleaning luminaires can usually cope with the volume of dust in such
locations. However, any enclosed luminaire must be fitted with a gasket
suitable for the temperatures found in the plant. The luminaires chosen
should be capable of easy maintenance, because this will be required
frequently. Finally, there should be little risk of parts of the luminaire
becoming accidentally detached during maintenance. If all these require-
ments can be met and the installation can be laid out to ensure easy access
for maintenance, then many of the problems of lighting for metal
manufacture will be solved. However, there are a number of special
problems that deserve consideration.
3.4.2.1. Cranage In many areas of plants used in metal manufacture considerable numbers of
overhead cranes are used. If high intensity discharge lamps are used for the
general lighting there is a risk of the crane obstructing a significant part of
the lighting of some areas. This can be alleviated by a staggered layout of
luminaires or by fitting each crane with boom lights so that the crane carries
some supplementary lighting with it, this configuration is shown on the
front cover of this guide. All the comments about the conditions in which
the high bay lighting has to operate apply to such boom lights, as well as the
need to consider the effects of vibration. If vibration is likely to be a
problem filament lamps should not be used. Screw cap discharge lamps
withstand vibration better. If vibration is likely to be severe, anti-vibration
mountings should be provided.
3.4.2.2. Local and localised lighting There are a number of operations in metal manufacture which call for
detailed visual work and hence which require higher luminances than those
usually recommended for general movement. Such activities are re-lining
furnaces, ladle inspection and building up stopping rods, devices which
control the flow of metal from the ladle. Some form of localised or angled
directional floodlighting may be needed in these areas.
3.4.2.3. Control areas and rooms Control areas and control rooms are now widely used in metal manufacture.
A feature of these control rooms which differentiates them from those
discussed in the fuel industries is that there is usually a view of the plant
being controlled. In Figure 3.5 parabolic wedge luminaires have been set
Figure 3.5 Metal manufacture control room
15
into the ceiling, these minimise reflections on the VDUs and the window,
they also produce good horizontal illumination. Viewing through glass
requires care because if the room surfaces in the control room are brighter
than the surfaces of the plant area being controlled, reflections from the
windows may be disturbing and distracting. Fitting the lighting installation
in such control rooms with dimming facilities is desirable. Otherwise the
problems of lighting control rooms are, again, those of ensuring adequate
lighting on vertical planes and avoiding reflections from instrument panels
and VDU screens. These problems can be overcome by the careful selection
of lighting approach, luminaires and positioning.
3.5 Ceramics
3.5.1 Introduction In this context, ceramics includes concrete, pottery and glass and covers a
wide range of products. The products of the ceramic industry are put to a
vast range of uses from window glass to sanitary ware, from works of art to
specialised scientific equipment.
3.5.2 Concrete products The lighting of areas used in the production of concrete does not pose any
particular problems to the lighting engineer provided care is taken with the
selection of luminaires. The manufacture of concrete products tends to
involve dust and water. Therefore robust luminaires protected against the
ingress of dust and water are desirable (IP54 minimum).
3.5.3 Potteries Potteries vary greatly in size but they all have areas where considerable heat
is produced. Care is needed to avoid positioning luminaires where they are
likely to be damaged by heat. Mass produced pottery and porcelain does not
pose any problem for the lighting engineer until the finished product is
inspected, and then only a full appraisal of how and where the finished
items are inspected will reveal the best approach. Much will depend on the
value of the individual items produced and whether they are inspected
individually. Generally this inspection will be to detect any non-uniformity
in body shape, the quality of surface glaze coverage and the constancy of
colour. The lighting engineer will usually advise that light sources of Colour
Rendering Group 1A or 1B be used to assist discrimination of colours and
that care should be taken to ensure that the illumination provided meets the
specified illuminance values within the inspection area without discomfort
glare or strong shadows.
Pottery and porcelain which is hand-crafted or painted presents rather

more difficult problems for the lighting engineer. The uniform lighting,
probably quite satisfactory and commonly provided for the general pottery
production areas, is not appropriate for hand-crafted production. It is
necessary to create conditions very close to those provided for most
16
inspection lighting, for the inherent requirements that are present in the
visual task associated with intricate hand painting and high class individual
glazing are accurate visual discrimination, colour discrimination,
perception of fine detail and form, and possibly even matching of colours.
A high proportion of the most critical work is done with the workpiece held
or supported at approximately 45° angle and at short visual range. As
different features may be more effectively revealed by different lighting
techniques it may be found that a number of identical luminaires,
preferably using two light sources of different colour rendering qualities
and with separate switching and dimming facilities, under local operating
control, is the most satisfactory and successful solution. An illustration of
this type of lighting is shown on the front cover.
To increase the vertical illuminance on the task the luminaires, which

should be capable of full positional adjustment by the artist, will normally
require to be tilted parallel to the target plane.
There is to a large extent, a form of continuous visual inspection taking

place as the artist works and appraises the results of this effort, but
nevertheless some form of final inspection will be required prior to the
finished product being packaged. The most suitable form of inspection
lighting for any specific product can only be determined accurately by an
on-site survey of the visual task involved. A separate inspection room is
rarely possible, but with individually created porcelain figures and china an
inspection booth of some kind may be appropriate.
Section 3.18 covers the principles of lighting for visual inspection.

However, two techniques which are particularly useful in an inspection of
ceramics are transmitted and reflected images of the light source. For
translucent materials, such as porcelain with a diffuse surface, a light source
position behind, below or within the product will create transillumination
and hence reveal imperfections within the material itself. If the purpose of
the inspection is to emphasise surface irregularities and the surface is
strongly specular, an overhead local luminaire positioned to reflect the
image of the source to the eye will reveal surface blemishes.
3.5.4 Glassworks
It is only on the rare occasions when a new production plant specifically

intended for glass manufacture is built that the opportunity is given to the
lighting designer to provide a lighting system which is likely to create
optimum visual conditions. Most lighting and visual problems encountered
are to be found in existing glass making plants but a great deal can and
should be done to enhance these often onerous visual environments.
The term glass works conceals a wide divergence in visual needs and
although the application of good lighting techniques at the ‘hot end’ of the
17
plant, (the furnaces and glass making machine areas), are equally applicable
to all glass making factories, the range of end products which leave those
factories can differ greatly, from a sheet of plate glass to a delicately
engraved wine goblet, from a milk bottle to a spectacle lens.
At the hot end of the glass process where heat and atmospheric pollution are
excessive and plant machinery is large it is customary to find mounting
heights of 20-25m available and a regular array of high bay luminaires is the
usual approach. The main problem is ensuring access for ongoing
maintenance and lamp replacement as these luminaires are likely to be in
the path of hot exhaust fumes created by extractor fans placed in the roof.
The question of electrical maintenance must be studied in detail, for with
active furnaces and molten glass being constantly on stream, it is virtually
impossible to use conventional access equipment to reach the lighting
equipment. Heat, height, dense occupation of floor space by cumbersome
plant, hot acrid fumes and pipework at intermediate heights above the floor
make any unplanned maintenance routines extremely hazardous. Such are
the onerous conditions found in this part of the works that prescriptive
methods of lighting are often not practical. Only an on-site inspection will
reveal what is possible in any particular plant.
Shadows created by large furnace plant can be a problem when considering
the illumination of vertical surfaces. With excessive ambient heat levels and
the usual design of furnace superstructure it may be advantageous to mount
floodlights on the superstructure to light the surrounding vertical surfaces.
In some areas, conventional high bay lighting may be ineffective as many of
the floor areas are totally shielded from any overhead lighting. Then,
additional lighting must be placed under platforms and canopies to enable
work routines to be done in safety. These luminaires usually require to be
cleaned very frequently and therefore need to withstand washing by
pressure hose (IP55).
Some areas, for example, at the rear of furnace structures and machinery
where timer mechanisms need to be adjusted when changes in a production
run are required, can be exceptionally restricted in size and can be
particularly dark. Some form of portable lighting is generally the most
satisfactory solution but as cables are frequently severed by moving
machinery or are completely burned by contact with hot metal surfaces
whilst in use, low voltage operation through a step-down transformer is
essential.
In all areas the lighting designer must pay full regard to safety of movement,
to providing fast and accurate vision for operating valves and furnace
controls and to ensuring that the lighting equipment used meets the safety
and future maintenance problems associated with very hot, dusty and
corrosive locations.
Packing and despatch areas are normally associated with the ‘cold end’ of
the plant and generally these areas will be adequately served by standard
industrial luminaires in a regular array. The design brief however must take
into account the fact that even at the cold end dust and machine vibration
can affect lamp and control gear life and luminaire performance. It is likely
that there will be ample quantities of the chemical dusts created from the
silicates, borates and phosphates which constitute the raw materials used in
glass manufacture and can be expected to have a corrosive action on
unprotected luminaires. Care should be taken to choose luminaires which
will withstand onerous conditions.
A high proportion of decorative glass manufacture involves complex

processes such as cutting, bevelling and etching. It is likely that supple-
mentary lighting of one form or another will be needed for these activities.
18
The essential characteristic of the supplementary lighting is that it should

be adjustable by the operator, both in position and quantity. Care will also
have to be taken with the surroundings of the working area to avoid
specular reflections occurring in the workpiece, the geometry of a typical
layout is shown in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6 Principles for lighting of glassware
Many of the techniques recommended for the visual inspection of specular

materials may be appropriate with glass (see Section 3.18). Small items of
glassware lend themselves ideally to directional lighting, where narrow
beams of light aimed at oblique angles, or edge lighting techniques will
produce excellent visibility of detail such as bubbles (seed), surface cracks
(crizzles) and various forms of scratches, by creating areas of high
luminance. Glass containers, particularly glass apparatus for the chemical
laboratory, may require illumination from the base to show any imper-
fections within, and rear illumination to enable an inspector to check on
symmetry or homogeneity by transillumination and, where appropriate,
rotation (see Section 3.9.1).
3.6 Chemicals
19
3.6.1 Introduction The chemical industry covers an enormous range of premises from large
outdoor plant to clean rooms where the environment is carefully controlled.
A common characteristic of chemical plants is the presence of a hazardous
environment, (one in which the operation of the lighting equipment may
represent a risk of fire or explosion), or a hostile environment, (one in which
the lighting equipment is likely to suffer from corrosion). Advice on the
standards applicable to and the selection of equipment for these conditions
is given in the CIBSE Application Guide: Lighting in Hostile and Hazardous
Environments.
3.6.2 Outdoor chemical plant Large outdoor chemical plants have much in common with the oil industry.
The approaches discussed in Section 3.3 are therefore applicable.
3.6.3 Enclosed chemical plant Enclosed chemical plant have many features in common with heavy
industry. Adverse environmental conditions may include heat, vibration,
explosive gas/vapour mixtures and a corrosive atmosphere. There is likely
to be considerable obstruction to any form of overhead lighting. Careful
selection of lamps and luminaires to meet the environmental conditions is
required as is careful positioning of them, Figure 3.7 shows the individual
placing of luminaires around a hopper to provide the necessary task and
access lighting. It may be necessary to provide additional lighting at some
locations in the plant itself, particularly where there are control panels or
20
where obstruction is excessive. If the plant is used for continuous

production, there may be a separate control room. The options for lighting
control rooms are discussed in Section 3.3.2. Supplementary lighting may
be necessary for maintenance work on parts of the plant.
Figure 3.7 Individual placement of luminaires on a chemical platform
3.6.4 Pharmaceutical and Plants for the manufacture of fine chemicals and pharmaceutical products
fine chemicals are frequently hazardous and corrosive in nature and suitably certified
corrosion-resistant luminaires must be used. In general, it is necessary to
ensure that lamps are enclosed in any areas where the product is processed
in open vessels. The installation should be designed to exclude cavities in or
behind luminaires and associated wiring systems where dust and dirt can
settle and infestation can take place. The equipment must be capable of
easy and sometimes rigorous cleaning. This may require sealed luminaires
of ingress protection rating IP54 to be recessed into or onto a membraned
ceiling with the joints sealed with a suitable compound.
Attention must be given to the colour rendering of the light sources used to
ensure consistent colour rendering of the product. If accurate colour
judgements are required lamps of colour rendering groups 1A or 1B should
be used (see Appendix 1).
Other relevant documents

3.7 Mechanical 1. The Protection of Eyes Regulations, 1974 (amended 1975). 2. The Horizontal Milling Machines
engineering Regulations, 1928. 3. The Grinding of Cutlery and Edge Tools Regulations, 1925. 4. The Grinding of
Metals (Miscellaneous Industries) Regulations, 1925. 5. The Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied
Petroleum Gases Regulations, 1972. 6. CIBSE Application Guide: Lighting in Hostile and Hazardous
Environments. 7. Protection against Ultraviolet Radiation in the Workplace, National Radiological
Protection Board.
21
22
3.7.1 Sheet metal shops and In sheet metal shops and machine rooms the choice of lamps, in respect of
machine toolrooms colour rendering, is generally not critical. However, care should be
exercised in choosing light sources for non-ferrous metal working areas, as
High Pressure Sodium discharge lamps may reduce contrast of surfaces
such as brass and copper.
For sheet metal shops, accurate scribing and setting out metal work require
freedom from strong shadows. This can be achieved by using a large
number of closely spaced luminaires, each with a widespread distribution.
The diffuseness of the lighting can be further enhanced by using relatively
high reflectance surfaces in the shop.
The majority of machine shops contain rotating machinery and although

this is generally suitably guarded, it is sometimes necessary to gain access to
the moving parts. This should be borne in mind when lighting these areas
and selecting luminaire types. Special attention to stroboscopic effect is
important. Light from discharge lamps can in certain circumstances cause
rotating machinery to appear stationary or to be moving at a different speed
than that at which it really is. Remedial measures to overcome stroboscopic
effect are discussed in Section 2.9.
Where metal is being cut, the different levels of the material are best
revealed by directional lighting which causes the newly cut metal to sparkle
and produces a shadow of the cut, which is then easy to identify. Similarly,
a drill bit may be more easily seen under directional light, the cutting edge
having extra sheen. Directional lighting is best provided by a small
directional luminaire attached to the machine. Ideally this lamp should be
capable of being moved around the work as desired by the operator. An
illustration of this type of machine lamp is shown on the front cover of this
guide.
The revealing power of light when viewing complicated shapes can vary
with the type of lighting used and the nature of the object to be seen. A
cylinder head or similar concave and convex shape is best seen under a
uniform general illuminance. Small objects such as screws, can be better
identified by directional lighting.
3.7.2 Structural steel fabricating Generally, the information contain in Section 3.7.1 applies here. In welding
& welding/soldering shops shops, screens are used extensively and so considerable obstruction is
likely. Where welding is carried out, portable lighting may be useful to light
the workpiece.
3.7.3 Assembly shops The process of assembly can be divided into two separate and distinct types:
small and large assembly. Assembly of small items which, when finished do
not present a large obstruction, can be adequately illuminated by a regular
array of luminaires.
In large assembly, the object being fabricated may create shadow hazards to
other parts of the working area or parts of it may be in shadow. As the
structure is assembled, the working plane may change drastically. Several
levels of lighting may be needed, as may local portable lighting to
compensate for illumination losses caused by the structure. Supplementary
lighting may be required on the vertical plane.
Where large assembly is involved particular care should be taken to ensure a

uniform illuminance, at the highest point of the building to which the
eventual structure will go. It is sometimes advisable to under-space
luminaires to achieve this uniformity. Alternatively, the use of directional
floodlighting equipment mounted on the side walls may be preferred to
increase vertical plane illuminance.
23
3.7.4 Inspection and These shops are usually devoted to precise work. The illuminances
testing shops provided are higher than generally used in the mechanical engineering
industry. Care should be taken to ensure that the illuminance is provided
uniformly without discomfort glare. A good approach is to use low
luminance luminaires at close spacing. If accurate colour judgements are
required lamps of colour rendering groups 1A or 1B should be used.
Adjustable local lighting should be installed to allow individual workers to
provide a directional element when and where it is needed. Figure 3.8
shows a car body inspection booth lit by fluorescent lamps behind flat opal
panels to give a high illuminance on horizontal and vertical surfaces, with
particular attention to the lower body panels. To reveal dents in body work
the mirror images of luminaires are used and a portable spotlight is used to
detect surface scratches.
Figure 3.8 Car body inspection booth
3.7.5 Paint shops and The Highly Flammable Liquids and Petroleum Gases Regulation (1972) and
spray booths Local Authority Regulations may apply to these areas. The lighting
equipment should be of the appropriate standard for the paint type being
used. Therefore it is necessary to know the hazard classification of the area
and/or paint material and reference may be necessary to the above
regulations and local authorities. More detailed advise is given in the
CIBSE Lighting Guide for Hostile and Hazardous Environments.
Lighting of these areas must be designed so that the illumination enables

the operator of the booth to be able to see all parts of the object to be
painted. Inspection normally takes place outside the booth. Inspection
techniques are discussed in Section 3.18
Where colour matching is required care will have to be taken in the

selection of the light source. Lamps of colour rendering index group 1A or
1B should be used (see Appendix 1). The choice of luminaires in these areas
is very important. As well as complying with the relevant regulations,
maintenance should be considered. It is advisable to mount the luminaires
as high as possible away from the paint spray, to stop spray adhering to the
luminaires. It may even be considered necessary to house the luminaires
above some form of glass sub-ceiling structure which can easily be
maintained (see Figure 3.9). If this is not possible then a luminaire which is
capable of being cleaned, with the necessary chemicals to remove the paint,
should be chosen. It can sometimes be an advantage to use side lighting
rather than overhead lighting. This gives two benefits. It increases the
Figure 3.9 Paint spray booth illuminance on the vertical plane and keeps the luminaires away from the
paint spray.
3.7.6 Plating shops The plating shop normally has an atmosphere of acidic fumes. Therefore
the lighting equipment chosen must be able to withstand this corrosive
atmosphere. Luminaires should be of the enclosed type and if metal, should
be substantially constructed and finished, to avoid corrosion of the
luminaire and the electrical contacts therein.
For ease of maintenance the luminaires should be mounted around the edge
of the large plating tanks. This serves two purposes, access is easy and the
luminaire is out of the path of direct rising acidic fumes.
The general process of plating is to deposit a coating of one metal onto
another metal sample. The evenness of the coating and colour will need to
be inspected. Suitable inspection techniques are discussed in Section 3.18
24
3.8 Electrical and

electronic engineering
3.8.1 Introduction Electrical and electronic equipment manufacture involves very high quality
workmanship and control, often with very small components. Indeed, such
is the demand for quality with the assembly of electronic components that
quality control procedures and inspection may be almost a continuous part
of the process of assembly.
3.8.2 Electrical equipment The fabrication of components and assembly is usually carried out in open
manufacture bay, medium height buildings. Large area, low luminance luminaires with
an indirect component can be used to advantage for the general lighting.
Such luminaires will reduce the incidence of undesirable reflections in the
task. Depending on the complexity of the equipment being manufactured,
some form of adjustable local lighting may be of value.
In a typical electrical engineering workshop, work is not performed in every

part of the workspace, but the tasks tend to be concentrated in certain areas.
In such cases, it may be logical to limit the illuminance from the overhead
general lighting and evaluate ways of introducing local directional lighting,
which need not necessarily be machine mounted. General plus localised
lighting schemes do require care if excessive contrasts in the field of view
are to be avoided. Compact fluorescent luminaires may be particularly
useful for localised use where precision assembly demands an increased
illuminance. Wherever accurate colour judgements are required, e.g., for
the selection of cabling, lamps of colour rendering groups 1A or 1B should
be used.
25
3.8.3 Electrical equipment High precision work associated with the assembly of printed circuit boards
assembly and particularly with the tasks of inspecting circuit continuity and the
quality of soldered joints requires a critical analysis of the visual task. The
consequences of errors occurring after completion are likely to be serious
and costly. The accuracy of colour judgement is an important factor in
selecting the light source. In electronics assembly, multi-cored cables and
components are used which are recognised by their colour identification.
The colours enable the operative to identify and connect individual circuits
and components. Typical examples would be distinguishing grey from
silver, pink from beige, beige from amber or yellow, etc. Where such
differences have to be seen, lamps of colour rendering groups 1A or 1B
should be used.
For the assembly of printed circuit boards satisfactory visual performance
can be achieved using luminaires which provide an asymmetrical light
distribution when they are suspended above but to each side of the area of
work. Further improvements may be achieved by the addition of supple-
mentary lighting. How this additional illuminance is introduced will
depend on the interior layout and orientation of work stations. Supple-
mentary illumination can be provided by localised lighting, which in these
circumstances should be adjustable by the operative, or the supplement
may be achieved by the addition of a significant indirect component of
illumination. This may be achieved very effectively by uplighter lum-
inaires. Light sources of high colour rendering index are recommended. If
localised or uplighting techniques are used as supplementary to a general
lighting arrangement it is important to ensure lamp colour compatibility. A
technique for the inspection of printed circuit boards is discussed in Section
3.18
3.9 Food, drink and

tobacco
26
3.9.1 Food and drink The aims of lighting in the food and drink industry are to enable the visual
industry task to be carried out as easily as possible and to create a good working
environment. The latter is particularly important since a bright cheerful
atmosphere is usually synonymous with cleanliness; a dull dark environ-
ment can mean also a dirty environment, certainly dirt is not easily seen in
the dark. A good cheerful environment can be created by using high
reflectance decorations coupled with a lighting scheme using luminaires
with a wide light distribution and a generous upward lighting component.
The food and drink industry covers a vast range of working areas, some of
which are dusty, oil and fat vapour laden, damp, corrosive and hazardous.
The ambient temperatures can range from high (above 50°C) to low (down
to -30°C). Care is therefore necessary in the selection of equipment.
Where the product is processed openly, the Food Hygiene (General)

Regulations require that luminaires near the product be housed in an
enclosure which prevents the lamp or any part of the luminaire accidentally
falling into the product. The luminaires should be easily cleaned, main-
tained and re-lamped, have the minimum horizontal surface area upon
which dust can rest and have smooth lines and no crevices in which fungus
can grow. They should have no loose parts which can accidentally become
detached from the luminaire, and be constructed of materials with finishes
which will withstand frequent cleaning and possibly hosing down (IP55
Figure 3.10 Hosing down in milk bottling plant minimum), (see Figure 3.10).
In designing schemes for the food and drink industry it is therefore essential
to mount luminaires where they can be regularly maintained and preferably
not directly over the product. Figure 3.11 shows luminaires mounted in the
passageway, clear of the machines, in a roller grinder alley of a flour mill.
Figure 3.11 Luminaire arrangement for flour mill
27
This gives access for maintenance and provides illumination through

windows to the roller grinders.
The choice of light source can be important in areas where constant visual
quality control is required, although it is generally sufficient to provide
illumination from efficient light sources, and to use lamps of colour
rendering group 1A only at quality control stations. Frequently, the
illuminance at these points will be controlled to a constant level by a
photocell and dimmer, and the time the lamp is in use monitored to ensure
that the lamps are changed after the recommended burning hours.
In addition to the quality control check under the best colour rendering
lamps, a further check should be made under those lamps normally used for
displaying the goods at the point of sale to ensure that the product is
attractive to the purchaser.
As stated earlier, some areas may be hazardous. Distilleries of alcohol and

essences have many such areas. Luminaires certified for use in areas where
hazardous vapours and gases may be present should be used. Advice on the
requirements of such luminaires is given in CIBSE Application Guide:
Lighting in Hostile and Hazardous Environments. In some areas, a hazardous
environment may be present even though it is not obvious. This is
particularly so in milling where certain concentrates of dust can be highly
explosive. At present there is no British or international standard covering
dust hazards but one is in preparation. In the meantime some companies
have produced their own requirements which generally specify that the
luminaires should be dust tight as defined in BS 4533 and have a surface
temperature compatible with the BASEEFA Type N, with a temperature
rating appropriate to the dust ignition temperature. If there is any doubt it
is wise to check if an area should be classified as hazardous.
The refining and blending of oils and fats are areas where fire or explosion
hazards are obviously possible. This is coupled in some areas with a highly
corrosive atmosphere.
Some sections of the food and drink industry are highly corrosive due to
steam emitted from the preparation and cooking, or the cleaning and
sterilising of containers. Slaughterhouses for example, tend to have highly
corrosive atmospheres and in certain areas hosing down takes place, so the
luminaires should be jetproof (IP55).
It should be noted that there are statutory requirements covering2

lighting in
slaughterhouses
2
calling for general lighting of 215 lx (20 lm/ft ) and 540 lx
(50 lm/ft ) in inspection areas, where lamps of colour rendering group 1A
should be used.
Some food and drink factories where food products are refined or certain
constituents are extracted resemble a chemical works, whereas others are
similar to a laboratory. Nonetheless, the principles outlined in this section
should be followed in all cases.
The packaging lines for food and drink have to be well lit, for although
many of the packing lines use elaborate measuring devices, it is essential
that a visual check can be carried out easily, as due to the speed of the
packing process, any malfunction of the automatic control can involve high
Figure 3.12 Frozen food packaging conveyor costs due to wastage (see Figure 3.12).
Bottling plants have particular inspection problems as the bottles have to be

checked for cracks and where they are re-cycled they must also be checked
for cleanliness. The check for cracks can be carried out with the bottles
passing automatically through a booth with a low reflection background in
28
which the lighting is provided from above by fluorescent tubes (see Figure
3.13). It is worthwhile experimenting with tube colours as it has been found
that inspectors have a preference for inspecting clear bottles under green
fluorescent tubes. To inspect the bottles for cleanliness, the bottles should
pass through a similar booth having a high reflectance matt background
illuminated by white tubular fluorescent lamps (see also Figure 3.13).
Figure 3.13 Booth for inspection of bottles
3.9.2 Tobacco industry Much of the selection and grading of the tobacco leaf is carried out prior to
the product being received for processing at the plant. The tobacco arrives
as a cake, in the form of a 600 lb, approximately 1 metre cube of compressed
tobacco leaf. This has to be conditioned and softened by steam and broken
up. Maturity of the leaf, its general condition and grade, is judged primarily
by colour. The illuminant best suited for this extremely critical colour
judgement task is one similar to daylight from a clear northern sky. An
illuminance of 500 lx, from a lamp of colour rendering group 1A with a
correlated colour temperature of approximately 6,500 K will produce
satisfactory conditions.
Initial checking of the tobacco may occur when the product is in its
compressed cake stage. The use of a portable trolley on which these colour
matching lamps are mounted and which can be taken to the product may be
found to be particularly useful.
Apart from any grading requirement, most seeing tasks in the tobacco
industry can be illuminated satisfactorily by a general lighting system,
provided the illuminance recommendations are met. This will even be
adequate for the needs of experienced quality control inspectors who are
seeking any tobacco leaf that has been affected by mould growth.
There is a possibility that with the dry leaf, dust can be a problem which
needs to be considered in terms of maintenance of lighting equipment, but
not necessarily as far as the provision of dust tight luminaires. Some of the
hand processes may require supplementary task lighting.
Like some parts of the food and drink industry, the tobacco industry has a
relatively substantial warehousing requirement, including bonded storage.
It is likely that high pressure sodium sources will be eminently suitable for
the warehouse areas and due to the need to establish a high security
environment it is considered essential that the lighting installation within
the warehouse shall provide good illumination on all vertical surfaces as
appropriate to the conditions and layout of the storage system. In addition,
adequate security lighting is recommended for installation around the
exterior, with particular emphasis being given to access points to the
building (see Section 4.5).
3.10 Textiles
29
3.10.1 Introduction Textile manufacture, the turning of natural or man-made fibres into
finished cloth, involves numerous processes which vary according to the
raw materials used and the finishes required. Indeed, some of these
processes can vary from factory to factory producing similar cloth. Careful
analysis of the operations, particularly those involved in the preparation of
the fibres, indicate that many are rough processes involving no exacting
visual task. Some others are completely automatic and the processing takes
place inside a machine. In this case the lighting can only be regarded as
giving amenity and safe access. In these areas a general overhead lighting
system designed to give illumination throughout the area of the floors with
increased illumination at the feed and take off ends of machines, as
required, will be satisfactory.
3.10.2 Yarns and fabrics The process of forming the yarn commences with the carding engines
which form the staples into a loose rope. These machines are large and for
the most part the process is enclosed. It is important to illuminate the feed
and condenser ends of the engines and for the sake of safety, the sides.
Where the mounting height is restricted, luminaires placed over the cards
would cause dense shadows on the sides, and in these circumstances it is
best to place rows of dispersive type fluorescent tube luminaires over the
gangways.
Following the carding, various other processes may take place in prepar-
ation prior to spinning. In all these processes the illumination recom-
mended should be provided in such a way as to ensure the elimination of
dense shadows and as far as possible the penetration of light so that broken
ends can be located easily. Bearing in mind that the operatives will be
creating an obstruction, it is best to use luminaires with “simple” light
control systems and never to overspace these luminaires.
30
Mule spinning, once common, has all but disappeared from the textile
industry. Frame spinning in its various forms is now most used. The frames
are usually tall with the working planes vertical and horizontal. The
operative must be able to see the thread clearly from the point where it
leaves the bobbin, down to the actual spinning spindle. It is difficult to state
a universal correct way to illuminate the spinning room. It was thought that
the best way was to run rows of fluorescent luminaires down the gates
between frames which normally face each other and certainly this can give
excellent results. However, where space above the frames allows, a more
economical layout is to run the fluorescent luminaires in continuous rows at
right angles to the frames, note that in Figure 3.14, only the luminaires
within angle θ contribute directly to the illuminance at point A. In both
systems the spacing between luminaires should not exceed the maximum
spacing/mounting height ratio and preferably they should be underspaced
by up to one third.
Figure 3.14 Spinning frames forming a ‘corridor’ in a large area
Since the rows of spinning frames form corridors, the use of the lumen
design formula to calculate illuminances is inappropriate and a method
which includes only those luminaires contributing directly and indirectly to
the illumination on the machines should be employed. Suitable methods
are the aspect factor method for direct illuminance and the flux transfer
method for the indirect component (see Section 6.5.4). Other machines
such as twisting, doubling, winding, crimping, are similar in their lighting
requirements to spinning frames.
Beaming or warping is the process of laying threads onto a beam or roller

forming the warp prior to being placed on the loom for weaving. The thread
of bobbins is placed upon a creel capable of taking hundreds of bobbins
which are drawn through a reed which lays them onto the beam. It is
essential that the operative should be able to see that all the ends are intact
and that they are in the correct order.
Healding or drawing in, where done manually, is a most exacting visual task
and the light must penetrate through the heald shafts so that the operator
can distinguish the correct eye. A preference is for the general lighting to be
supplemented by some local lighting which is portable and adjustable by
the operative.
31
As for weaving, there are so many different types of looms and so many
different types of fabrics that the lighting engineer’s first problem will be to
find the correct category. Having done this, the recommended illuminance
and limiting glare index can be found. The next consideration is obstruc-
tions. Whilst good general overhead lighting is usually preferred, overhead
obstruction may necessitate a localised lighting approach. It is generally
agreed that fluorescent luminaires in near continuous rows parallel with the
warp, give satisfactory results, particularly when placed over the shuttle
boxes, giving good illumination on the threads and obviating shadows from
the loom and the heald frames. Jacquard looms with overhead card systems
can cause obstruction to a general lighting system necessitating a more
localised approach.
The dyeing process is not one requiring a good colour matching light source
since the actual matching and mixing of dyes is usually carried out visually
Figure 3.15 Typical anti-corrosion fluorescent in a separate room with specially constructed lighting booths, or by spectro-
fitting
chemical analysis. In the dye house, steam is usually present to a greater or
lesser degree and the use of vapour-proof anti-corrosion luminaires may be
required. Figure 3.15 shows the typical construction for an anti-corrosive
fitting to IP 65, the body is glass fibre reinforced and the diffuser is acrylic,
the diffuser clamps over a seal onto the body of the fitting. Whilst tubular
fluorescent lamps are the most common light source used, in high
buildings, high pressure discharge sources have been used.
Finishing processes fall into two classes, wet and dry, the former
necessitating the use of corrosion resistant enclosed luminaires. Some of the
processes are hot, and therefore luminaires should be located away from the
hot spots created above machines.
General overhead lighting systems within the areas are usually adequate
providing they are supplemented by local or localised lighting of machines
where necessary with luminaires directed inwards towards the cloth passing
through, and at any inspection points.
Figure 3.16 Back lighting of cloth Inspection and mending in the textile industry are very difficult tasks.
Many different types of fault are possible and it is unlikely that any single
system of lighting will be ideal for all of them. Variations in weave, slubs
and foreign matter can be located by back lighting, (see Figure 3.16) with
the cloth passing between a diffuse light source and the observer. Front
lighting with a strongly directional component helps to reveal surface faults
(see Figure 3.17). Generally, the use of lamps of colour rendering groups
1A or 1B is necessary to detect variations in woven colour patterns caused
by the joining together of wrong broken warp threads by the weaver.
However, it should be noted that to detect the difference between two
similar colours it is sometimes helpful to distinguish both colours by
showing them under strongly coloured light of a totally different colour.
The removal of foreign matter and mending usually takes place with
operatives seated at a desk which may be sloping or flat with the cloth drawn
over, and the faults made good by hand. This is a most exacting visual task,
so it is necessary to provide a high illuminance (1500 lx) in a glare free
manner and having good colour rendering properties. How this
illumination is provided requires careful consideration, for whilst high
illuminances provided by very diffuse lighting or by lighting which is
strongly directional normal to the surface of the cloth, may be good for
some work, it does little to reveal the weave and texture of the material. It is
therefore desirable to introduce some modelling by a directional
component either by using an asymmetrical general lighting system, or by
Figure 3.17 Front lighting of cloth local lighting adjustable by the operatives.
32
3.11 Leather industry
Leather is animal hide or skin that has been converted to a stable, non-
putrescent state and made softer and more flexible by a series of processes of
which the main one is tanning.
The tanning process involves salting and drying and although conventional
general lighting from a regular array of luminaires is normally used, the
designer has to select luminaires that are capable of withstanding hot,
humid and salty conditions and position them so that they are not exposed
to the worst conditions.
As for leather working, the prime visual problems are concerned with the
selection and handling of the skin after delivery from the tannery. For the
majority of activities, a uniform lighting installation is all that is necessary.
However, the initial grading of the leather and final inspection of the
product require special lighting. Satisfactory selection of skins has been
achieved using north sky daylight but with the requirements of quicker and
more continuous production in premises that do not permit the ingress of
sufficient natural light, the use of artificial lighting has become important.
For evaluating the evenness and density of skins a well diffused general
lighting system using lamps of colour rendering group 1A is particularly
desirable and a uniform illuminance is recommended. If glossy leather is to
be examined, large area low luminance luminaires should be used. To
search for blemishes in texture it may be necessary to provide a component
of directional illumination. This may be achieved by omitting light from
luminaires placed directly overhead and employing sources shielded from
the direct view of the worker placed each side of the inspection table,
thereby avoiding high luminance reflections in the leather. The surfaces of
the bench which form the immediate surround to the work task should
preferably be composed of colours having a high value and low chroma as
classified by the Munsell system. Neutral light greys are suitable. To search
for holes in the skin a light table can be used.
3.12 Clothing and

footwear
33
Tailoring, garment making, and boot and shoe manufacture can all present
demanding visual tasks involving file detail, poor contrast and requiring
accurate colour matching. The usual approach to lighting in the clothing
and footwear industry is to provide uniform lighting with good control of
discomfort glare, complemented by adjustable local lighting or by fixed
localised lighting. Accurate colour judgements are required in most of the
work so lamps of colour rendering groups 1A or 1B should be used for
general, localised and local lighting. Colour matching of cloth is probably
best done in a separate area specially designed for the work but with lamps
of colour rendering group 1A and finished with neutral colour, medium
reflectance surfaces. If local lighting is used it should be easily adjustable by
the user but care should be taken to ensure that it does not cause discomfort
glare either to the user or to others.
It is advisable to consider that finished goods may be displayed under

different lighting conditions from those in the factory and it is therefore
wise to also inspect merchandise under the appropriate light sources.
3.13 Timber and furnishing
34
Woodwork shops .
Rough sawing, benchwork 300 22
Sizing, planing, sanding,
medium machining and benchwork 500 22
Fine bench and machine
work, fine sanding,
finishing 750 22
Furniture manufacture
Raw materials stores 100 28
Finished goods stores 150 25
Wood matching and assembly,
rough sawing, cutting 300 22
Machining, sanding and
assembly, polishing 500 22
Tool rooms 500 22
Spraybooths:
Colour finishing 500 —
Clear finishing 300 —
Cabinet making:
Veneer sorting and grading 1000 19
Marquetry, pressing,
patching and fitting 500 22
Final inspection 750 —
Upholstery manufacture
Cloth inspection 1500 —
Filling, covering 500 22
Slipping, cutting, sewing 750 22
Mattress making:
Assembly 500 22
Tape edging 1000 22
The visual approach to lighting in the timber and furniture industry is to

provide uniform lighting from a regular array of luminaires.
However, there are a number of particular aspects of the industry which

require attention from the lighting designer. The first is lighting main-
tenance. Dusty conditions are likely anywhere where timber is sawn,
machined or otherwise worked. Dust tight luminaires (IP6X) are desirable
in these areas. In extreme cases an explosion hazard may be present.
Luminaires should be chosen appropriately. The second is the use of local
lighting to highlight dangerous areas such as saw blades. Figure 3.18 shows
the positioning of a lamp so that both light and shadow is used to indicate
the position of the saw blade. The third is the possibility of stroboscopic
effects occurring (see Section 2.7). The fourth is the need for lamps with
good colour rendering properties. The grading and matching of veneers
and solid wood are good examples of activities where accurate colour
judgement is required. In these locations lamps of colour rendering groups
1A or lB should be used. In addition, some adjustable local lighting to
provide directional effects may be useful in the grading of veneer timber.
(For information on the lighting of spray booths see Section 3.7.5).
3.14 Paper making and Other relevant documents

printing 1. Lighting in Printing Works, British Printing Industries Federation, 1980. 2. CIBSE Technical
Memorandum 6, Lighting for visual display units. 3. BS 950, Artificial daylight for the assessment of
colour. 4. CIBSE Application Guide: Lighting in Hostile and Hazardous Environments. 5. Protection
against ultraviolet radiation in the workplace, National Radiological Protection Board, 1977.
35
Standard Service Limiting Glare

Applications
Illuminance (1x) Indices
Paper mills
Pulp mills, preparation plants 300 25
Paper and board making:
General 300 25
Automatic processes 200 25
Inspection sorting 500 19
Paper converting processes:
General 300 25
Associated printing 500 25
Printing works
Type foundries:
Matrix making, dressing
type, hand and machine casting 300 25
Font assembly, sorting 750 22
Composing rooms:
Hand composing, imposition
and distribution 750 19
Hot metal - keyboard 750 19
Hot metal - casting 300 22
Photocomposing - keyboard
or setters 500 19
Paste up 750 16
Illuminated tables - general
lighting 300 —
Proof presses 500 22
Proof reading 750 16
Graphic reproduction:
General 500 22
Precision proofing,
retouching, etching 1000 —
Colour reproduction and inspection 1500 —
Printing machine room:

Presses 500 22
Pre-make ready 500 22
Printed sheet inspection 1000 19
Binding:
Folding, pasting, punching, stitching 500 22
Cutting, assembling, embossing 750 22
Paper making is divided into two sections, wet end and dry end. The wet
end involves the breaking up of the dry wood pulp and the mixing by
rapidly rotating blades into a wet pulp in a vat. The pulp may be further
beaten and other chemicals and colouring added. By nature of this process,
these areas tend to be dusty, warm and damp, such that the dust coats all
surfaces and is solidified by the humidity so that all hanging objects become
festooned with stalactites which are dripping with water, eventually falling
off. Therefore, within these areas the luminaires should be mounted so that
they do not overhang the product but are positioned so that the insides of
the vat are illuminated. The type of luminaire should be dust and jet proof
(IP55 minimum), resistant to corrosion and easy to maintain.
3.14.1 P a p e r m a k i n g The actual light source chosen and the distribution from the luminaire will
depend on the room dimensions. In many cases these rooms are low, dismal
areas. Therefore, luminaires with a widespread distribution and a generous
upward lighting component are appropriate.
While it is in this area that the colours are added, it is not necessary to use
lamps other than those normally used in industrial processes since the
matching and mixing of the colorants usually takes place in a special
colour matching booth (see Section 3.18). The slurry produced is fed into
the open end of the paper machine and is first suspended on a continuous
moving wire mesh known as “the wire” which the operators view from both
above and below to judge the even spread of the slurry which forms the
36
web. Luminaires should not be mounted directly over the product but
above and to each side, parallel to the machine, and positioned such that the
illuminance is even over the length and width of the wire mesh. Further
luminaires should be positioned at low level to illuminate below the top
wire, Figure 3.19 shows the layout of of the luminaires.
Figure 3.19 Lighting ‘the wire’ in a paper mill
Figure 3.20 Localised lighting for a paper cutting machine
37
The web passes through heated rollers or calenders on a felt. Frequently the
calenders are covered by a canopy to extract the heat and humidity. It is
most important to mount luminaires such that light penetrates between the
rollers. This is usually achieved by using rows of fluorescent luminaires
along both sides of the calenders suspended from or fixed to the canopy.
At the dry end of the calenders the paper is viewed from below for flaws and
at this point it is normal to illuminate this web with luminaires mounted
directly above to show up any thin patches or foreign matter before passing
to the finishing calenders and the final reel off.
Whilst tubular fluorescent luminaires are most appropriate for illuminating
the machines, the surrounding area could be lit by high intensity discharge
sources.
Paper cutting machines should be lit by fluorescent trough or angle
reflector luminaires arranged in a localised scheme, mounted at both ends
of the machine, with the sides at right angles to the rollers carrying the
cutting blades, Figure 3.20 illustrates this arrangement. It is important to
reduce any possible stroboscopic effects to a minimum. This may be
achieved by using high frequency control gear or by adjacent lamps being
out of phase with each other, as produced by a twin lead-lag circuit or
having lamps fed from different phases of the supply (see Section 2.10).
The checking of sheets of paper takes place in a room named a salle. This
requires lighting of good colour rendering and it is recommended that
lamps of colour rendering groups 1A or 1B be used. To show up surface
imperfections it is necessary to provide lighting with a moderately strong
directional effect such as might occur in a room lit by large side windows.
This effect can be achieved artificially by a general overhead lighting system
using luminaires with a medium to wide light distribution and fluorescent
luminaires mounted on the benches. These bench mounted luminaires
should be designed such that the light source is shielded from the inspector.
3.14.2 Printing In the printing industry there are many tasks which demand the perception
of fine detail and precise colour appraisal. Without lighting of the correct
quantity and quality these tasks cannot be performed accurately.
The principal processes used in printing work involve letterpress, offset
lithography and gravure. Letterpress is the process of printing from raised
surfaces, inking rollers touching only the raised surfaces. Printing may be
done on a flat cylinder press or rotary press which can handle continuous
rolls of paper at high speeds. The lighting must take account of the need for
safe and efficient operation of all presses, but particularly the high speed
rotary presses which require rapid and accurate vision. Task lighting may
be beneficial for the make-ready stage, as strongly directional light enables
the strength of print impressions on the paper to be accurately judged and
adjusted. Although very little monotype or linotype setting is now done by
hand, there are occasions when this is used and lighting needs in both
strength and direction are also critical for this task.
Offset lithography involves the preparation of a litho’ plate and this

includes photographic and chemical processes as well as the skilled re-
touching of half-tone pictures. Preferably, the lighting should be soft,
diffused light of the recommended illuminance to restrict the formation of
specular reflections from the plates. A system of uplighting luminaires may
be appropriate. In some litho’ processes it is necessary to reduce the
illuminance in areas where the sensitised plates can be affected by ambient
light. In a few cases, it may be necessary to utilise photograph ‘safelights’ to
which the plates are not sensitive. Alternatively, there is a sensitised coating
38
used by some printers that may be handled at normal illuminances provided

the only illuminant is the monochromatic low pressure sodium lamp.
Accurate photographic work is a major part of plate preparation, and the
associated visual tasks are extremely demanding. Generally, the lighting
units for the photography are furnished by the camera manufacturer.
Stripping and opaquing are done on a large internally illuminated table.
The table should afford the artist low luminance diffused brightness for
visual comfort. The overhead lighting system would generally provide a
low ambient level so arranged to eliminate any reflections in the table top. A
form of uplighting could be used to good effect for this purpose.
2
A suitable level of luminance for the table has been found to be 500 cd/m ,
within a room illuminance of 300 lx.
Gravure is the process of printing from sunken surfaces, and the printing
surface is usually a copper cylinder. Gravure is used for fine quality work,
such as stamps, banknotes, glossy magazines and mass circulation items
such as colour supplements. Although the preparation of the cylinder is
mainly photographic, some hand engraving is still done, and on many
occasions hand alterations have to be effected upon the completed cylinder
images when these are found to be defective in some way following a run on
the proof presses. The fundamental problem is the discrimination of detail
of the image on a curved metallic surface. Lighting from low surface
brightness luminaires plus local task lights under the control of the engineer
is essential. Specular reflections in the task can make intricate brushwork a
most difficult visual task. Large area, low luminance luminaires provide
excellent contrast between the darker details of the photo image and the
relatively lighter copper cylinder background, without much specular
reflection.
A number of corrosive acids, flammable solvents and petroleum based inks,
are widely used in all printing processes, so due consideration must be given
to selecting luminaires appropriate to the level of risk of fire or explosion.
Guidance is given in the CIBSE Application Guide, Lighting for Hostile and
Hazardous Areas. Liaison with the Factory Inspectorate and/or the Fire
Prevention Officer is recommended in these cases.
Ink haze can seriously pollute the atmosphere in some printing shops. It can
affect the performance of luminaires by adhesion to both the lamps and the
reflectors. It is difficult to remove without the use of a solvent which
may also damage the luminaire. Depending on the degree of problem
encountered it may be beneficial to spray the luminaires with a protective
agent before use and after each cleaning, in order to prevent permanent
adhesion of the ink haze.
Many machines are not fully guarded and protected against accidents.
Guillotining, trimming, piercing, punching, slitting, embossing,
numbering, folding, stitching, gluing and stapling are all necessary, and in
many cases the settings must be arranged by time control. It is vital that
lighting is organised to enable the operator to see what needs to be seen in
preference to touch. The use of local or task lighting will be justified in
many instances at vital points of such machinery as dark shadows and low
contrasts can reduce the safety margins.
High speed rotating machines require fast vision. Occasionally a strobo-

scopic effect is encountered and could cause problems. The possible
solutions are discussed in Section 2.7. Multi-colour work demands that
every consideration must be given to the choice of light source. Any reliance
on daylight for colour appraisal is impractical, even during the long
midsummer days. Tubular fluorescent lamps of correlated colour
temperature 6500 K with a high colour rendering index (greater than 95)
39
should be used for critical colour matching or appraisal. It is important that

the recommended illuminance is maintained over the whole area where the
visual task is being done. A special fluorescent lamp, Colour 47 (Graphica)
is used for fine colour work and is incorporated into viewing cabinets of
transparency viewers. This lamp complies with BS 950 Part II.
3.15 Plastics and rubber
3.15.1 Introduction The lighting approach adopted for plant employed in producing plastics
and rubber manufactures is little different from that used in industry in
general. The usual approach is to provide a uniform illuminance over the
whole plant area and to supplement it to a higher illuminance by local
lighting as required. Locations where local lighting may be required are on
control platforms and where inspection is undertaken. Portable lighting
may also be useful for maintenance work on plant which is largely
automatic.
3.15.2 lighting problems The problems posed by plastic and rubber manufacture as far as the
lighting engineer is concerned, are those of the environmental conditions.
Plastics and rubber manufacture involves processes which may produce
high ambient temperatures in some areas. Further, there can be a lot of dirt
and dust in the atmosphere and the effect on lighting maintenance can be
severe. To overcome these problems, light sources and control gear capable
of operating at high ambient temperatures are desirable and dustproof
(IP54) luminaires should be used. It should be noted that the light output of
fluorescent lamps reduces markedly at high ambient temperatures, but that
of high pressure discharge lamps does not. In addition to choosing
dustproof luminaires it is good practice to arrange the layout of the
luminaires so that they can be easily reached and maintained. This is
particularly important in mixing areas where dirt and dust will be at a
maximum level, so frequent regular maintenance is necessary.
Many plastics and rubbers are very dark or black in colour. These very low
40
reflectances can cause problems in discerning detail, which calls for a much
higher level of illuminance. Strongly directional lighting may be required.
Another characteristic of plastic and rubber manufacture is the obstruction

to light distribution produced by the large pieces of plant used in the
processes. Some plant may require lighting mounted on it if the operator is
to see the work clearly.
Finally, where colour judgements are required, as in comparing plastic sub-

components, lamps of colour rendering groups 1A or 1B should be used,
the surrounds should be neutral in colour and the inspection area should be
shielded from the general interior lighting.
3.16 Distribution
and storage
3.16.1 Introduction Warehouses and storage areas exist in many forms but basically fall into a
combination of the following: floor storage, high and low level pallets, high
and low level racking, small and large bins, manual and automatic self
picking areas. The basis of lighting the above areas is discussed in detail in
each of the following sections.
3.16.2 Bulk storage For bulk storage at floor level it is generally important to avoid dense
shadows and to give a reasonable illuminance on vertical surfaces if the
reading of identification marks, labels, etc., is frequently carried out. A
suitable way of lighting such an area is to use a closely spaced overhead array
of luminaires with a widespread distribution. Generally the wider the
41
distribution is the higher the vertical illuminance will be. Alternatively, a

combination of overhead and side lighting will achieve satisfactory results.
3.16.3 Items stored in bins The main problems in lighting this type of area is to eliminate shadows and
to get the light to penetrate into the bins. The problems associated with bin
lighting can best be solved by rows of tubular fluorescent luminaires, with
trough reflectors, mounted just above bin height and forward of the bins,
the luminaires being mounted parallel to the rows of bins. One particular
problem occurs where the bin racks are movable and close together, or open
up to form an access way. In these cases it is necessary to run the rows of
luminaires in a continuous row at right angles to the movable bin racks. The
rows should be spaced such that the cut-off angle of the luminaires does not
cause shadows on the top bins. Figure 3.21 shows sliding racking, designed
so that the cut-off angle is aligned with the sides of the racks.
Figure 3.21 Luminaire positioning above racking
It helps considerably if the bins are painted light colours, as this assists in
reflecting light into the bins, and reflecting light within the bins, which can
be almost impossible to illuminate directly from any overhead lighting
system.
3.16.4 Random high pallet The main problems encountered here are the varying working plane
storage heights, the variable location of the pallet stacks and the potential glare
presented to fork-lift truck drivers. The latter, who are mainly concerned
with locating the forks of the truck in pallets, and the correct and even
42
stacking of the pallets, frequently work looking up towards the luminaires.

These problems can be solved by using low brightness luminaires with a
widespread distribution, underspaced, with and if possible, a degree of
upward light, coupled with high reflectance surfaces in the upper roof area
of the building structure.
3.16.5 High palletised racking In high palletised narrow aisle racking areas, the main problem is to get the
storage required illuminance at floor level between the racks without too much
light on the tops of the racks.
These areas have similar problems to those discussed in Section 3.16.4, i.e.
varying working plane height, and glare to fork-lift truck drivers. It is good
practice to light these narrow aisles with runs of tubular fluorescent
luminaires with narrow distributions arranged along the aisles. Figure 3.22
illustrates the principle. It is also desirable that luminaires should give some
upward light. Again, giving the roof surface a high reflectance helps to
diminish any discomfort glare.
Figure 3.22 Narrow transverse distribution luminaire
For mounting heights above 15 metres, high intensity discharge lamps may
be used in luminaires with a narrow transverse distribution and a wide axial
distribution. The spacing of these luminaires should be such as to avoid the
triangular dark areas which sometimes occur between luminaires (see
Figure 3.23).
3.16.6 Self-selection Where self-selection takes place, the overhead lighting can be supple-
warehouses mented with luminaires mounted on the racking at low level to penetrate
the bins. If this type of warehouse is fully automated, it is only required to
give a low level of illuminance of about 20 to 50 lx, to provide safe access at
floor level. Any maintenance work can be carried out using portable
lighting as and where required.
43
Figure 3.23 Dark triangular patches on racks caused by overspacing of luminaires
3.16.7 Cold stores Special attention must be given to cold stores because of the low
temperatures involved. The lamps and luminaires should be chosen so that
they can operate reliably in these conditions, the most common problems
being starting and icing up. Advice on lamps suitable for low temperature
operation is given in Section 4.2.
3.17 Ancillary areas
44
..-
Circulation Areas
Lifts 100 — .
Corridors, passageways, stairs 100 22
Escalators, travellators 150 —
Communications
Switchboard rooms 300 19
Telephone apparatus room 150 25
Telex room, post room 500 19
Reprographic room 300 19
Building Services
Boiler houses:
General 100 25
Boiler front 150 —
Boiler control room 300 19
Control rooms 300 19
Mechanical plant room 150 25
Electrical power supply
and distribution rooms 150 —
Store rooms 100 —
3.17.1 Introduction This section is intended to deal with all the ancillary areas common to
industrial premises, such as communication facilities, staff canteens, wash
rooms, circulation areas, boiler houses, switch rooms, etc. Many of these
areas can be lit by regular arrays of luminaires. However, some, such as
reception areas, staff canteens and rest rooms benefit from a more
imaginative approach to the lighting, aimed at creating the desired
impression. For these situations the recommended illuminances should be
treated as indicative only and the conventional illuminance uniformity
requirements can be greatly relaxed.
The lighting of offices is beyond the scope of this document. General

guidance can be obtained from the CIBSE Code for Interior Lighting 1984.
Guidance on the special problems posed by visual display units can be
obtained from CIBSE Technical Memorandum 6, Lighting for Visual Display
Units.
The lighting of medical and first aid centres is also beyond the scope of this
document. Guidance can be obtained from the CIBSE Lighting Guide:
Hospital and Health Care Facilities.
3.17.2 Kitchens and serveries In kitchens and serveries the comments given for the food industry
generally will apply (see Section 3.9). Lamps and luminaires capable of
operating in cold conditions or hot and humid conditions will be needed.
3.17.3 Circulation areas For circulation areas, such as corridors, stairs and escalators, the problem
facing the lighting designer is that of positioning the luminaires. Linear
luminaires should be orientated parallel to the corridors, unless some form .
of ceiling structure cuts off the view of the luminaire when it is positioned
normal to the corridor. On stairs and escalators the luminaires should be
positioned to provide a contrast between the treads and the risers. If the
tread is made of specular material, care should be taken to avoid high
luminance reflections from the tread towards anyone using the stairs or
escalators.
3.17.4 Communication facilities Communications facilities, such as post rooms and reprographic rooms
have few significant features as far as lighting is concerned. However, in
telephone facilities, luminaires suitable for use with visual display units and
other self-luminous information may be needed.
45
3.17.5 Building services In boiler houses and switch rooms it is usually sufficient to use a small
number of luminaires suitably placed around the boiler or switch panel. In
switch rooms etc. care should be taken to provide some form of lighting at
the rear of the cubicles, transformers, etc. to enable maintenance to be
performed. Should the switch room, boiler house, control room, etc. have
meters or gauges which are horizontal or vertical, special lighting will have
to be considered, to avoid glare and reflections from them. Boiler houses
usually have a high ambient temperature as well as large quantities of hot
surfaces which radiate heat. In such areas, special thought will have to be
given to the type of lamp and luminaire used, if short life of lamp and/or
control gear is to be avoided. Discharge lamps generally will be better than
tungsten or fluorescent in these areas, particularly if the gear is mounted
remotely in some cooler area. Boiler houses and switch rooms are vital areas
of any building and as with other areas, should be protected by standby or
emergency lighting systems to enable quick action to be taken should it be
necessary. Boiler rooms and storage areas have the possibility of containing
inflammable material. It may be necessary to use flameproof luminaires in
these areas. Document storage rooms and large walk-in safes containing
vital files, documents, etc. will also benefit from enclosed flameproof
luminaires as there is less chance of a fire developing from the luminaire.
In ducts which normally carry cables and pipes, both hot and cold, it is
usual to illuminate the area with bulkhead type luminaires with tungsten
lamps. However, if the duct is used continuously and the lighting is left on
for long periods, the energy can be reduced by up to 75% and maintenance
considerably reduced by using compact fluorescent lamps or discharge
lamps in suitable bulkhead luminaires.
3.18 Techniques of visual Visual inspection of products is an important aspect of many manufac-
inspection turing processes. The accuracy of visual inspection is influenced by four
aspects of the situation: the people, the task, the environment and the
organisation. The people doing the inspecting are important because their
3.18.1 Introduction visual capabilities affect the ease with which they can see the features of
interest and their experience of the work will influence the way that they
examine the product. The task is important in the way it is presented to the
inspector. It can be presented for different periods of time, regularly or
irregularly, stationary or moving, in ordered groups or individually, with
different types of features occurring with different probabilities. The
environment, which includes the lighting, is important because it affects
the conspicuity of the features of interest. The organisation is important
because it includes such aspects as the number and duration of rest pauses,
the understanding the inspector has of what constitutes a feature that
should be detected, the extent to which the inspector is kept informed of his
performance and the relationship between the inspection and production
sides of the business.
Thus the lighting of the product is only one of several factors influencing
the accuracy of visual inspection; but it is an important factor and often it is
one of the easiest to change. All too frequently the only concession made to
the visual difficulty of inspection work is to provide a high illuminance in
the inspection area. Although this is generally helpful, special lighting
designed to reveal the critical features can be much more effective.
3.18.2 Principles of inspection The aim of all inspection lighting is to increase the conspicuity of the
lighting features of the product that determine whether it is acceptable or not. There
are a number of lighting techniques that can be used to achieve this aim, the
choice between them depending on the nature of the material from which
the product is made and the type of feature being sought. An outline of the
main techniques is given below.
46
3.18.2.1 Controlling the direction For flat materials with diffuse reflection characteristics where the features
of incident light being sought are damage to the surface, e.g. scratches on a tile, the most
effective technique is to light the material at a glancing angle so that no light
is reflected towards the inspector’s eyes. The damage to the surface will be
emphasised by the highlights and shadows created around it. Figure 3.24
shows the effect of glancing angle lighting on the visibility of damage in
cloth. It should be noted that glancing angle lighting is very effective for
revealing any form of texture on a surface, although whether this is an
advantage or not depends on the particular circumstances; too much detail
can be confusing.
For materials with specular reflection properties where the features being
sought cause a change in the specular reflection pattern of the surface, e.g.
scribe marks on stainless steel, there are two useful lighting techniques
involving reflection. The first requires the reflection of a luminaire away
from the observer. Then the damaged area will appear as bright on a dark
background. The second requires the reflection of a luminaire towards the
observer. Then the damaged area will appear as dark on a bright
background. These differences occur in both cases because the damaged
area scatters the light rather than reflecting it specularly.
Figure 3.24 Directional lighting revealing damage in cloth
3.18.2.2 Reflection of a large area For materials with specular reflection properties but where the feature
of low luminance being sought does not change the reflection characteristics but only the
form of the product, e.g. a dent in a silver plated surface, a useful technique
is to reflect a large area of low luminance from the product towards the
inspector. Then, departures in form are revealed by non- uniformities in
the luminance of the reflected image. The luminous area which is reflected
from the product should be large enough to cover the whole product when
viewed from the inspector’s position.
This technique is quite effective for dents which have a small radius of
curvature (see Figure 3.25). However, where the dents have a large radius
of curvature it will be advantageous to superimpose a regular grid over the
large area of luminance. Then dents in the products will be shown by
distortions in the reflected image of the grid.
Figure 3.25 Non-uniformity of luminance indicating dents
With or without a grid, this technique depends on a non-uniformity in the

image reflected from the product. Therefore this technique is only really
suited for flat objects, more complex shapes producing too complicated a
pattern of non-uniformities.
It should be noted that this technique of reflecting a large area of low
luminance from a specular surface can be useful when it is necessary to
separate a specular surface from a diffusely reflecting surface. For example,
for examining the continuity of printed circuits, the reflection of a large area
of low luminance towards the observer increases the conspicuity of the
printed circuit from its background and reveals any breaks in it (see Figure
3.26).
Figure 3.26 Reflection of a large area of low luminance emphasises the detail on a circuit board
47
3.18.2.3 Transmission of light Transmission of a large area of low luminance. For transparent and
translucent materials where the features being sought are within the
material, an effective technique is for the inspector to view a large area of
low luminance through the object. Any bubbles, cracks, chips or foreign
bodies will create non-uniformity in the transmitted luminance. Again the
area of the low luminance should be sufficient to cover the product from the
inspector’s position.
If the features being sought involve a change in form of the object it is useful
to have a regular grid superimposed over the large area of low luminance.
Then any changes in form create distortions in the regular grid as seen by
the inspector (see Figure 3.27). Again this method is suitable only for
objects of simple shape; complex shapes are likely to produce many
distortions in the grid which will be confusing.
Oblique transmission. For transparent materials, where the features being
sought are bubbles, cracks, scratches, etc., another useful technique is to
light the object with a strongly directional beam into the edge of the product
so that no light reaches the inspector directly. Faults in the material will
tend to produce scattered light which, when the object is viewed against a
dark background, will appear as sparkling highlights. Figure 3.28 shows
Figure 3.27 Defect revealed by distortion of a
this technique being used for the inspection of moulded translucent glass.
background grid
3.18.2.4 Spectral composition For many products, a common form of visual inspection is the examination
of light of the colour of the product. For example, one of the criteria used to grade
agricultural and horticultural produce is their colour. This form of visual
inspection is called colour appraisal. The most important lighting variable
for colour appraisal work is the spectral composition of the light source
used. The lighting designer has two conditions to consider, (a) the light
source under which the product will be used, (b) the light source under
which the product will be sold. When these two light sources have similar
effects on the colour of the product then the product need only be examined
under one light source. However, if the using and selling conditions are
markedly different, then inspection under both light sources may be
necessary.
There is no single light source which is best for colour appraisal work; the
choice of light source is determined by the characteristics of the product
and the colour appearance that is desired. For this reason, there is no
substitute for practical experience when selecting appropriate light sources,
although, in general, light sources with high CIE General Colour
Rendering Indices enable inspectors to make finer discriminations between
hues. For colour appraisal work the inspection area should be lit uniformly,
Figure 3.28 Oblique lighting aids the inspection without veiling reflections and to the recommended illuminance. The
of translucent products, such as glass containers surroundings should be neutral in colour and of medium reflectance.
For some industries, such as printing and textiles, an important form of

visual inspection is the matching of the colour of a product to an existing
standard. Again the most important lighting variable available to the
lighting designer is the spectral composition of the light source. BS 950,
Artificial daylight for the assessment of colour gives recommendations on
the spectral composition of light sources suitable for accurate colour
matching in various industries. In general, light sources with high CIE
General Colour Rendering Indices are most suitable for accurate colour
matching.
For colour matching work the inspection area should be lit uniformly,
without veiling reflections and to-the recommended illuminance. The
surroundings should be neutral in colour and of medium reflectance.
48
Figure 3.29 shows a typical inspection booth used for colour matching
work.
Figure 3.29 An inspection booth for colour matching
A special aspect of colour matching is metamerism. This is the pheno-

menon whereby the colours of two products match under one light source
but do not match under another. When this is likely to be important a
check for metamerism can be carried out by examining the match between
products under two light sources with widely different spectral
compositions.
3.18.2.5 Special Techniques So far the lighting techniques considered have been those which use
conventional lighting equipment to light the product and the naked eye to
examine it. However, there are some inspection techniques which require
unusual lighting equipment and/or some form of optical aid.
Polarised light can be used to examine the stresses within transparent

products such as blown glass and moulded plastic. Light from an
incandescent lamp is first polarised then transmitted through the product
and finally analysed by another polariser. Stress in the transparent product
changes the transmission pattern. Special apparatus is required for this type
of work and the equipment usually includes the necessary lighting.
Many materials, including some lubricating and cutting oils, fluoresce in

the presence of ultra-violet radiation, i.e. they produce visible light. This
can be a useful aid in inspection. For example, by using a fluorescing dye,
the security of a seal can be checked with ultra-violet radiation. Another
possibility is to coat the surface of the product with a fluorescing material.
Then when illuminated by ultra-violet radiation any hole will appear as
black. To use this technique a suitable combination of fluorescing agents
and an ultra-violet radiation source is required. Whenever ultra-violet
radiation is used it is essential to consider precautions against excessive
exposure of eyes or skin.
Some products are too small to be inspected by the naked eye. For such
products some form of magnification is needed. This magnification can be
achieved directly by viewing through a microscope or a magnifier. In either
case the lighting required can be an integral part of the equipment
provided.
Sometimes it is necessary to inspect moving parts whilst they are moving
49
rapidly. Stroboscopic illumination can be used to apparently ‘slow down’ or

‘stop’ the movement of constant speed rotating or reciprocating machinery.
To be successful the technique requires a very regular movement and very
little illumination apart from that provided by the stroboscope. For safety
reasons, whenever using this technique the operator’s attention should be
drawn to the fact that although the machine is apparently moving only
slowly or has stopped, it is actually still moving at the original speed.
3.18.3 Practical aspects The vast majority of visual inspection work involves looking for more than
one feature in a product at a time. As different features may be most
3.18.3.1 Multiple defects effectively revealed by different lighting techniques, this implies that visual
inspection should be arranged sequentially with different lighting being
produced for each stage. Rarely is this an economic proposition. Usually a
compromise is required in which several different forms of lighting are
provided at the inspection area and the inspector uses them as he thinks fit.
This compromise approach will be most easily accomplished if the product
is sufficiently small and light for the inspector to manipulate it amongst the
various lighting conditions himself. If this is not possible then sequential
inspection lighting based on the most important features which need to be
detected may have to be used.
3.18.3.2 Separation from general Most inspection lighting techniques rely for their effect on creating
lighting conditions very different from those produced by the uniform lighting
commonly provided in production areas. Therefore, if inspection lighting
is to be effective, it either has to be much brighter than the production area
lighting or it has to be separated from the production area lighting. A
separate inspection room is rarely possible, but an inspection booth of some
sort usually is. Figure 3.30 shows the design of an inspection booth for
inspecting veneer pressings for flatness by using glancing angle lighting.
Note the canopy shielding the inspector from the overhead lighting, and the
pivoting mirror so that it can be set at a convenient angle for the inspector.
The linear lamps may be fluorescent tubes with reflectors or double-ended
clear tubular filament lamps.
Figure 3.30 Apparatus for directional lighting, inspecting veneer pressings for flatness
50
3.18.3.3 The need for direct The most suitable form of inspection lighting for any specific product
involvement cannot be determined remotely. The variety of lighting effects that are
possible is too large that a simple verbal description of the object to be
inspected and the features to be found will be insufficient to identify the
appropriate lighting technique. There is no substitute for the lighting
designer being directly involved with the inspection task or at the very least,
having available samples of the objects to be inspected which contain a
representative collection of the features that need to be identified. Only
then will the lighting designer be able to ‘tailor’ the lighting to the task.
3.19 Emergency lighting Emergency lighting is provided to enable essential activities to be carried
out in the event of the normal lighting failing, for whatever reason. These
essential activities can be divided into three types. The first, and most
3.19.1 Types of emergency common, is to evacuate the area affected quickly and safely. This type of
lighting emergency lighting is called escape lighting. The second is to put
machinery, plant or processors into a safe and stable state before evacuating
the area. This type of emergency lighting is called special location
emergency lighting. The third type of activity is where continuous
operation is necessary during the failure of the normal lighting. This type of
emergency lighting is called standby lighting.
3.19.2 Escape lighting Escape lighting is provided to ensure the safe and efficient evacuation of an
requirements interior. It must (a) identify the escape route clearly and unambiguously
and the direction of movement along it, (b) illuminate the escape route to
allow safe movement towards and out of the exit and (c) ensure that fire
alarm call points and fire fighting equipment provided along the escape
route can be readily located.
The standards usually adopted for escape lighting are specified in BS 5266
and in CIBSE Technical Memorandum 12, Emergency Lighting. Neither of
these documents are legal requirements. However, they can acquire legal
status by reference. Although most enforcing authorities quote BS 5266,
some modify the conditions. For example, they may insist on a higher
illuminance. Therefore, the designer must thoroughly investigate the
standards that will be applied to the interior by the client and by the
relevant enforcing authority.
3.19.2.1 Marking the route All exits and emergency exits must have exit or emergency exit signs.
Where direct sight of an exit is not possible, or there could be doubt as to the
direction, then direction signs with an appropriate arrow and the words
“EXIT” or “EMERGENCY EXIT” are required. The idea is to direct
someone who is unfamiliar with the building to the exit. All of these signs
must be illuminated at all reasonable times so that they are legible. A typical
emergency lighting layout for a small factory is shown in Figure 3.31. Note
the exits are clearly marked with a luminaire outside the final exit,
luminaires are placed at changes of level and direction, and are also adjacent
to fire appliances.
3.19.2.2 Illuminating the route The minimum illuminance along the centre line of a clearly defined escape
route should be 0.2 lx, and 50% of the route width for escape routes up to 2
metres wide should be lit to a minimum of 0.1 lx. Gangways should be lit as
clearly defined escape routes. Where the escape route is not defined, the
average horizontal illuminance should not be less than 1.0 lx. It is important
to note that most fires are accompanied by smoke and that smoke may affect
the illuminances produced on the escape routes.
The emergency lighting must reach its required illuminance 5 seconds after
51
failure of the main lighting system. If the occupants are familiar with the
building, this time can be increased to 15 seconds at the discretion of the
enforcing authority. The minimum illuminance should be exceeded for at
least one hour. Durations of three hours may be necessary in large complex
premises, particularly where people unfamiliar with the site or of limited
mobility may be present.
Figure 3.31 Typical emergency lighting scheme for small factory
The emergency lighting luminaires should not cause problems of disability

glare. Luminaires should be mounted at least 2m above floor level in order
to avoid glare but should not be much higher as they may become obscured
by smoke.
Luminaires should be located near each exit door and emergency exit door
and at points where it is necessary to emphasise the position of potential
hazards, such as changes of direction, staircases, changes of floor level and
so on.
Fire fighting equipment and fire alarm call points along the escape route
must be adequately illuminated at all reasonable times.
Although these may not be used in the event of fire they should be
illuminated. Emergency lighting is required in each lift car in which people
can travel. Escalators must be illuminated to the same standard as the
escape route to prevent accidents.
Emergency lighting luminaires2 are required in all control rooms and plant
rooms. In toilets of over 8 m gross area, emergency lighting should be
installed to provide a minimum of 0.2 lx.
52
3.19.3 Special location Special location emergency lighting is required in cases where machinery,
emergency lighting plant or processors need to be brought to a safe and stable state before the
area is evacuated. For such locations, the area should be illuminated to a
minimum illuminance of 2 lx or such higher illuminances as may be
necessary for the particular task. The emergency lighting may be needed
for less time than is recommended for escape route lighting, the minimum
duration being determined by an assessment of the time required to make
the machinery or process safe. After this period, the emergency lighting
may be extinguished or the illuminance provided reduced depending on
whether the area forms part of an escape route or not.
3.19.4 Standby lighting For areas where continuous operation is needed throughout the period of
failure of the normal lighting, standby lighting should be installed. The
illuminance provided by standby lighting can vary from 5 per cent to 100
per cent of the standard service illuminance provided by the normal
lighting, depending on the nature of the activities that need to continue.
The correct lighting requirement can only be established by careful analysis
of each situation.
4 Exterior lighting recommendations
4.1 Introduction There are numerous exterior areas associated with places of work, usually
falling into three groups: working, access and storage. For all these areas
the lighting must be designed to give a safe environment by revealing
obstacles and hazards and be of a quantity and nature to enable efficient
operation.
4.2 Loading bays
4.2.1 Introduction The lighting of loading bays frequently pays little attention to the needs of
the end user. For instance, it is pointless having a luminaire mounted under
a canopy covering a loading bay door where a large vehicle can reverse up to
the bay door and eliminate any possibility of the luminaire contributing
useful illumination to any working area other than to the vehicle roof or the
inside of the vehicle if the roof is translucent.
4.2.2 low canopy loading bays In bays with canopies 3-6 m above ground level, tubular fluorescent
luminaires of IP23 or above should be used. Because of the possibility of
sub-zero starting conditions it is better to restrict fluorescent tube lengths
to 1500 mm for switch start circuits, electronic start circuits can be used for
any tube length. These two types of circuits will ensure reliable starting
throughout the normal temperature operating range.
Luminaires should be so placed as to illuminate the areas to both sides of a

vehicle as it reverses up to the loading bay door (see Figure 4.1); This allows
the driver to place the vehicle wherever he needs without creating shadows
and hazards. Figure 4.1 shows a typical layout of a fluorescent luminaire
canopy mounted to illuminate as much as possible of the area between the
vehicles and to facilitate unloading from the sides of the vehicles. Very deep
canopies may required two or three luminaires per vehicle side in place of
the single luminaire shown in Figure 4.1.
53
Figure 4.1 Correct luminaire positioning for loading bay with low canopy
4.2.3 High canopy loading bays For canopies with heights greater than 6 m, as well as tubular fluorescent
lamps, high pressure sodium discharge lamps can be considered in the form
of high bay luminaires with dispersive reflectors mounted on the canopy in
a similar layout to Figure 4.1. If loading doors are further apart, the
luminaires could be further apart to suit the vehicle use.
A further alternative for high canopies is the use of general purpose wide
beam floodlight luminaires with high pressure sodium discharge lamps
mounted in similar positions to high bay luminaires or on the loading bay
walls (see Figure 4.2). When using high bay or floodlight luminaires, great
care has to be taken so that undue glare is not caused to operatives,
particularly vehicle drivers, as accidents could be so easily induced. Always
keep the peak beam of the floodlight out of the normal line of sight or light
backwards to eliminate glare, as in Figure 4.3. Back floodlighting does not
provide much lighting beyond the canopy edge. However, the movement of
shadows may help the driver to position the vehicle.
4.2.4 Lighting vehicle interior To help operatives see inside the vehicle and to assist with the task of
loading and unloading it is sometimes beneficial to place one or more small
wattage floodlight luminaires of the impact resistant type, on the loading
bay door or on swinging arms on either side. If it is not a practical possibility
then at least one floodlight should be mounted on one side aimed inside the
rear of the vehicle. Two such units will produce a reasonably balanced
environment to enable operative and fork- lift drive trucks to load and
unload the inside of the vehicle. These floodlights should be switched on
automatically when the loading bay doors are open and/or a vehicle is at the
bay.
54
Figure 4.2 Floodlighting luminaires for high canopy loading bays
Figure 4.3 Back-floodlighting for high canopies
4.2.5 Stepped loading bays If the canopy has a stepped loading ramp under it (see Figure 4.4) then
sufficient light should also fall on the ramp as well as between vehicles. It is
less important in this instance which way the luminaires run, but generally
the above guidance still applies. The edge of the loading bay should be
delineated.
55
Figure 4.4 Using light to mark the edge of a loading bay
4.2.6 Adjacent areas Care should be taken to ensure that the illuminances in areas adjacent to the
loading bay are not greatly different from that of the loading bay. For
example, the ratio of the standard service illuminances in an interior storage
area and on an adjacent loading bay should not be greater than 10:1.
4.3 Outdoor working and

storage areas
4.3.1 Introduction Area lighting is used to illuminate an open space, such as a car park or
storage yard. Usually, the luminaires are mounted on poles along one or
more sides of the area, but in cases of larger areas there may be a small
number of lighting towers.
4.3.2 Areas free from In this situation, two things can be done to help produce an economical area
obstruction lighting scheme. First, the most efficient type of lamp should be used,
noting that it is more economical to use a small number of large lamps than a
greater number of small lamps. Second, it is more economical to trust to a
group of luminaires on a single support than to mount each individually. Of
course these ideas must be applied with discretion because the area of
darkness is greater in the event of a fault. If the luminaires or clusters of
luminaires are spaced too far apart relative to the mounting height, the
lighting will be uneven and there will be dark patches which will make the
installation ineffective for security purposes. The ideal arrangement is
where every point in the area receives light in substantial proportions from
at least two directions, this will reduce the shadows considerably. In
56
general, the lower the mounting height of the lamps, the greater the
likelihood of damage and the greater the degree of glare caused. Putting the
lamps higher improves the spread of light and results in fewer lamps being
needed. The mounting height should be related to the light output of each
lamp (see Section 6.4.3).
Usually a lamp column or tower with its associated wiring is relatively

expensive compared with the cost of a single luminaire. It therefore
becomes logical to cluster two or more luminaires on a single column or
mast, if this suits the lighting layout. The luminaires on a single stalk may
face the same or different directions or might even be mounted at different
heights.
As for spacing, the idea is to space the luminaires as far apart as possible
whilst maintaining an acceptable uniformity ratio for the illuminance on the
area. Typically a ratio of minimum to average illuminance of 1 to 8 is
acceptable and achievable. Spacing the luminaires too far apart will result in
pools of light with dark areas between in which it may not be possible to see
what is happening. A typical layout showing spacing in terms of mounting
height of the luminaires is shown in Figure 4.5, which can be used for either
road lighting lanterns or floodlighting lanterns. As a rule of thumb, a
spacing/mounting height ratio of 6:1 will be satisfactory. It should also be
noted that it is usually both glaring and inefficient to aim floodlights at
angles greater than 75° from the downward vertical.
Figure 4.5 Typical layout for single floodlights
Figure 4.6 Typical layout for placing additional columns
57
If the area is so large that it cannot be illuminated by luminaires on columns

or masts around its perimeter, it may be necessary to place additional
columns or masts in the area (see Figure 4.6). An alternative approach for
large areas is to use corner or central high mast installations. High mast
installations typically have masts of 18 metres or more. High mast
installations are beyond the scope of this guide so the advice of an
experienced lighting engineer should be sought.
4.3.3 Obstructed areas In designing area lighting it must be appreciated that in some areas, such as
lorry parks and container terminals, obstructions may cause long shadows
and very dark areas. Increasing the mounting height in such a situation can
dramatically reduce the size of the shadowed area.
4.3.4 Gantry and crane yards Gantry yards are typical of many areas used for the storage of steel stock,
iron, concrete pipes, bulk paper, etc. The area is divided into long narrow
access and storage areas served by overhead travelling cranes. The
stanchions supporting the gantry tracks can be used for mounting the
floodlights which should be directed so as to illuminate each bay from both
sides (see Figure 4.7). Although crane rail heights vary, the luminaires
should be mounted at about 6 or 7 metres. Supplementary lighting should
also be provided on the crane bridge. For this type of installation special
attention has to be paid to the luminaire fixing arrangement, to ensure that
it will withstand the vibration set up by the movement of cranes. Lighting
each bay separately may be a good arrangement to enable energy savings to
be made from switching, and avoiding obstruction.
Figure 4.7 Floodlighting gantry-stockyard
In cases where operators have to move about on the tops of the stacks to
handle stock or hoisting tackle or for other reasons, mounting height is
particularly important and it may be necessary to add extension poles to the
stanchions to obtain height to provide the illumination where it is required.
Bays where vehicle movements occur need supplementary luminaires

mounted on columns or towers opposite the ends of the bays so as to
illuminate these important loading areas without shadows. With the bay
58
dimensions usually encountered wide angle floodlights are most applicable

as having a good general light distribution without wasteful upward light.
The latter features may also help to restrict glare towards the crane.
4.3.5 Bulk tank storage Where access and working areas have to be illuminated between bulk tanks,
the main problem is to get the light down to the necessary areas between the
often tall tanks. Generally luminaires can be placed between the tanks, on
columns, masts or even on the supporting steelwork of the tanks
themselves. Care will have to be taken when siting the luminaires that long
shadows or even dark areas are not created between tanks. A high mounting
height and careful location so that all areas are lit from two directions will
greatly alleviate this problem (see Figure 4.8).
Figure 4.8 Plan of tank farm lighting
4.3.6 large open stocking areas The sort of areas which would fall under this heading are for instance, solid
fuel stores at power stations and the mining industry. Generally in the coal
industry the stocks are built up during the summer months and may rise to
6 or 9 million tons. Areas covered are large and it is not unusual for land in
excess of 10,000 square metres to be used. Tipping gives rise to a series of
mounds and valleys that have to be created and levelled by mechanical
means, i.e. bulldozers, mechanical shovels, etc. Vehicle headlights provide
only strictly local illumination and as the surface is dark the luminance will
be low. These exceptional conditions call for a technique which is rather
different from normal floodlighting as the low reflectivity of the surround-
ings makes attempts to obtain an adequate bright visual field of medium to
high luminance uneconomical. The alternative is to reveal the shapes of
mounds and valleys by a combination of shadows and silhouette vision (see
Figure 4.9). Since silhouette vision depends on looking towards a light
source or illuminated background, the floodlighting positions have to be
selected accordingly. It is common to illuminate such areas using a series of
towers around the perimeter with several narrow beam floodlight lumin-
aires on each tower to provide an average illuminance of greater than 5 lx.
High towers call for high wattage discharge lamps with narrow beam
distributions. The illumination in the areas of hoppers, conveyer belts,
fixed loadings and unloading zones, etc. should be enhanced with
additional luminaires.
59
Figure 4.9 Silhouette lighting for coal storage
4.4 Factory roadway

lighting
4.4.1 Introduction The lighting of public highways is outside the scope of this guide, the
principles being well documented in BS 5489 Road Lighting. The approach
adopted here is suitable for simple roadway, footway and footpath lighting
within factories and industrial sites where the speed of vehicles is restricted
to less than 30 miles per hour and vehicles normally drive on dipped
headlights during hours of darkness. If the roadway within a site should fall
within the category of a major traffic route then its design should be in
accordance with BS 5489, Part 2.
4.4.2 Principles The purpose of lighting roadways within a factory site is to enable
pedestrians to detect vehicular and other hazards, to provide guidance for
vehicles and to assist security. To fulfil these purposes the average and
point illuminances recommended above should be provided over the
relevant area, which includes the road, footway and any intermediate
verges, as well as any surfaces shared by both vehicles and pedestrians. The
values are minimum design values. They are based on the lighting design
lumens of the lamp and the appropriate maintenance factor (see Section
5.4.5).
Further, both disability and discomfort glare need to be controlled. The

maximum luminous intensity per 1000 lumen criteria described above will
ensure the necessary degree of control.
It is most important to remember when designing roadway lighting that the
60
scene is viewed in horizontal perspective and not in plan. Rows of lanterns

tend to lead users along the lines which they should follow. It is therefore
essential that confused patterns are not created by badly sited lanterns
which give the impression of roads continuing where they do not.
4.4.3 Roadway lighting design On the basis of luminous efficacy and life, the most suitable light sources for
roadway lighting on factory sites are low pressure and high pressure sodium
4.4.3.1 Light sources discharge lamps. Within many factory sites, recognition of people and
objects frequently involves colour judgement. It is therefore better to use
high pressure sodium rather than low pressure sodium lamps in spite of the
latter’s greater luminous efficacy, where pedestrian activities predominate.
4.4.3.2 Lanterns In general, post top or end support lanterns with or without integral control
gear offer economic and aesthetic design solutions for factory roadway
lighting. However, the exact choice of lantern will depend on the design
criteria adopted, and the environmental conditions in which the lantern will
have to operate, including whether or not the area is classified as safe or
hazardous. The environmental conditions are important because they
affect the degree of ingress protection needed by the lantern (see Section
5.2.1). The degree of Ingress Protection of the lantern will have a
considerable effect upon the maintenance factor which must be applied for
the same cleaning interval. For example, a lantern with a high IP 23 rating
will have a maintenance factor of 0.53, whilst a lantern with an IP 54 rating
will have a maintenance factor of 0.86, for a 12 month cleaning interval in a
high pollution area.
The degree and type of atmospheric pollution can also affect the properties
of some materials which are used in lantern construction. Aluminium alloys
with a high magnesium content should not be used in heavy industrial
areas.
Many lanterns incorporate lamp control gear integrally mounted either in

the lamp enclosure or a separate chamber. This system is particularly
advantageous where lanterns are fixed to a building structure and also
where individual photocell control is required, as the cabling is much
simpler.
4.4.3.3 Mounting height The mounting heights of lanterns will be governed to some extent by the
design requirement to provide a minimum point illuminance of 2.5 lx over
the relevant area, but there are also a number of practical aspects which
should be considered. These are (a) the maximum height which can be
reached by the maintenance equipment available on the site, (b) where it is
not possible to erect columns the lanterns may have to be mounted on other
structures and will therefore be restricted to the available heights, (c)
hazardous area conditions at ground level may cause the mounting height to
be increased so that the lantern with integral lamp control gear can be
located in a safe area, and only the cable termination in the column base
need be suitably certified, (d) overhead electrical supply cables will restrict
the column height to give the safe clearance distance appropriate to the
voltage carried.
4.4.3.4 Arrangement A staggered arrangement of lanterns is preferred for most roadways but a
single side arrangement may be used providing the design criteria are met.
Lanterns should not restrict the passage of any vehicle likely to use the
carriageway and should not project beyond the kerb. Columns should be
mounted to give a clearance of 0.8 metres from the surface of the column to
the kerb. Bends and roundabouts should be lit by lanterns on the outside of
61
the kerb but it may be necessary to place lanterns on the inside to meet the
design requirements. Junctions should be treated as shown in Figure 4.10.
Pedestrian crossings should have a lantern placed just beyond the crossing
from the approaching driver.
Figure 4.10 Lantern placement for junctions; (a) T junctions; (b) Cross Roads; (c) Roundabouts
4.5 Security lighting
4.5.1 Introduction The risk of a crime being committed is significantly higher at night than
during the hours of daylight. Security lighting reduces this risk for two
reasons: psychologically it acts as a deterrent to criminals who prefer to
work under the cover of darkness, and functionally it allows security
officers to see anything that may be happening in an area. Several factors
affect the choice of lighting for security purposes: the economics of the
situation, whether other security systems, such as closed circuit television
surveillance are to be employed, the location of the lighting and the kind of
premises being protected.
4.5.2 Principles The primary principle of security lighting is to provide sufficient light over
the protected area so that anyone moving in that area can be seen and
preferably recognised easily. There should be no dark shadowed areas in
which an intruder can hide.
Security lighting applications are many and varied, they range from the
protection of a small rear door to the security of a large industrial stocking
area, perhaps covering several thousand square metres. If closed circuit
television surveillance is involved then the lighting criteria may be
determined by the characteristics of the camera used, although it should
always be remembered that ultimately if intruders are to be deterred then
62
the possibility of active intervention by guards is necessary. This will

require the illuminances recommended in order for the guards to be able to
see the intruder adequately.
Most security lighting can be adequately provided by area lighting and

roadway lighting as described in Sections 4.3 and 4.4. However, there are
some areas which require special treatment.
4.5.3 Perimeter lighting Perimeter lighting is intended to enable security guards or police to detect
anybody loitering outside a perimeter, which may be a fence or a building,
or attempting to cross the fence or enter the building. Figure 4.11 illustrates
suggested layouts for the security lighting of perimeters, including spacing,
where H is the height of the luminaire and the spacing is 3 to 4 H. Street
lighting lanterns, as shown, or floodlights and lanterns can be used.
Figure 4.11 Street lighting lanterns and Figure 4.12 Checkpoint lighting with roadway
columns just inside the boundary fence entrance
4.5.4 Checkpoints A perimeter fence can be returned along the line of an entrance roadway and
the space between the two facing lines of fence brightly illuminated. This
creates a channel through which it is impossible to pass without being seen
and will often stop unauthorised people even if there is no gate. Figure 4.12
illustrates a typical layout. At a gatehouse or vehicle checkpoint a
convenient arrangement is to have local floodlights and a fence or light
coloured wall extending for at least two vehicle lengths from the
observation point and local lighting at lower level for checking vehicles and
drivers papers. Sufficient light should penetrate horizontally to enable the
inside of the vehicle to be checked adequately.
4.5.5 Gate houses The interior lighting of a gate house should be shielded and subdued, and
fitted with a dimmer. The idea is to prevent the gateman from being seen
from outside, to ensure that his view is not hampered by bright reflections
on the inside of the windows and to maintain his dark adaptation. The
principles are illustrated in Figure 4.13. If the windows of the gate house
are covered with wire mesh painted white outside or are made of very small
glass panes with white painted glazing bars between, or if half silvered glass
is used, it will make it almost impossible for anyone to see in from outside,
especially if the interior of the gate house is painted in dark colours. If there
are windows on both sides of the gate house care should be taken that the
gateman is not seen or silhouetted by other outside lighting. It should be
impossible to tell from outside whether a gate house or security hut is
occupied or not but the view from inside should be unimpeded.
63
Figure 4.13 Gate house lighting
4.5.6 Floodlighting buildings Floodlighting a building or wall creates a bright background against which
an intruder may be readily seen. If the district brightness is low, the thief
standing in the space between the building and the floodlight projectors
finds himself in a very difficult dilemma; going forwards towards the
building will increase the likelihood of his being seen, yet to retreat towards
the floodlights is dangerous for him as there may be police or security
guards behind the glare of the lights. This approach is illustrated in Figure
4.14. In theory an intruder might decrease the chance of his being seen at
night if he suitably camouflaged himself, for example, if he wore dark
clothes and blacked his face. This might work if the building surfaces and
the grounds were of the same reflectance but if the building and the area
around it has a number of different reflectances such attempts at
camouflage will be unsuccessful.
Figure 4.14 Floodlighting
The floodlighting of buildings is described more fully in the CIBSE
Lighting Guide, The outdoor environment. In the context of security it should
be noted that floodlights mounted low or on the ground may be subject to
damage or deliberate interference unless they protected. In some
situations, better revealment and lower cost will result from lighting
building faces around an area rather than using area lighting. There may be
publicity value in the floodlighting as well.
4.5.7 CCTV surveillance Closed circuit TV surveillance is a common security facility. The main role
of lighting in such a facility is to allow the camera to produce a good quality
picture. To do this it is essential to determine (a) the sensitivity of the
camera to the wavelengths produced by the light source, (b) the minimum
illuminance that will be required to produce good quality pictures,
especially of moving objects, (c) the location of the camera, and (d) the area
to be surveyed.
The spectral sensitivities of CCTV cameras are not the same as the human
visual system, many being sensitive to infrared radiation as well as visible
radiation. The choice of light source should take the spectral sensitivity of
the camera into account.
Most manufacturers of camera will indicate a minimum illuminance to be
64
provided for the camera to operate successfully. However, if moving

objects are to be successfully shown an illuminance above the minimum
should be provided. Care should be taken to provide the required
illuminance evenly on all of the relevant surfaces.
Ideally, the camera and the luminaires should be in the same plane. Where
this is not possible the luminaires should be located so as to light the whole
surveyed area uniformly. It is essential that the luminaires do not silhouette
any object of interest nor should they point directly into the camera.
The area to be surveyed should be determined with care, particularly if the

camera is of the motorised pan and tilt type. Only when the complete area to
be surveyed is known will it be possible to select suitable positions for the
camera and luminaires so that uniform lighting can be provided on all
relevant surfaces and static highlights, e.g. direct sunlight, and moving
highlights, e.g. vehicle headlights, can be avoided.
When designing a security lighting system for use with CCTV it is essential
that guidance as to the characteristics of the CCTV system be sought from a
competent systems installer. It is also necessary to remember that the
lighting installation has a role to play in security, independent of the CCTV
system. A well lit area will deter thieves and intruders and will enable
anyone responding to the CCTV surveillance to see what is happening. A
well designed security lighting system should be capable of meeting the
requirements of both people and CCTV cameras.
4.6 Sidings, marshalling

yards and goods yards
4.6.1 Sidings In principle sidings can be treated as examples of area lighting. However
there are some features which deserve special attention. One is the presence
of essential signals. These are of great importance when the lighting is being
planned. The floodlight luminaires must not be positioned or directed so as
to appear close to signals when viewed by an approaching driver. Apart
from any confusion, glare can readily mask the light of the signal itself.
Further, the floodlights should not be positioned so that reflections from
the signal glasses give misleading impressions.
Careful placing of the lighting can greatly enhance the visibility of certain
features such as the lie of points or the occupation of sidings when viewed
from specific viewpoints. This is achieved by arranging for the light source,
the track concerned and the viewpoint all to be roughly in line. This
alignment takes advantage of the specular reflections from the polished
surfaces of the rails to reveal them clearly.
65
4.6.2 Marshalling yards The object of a marshalling yard is to receive trains of mixed wagons
intended for many destinations, and to sort them out into several trains
destined for particular towns or areas. The basic arrangement thus consists
of a number of ‘roads’ (a track formed by a pair of rails is often referred to as
a ‘road’) into which the wagons can be switched from a single sorting point
(the ‘neck’). The smaller yards are usually flat and the wagons have to be
moved by shunting engines. the larger yards on the other hand are normally
of the hump type, in which the wagons are pushed up the hump at the neck,
and run down by gravity over the points of their respective roads.
On arrival, the mixed trains are placed in reception sidings until they can be
handled in the marshalling areas. The reading of the destination labels by
the sorters involves the use of hand lamps, as not only is this a
comparatively fine visual task, but the labels are frequently on the lower
framework and in shadow. On the other hand if the general lighting is
properly arranged it is often sufficient for preliminary sorting; this is
sometimes done by the recognition of label colours. For this reason
monochromatic light sources such as the low pressure sodium discharge
lamp should not be used in these areas. When the destination of a wagon has
been determined, the sorters chalk large numbers on the wagon ends,
indicating to which road they are to be moved in the marshalling yard.
Whilst in these sidings the wagons are checked by the wagon inspector,
handlamps are necessary for examination of the undercarriage and other
parts of the wagon.
From the reception sidings the wagons are pushed through the neck and
distributed to their various roads. Lighting of the hump or neck area is very
important; operatives must have a clear view in both directions without
glare, so that they can see the chalk numbers on approaching wagons, the
setting of the points, and the amount of clear track left in each of the train
sidings. Viewed from the neck area vertical plane illumination also becomes
important in assisting the identification of wagon markings, or judging the
speed of approaching or receding wagons. In such cases illumination on the
end of the moving wagon is essential.
In mechanised hump yards the speed of the wagons running into the
different roads is controlled by automatic retarders, but in other yards
operatives known as ‘chasers’ have to apply the wagon brakes according to
requirements. The lighting in this area has to reveal any spillage from
trucks or other obstacles endangering the chasers, besides allowing them to
perform their normal duties.
Consideration of the various factors discussed in this report suggests that a

high tower installation is usually more suitable for these large areas, besides
having the advantage of less risk of confusion with signals. With properly
Figure 4.15 Maximum angle for effective sited towers the banks of lamps are normally well away from the line of sight
lighting between wagons of an engine driver on the main line, and are easy to recognise as a group of
floodlights. Low mounted lights tend to form a large and irregular pattern
and it may not be easy to pick out a signal from its confused background of
lights. Tower positions should be selected and placed as near as is practical
to the higher illumination areas such as those around points, hump and
neck. As mentioned above, as far as possible the floodlights should be
directed along the tracks, but where the lighting has to be across occupied
tracks, the results depend on reflections from wagon sides etc., and can
only be considered effective up to a limiting angle of about 45° (see Figure
4.15). The lateral spacing thus depends on the height of the luminaires less
the height of a wagon or coach. The maximum lateral spacing is obtained
with the higher towers as the light coverage increases at a greater rate than
the height. For example, if the height of a coach is 4 m and mounting height
of the lighting 7.5 m, (see Figure 4.16) the maximum lateral spacing is 2 x
Figure 4.16 Maximum lateral spacing
(7.5 – 4) or 7 m. If the mounting height is increased six times, to 45 m, the
66
lateral spacing can be increased to 2 x (45 – 4) or 82 m, or nearly 12 times.
Floodlight luminaires should be selected with care to avoid’ glare to

operatives, the majority of light flux distributed from a floodlight, should
generally be contained within an angle not greater than 75°, to the
downward vertical, i.e. minimal light flux, should fall outside the 75° (see
Figure 4.17).
Figure 4.17 Limiting glare angle
4.6.3 Goods depots Normally goods depots consist of sidings for loading and unloading road
vehicles and standing or berthing sidings.
The main concern is the loading and unloading area with its associated
traffic space. Motor road systems within the yard should have road lighting,
as specified in British Standard BS 5489, Code of Practice for Roadlighting.
For other areas, low or medium height installations, use broad beam
asymmetric floodlights, or lantern type luminaires on columns or catenary
wire. The layout and height employed naturally varying with the local
conditions. All columns and catenary systems must give sufficient
clearance for the manoeuvring of vehicles and movement of cranes, and be
high enough for light penetration into open wagons. Penetration into the
van type of wagon is naturally desirable, but this can be provided only to a
very limited extent and is usually impractical as an excessively close spacing
would be involved. Nevertheless, in loading yards, any bias in the direction
of the lighting should be towards the loading side of the wagons. Where
cranes are used see Section 4.3.4.
4.7 Dockyards, terminals,

jetties and quays
Most modern docks are constructed as a series of bays to provide the

maximum amount of usable quay length from which to service the ship.
Decisions concerning the lighting can only be satisfactorily resolved by
separately considering each type of facility and evaluating the various areas
which may present significant differences in visual tasks.
4.7.1 Container and bulk Container terminals involve cargo movement by rail or road. The highest
cargo terminals illuminances are required at the quayside where the landing and hoisting
originates and where the securing or releasing of chassis locking devices is
67
likely to be part of the work. Bulk cargo is received by road or rail for
loading aboard ship and is discharged from the vessels and transported
away from the dockside by similar means. Typical cargo handling devices
include conveyer systems, gantry cranes, suction devices and powerful
electromagnetic collectors. The highest illuminances are needed where the
transfer of cargo from ship to road or rail and vice versa occur.
The lighting installation in all these areas has to satisfy certain primary
requirements. It must not be allowed to produce glare to passing shipping
or to navigators of vessels moving alongside. Neither must any columns,
masts or towers, or individual luminaires obstruct or diminish the effect of
navigational aids or signs. In practice, the avoidance of glare and harsh
shadows is at least as important as the illuminance. However, terminals and
docksides are vulnerable to unauthorised intrusion and theft can be a
serious problem during the hours of darkness. Control of glare from the
lighting system and the elimination of shadows will facilitate the task of
visual supervision and the surveillance of the site.
Because large areas of land need to be kept clear to allow for the general
movement of vehicles and cargo and the swinging loads of both fixed and
travelling cranes, a useful approach is a high tower floodlighting system. A
high tower installation has the great advantage of being able to light
between stacked containers, cargoes and dockside buildings easily. These
can present significant obstructions to the flow of light from floodlight
situations where their mounting height above ground is a more traditional 8
to 20 metres. The location of all high masts must be chosen with care to
ensure the minimum physical hindrance to work and traffic flow within the
area. Tower heights may be in the range 35 to 70 metres. An illuminance of
50 lx covering the whole working area will normally be sufficient for crane
operations. This illuminance can be provided by uniform area lighting or, if
a lower illuminance is provided generally, supplementary lighting by
floodlights attached to cranes and container handling equipment may be
used. However, it is recommended that such lighting should not be
mounted on any section of a crane that rotates. Constantly moving patches
of light with noticeably higher luminances than the ambient luminances
may distract the attention of those working in the vicinity of the crane.
4.7.2 Jetties Jetties generally extend into the waterway and are usually a T-shaped
structure. Because of the need to restrict glare to the surrounding waterway
and to satisfy stringent navigational requirements it may be necessary to use
louvred floodlights. Working conditions on a jetty, particularly if it handles
oil or chemical cargoes may be much more arduous than in the main
harbour basin or container terminal. The need for good lighting is essential
and if the area is classed as a hazard zone all locally mounted lighting
equipment must be suitably robust and corrosion resistant to suit the
onerous conditions and may need to be of a selected design that meets
national and international regulations covering the use of electrical
equipment in areas where there is an explosion hazard (CIBSE Application
Guide: Lighting in hostile and hazardous environments). Attention to the
benefits of standardisation in the type of lighting installed and how access
would be gained to luminaires for relamping and cleaning would be
prudent.
4.7.3 Quaysides for Guidance for the lighting of shipbuilding berths and docks, fitting- out
general cargo quays, repair yards and graving docks can be found in the CIBSE Lighting
Guide for the Shipbuilding and Ship Repair Industry. This is an industry
that presents particular challenges to the various lighting systems that it
requires as there are tremendous variations in the nature of visual work;
many of the tasks having to be performed in unusual and singularly
68
awkward locations. In this regard, many of the individual needs and

recommendations applicable to ship construction and repair could be of
considerable help to the lighting engineer faced with the lighting of general
cargoes at open docks and quaysides.
5 Equipment
5.1 Light sources The main types of light source referred to in this guide are (a) tungsten
filament, (b) tungsten halogen filament, (c) high pressure mercury
5.1.1 Introduction discharge (fluorescent), (d) high pressure mercury discharge (metal halide),
(e) low pressure mercury discharge (tubular fluorescent), (f) high pressure
sodium discharge, (g) low pressure sodium discharge.
Within each type there are a range of lamps available which differ in
construction, wattage, luminous efficacy, colour properties, cost, etc.
For exact details of the characteristics of a specific light source the
manufacturers should be consulted.
5.1.2 Summary of light The broad properties of the light sources commonly used for lighting in
source characteristics industry are summarised in Table 5.1. The meaning of the column
headings is as follows:
5.1.2.1 Lamp prefix letters These may be found marked on the lamp or on its packaging and in the UK
they are widely used as a means of identification. Additional letters may be
added to the end of the prefix according to the construction of the specific
lamp, e.g. F for a fluorescent coating, R for a reflector coating. The prefix
letters shown in brackets are widely used in Europe and may be found on
equipment in the UK.
5.1.2.2 Construction and Entries in this column describe the method of light production and the
appearance physical appearance of the lamp.
5.1.2.3 Luminous efficacy This is a measure of how efficiently the lamp converts electrical power
(measured in watts) to light (measured in lumens). The higher the value of
the luminous efficacy, the more efficient the lamp. A range of values is
given for each lamp type because luminous efficacy varies with power.
These values do not include the power consumed by any control gear that
may be required.
5.1.2.4 Life The life of a lamp will be affected by such factors as the switching cycle, the
voltage supply and the physical operating conditions. The lives of tungsten
and tungsten halogen incandescent lamps and metal halide and high
pressure sodium discharge lamps, are particularly sensitive to the voltage
applied. Within a range of lamps the life will vary from one wattage to
another, generally the lower wattage lamps having the shorter life. It is
always advisable to contact the lamp manufacturer for the data regarding
the particular lamp under consideration. The range of lamp life given refers
to the typical lamp life as defined by 50% of the lamps in a large installation
failing. The lower value in each range, refers to the lower wattage lamps and
the higher value refers to the higher wattages, generally used in industry.
69
Sometimes, information is supplied on the rated life of a lamp. This is

essentially an economic concept, representing the optimum point in time
for lamp replacement, thereby ensuring that operating costs are at a
minimum. The factors included in the estimation of rated life are electricity
and replacement labour costs, light output, lamp mortality and lamp price.
These factors will obviously vary according to local conditions.
Table 5.1 Summary of lamp characteristics
5.1.2.5 Colour rendering The extent to which a lamp type will give surface colours the same
appearance as they have under a reference light source, usually daylight.
Excellent colour rendering implies no distortion of surface colours.
5.1.2.6 Run-up time Tungsten, tungsten halogen and tubular fluorescent lamps produce
significant amounts of light immediately when switched on. All the other
lamp types require several minutes to approach full light output; this may
be important where installations have to be used at unexpected times.
70
5.1.2.7 Restrike time Tungsten, tungsten halogen and tubular fluorescent lamps can be switched
off and then switched on again immediately. All the other lamp types,
unless fitted with special control gear, show a significant delay after switch
off before they will re-ignite. This property may have important safety
implications as momentary interruption in the electricity supply can
extinguish these lamps and it may be some time before they can be re-lit.
5.1.3 Control gear The control gear which is associated with all types of discharge lamps
should fulfil three functions. It should (a) start the lamp, (b) control the
lamp current after ignition and (c) correct the power factor. Control gear
consumes energy. The efficiency of a lamp circuit as a whole depends on the
total power taken by the lamp and the control gear. It is also necessary to
consider the power factor of the circuit in order to minimise electricity
charges and to ensure correct cable ratings.
The current and the wattage ratings of cables, fuses and switchgear used in
the control gear must be related to the total current in the circuit, or an
allowance may be necessary for increased currents and voltages during
switching. Harmonic currents may be present and will increase the neutral
current in a three-phase system. Current ratings of neutral conductors
should be the same as that of phase conductors. Manufacturers can supply
information about the power factor and harmonic currents of their control
gear. All electrical installations should comply with the current edition and
amendments of the Regulations for Electrical Installations published by the
Institution of Electrical Engineers.
It is important to appreciate that the lamp and the associated control gear
constitute an integrated unit for producing light. Lamps from different
manufacturers may not operate on the same control gear even when the
lamps are nominally of the same type. Whenever any change is proposed in
either element of the lamp/control gear package, care should be taken to
ensure that the proposed combination is compatible, both electrically and
physically. For some lamps which are sensitive to the voltage applied
tapped chokes are provided. It is important that the voltage at the point of
connection is matched to the voltage tapping.
High frequency control gear is now widely available for tubular fluorescent
lamps. This gear has a number of advantages over conventional control
gear, the main ones being increased efficacy, instant starting and flicker
free operation. Special types of control gear are necessary if dimming or
rapid re-ignition of some types of discharge lamps are required, although
some types of high frequency control gear can be used to dim tubular
fluorescent lamps to a limited extent, without further modification.
The life of control gear is sensitive to ambient temperature. The control

gear used should have an appropriate temperature rating for the situation.
If this temperature is exceeded the insulating material may deteriorate
rapidly.
5.2 Luminaires Luminaires can take many different forms, but have to be safe during
installation and operation and be able to withstand the ambient conditions.
5.2.1 Standards and markings The standard which covers most luminaires in the UK is BS 4533:
Luminaires. It is suitable for use with luminaires containing tungsten
filament, tubular fluorescent and other discharge lamps running on supply
voltages not exceeding 1 kilovolt. It covers the electrical, mechanical and
thermal aspects of safety. Luminaires should comply with BS 4533.
71
In BS 4533, luminaires are classified according to the type of protection

against electrical shock that they have, the degree of protection against
ingress of dust or moisture they have, and according to the material of the
supporting surface which the luminaire is designed. Table 5.2 lists the
luminaire classes according to the type of protection against electric shock.
Class zero luminaires are not permitted in the UK by reason of the
Electrical Equipment (Safety Regulations) and the Electricity (Factories Act)
Special Regulations, 1908 and 1944.
Table 5.2 Classification of luminaires according to the type of protection provide against electric shock (from BS 4533)
The degree of protection the luminaire provides against the ingress of dust
and moisture is classified according to the Ingress Protection (IP) system.
This system describes a luminaire by two digits, for example, IP54. The
first digit classifies the degree of protection the luminaire provides against
the ingress of solid foreign bodies from fingers and tools, to fine dust. The
second digit classifies the degree of protection the luminaire provides
against the ingress of moisture. Table 5.3 lists the classes of these two digits.
Table 5.4 lists the IP numbers which correspond to some commonly used
descriptions of luminaire types. Table 5.5 lists the symbols which may be
used to mark the luminaires in addition to the IP number.
BS 4533 applies to most luminaires intended for use in neutral or hostile

environments (including luminaires with type of protection N (non
sparking)). It does not apply to many of the luminaires intended for use in
hazardous environments, i.e. environments in which there is a risk of fire or
explosion. For such applications there are different requirements so
different standards and certification procedures apply. Detailed guidance
on this topic can be found in the CIBSE Application Guide, Lighting for
Hostile and Hazardous Environments.
5.2.2 Summary of luminaire Table 5.6 summarises the properties of the luminaires which are most likely
characteristics to be used in lighting for industry. The column headings indicate, from left
to right, the common name of the luminaire type, the light source for which
it is usually available (identified by the prefix letters (see Table 5.l)), the
usual mounting position, the typical light distribution and some of the
applications where the luminaires are commonly used. The table only
gives an overview of the many types of luminaires available. For exact
information on any specific luminaire the manufacturer should always be
consulted.
72
Table 5.3 The degrees of protection against the ingress of solid bodies (first characteristic numeral) and moisture (second characteristic numeral) in the
Ingress Protection (IP) System of luminaire classification
Table 5.4 Ingress Protection (IP) numbers corresponding to some commonly used descriptions of luminaire types and the symbols which may be used to
mark a luminaire in addition to the IP number
73
Table 5.5 Information which should be marked on luminaires (from BS 4533)
Table 5.6. Summary of luminaire characteristics
74
5.3 Control systems Control systems are an inherent part of any lighting installation. They can
take many forms, varying from a simple wall switch to being a part of a
5.3.1 The function of control sophisticated microprocessor-controlled, building management system.
systems Whatever the method used, the aim of a control system is always to ensure
that the lighting system is only operating when it is required, and that when
it is, it is operating in the required state. The aim of most control systems is
to vary the light output of the installation, either by switching or by
dimming the lamps.
5.3.2 Switching In principle, all light sources can be switched but the light output that is
immediately available on switch on and the interval necessary between
restarts varies with lamp type (see Table 5.1). Switching can be achieved by
a number of different methods. The simplest is the manual switch. Remote
switches which use an infrared transmitter and a receiver on the luminaire
are also available. Both these forms of switching require human initiative.
Alternative forms of switching operate without human intervention.
Lamps can be switched by time switches or in response to the availability of
daylight or the occupation of an area. Photocells are used to sense the level
of daylight available, whilst sensors of noise level, movement and emitted
or reflected radiation have all been used to detect people’s presence.
One particular aspect of switching which has limited its use in the past has
been the difficulty of switching individual or small groups of luminaires
without excessive investment in wiring. Recent developments in elec-
tronics have made it possible to send switching signals by low voltage wiring
or by high frequency transmission pulses over the existing supply wiring.
Further, logic circuitry now exists which allows individual luminaires to
respond in one of several different ways. Such systems provide great
flexibility in the way the lighting installation can be used.
5.3.3 Dimming Whenever the ability to steadily diminish the illuminance in a room is
desirable, dimming is required. Tungsten filament lamps can be readily
dimmed. Not all discharge lamps can be dimmed and those that can, such
as tubular fluorescent lamps, may need special control gear. Dimming
lamps reduces the energy consumed by the lamp, but not necessarily in
proportion to the light output, and usually changes its colour properties.
Dimmers can be controlled manually or automatically in response to
daylight availability. Many of the electronic developments mentioned in
relation to switching can also be associated with dimming. Useful advice on
the selection of lighting control systems is given in the BRE Digest 272:
Lighting Controls and Daylight Use.
5.4 Maintenance of Maintenance of lighting systems keeps the performance of the system
lighting equipment within the design limits, promotes safety, and, if considered at the design
stage, can help to minimise the electrical load and capital costs. Mainten-
5.4.1 Introduction ance includes replacement of failed or deteriorated lamps and control gear,
and the cleaning of luminaires and room surfaces at suitable intervals.
5.4.2 Lamp replacement There are two factors which need to be considered when determining the
timing of lamp replacement; the change in light output and the probability
of lamp failure. The relative weight given to these two factors depends on
the lamp type. Tungsten and tungsten halogen lamps, both of which have a
filament, usually fail before the decline in light output becomes significant.
Therefore the replacement time for these lamps is determined by the
probability of lamp failure alone. All the other light sources conventionally
75
used in industry show a significant reduction in light output before a large

proportion fail. Therefore, for these lamps, both the decline in light output
and the probability of lamp failure are important in determining the lamp
replacement time. Frequently it is desirable to replace such lamps even
though they are still operating electrically, simply because the light output
has fallen to an uneconomic level.
For the majority of installations the most sensible procedure is to replace all
the lamps at planned intervals. This procedure, which is known as group
replacement, has visual, electrical and financial advantages over the
alternative of replacing individual lamps as they fail. Visually, group
replacement ensures that the installation maintains a uniform appearance.
Electrically, group replacement reduces the risk of damage to the control
gear caused by lamps nearing the end of their electrical life. Financially, by
arranging that the lamp replacement is associated with luminaire cleaning,
and doing it at a time when it will cause the minimum of disturbance to the
activities, the cost of lamp replacement can be minimised. Group replace-
ment is an appropriate procedure for routine maintenance. However, in
any large installation, a few lamps can be expected to fail prematurely.
Failure of control gear and luminaire components may occur, unless these
lamps are replaced promptly.
No matter whether lamps are replaced individually or in a group, a decision
has to be made about the replacement light source. As light source
development proceeds there is a temptation to replace one light source with
another which is superficially similar but of higher luminous efficacy. If
this course of action is attempted great care should be taken to establish that
the replacement light source and the existing control gear are compatible;
physically and electrically. Before replacing any discharge light source with
another of a different type, or the same type but from a different
manufacturer, advice on compatibility should be sought from the
manufacturers.
The timing and nature of lamp replacement is usually a matter of economic
and managerial judgement and may well be determined by factors other
than those directly related to the lighting. The proposed lamp replacement
procedure should be considered during the design of the installation.
5.4.2.1 Bulk disposal of lamps If lamps are to be disposed of in large quantities the following precautions
need to be observed.
Staff should be instructed to wear suitable protective clothing, in particular
eye protection and gloves to guard against broken glass.
Tubular fluorescent lamps, and the outer jackets of high pressure mercury,
sodium, and metal halide lamps should be broken in a suitable container, to
prevent flying glass, in a well ventilated area outdoors. There is no reason to
break the inner envelopes (arc tubes) of high pressure sodium, mercury and
metal halide lamps.
Low pressure sodium lamps should be broken into small pieces within a
large, dry container, in a well ventilated area outdoors, in a dry atmosphere.
As sodium reacts violently with water, precautions should also be taken
against fire.
No more than 20 lamps should be broken into a container at any one time.
When the container is no more than one-quarter full, the operator should
use a hose, from a safe distance, to fill the container full of water. The liquid
may then be disposed of as a very weak solution of caustic soda and the
debris as glass.
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5.4.3 Luminaire cleaning The rate at which dirt is deposited on and in a luminaire depends on the
interval amount and composition of the dirt in the atmosphere, and on the type of
luminaire. Over the same period and in the same location dustproof (IP 5X)
and dust tight (IP 6X) luminaires and open reflectors with slots in the top
will collect less dirt than louvred luminaires with closed tops, or luminaires
with unsealed diffusers. This last type frequently act as a dust trap.
For particularly dirty atmospheres or where access is difficult it is usually

best to have either dustproof (IP 5X) or dust tight (IP 6X) luminaires,
ventilated luminaires which are designed to use air currents to keep them
clean, or lamps with internal reflectors. If cleaning is to be done in situ by
water jets then luminaires suitably protected from moisture penetration
must be used (IP 5X). It is important to note that even the most protected
luminaires, for example, dust tight (IP 6X) luminaires, will collect dirt on
their external surfaces. Therefore even these luminaires will need cleaning
regularly (see Section 5.2.1 for a description of the IP system).
The appropriate cleaning interval for luminaires and the lamps they contain
is again an economic and managerial question. The factors that need to be
considered are the cost and convenience of cleaning at a particular time and
the prevailing efficiency of the installation. As a general guide, luminaires
should be cleaned at least once a year but for some locations this will not be
sufficient. It is usually advantageous to co-ordinate luminaire cleaning with
lamp replacement if the latter is required.
5.4.4 Room surface The Factories Act 1961 stipulates that room surfaces in factories should be
cleaning interval cleaned and redecorated regularly, but regular cleaning is important in all
buildings if a dirty appearance is to be avoided. Regular cleaning is
particularly important where light reflected from the room surfaces makes a
major contribution to the lighting of the interior, e.g. where daylight from
the side windows is used or where an indirect lighting installation is
present.
5.4.5 Design aspects The maintenance procedures for a lighting installation should be con-
sidered at the design stage. Three aspects are particularly important. The
first is the maintenance factor to be used in the calculation of the number of
lamps and luminaires needed to provide the required conditions. Table 5.7
shows typical maintenance factors used for industrial lighting, assuming
replacement of failed or broken lamps and annual cleaning of equipment.
Table 5.8 shows typical maintenance factors for exterior lighting for
different degrees of ingress protection, air pollution and cleaning interval.
The second aspect is the practical one of access and handling. Good
maintenance will only occur if access to the lighting installation is safe and
easy, and the lighting equipment is simple to handle. Figure 5.1 show two
type of lighting columns designed for easy maintenance.
The third aspect is equipment selection. The dirtier the atmosphere where
the installation is to operate, the more important it is to select equipment
which is resistant to dirt deposition.
Table 5.7 Typical maintenance factors used for industrial interiors
Figure 5.1 Two types of hinged columns for

maintenance at ground level
77
Table 5.8. Maintenance factors for exterior lighting
5.4.6 Practical aspects A wide range of different materials are used in luminaires. Table 5.9
summarises the most suitable cleaning methods for use with these different
materials.
Table 5.9 Suitable cleaning methods for lighting maintenance
Different lighting installations call for different levels of skill from the
people doing the maintenance. For completely conventional installations
only the most basic knowledge is necessary but where luminaires with
special properties, e.g. dustproof (IP 5X), jetproof (IP X5), are used,
considerable knowledge and care is required from the operator doing the
cleaning and reassembly. Similarly, where complex control systems form a
part of the installation, the maintenance operator will need to understand
the operation of the system and the consequences of any changes made. For
all maintenance work the operators should be aware of the basic electrical
and mechanical safety aspects of the work.
78
6 Lighting design
6.1 Introduction Lighting design is a complex process and no hard and fast rules can be
devised which will suit all design problems or every designer. Nevertheless,
the following design approach represents reasonable practice and will give
guidance to less experienced designers.
6.2 Objectives The first stage in planning any lighting installation is to establish the
lighting design objectives. Care and time expended on this is well invested,
because the objectives guide the decisions in all the other stages of the
design process. The lighting objectives can be considered in three parts.
The lighting must be safe in itself and must allow the occupants to work and
move about safely. There are not only primary objectives but also statutory
obligations. It is, therefore, necessary to identify any hazards present and to
consider the most appropriate form of emergency lighting.
The type of work which takes place in the interior will define the nature and
variety of the visual tasks. An analysis of the visual tasks (there is rarely just
one) in terms of size, contrast, duration, need for colour discrimination and
so on, is essential to establish the quantity and quality of the lighting
required to achieve satisfactory visual conditions. In addition to est-
ablishing the nature of the tasks done in an interior, it is also necessary to
identify the positions where the tasks occur, the planes on which the tasks
lie, and the extent of any obstruction. This information is essential if
lighting matched to the tasks is to be provided.
The lighting of a space will affect its character, and the character of objects
within it. It is, therefore, necessary to establish what mood or atmosphere is
to be created. This is not a luxury to be reserved only for prestige offices,
places of entertainment, and the like, but should be considered in all
designs.
When establishing the objectives, it is important to differentiate between
those which are essential and those which are desirable. It is also important
at this stage to establish both the design objectives and the design
constraints. There are many constraints which may affect the design
objectives, such as allowed budget, energy consumption, environmental
considerations (which may limit the range of acceptable luminaires),
physical problems of access, and so on. These constraints must be
recognised at the objectives stage of the design.
6.3 Specification Once the lighting objectives have been defined, they must be quantified
wherever possible. However, not all design objectives can be quantified.
For example, the need to make an environment appear efficient cannot be
quantified. Furthermore, although many objectives can be expressed in
physical terms, suitable design techniques may not exist or may be too
cumbersome. For example, obstruction losses are difficult to calculate and
predict accurately. This does not mean that the objectives represented by
these terms should be ignored, but that experience and judgement may
have to replace calculation.
79
6.4 General planning When the design specification has been established the purpose of the
remaining stages of design is to translate these requirements into the best
possible solutions, with the intention of meeting the original objectives.
The designer should never lose sight of the fact that the aim is to meet the
original objectives, and that the specification is only a stepping stone in this
process, and not an end in itself. Indeed, if it proves difficult to plan an
installation which meets the design specification it may be necessary to
reassess the original objectives. There are no hard and fast rules about how
to plan a lighting installation, and experience and judgement will usually
dominate the planning process. Nevertheless, the planning stages can be
divided into general planning and detailed planning (see Section 6.5).
At the general planning stage, the designer aims to establish whether the
original objectives are viable, and resolve what type of design can be
employed to satisfy these objectives. The first stage in the general planning
of a lighting installation is to consider the interior to be lit, its proportions,
its contents, and most importantly the daylight available.
6.4.1 Daylight A comprehensive assessment of the role of windows and rooflights in

buildings is given in the CIBSE Window Design Guide. In industry, the
most common means of admitting daylight is by rooflights. Therefore this
guide will restrict the consideration of daylight to the role of rooflights.
Specifically, the question which needs to be considered is how should the
electric lighting relate to the natural lighting. Electric lighting is usually
planned as if daylight did not exist. However natural lighting may well
suggest the form and especially the control system of the electric lighting.
For this reason every lighting designer needs some knowledge of daylight
prediction.
In temperate climates, the extent to which daylight is available at a position

in an interior is conventionally expressed as a ‘daylight factor’. This is the
illuminance at a point on a plane in an interior due to light received directly
or indirectly from a sky of known or assumed luminance distribution
expressed as a percentage of the illuminance on a horizontal plane due to an
unobstructed hemisphere of the same sky. The sky usually assumed is the
overcast sky specified by the CIE. The average daylight factor (%) on a
horizontal reference plane in an empty interior is given approximately by
the following expression:
average daylight factor = TWθ2

A( l-R )
where T= transmittance of glazing material, expressed as a decimal

2
W= nett area of glazing (m )
θ = angle (degrees) in vertical plane, subtended by sky visible from
the centre of a rooflight - (see Figure 6.1)
A= total area of indoor surfaces: ceiling + floor + walls, including
2
windows or rooflights (m )
R= area weighted average reflectance of all indoor surfaces,
including the rooflights
Figure 6.1 Maximum θ on a shed roof
When the average daylight factor is 5 per cent or more, an interior will
generally look well day-lit. When the average daylight factor is less than 2
per cent, the interior will not be perceived as well day-lit and electric
lighting may be in constant use throughout the day.
When the average daylight factor exceeds 5 per cent in a building which is
used mainly during the day, electricity consumption for lighting should be
80
too small to justify elaborate control systems on economic grounds,

provided that switches are sensibly located.
When the average daylight factor is between 2 per cent and 5 per cent, the
electric lighting should be planned to take full advantage of available
daylight. Localised or local lighting may be particularly advantageous,
using daylight to provide the general surround lighting.
Average daylight factor will often give the designer sufficient information
on which to base decisions on the relationship between natural and electric
lighting.
6.4.2 Choice of electric Lighting systems which provide an approximately uniform illuminance
lighting systems over the whole working plane are called general lighting systems. The
luminaires are normally arranged in a regular layout. General lighting is
6.4.2.1 General lighting simple to plan using the lumen method and requires no co-ordination with
task locations. The greatest advantage of such systems is that they permit
complete flexibility of task location.
The major disadvantage of general lighting systems is that energy may be

wasted illuminating the whole area to the level needed for the most critical
tasks. Energy could be saved by providing the necessary illuminance over
only the task areas and using a lower ambient level for circulation and other
non-critical tasks.
6.4.2.2 Locadised lighting Localised lighting systems employ an arrangement of luminaires designed
to provide the required standard service illuminance on work areas together
with a lower illuminance for the other areas. The illuminance on the other
areas should not be less than one-third of the illuminance on the work areas.
Considerable care must be taken to co-ordinate the lighting layout to task
positions and orientation. The system can be inflexible and correct
information is essential at the design stage. Changes in the work layout can
seriously impair a localised system, although uplighters and other easily
relocatable or switchable systems can overcome these problems.
Localised systems normally consume less energy than general lighting
systems unless a high proportion of the area is occupied by work stations.
This should be confirmed by specific calculations. Localised systems may
require more maintenance than general lighting systems.
6.4.2.3 Local lighting Local lighting provides illumination only over the small area occupied by
the task and its immediate surroundings. A general lighting system must be
installed to provide sufficient ambient illumination for circulation and non-
critical tasks. This is then supplemented by the local lighting system to
achieve the necessary design service illuminance on tasks. The general
surround illuminance should not be less than one-third of the task
illuminance.
Local lighting can be a very efficient method for providing adequate task
illumination, particularly where high illuminances are necessary and/or
flexible directional lighting is required. Local lighting is frequently
provided by luminaires mounted on the work station.
Fixed local lighting must be positioned to minimise shadows, veiling

reflections and glare. Although local luminaires allow efficient utilisation of
emitted light, the luminaires themselves may be inefficient and can be
expensive . Most local lighting systems are accessible and often adjustable.
81
This increases wear and tear and hence maintenance costs but provides
some individual control.
Both local and localised lighting offer scope for switch control of individual
luminaires which can be off when not required, but care must be taken to
ensure that sufficient ambient illumination is provided.
6.4.3 Choice of lamps and The choice of lamp will affect the range of luminaires available, and vice-
luminaires versa. Therefore, one cannot be considered without reference to the other.
Tables 6.1 and 6.2 list some typical mounting heights for some common
lamp/luminaire combinations used for interior lighting and exterior area
lighting respectively.
6.4.3.1 Choice of lamp The designer should compile a list of suitable lamps, by rejecting those
which do not satisfy the design objectives. The availability of suitable
luminaires can then be checked and the economics of each assessed.
General guidance can be obtained from Section 5.2.
The run-up time of most discharge lamps (excluding fluorescent lamps) is
unsatisfactory for applications requiring rapid provision of illumination or
switching unless auxiliary tungsten lamps are provided.
Table 6.1 Typical mounting height ranges for some common lamp/luminaire combinations used in
interior lighting
82
Lamps must have colour rendering properties suited to their intended use.
Good colour rendering may be required in order to achieve better
discrimination between colours where that is part of the visual task. The life
and lumen maintenance characteristics of the lamps must be considered to
arrive at a practicable and economic maintenance schedule.
Standardisation of lamp types and sizes within a particular site or company

can simplify maintenance and stocking.
Table 6.2 Typical minimum mounting height ranges for floodlights used in area lighting schemes
6.4.3.2 Choice of luminaire In the choice of luminaire, the designer can exercise a combination of
professional judgement, personal preference and economic analysis.
Luminaires may have to withstand a variety of physical conditions, such as
vibration, moisture, dust, ambient temperature, vandalism and so on. In
addition, the onus is on the designer to specify safe equipment. Safety can
be guaranteed by using equipment with the British Standard safety mark or
obtaining written assurances from the manufacturer. It is important to
ensure that equipment is selected which can withstand and operate safely in
the environmental conditions that will be encountered. The Ingress
Protection (IP) rating gives guidance regarding the ability of the luminaire
to withstand the ingress of solid foreign bodies and moisture. The designer
must make sure that the manufacturer’s claims apply throughout the
intended life of the luminaire. This is particularly true of a claimed IP
rating, which, without further qualification, applies to a new luminaire.
However, when a luminaire has the British Standard safety mark, the IP
rating is applied to an already arduously tested luminaire.
Not only must the luminaire withstand the ambient conditions, it may have
to operate in a hazardous area, such as a refinery, mine or similar
environment. In this event, special equipment is required to satisfy the
safety regulations. Such equipment is beyond the scope of this Guide. This
subject is covered by the CIBSE Application Guide: Lighting for hostile and
hazardous environments.
The light distribution of the luminaire should be carefully considered as it
83
influences the distribution of illuminance and the directional effects that

will be achieved.
Luminaire reliability and life will have a direct impact on the economics of
the scheme, and must be realistically considered. The ease with which
luminaires can be installed and maintained will also affect the overall
economics and convenience of the scheme. Luminaires with good main-
tenance characteristics and which can be easily maintained will not only
save on maintenance costs, but will also be more efficient throughout their
life. Luminaires which can be unplugged and detached, or which have
removable gear, can simplify maintenance by allowing remote servicing.
6.4.4 System management A good lighting system must not only be well designed, but must also be
managed and operated effectively and efficiently. System management
must: (a) control the use of the system to ensure efficiency (b) maintain the
system in good order.
6.4.4.1 Control Methods of control fall into three broad categories: (a) Manual control
(Managerial) (b) Automatic control (non intelligent) (c) Processor control
(intelligent).
Manual methods rely upon individuals and appointed members of staff

controlling the lighting system. These methods tend to be inexpensive in
capital costs but may be less effective than automatic methods. To be
effective the lighting system must be well planned to permit flexible
switching of individual luminaires or banks of luminaires. The switch
panels must be sensibly located and clearly marked (a mimic diagram can be
very helpful). An education programme to ensure staff awareness is
essential and this can be reinforced with posters, and with labels on or
adjacent to the switch panels.
One of the main snags with manual methods is that, whilst occupants may
be aware that natural lighting is insufficient and will turn on lights, it is rare
for them to respond to sufficient daylight by turning lights off. Automatic
control in the form of an imposed switch-off (particularly at meal breaks)
can be effective, since, if natural lighting is adequate, the luminaires may
not be turned back on.
A considerable amount of energy is often wasted after working hours when
the lighting is left on to no useful purpose. The provision of automatic
cleaners’ circuits controlling only some of the lighting to provide reduced
illuminances can save money.
Automatic control systems, such as time switches or photocells, can be

inexpensive and can switch (or dim) banks of lights. Photocells can monitor
the level of daylight and turn off lamps when there is sufficient daylight.
Whether or not this is economic will depend upon the daylight factor and
the proportion of the working year for which the required illuminance
is exceeded.
Time switches provide a convenient method of ensuring that unwanted
lighting is not provided outside working hours.
Occupancy detectors can be used to detect the presence of occupants and to
control the lights accordingly. These can rely upon acoustic, infra red,
radar, or other methods of detection. A time-lag must normally be built into
the system to prevent premature switch-offs.
84
Automatic systems must normally have some degree of manual override (on
and off) to cater for unexpected circumstances. Systems which automa-
tically cancel lighting but must be manually reset can offer greater savings
than those which switch on again automatically. Occupants can be relied
upon to turn on lighting if they need it.
Computer-based or microprocessor-based control systems are becoming

increasingly popular, more reliable and less expensive. These rely upon
dedicated computers or processors to control some or all of the building
services. Lifts, fire alarms, lighting, air-conditioning and other equipment
can be controlled. The most important advantages of such an approach are
that complex decisions can be taken from moment to moment, based upon
the precise state of the building’s operation, and that the system is
controlled by software. This last feature means that the control programs
can be refined and tailored to suit the building and can be easily amended to
suit changed circumstances.
Such intelligent systems can continuously monitor the building to operate it

at maximum efficiency and economy. For example, lighting load can be
shed in non-critical areas if the electricity maximum demand is reached
during winter months, or shed in summer if cooling demands become
excessive.
With any control system considerable care must be taken to ensure that
acceptable lighting conditions are always provided for the occupants.
Safety must always be of paramount importance.
Control systems which are obtrusive or disruptive are counter-productive

and may even be sabotaged by the staff. For this reason, dimmer systems
are often preferred. Photocells and other sensing circuitry must incorporate
a delay to prevent sporadic and disruptive switch-offs, but must respond
immediately when a switch-on is called for.
Further details on the choice of a lighting control system can be found in

BRE Digest 272: Lighting Controls and Daylight Use.
6.4.4.2 Maintenance Lighting systems must be serviced regularly and this must be allowed for at
the design stage. Faulty or failed lamps should be replaced and unsafe
or faulty equipment should be rectified. In addition, depreciation in
illumination, caused by dirt on lamps, luminaires and room surfaces should
be controlled by regular cleaning.
It is not always enough to replace lamps on failure. The light output of

lamps falls with hours of operation. For most lamp types, a point will
usually be reached where it is financially better to replace the lamps than to
continue to waste power. Furthermore, labour charges for the replacement
of individual lamps can be high, so it is often less expensive in the end to
clean and service a complete installation when convenient, than to indulge
in intermittent cleaning and relamping.
6.5 Detailed planning When the overall design has been resolved in general terms, detailed
calculations are required to determine such things as the number of
6.5.1 Introduction luminaires, the Glare Index, the final cost and so on.
The calculations which may have to be carried out during the design
process are detailed in the following sections.
85
6.5.2 Average illuminance The average illuminance ES over a reference surface S can be calculated
for interior lighting from the ‘lumen method’ formula:
6.5.2.1 Utilisation factor
where F = the lamp luminous flux (lighting design lumens)

n = the number of lamps per luminaire
N = the number of luminaires
MF = the maintenance factor
UFs = the utilisation factor for the reference surface S
2
As = the area of the reference surface S (m )
The formula can be re-arranged to permit the calculation of the number of

luminaires required to achieve the chosen illuminance.
Utilisation factors can be determined for any surface or layout of
luminaires, but, in practice, are only calculated for general lighting systems
with regular arrays of luminaires and for the three main room surfaces, the
ceiling cavity, the walls, and the floor cavity (see Figure 6.2). Utilisation
factors for these surfaces: the ceiling cavity, the walls and the floor cavity or
horizontal reference plane, are designated UFC, UFW and UFF respec-
tively. The method for calculating utilisation factor for these surfaces is
given in CIBSE Technical Memorandum 5: The calculation and use of
Figure 6.2 Walls, and ceiling and floor cavities utilisation factors.
Although utilisation factors can be calculated by the lighting designer, most

manufacturers publish utilization factors for standard conditions for their
luminaires. CIBSE Technical Memorandum No. 5 defines a standard
method of presentation and states the assumptions on which the tabulated
values are based. Figure 6.3 is an example of the standard presentation.
Figure 6.3 Typical utilisation factor table for a twin fluorescent luminaire
To use utilisation factor tables it is necessary to know the Room Index and
the room reflectances. The room is considered to consist of three main
surfaces: the ceiling cavity, the walls, and the floor cavity or horizontal
reference plane (see Figure 6.2).
The room index is a measure of the proportions of the room. It is twice the
plan area of the room divided by the area of the walls between the horizontal
reference plane (mouth of the floor cavity) and the luminaire plane (mouth
of the ceiling cavity) - (see Figure 6.4). For rectangular rooms the room
Figure 6.4 Calculation of cavity index index RI is:
86
where L = the length of the room

W = the width of the room
H = the height of the luminaire plane above the horizontal
reference plane
Results may be rounded to the nearest value in the utilization factor table.
If the room is re-entrant in shape (e.g. L-shaped) then it must be divided
into two or more non re-entrant sections which can be treated separately. In
order to use utilization factor tables correctly the effective reflectance of the
ceiling cavity, walls and floor cavity must be calculated.
For the ceiling cavity and floor cavity the cavity indices CIC and CIF must
be calculated. The cavity index CI, which is similar in concept to the room
index, is given by: (see Figure 6.4).
For rectangular rooms
Where h is the depth of the cavity.

The effective reflectance REX of the cavity X can then be determined from
Figure 6.5, to use the figure it is necessary to know the reflectance of the
surfaces forming the cavity and the geometry of the cavity. Alternatively
there is a simplified, but less accurate, formula:
where RAX = the average area weighted reflectance of the cavity X

CI X = the cavity index of the cavity X
The average reflectance RA X of a series of surfaces S1 to Sn with

reflectances RSn and areas A1 to An respectively is given by:
It should be noted that in order to calculate the effective reflectances, it is

not necessary to know the colours of the surfaces, only the reflectances are
required.
87
Figure 6.5 The effective reflectance of cavities
6.2.5.2 Spacing/mounting The maximum spacing to height ratio (SHR MAX) of the luminaire is
height ratio normally calculated when the-utilization factor table is calculated. The
maximum spacing between the centres of luminaires divided by the
mounting height above the horizontal reference plane should not exceed
SHR MAX the uniformity of illuminance is to be acceptable for general
lighting.
For some luminaires, notably those with distinctly di-symmetric distri-

butions, extra spacing to height ratio information may be given.
The best form of information is a graph of acceptable SHR combinations in

the axial and transverse directions. Figure 6.6 is an example of this for a
particular luminaire.
For linear luminaires with conventional distributions, the maximum

spacing to height ratio SHR MAX can be supplemented by the maximum
transverse spacing to height ratio (SHR MAX TR). This approach is less
Transverse spacing to height ratio
precise than the graphical method. The axial spacing to height ratio (SHR
Figure 6.6 Combination of transverse and axial
AX) should not exceed SHR MAX and the transverse spacing to height
spacing to height ratios producing acceptable ratio SHR TR should not exceed the maximum transverse spacing to
uniformity (batwing lurninaire) mounting height ratio SHR MAX TR. In addition to this, the product of
88
SHR AX and SHR TR should not exceed SHR MAX squared. Thus:
SHR AX.SHR TR ≤ SHR MAX2

and SHR AX ≤ SHR MAX
and SHR TR ≤ SHR MAX TR
6.5.2.3 Calculation procedure The following procedure gives guidance on the sequence of calculations to
be performed when calculating the number of luminaires necessary to
obtain a chosen average illuminance on the horizontal reference plane by
the lumen method.
1 Calculate the room index RI, the floor cavity index CIF and the ceiling
cavity index CIC. (See Section 6.5.2.1).
2 Calculate the effective reflectances of the ceiling cavity, walls and floor
cavity. Remember to include the effect of desks or machines in the latter.
(see Section 6.1)
3 Determine the utilisation factor value from the manufacturer’s data for
the luminaire, using the room index and effective reflectances calculated
as above.
4 Apply any correction factors, given in the utilisation factor table for lamp
type or mounting position, to the utilisation factor UFF value.
5 Decide on a suitable maintenance factor (see Section 5.4.5). An
alternative approach based on light loss factor is given in the CIBSE
Code for Interior Lighting. Light loss factor allows a more detailed consid-
eration of the effects of maintenance procedure on the illuminance
provided by an installation to be made.
6 Insert the appropriate variables into the lumen method formula:
to obtain the number of luminaires required.

where ES = the average illuminance to be provided on the working plane
(lux)
2
As = the area of the working plane (m )
Φ= the lamp luminous flux (lighting design lumens)
n = the number of lamps/luminaire
MF = the maintenance factor
UFs = the utilisation factor for the plane
( s - refers to horizontal reference plane)
7 Determine a suitable layout.
8 Check that the geometric mean spacing to height ratio of the layout is
within the range of the nominal spacing to height ratio (SHR NOM) for
which the utilization factor table is based, i.e.
√ (SHR AX. SHR TR) = SHR NOM ± 0.5
9 Check that the proposed layout does not exceed the maximum spacing
to height ratios.
Namely: Either - Check the value of SHR AX and SHR TR against a
uniformity graph
or - Check that:
SHR AX.SHR TR ≤ (SHR MAX) 2
and SHR AX ≤ SHR MAX

and SHR TR ≤ SHR MAX TR*
*or SHR MAX if SHR MAX TR no given.
10 Calculate the illuminance that will be achieved by the final layout.
89
6.5.2.4 Applications The lumen method is the most commonly used method for illuminance
calculation and is appropriate for an unobstructed area in an interior where
a regular array of luminaires is required to give a reasonably uniform level of
illuminance. This calculation gives an average illuminance over the area
taking into account direct flux from the luminaire and the indirect flux
reflected from room surfaces. Care should be taken in assessing the
effective room size for the purposes of arriving at an appropriate room
index. In many industries the buildings are large and yet the plant and
machinery effectively divide the building into much smaller unobstructed
areas. It is the dimensions of these small unobstructed areas which should
be used to calculate the room index to arrive at a realistic utilization factor.
Manufacturers publish data of luminaires for various room indices. Where

the room index is less that than published, other methods of calculation
should be used. Where the room index is greater than that published,
usually a room index > 6, then the utilization factor values for the
maximum room index published may be used.
6.5.3 Average illuminance for The average illuminance which will be achieved on a horizontal surface
exterior areas using area lighting techniques can be calculated approximately from the
following formula:
where Es = average illuminance on the horizontal surface (S) (lx)

Φ = lamp luminous flux (lighting design lumens)
N = number of lamps
BF = beam factor of luminaire
WLF = waste light factor
MF = maintenance factor
A s = area of the horizontal surface (S) (m2)
The beam factor of the luminaire and the light output of the lamp will be
supplied by the manufacturer. The maintenance factor will depend on the
location of the installation and the frequency of cleaning. As a first
approximation a combined beam factor, waste light factor and maintenance
factor of 0.25 will often be satisfactory. For accurate estimation, illum-
inance at a point calculation should be used (see Section 6.5.5).
6.5.4 Designing factory The design process for factory roadway lighting consists of seven parts:
roadway lighting (a) the gathering of preliminary data. This can include some or all the
items from the following list: roadway and footpath width; mounting
height; lamp type; lantern arrangement; column location; bracket
type; width from lantern to rear of footpath; cleaning interval;
pollution category; photometric requirements of road; average
illuminance; minimum point illuminance; choice of lantern from
manufacturers’ data; lamp flux; Ingress Protection code of lamp
housing; downward light output ratio luminaire for the lantern; flux
in lower hemisphere of the lighting; check whether lower hemisphere
lumens exceeds 3500; glare control data of lighting; check the glare
control requirements are met; check scale of isolux diagrams.
(b) the determination of a design spacing to provide a given minimum
illuminance.
(c) the calculation of a design spacing to provide a given average
illuminance.
(d) the determination of the design spacing which provides compliance
with all the photometric requirements.
90
(e) the plotting of lantern positions taking into account the individual
features of the road.
(f) the determination of column positions, taking into account the
individual features of the site.
The following procedure can be used to determine the design for a given
minimum illuminance:
(i) consult the lantern manufacturer’s design data for the chosen lantern
The contours in the isolux diagram give the illuminance/1000 lumens
on a horizontal plane from a mounting height of one metre.
(ii) calculate the isolux contour corresponding to half the minimum point
illuminance by using the equation :
where E = minimum design illuminance (lux)

H = mounting height (metres)
Φ= lamp flux (in kilolumens)
MF = maintenance factor.
(iii) sketch the required contour value on the manufacturer’s original
isolux diagram.
(iv) with the lantern position correctly located transversely, superimpose
the straight road layout of the carriageway, footway and verge on the
copy of the isolux diagram.
(v) make a copy of the marked isolux diagram and orientate both it and
the original on a light table such that the staggered installation is
represented. Adjust the longitudinal position of lanterns to a
maximum spacing in which the contours for adjacent lanterns overlap
to cover the whole area to be illuminated.
(vi) measure to scale the distance between adjacent lanterns along a kerb
line and convert to metres. This will give the theoretical minimum
spacing to achieve the minimum point illuminance.
(vii) by using the isolux diagram, calculate the illuminance at points 0.2H
either side of the point where the unconfirmed minimum occurs on a
line parallel to the road axis. If the illuminances obtained are greater,
the unconfirmed minimum is the true minimum.
Figure 6.7 Dimensions for roadway lighting
91
The following procedure can be used to calculate the design spacing for
given average illuminance :
(i) consult the lantern manufacturer’s design data for the chosen lantern.
(ii) select the appropriate value of W1/H where WI is the distance
between the lantern, and the rear of the far footway and H is the
height of the lantern, and read the corresponding value of UI (the
roadside utilisation factor) from the table of utilisation factors (see
Figure 6.7).
(iii) similarly, select W2/H (where W2 is the distance between the lantern
and the rear of the near footway and H is the height of the lantern) and
read from the Table of Utilisation Factors the corresponding value of
U2 (houseside utilisation factor).
(iv) from a knowledge of the reference cleaning interval, ingress protec-
tion rating and pollution category, use Table 5.8 to obtain the
maintenance factor.
(v) calculate the design spacing in metres required to give the desired
average illuminance using the equation:
where U1 = roadside utilisation factor

U 2 = houseside utilisation fctor
Φ = lamp flux (kilolumens)
MF = maintenance factor
W 1 = distance between lantern and rear of the far footway (metres)
W 2 = distance between lantern and rear of the near footway (metres)
E = average illuminance
S = design spacing
To determine the design spacing necessary to meet all photometric

requirements, compare the two design spacings and use the lesser of
them when plotting straight road lantern positions. The revised average
illuminance can now be calculated using the equation:
where the symbols are as defined above
The next stage in the design process is to plot the lantern positions. First the
lantern positions to meet the requirements of the special features of the
road, such as junctions, crossings and footpaths leading from the road, are
established and then the lantern layout is developed. Next, the layout for
the uninterrupted straights and bends in the roadway are fitted into that of
the special features, with an element of compromise. The final step in the
design process is the determination of column positions. Individual lantern
positions are checked on site to ensure that it is possible for columns to be
erected such that underground and overground obstructions are avoided.
6.5.5 Illuminance at a point When local or localised lighting systems are employed, or when irregular
layouts of luminaires are used, or luminaires with unconventional light
distributions are selected, or where there is considerable obstruction,
calculations of average illuminance can be inadequate or meaningless. In
such circumstances it is necessary to calculate the illuminance at all points
of interest.
These calculations can be done in one or more of three ways. (a)
92
calculations by hand from basic photometric data, (b) calculation from pre-
calculated aids such as isolux diagrams, (c) calculating using a computer
program.
The first method involves the greatest amount of work and is only suitable
for a few points before it becomes tedious. However, hand calculations,
when used with discretion, can yield much information about the required
solution.
Isolux diagrams , if available for the particular set of circumstances, offer a
faster method of carrying out the same calculations. For local and localised
lighting systems they can provide considerable guidance on the correct
location of luminaires. Isolux diagrams must normally be produced for the
mounting height, scale and lumen output required. If this is not done, then,
although isolux diagrams can still be used, considerable correction is
necessary.
Where a computer is available with suitable programs, illuminance values
can be easily calculated. Although some limited design programs do exist,
most programs simulate the illuminance pattern produced by a chosen
layout of luminaires.
The ease with which computers can be used often results in abuse. The
quality of the results is only as good as the calculation approach used and the
data on which the calculation is performed, but the computer printout gives
the impression of precision. Before using a computer program the designer
should take care that the assumptions contained within the program are
understood and should ensure that the data used is appropriate to the
equipment and the situation of interest.
At the planning stage it is often better to obtain illuminance plots for

individual luminaires or a group of luminaires than to attempt to simulate
the complete installation. The performance of an individual luminaire or
group can be easily analysed to assist with selection of the best layout. When
the complete layout has been established it can be simulated on the
computer.
The output data is important. If the information is insufficiently detailed,
then important features may be overlooked. More commonly, if the data is
too detailed it becomes too complex to interpret.
Graphic methods such as contour maps or boundary maps are easy to

understand, and are preferable to tabulated data. However, they require
more sophisticated software and hardware than conventional printouts.
6.5.5.1 Direct illuminance at The direct illuminance at a point can be calculated by the inverse square
a point law.
E = I/d 2
where E = the illuminance at a point (lx)
I = luminous intensity of the luminaire in the direction
corresponding to the line from the luminaire to the point
(candelas)
d = distance from the luminaire to the point (m)
The inverse square law can only be applied when the source is small
compared with the distance between it and the point of illumination. When
this is not the case, the calculation must be modified. Sources can be
considered to be one of three basic types:
(a) Point sources, a luminaire can be considered as a point source if its
93
largest dimension is less than a fifth of the distance from it to the point
being illuminated. For a point source, the direct illuminance at a point
can be found by applying the inverse square and cosine laws (see
Appendix 2).
(b) Line sources, when a luminaire is too long to be considered as a point
source it can be regarded as a line source, providing that its width is less
than a fifth of the distance from its centre to the point being illuminated.
For most situations, fluorescent luminaires come into this category. To
perform calculations on line sources it is necessary to have some method
of integrating the effect of the length of the luminaire. One such method
of doing this is the ‘Aspect Factor Method’.
Aspect factors are derived from the axial luminous intensity distri-
bution of the luminaire and, when used in the correct formula, make
allowance for the effect of the length of the luminaire. Aspect factors can
be published for almost all fluorescent luminaires, and must be used
with the transverse luminous intensity distribution curves.
Two sets of aspect factors are provided. The parallel plane aspect factors
are for calculating the direct illuminance on surfaces parallel to the axis
of the luminaire, such as the floor, working plane or side walls. The
other set of aspect factors, the perpendicular plane aspect factors are for
calculating the direct illuminances on surfaces normal (i.e. at right
angles) to the axis of the luminaire, such as the end walls (see Appendix
2 for formulae).
Surfaces which are neither parallel to, nor perpendicular to, the axis of
the luminaire (such as an angled drawing board) can be dealt with by a
combination of the two types of aspect factor.
(c) Area sources, when both the width and length of a luminaire are greater
than a fifth of the distance from its centre to the point of illumination,
then the source should be considered as an area source.
Area source calculations are by far the most complicated of the three
types. There is no simple equivalent of the inverse square law or aspect
factor calculation for area sources. Indeed, for many situations the
formulae have not been solved. For this reason, and the fact that area
source calculations are not often required, only the simple case of a
uniform area source is considered in this guide (see Appendix 2).
6.5.5.2 Indirect illuminance at The preceding methods of calculating illuminance at a point deal only with
a point the calculation of direct illuminance and do not allow for inter-reflected
light. For exterior lighting this is all that is needed. For interior lighting the
contribution of interreflected light to the illuminance may be significant.
Interreflected light can be dealt with in one of four ways:

(a) Calculate the interreflected illuminance at the point and add it to the
calculated direct illuminance. To do this first calculate the final illum-
inances of the walls, floor and ceiling (using transfer factors, see CIBSE
Technical Memorandum 5: The calculation and use of utilisation factors)
Then treat each of these room surfaces as if it was an area source of
intensity distribution Iθ
E.R
I θ = I cos θ, where I = π
94
where E = the illuminance of the surface,

R = reflectance,
θ = is the angle from the normal to the surface.
The major snag with this is that the calculations involved are quite
lengthy, and only really suited to a computer. Another disadvantage is
that the result will be somewhat artificial, since local changes in
reflectance can make a vast change to the amount of interreflected light.
(b) Ignore the interreflected light and assume that it will be a bonus,
increasing the final illuminance. In other words, calculate the worse
case. This is the most practical approach where obstructions are great
but may not be adequate for some situations.
(c) Ignore the interreflected light at the point, but calculate the average
illuminance on the horizontal reference plane (by the lumen method)
for the actual reflectances and for a black room (zero reflectances).
These two figures, the average final illuminance, which includes
interreflection, and the average direct illuminance can be found easily.
The difference gives a good indication of the proportion of the total
luminous flux that is reflected to the point.
This has the advantage that it is easy to do and is more precise than the
second approach. It can also be applied to planes other than the
horizontal if the appropriate utilization factors are available.
(d) Calculate the average indirect illuminance Eind by the formula
where Φ = installed bare lamp luminous flux (lumens)

D L O R = downward light output ratio
A F = area of floor (m²)
D R = direct ratio of installation
F F R = flux fraction ratio of installation
R I = room index
REF, REC ,
R E W = effective reflectances of floor cavity, ceiling cavity and walls
respectively
This indirect illuminance is assumed to be uniformly distributed over all

the room surfaces. It may therefore be added to the direct illuminance
calculated at each individual point. This method is recommended when
programmable calculators are to be used.
6.5.6 Glare Index The CIBSE Glare Index system for the evaluation of discomfort glare is
discussed in detail in CIBSE Technical Memorandum No. 10: Calculation of
Glare Indices.
There are two methods of calculation: (a) The calculation of glare index for
the actual installation using the basic formula. (b) The calculation of glare
index from tables based on photometric data for the real luminaire
(published by the manufacturer), in the form of an uncorrected glare index
with correction factors.
The first method requires the use of a suitable computer and program and
the availability of detailed photometric data. The advantages to be gained
95
from the use of a program are that any layout of luminaires seen from any
viewing position can be considered. These advantages are seldom sufficient
to justify the expense of developing or buying the software. The second
method is sufficiently accurate for most purposes and is easy to use. Figure
6.8 shows a typical uncorrected glare index table, that could be provided for
a luminaire from a manufacturer.
Figure 6.8 Typical uncorrected Glare Index table
The table is based upon a number of assumptions. These are: (a) the
luminaires are at a spacing to height ratio of 1.0; (b) the luminaires are at a
height of 2.0 m above eye level; (c) the total light output of the lamps in the
luminaire is 1000 lumens; (d) the observer is located at the mid-point of a
wall, with a horizontal line of sight towards the centre of the opposite wall;
(e) the eye level is taken as 1.2 m above floor level.
Correction terms can be applied to the uncorrected glare index to allow for
changes in mounting height and lamp output per luminaire. At the present
time there is no correction for other spacing to height ratios.
Uncorrected glare indices are tabulated according to room dimensions and

reflectances, for specified room dimensions. The Y dimension is always
parallel to the line of sight and the X dimension is perpendicular to the line
of sight. They are both expressed as multiples of the mounting height above
eye level.
The worst glare condition will occur for viewing from the centre of either
the long wall or the short wall. The tables permit either to be calculated by
interchanging X and Y.
One view of the room will show the ends of the luminaires (endwise view)
and the other view will show the sides (crosswise view). The two halves of
the table cater for this.
96
When the Glare Index has been found (interpolation may be needed) it
must be corrected for: (a) mounting height above 1.2 m eye level if this
differs from 2 m; (b) Total lamp luminous flux per luminaire if this differs
from 1000 lm; (c) extra correction terms if the published uncorrected glare
index table covers a variety of luminaire sizes or lamp types.
These correction terms are added (or subtracted) from the initial glare
index to give the final glare index of the installation.
The height correction term and the total luminous flux correction term can
be calculated as follows:
Height correction term = 4 log10H - 1.2
where H = the height above eye level (m)
Total lamp luminous flux per luminaire correction term = 6 log10( n.F) - 18
where F = the luminous flux/lamp (lumens)
n = number of lamps/luminaire
6.5.7 Emergency lighting The design aspects of emergency lighting are discussed in detail in CIBSE
Technical Memorandum 12: Emergency lighting, the basic points are also laid
6.5.7.1 Equipment options out in Section 3.19. In summary, there are two main supply systems,
generators and batteries. Generators must provide the required illuminance
within 5-15 seconds, the actual times being at the discretion of the
enforcing
authority. Therefore, they must either be running continuously or
automatically start within the maximum time allowed. If this cannot be
achieved then auxiliary battery systems must be used.
Generators require considerable capital investment and are difficult to

justify except for standby systems on large sites.
Battery systems can be of two types: central systems, where the batteries are
in banks at one or more locations; and self-contained systems, where each
individual luminaire has its own battery. Central systems have battery
rooms or cubicles in which the charger, batteries and switching devices are
located.
Battery cubicles can be designed to simplify system maintenance. How-
ever, the system must be well designed if it is not to be rendered inoperative
if damaged by fire.
Self-contained luminaires are self-powered and operate independently in an

emergency. Thus, although an individual luminaire may be destroyed in a
fire, the other luminaires will be unaffected. The fact that each luminaire is
an independent unit means that maintenance must be thorough. For most
applications battery systems must operate for a period of 1 hr to 3 hrs. Many
designers base their designs on the 3 hr standard because it gives greater
reliability. Self-contained luminaires can have three modes of operation:
(a) Maintained, in this the same lamp or lamps are used, powered normally
by the mains supply. Under emergency conditions it uses its own
battery supply.
(b) Non-maintained, in this the lamp is off when mains power is available
to charge the batteries. Upon supply failure the lamp is energised from
the battery pack.
(c) Sustained, this is a hybrid of the previous two. A lamp is provided
which operates from the mains supply under normal conditions. Under
97
emergency conditions a second lamp, powered from the battery pack,

takes over. Sustained luminaires are often used for exit signs.
Systems of self-contained luminaires are the easiest and most flexible to

install but their effective life is likely to be less than that of central battery
systems. Also, maintenance and testing must be thorough if operation in
the event of emergency is to be guaranteed.
6.5.7.2 Calculating the illuminance In order to ensure that the minimum illuminances are within the prescribed
along the escape route limits, the calculation of illuminance along the escape route is required.
Methods and formulae for doing this are given in CIBSE Technical
Memorandum 12: Emergency Lighting. It is important to base the
calculations upon realistic photometric data for the luminaire and lamps. It
is essential that the calculations portray the worst set of conditions that are
likely to be encountered; the luminaires may be at the end of their cleaning
and maintenance cycle; the lamps may be at the end of their useful life; the
batteries may be at the end of their discharge period; the ambient
temperature may be excessive; and so on. These are just examples, and the
true worst condition must be determined.
Many manufacturers provide design information to help in planning

emergency lighting. It is important to use this data correctly and with the
appropriate value of ‘emergency lighting design lumens’ for the lamp.
98
Appendix 1 Light source colour give rooms a gloomy appearance at such illuminances and (b)
different apparent colour lamps should not be used
haphazardly in the same room.
Light sources, both natural and electric, have two colour

properties related to the spectral composition of their
emission. One is the apparent colour of the light that the
source emits and the other is the effect that the light has on A1.2 Colour rendering
the colours of surfaces. The latter effect is called colour
rendering.
The ability of a light source to render colours of surfaces
accurately can be conveniently quantified by the CIE
general colour rendering index. This index is based on
the accuracy with which a set of test colours are
A1.1 Apparent colour of the emitted light reproduced by the lamp of interest relative to how they
are reproduced by an appropriate standard light source,
The colour of the light emitted by a ‘near white’ source can be perfect agreement being given a value of 100. The CIE
indicated by its correlated colour temperature (CCT). Each general colour rendering index has some limitations but
lamp type has a specific correlated colour temperature but for it is the most widely accepted measure of the colour
practical use, the correlated colour temperatures have been rendering properties of light sources. Table Al.1 shows
grouped into three classes by the Commission International the groups of the CIE general colour rendering index
de l’Eclairage (CIE) (see Table A1.1). used by the CIE and in this Guide.
Table A1.1 Correlated colour temperature classes and colour rendering Where work involving accurate colour judgement is to
groups used in this Guide be done, electric light sources with high CIE general
colour rendering indices (i.e. from Groups 1A or 1B)
are necessary. Where exact colour matching is to be
done, lamps of colour rendering group 1A should be
used and the recommendations of BS 950 should be
followed as appropriate. The surfaces of surrounding
areas where accurate colour judgements are being made
should be of weak Chroma (not greater than 1) and
medium reflectance (not less than 0.4). An illuminance
of at least 500 lx should be provided on the task.
Where the main consideration is the appearance of the

space and objects within it, light sources with a high
CIE general colour rendering index may be desirable.
In general, light sources with good colour rendering
properties (Groups 1A and 1B) make surfaces of objects
appear more colourful than do light sources with
moderate or poor colour rendering properties (Groups
2, 3 and 4). In addition, light sources with poor colour
rendering properties may distort some colours to a
marked extent. Thus, where a colourful appearance is
desirable, lamps with good colour rendering properties
are appropriate. However, the exact level of colour
rendering desirable in any particular circumstance
remains a matter of individual judgement. Ultimately
the CIE general colour rendering index is no substitute
for actually seeing the effect of different light sources
when it comes to assessing their contribution to the
appearance of an interior.
The choice of an appropriate apparent colour of light source
for a room is largely determined by the function of the room.
This may involve such psychological aspects of colour as the
impression given of warmth, relaxation, clarity, etc., and
more mundane considerations such as the need to have a
colour appearance compatible with daylight and yet to
provide a ‘white’ colour at night. The only general rules to
help with the selection of apparent colour are (a) for rooms lit
to an illuminance of 300 lx or less, a warm or intermediate
colour is preferred; cold apparent colour lamps tending to
99
Appendix 2 the relative position of the source. If a plane passing through

the point and perpendicular to the axis of the luminaire
llluminance at a point reference passes through the end of the luminaire, then the ‘a’ variation
diagrams applies. If the plane cuts the luminaire into two parts, then
the ‘b’ variation must be used, and if the plane does not cut
the luminaire at all then the ‘c’ situation applies.
A2.1 Introduction The differences between these different cases are most
readily seen by examining the different diagrams. In each
formula, I is the luminous intensity of the luminaire at an
On the following pages is a series of diagrams. Each diagram angle in the transverse plane; i.e. in a plane at right angles to
shows a particular arrangement of a light source illuminating the luminaire axis. The angles a 1 and a 2 are called the ‘aspect
a point on a surface. With each diagram is the associated angles’ and are used to obtain the aspect factors from aspect
formula necessary for the calculation of illuminance at the factor tables. In all cases:
point.
a l = tan–1 (S 1/D)
In order to use the reference diagrams, first determine
whether the source is a point source, a line source or an area a l = tan– 1 (S 2/D)
source. To do this, calculate the distance between the centre
of the luminaire and the point for which the illuminance is to and AFa1 denotes the parallel plane aspect factor for an angle
be calculated. If this distance is D and the width and length of of a1, whilst afa2 denotes a perpendicular plane aspect factor
the fitting are W and L respectively. for an angle a2.
Then
If 5 W < D, and 5 L < D, then use the point source formulae.

If 5 W < D, but 5 L > D, then use the line source formulae.
If 5 W > D, and 5 L > D, then use the area source formulae.
A2.4 Area source formula
Having established which set of formulae to use, turn to the
appropriate section and read the notes, before looking The basic formula for a uniform area source with a cosine
through the individual diagrams to find one which matches distribution gives the illuminance at a point directly beneath
your problem. one corner. The geometry is given in Figure A2.8.
Where luminous intensity values are obtained from To obtain the illuminance at a point that is not directly
published photometric data they will normally be quoted in beneath one corner, it is necessary to add or subtract
candelas per 1000 lamp lumens. These should be corrected contributions from 4 imaginary area sources, each with a
by multiplying by the total bare lamp luminous flux of the corner over the point, to obtain the resultant.
luminaire divided by 1000.
A2.2 Point source formulae
Three applications of the inverse square and cosine

laws are given: (a) the general case from which the
others are derived (see Figure A2.1.); (b) the
illuminance on a h o r i z o n t a l s u r f a c e ( s e e F i g u r e
A2.2); (c) the illuminance on a vertical surface (see
Figure. A2.3).
In each of the formulae the luminous intensity I in

candelas at the angle of elevation 0 is required.
This can be found from the luminous intensity
distribution of the luminaire.
A2.3 Line source formulae
Line source formulae are given for four situations (see

Figures A2.4 to Figure A2.7) with three variations for each Figure A2.1 Point source formulae general case; illuminance on a plane at
case according to the position of the point of illumination an angle b to the source
relative to the end of the luminaire.
The most suitable case for any given application can be

obtained by studying the figures. Having established which
case applies to the situation, it is then necessary to determine
100
Figure A2.2 Point source formulae illuminance on a horizontal plane

I . cos θ
E = θ
D²
or
I . cos3 θ
E = θ
H²
Figure A2.3 Point source formulae for illuminance on a vertical plane
Figure A2.4 Line source formulae, illuminance on a horizontal surface
101
Figure A2.6 Line source formulae, illuminance on a vertical surface

perpendicular to the axis of the luminaire
Figure A2.5 Line source formulae, illuminance on an inclined (or vertical)

surface parallel to the axis of the luminaire
( e = θ – c)
102
Figure A2.8 Area source formula, illuminance at a point directly beneath

one corner of the source
where:
A1 = tan-1 (W/H)
A2 = tan-1 (W/√ (L² + H²))
B1 = tan-1 (L/H)
B2 = tan-1 (L/√ (W² + H²))
Ip = Peak luminous intensity (It is assumed that Iθ = Ip . cos θ)
Appendix 3
Field measurements of illuminance
A3.1 Functions of field measurements
Field measurements of illuminance are usually undertaken

for one of three reasons: (a) to establish whether a new
installation has achieved the design specification; (b) to
establish whether an installation meets a desired criterion; (c)
as part of a process for identifying the causes of complaints
about the lighting, i.e. trouble-shooting.
The same instrumentation is used for all three purposes

Figure A2.7 Line source formulae, general case, illuminance on any although the nature of the measurements made will vary with
inclined surface ( e = θ – c) the circumstances.
A3.2 llluminance meters
Illuminance meters usually consist of a selenium or silicon

photovoltaic cell connected directly or indirectly by an
amplifier to a display which can be analogue or digital. The
quality of an illuminance meter is determined by four factors:
(a) its spectral response; (b) its response to light incident on
the photocell at different angles; (c) its linearity of response;
and (d) its sensitivity to temperature.
The basic spectral response of both selenium and silicon
103
photovoltaic cells differs from that of the human visual A3.3 Field surveys
system. Therefore to achieve accurate measurements of
illuminance it is necessary to correct the spectral response of A3.3.1 General
the photocell to that of the human visual system. This can be
done either directly, by means of a filter superimposed on the
photocell, or indirectly by providing correction factors to Field measurements are always obtained in specific circum-
effectively recalibrate the photocell for different light stances. It is therefore essential when making field measure-
sources. When filters are used the instrument is described as ments to keep a complete and accurate record of the state of
colour corrected. The photocell whose spectral sensitivity is the lighting installation and the interior in general at the time
corrected by a filter can be used for all light sources, either the measurements are made. Particular attention should be
separately or in combination, although the accuracy of the given to the lamp type and age, the level and stability of the
result will obviously depend on the quality of the filter. The supply voltage, the state of maintenance of the lamps and
photocell whose spectral sensitivity is modified by correction luminaires, the surface reflectances, the degree of
factors supplied by the manufacturers, can only be used for obstruction and any other factors which may be expected to
those light sources for which correction factors are available influence the measurement. Photographs of the interior are a
and then only for those light sources when they occur alone. valuable supplement to a written record.
The response of illuminance meters to light falling on the Before starting measurements it is necessary to decide on the
photocell from different directions, is termed the response to conditions of interest. For example, is daylight to be
oblique light incidence (or cosine response). Specifically, the admitted and if it is what type of control is to be used; are the
measured illuminance E for light incident at an angle θ from measurements to be concerned with average conditions over
the normal n to the photocell should follow the equation E = the interior or are they concerned only with individual work
En cos θ. Illuminance meters which are not cosine corrected places; should the measurements around the work place be
can give large measurement errors when used to measure taken with the people present etc. The answers to these and
illuminances where an appreciable proportion of the similar questions are determined by the aim of the survey.
luminous flux comes at large deviations from the normal, e.g.
when measuring daylight in side-lit rooms. Most illuminance In addition, before starting measurements it is necessary to
meters are cosine corrected by means of either transparent stabilise the performance of the lamps and luminaires and of
hemispheres or diffusing covers of some sort. It is important the illuminance and luminance meters used. The time
that these covers are kept clean. required to stabilise the light output of an installation
depends on the nature of the lamp and luminaire. Install-
The linearity of response of an illuminance meter is ations using discharge lamps, including tubular fluorescents,
determined by the resistance of the circuit into which the should be lit for at least 20 minutes and ideally for 1 hour
output from the photocell is fed; the higher the resistance the before measurements are made. Installations using incan-
greater will be the non-linearity of response at higher descent lamps should be lit for at least 10 minutes before any
illuminances. measurements are made.
It should be noted that daylight is rarely stable and hence the
The sensitivity of illuminance meters to temperature
illuminance and luminance it produces can vary over a very
variations is also influenced by the resistance of the circuitry
large range very quickly. For this reason when measure-
associated with the photocell. If that resistance is high then
ments of the electric lighting installation alone are required,
extremes of temperatures will cause errors in measurement.
daylight must be excluded from the interior.
Selenium photocells are considerably more sensitive to
temperature than are silicon photocells. Prolonged exposure
To stabilise the reading of the photovoltaic cells used in
to temperatures above 50°C will permanently damage
illuminance and luminance meters it is desirable to expose
selenium photocells. Ideally photovoltaic cells should be
the photocell to the approximate luminous flux to be
operated in ambient temperatures of about 25°C. For other
measured for about 5 minutes before making the first
temperatures errors will occur, but correction factors for
measurement.
different operating temperatures can be supplied by
manufacturers.
A3.3.2 Average illuminance
To summarise, a good illuminance meter should be colour
and cosine corrected, should be linear in response and The average illuminance over an interior is usually measured
insensitive to ambient temperature variations. Standards for to check if an electric lighting installation has achieved its
two grades of portable photo-electric illuminance meters design specification. To do this the following procedure is
(Types P1 and P2) are given in BS 667. Errors of measure- recommended, after the installation has been operating for
ment of ± 10% (Type 1) and ± 15% (Type 2) are permitted. an appropriate time at the design supply voltage. For
This gives some idea of what is achievable even with a good discharge lamps this time is 100 hours but for incandescent
quality illuminance meter when it is new. It should also be lamps it will be less.
noted that the sensitivity of illuminance meters varies with
time. Illuminance meters should be recalibrated at least once The interior is divided into a number of equal areas which
a year. This can be done by any photometric laboratory. should be as nearly square as possible. The illuminance at
Illuminance meters are available for illuminances from 0.1 lx the centre of each area is measured and the mean value
to 100,000 lx full scale deflection, i.e. from emergency calculated. This gives an estimate of the average illuminance.
lighting conditions to daylight conditions. The accuracy of the estimate depends on the number of
measurement points and the uniformity of illuminance.
104
Table A3.1 relates the room index to the number of A3.3.3 llluminance at a point
measurement points necessary to give an error of less than 10
per cent; the data in the table are valid for spacing/height
ratios up to 1.5: 1. Where an error of less than 5 per cent is When the illuminance at a workplace is of interest, e.g. when
required, the number of measurement points should be local lighting is being measured, the illuminance should be
doubled. measured at an appropriate point and plane with the worker
in his normal position, no matter whether this casts a shadow
The only limitation on the use of Table A3.1 is when the on the meter or not.
periodicity of the grid of measuring points coincides with the
periodicity of the grid of lighting points; large errors are then Point illuminance measurements can also be used to estimate
possible and more points than the number given in Table the uniformity of the illuminance provided by the electric
A3.1 should be used. The numbers of measurement points lighting installation. For this purpose the illuminance should
suggested are minima, and it may be necessary to increase be measured on a horizontal plane at an appropriate height
their number to obtain a symmetrical grid to suit a particular without shadowing the photocell. Uniformity criteria need to
room shape. be interpreted with a degree of common sense. It is always
possible to find a very low illuminance in the corner of a room
Table A3.1 Relationship between room index and the minimum number of but this is of little relevance if no work is being done there. It
measurement points is the uniformity of the illuminance over the working area
that usually is of concern.
Glossary
The following examples illustrate the use of the method:
aspect factor (AF)
A function of the angle subtended at a point by the length of a
(a) For an interior measuring 20 m x 20 m and with
luminaires mounted 4 m above the working plane. linear source, and of the axial distribution of luminous
intensity from the source; used in the calculation of illum-
inance at a point.
asymmetric distribution
A luminous intensity distribution which is not symmetric
Sixteen points of measurement are therefore required, about the vertical axis through the luminaire.
i.e. a 4 x 4 grid.
axial distribution
(b) If the room measures 20 m x 40 m and the luminaires are The luminous intensity distribution of a linear luminaire in
mounted at the same height, it should be treated as two 20 the plane parallel to the length of the luminaire.
m x 20 m areas and thirty-two points of measurements
should be used. average illuminance
See service illuminance.
(c) If the room measures 20 m x 33 m, the number of
measurement points required should be derived by first beam angle
considering a 20 m x 20 m area within the larger The total angle over which the luminous intensity of a beam
rectangle. From example (a) and treating this area by drops to a given proportion (usually half or one-tenth) of the
itself, sixteen points would be required. The number for peak value.
the room is then obtained proportionately, i.e.
beam factor
The proportion of the lamp flux contained within the beam
angle.
The points are placed at the centres of rectangles which candela (cd)
should be as ‘square’ as possible. Taking twenty-six as the The SI unit of luminous intensity, equal to one lumen per
minimum number of points, twenty-eight points on a 4 x steradian.
7 grid could be used.
cavity index (CI)
Measurements should be made at a position representative of A term, indicating the proportions of boundary surfaces,
the working plane but if this is not specified the measure- used in determining the effective reflectances of room
ments should be taken on a horizontal plane at height of 0.7m surfaces for interior lighting design: defined for a cavity of
above the floor for offices and of 0.85 m above the floor for length L, width W, and depth d, as LW/(d(L + W)).
industrial premises. A portable stand or tripod is useful to
support the photocell at the required height and inclination. ceiling cavity reflectance (REc))
Care should be taken not to cast a shadow over the photocell Effective reflectance of the room volume above the plane of
when taking the readings. the luminaires.
105
chroma disability glare

In the Munsell system, an index of saturation of colour Glare which impairs the ability to see detail.
ranging from 0 for neutral grey to 16 for strong colours. A low
chroma implies a pastel shade. discharge lamp
A lamp in which the light is produced either directly or by the
colour rendering excitation of phosphors by an electric discharge through a
A general expression for the appearance of surface colours gas, a metal vapour or a mixture of several gases and vapours.
when illuminated by light from a given source compared,
consciously or unconsciously, with their appearance under discomfort glare
light from some reference source. ‘Good colour rendering’ Glare which causes visual discomfort.
implies similarity of appearance to that under an acceptable
light source, such as daylight. effective reflectance (RE)
Estimated reflectance of a surface, based on the relative areas
and the reflectances of the materials forming the surface.
colour rendering index (CRI)
Thus, ‘effective wall reflectance’ takes account of the reflec-
A measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces
tances of the wall surface, the windows, the filing cabinets,
illuminated by a given light source conform to those of
etc., that comprise the sides of a room.
the same surfaces under a reference illuminant, suitable
allowance having been made for the state of chromatic
emergency lighting
adaptation. (CIE Publication 13.2).
Lighting provided for use when the main lighting installation
fails.
contrast
A term that is used subjectively and objectively. Subjectively
escape lighting
it describes the difference in appearance of two parts of
Emergency lighting provided to ensure that the means of
a visual field seen simultaneously or successively. The
escape can be safely and effectively used at all material times.
difference may be one of brightness or colour or both.
Objectively, the term expresses the luminance difference
externally reflected component of the daylight factor
between the two parts of the field by such relationships as: (ERC)
The illuminance received directly at a point indoors from a
sky of known or assumed luminance distribution after
reflection from an external reflecting surface, expressed as a
percentage of the horizontal illuminance outdoors from an
Quantitatively, the sign of the contrast is ignored. L1 is the unobstructed hemisphere of the same sky. Direct sunlight is
dominant or background luminance. L is the task luminance. excluded from both illuminances.
correlated colour temperature (unit: K) flicker

The temperature of a full radiator which emits radiation A visible oscillation in luminous flux.
having a chromaticity nearest to that of the light source being
considered, e.g. the colour of a full radiator at 3500 K is the footpath
nearest match to that of a White tubular fluorescent lamp. A means of passage for pedestrians
daylight factor flux fraction ratio (FFR)

The illuminance received at a point indoors, from a sky of The ratio of the upward luminous flux to the downward
known or assumed luminance distribution, expressed as a luminous flux from a luminaire
percentage of the horizontal illuminance outdoors from an
unobstructed hemisphere of the same sky. Direct sunlight is footway
excluded from both values of illuminance. That portion of a road which is reserved for pedestrians
diffuse reflection floor cavity reflectance (REF)

Reflection in which the reflected light is diffused and there is Effective reflectance of the room volume below the working
no significant specular reflection, as from a matt paint. plane.
diffused lighting full radiator

Lighting in which the luminous flux comes from many A thermal radiator obeying Planck’s radiation law and having
directions, none of which predominates. the maximum possible radiant exitance for all wavelengths
for a given temperature; also called a black body to emphasise
direct lighting its absorption of all incident radiation.
Lighting in which the greater part of the luminous flux from
the luminaires reaches the surface (usually the working full radiator locus
plane) directly, i.e. without reflection from surrounding The curve on a chromaticity diagram representing the colour
surfaces. Luminaires with a flux fraction ratio less than 0.1 of the radiation from a full radiator as a function of its
are usually regarded as direct. temperature.
directional lighting general dispersive distribution

Lighting designed to illuminate a task or surface predomin- The luminous intensity distribution of a class of luminaires,
antly from some direction. characterised by a spacing/height ratio > 1.0 and < 1.5.
106
general lighting internally reflected component of the daylight factor

Lighting designed to illuminate the whole of an area (IRC)
uniformly, without provision for special local requirements. The illuminance received at a point indoors from a sky
of known or assumed luminance distribution after reflection
glare within the interior, expressed as a percentage of the
The discomfort or impairment of vision experienced when horizontal illuminance outdoors from an unobstructed
parts of the visual field are excessively bright in relation to the hemisphere of the same sky. Direct sunlight is excluded from
general surroundings. both illuminances.
glare index system isolux diagram

A system which produces a numerical index calculated A diagram showing contours of equal illuminance.
according to the method described in CIBSE Technical
Memorandum 10. It enables the discomfort glare from light loss factor (LLF)
lighting installations to be ranked in order of severity and the The ratio of the illuminance provided by the installation at
permissible limit of discomfort glare from an installation to some stated time, with respect to the initial illuminance, i.e.
be prescribed quantitatively. that after 100 hours of operation. The light loss factor is the
product of the lamp lumen maintenance factor, the luminaire
hazardous environment maintenance factor and the room surface maintenance factor.
An environment in which a risk of fire or explosion exists.
lighting design lumens (LDL) (unit: Im)
hostile environment Lamps vary in flux output, both between themselves and
An environment in which the lighting equipment may be through their operating lives. The lighting design lumen is a
subject to chemical, thermal or mechanical attack. nominal value which is representative of the average light
output of each type or size of lamp throughout its life.
hue
Colour in the sense of red, or yellow or green, etc. In the limiting glare index
Munsell system, an index derived by arranging the five The maximum value of the Glare Index which is recom-
named colours (red, yellow, green, blue and purple) and mended for a specific lighting installation.
their intermediates (yellow-red, green-yellow, etc.) in a circle
of constant chroma and dividing each of these ten equally local lighting
spaced bands into ten equal steps in the complete atlas (but Lighting designed to illuminate a particular small area which
four in the standard atlases, hence 7.5 BG as a hue reference). usually does not extend far beyond the visual task, e.g. a desk
light.
ingress-protection (IP) number
A two-digit number associated with a luminaire. The first localised lighting
digit classifies the degree of protection the luminaire pro- Lighting designed to illuminate an interior and at the same
vides against the ingress of solid foreign bodies. the second time to provide higher illuminances over a particular part or
digit classifies the degree of protection the luminaire parts of the interior.
provides against the ingress of moisture. Details of the nature
of the protection achieved at different levels is given in lumen (Im)
BS 4533. The SI unit of luminous flux, used in describing a quantity of
light emitted by a source or received by a surface. A small
illuminance (E) (unit: lm/m2, lux) source which has a uniform luminous intensity of one candela
The luminous flux density at a surface, i.e. the luminous flux emits a total of 4π. lumens in all directions and emits one
incident per unit area. (This quantity was formerly known as lumen within unit solid angle.
the illumination value or illumination level.)
luminaire
illumination An apparatus which controls the distribution of light given
The process of lighting. by a lamp or lamps and which includes all the components
necessary for fixing and protecting the lamps and for
incandescent lamp connecting them to the supply circuit. Luminaire has
A lamp in which light is produced by a filament heated to superseded the term lighting fitting.
incandescence by the passage of an electric current.
luminance (L) (unit: cd/m2)
indirect lighting
Lighting in which the greater part of the flux reaches the The physical measure of the stimulus which produces the
sensation of brightness measured by the luminous intensity
surface (usually the working plane) only after reflection
of the light emitted or reflected in a given direction from a
at other surfaces and particularly at the roof or ceiling.
surface element, divided by the area of the element in the
Luminaires with a flux fraction ratio greater than 10 are
same direction. The SI unit of luminance is the candela per
usually regarded as indirect.
square metre, the relationship between luminance and
initial light output (unit: lm)
illuminance is given by the equation
The luminous flux from a lamp after 100 hours of operation.
107
This equation applies to a matt surface. For a non matt reflectance (R)
surface, the reflectance is replaced by the luminance factor. The ratio of the luminous flux reflected from a surface to the
luminous flux incident on it. Except for matt surfaces,
luminous efficacy (unit: Im/W) reflectance depends on how the surface is illuminated but
The ratio of the luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power especially on the direction of the incident light and its
consumed by the lamp. When the power consumed by spectral distribution. The value is always less than unity and
control gear is taken into account this term is sometimes is expressed as either a decimal or as a percentage.
known as lamp circuit luminous efficacy and is expressed in
lumens/circuit watt. room index (RI)
An index related to the dimensions of a room and used when
luminous flux (unit: Im) calculating the utilization factor and other characteristics of
The light emitted by a source, or received by a surface. The the lighting installation:
quantity is derived from radiant flux by evaluating the
radiation in accordance with the spectral sensitivity of the
standard eye as described by the CIE Standard Photometric
Observer.
where L is the length of the room, W the width and hm the
luminous intensity (unit: cd) height of the luminaires above the working plane.
A quantity which describes the power of a source or
illuminated surface to emit light in a given direction. It is the service illuminance
luminous flux emitted in a very narrow cone containing the The mean illuminance throughout the maintenance cycle of
given direction divided by the solid angle of the cone: the an installation, averaged over the relevant area. The area may
result is expressed in candelas. be the whole of the working plane or just the area of the visual
task and its immediate surround, depending on the lighting
luminous intensity distribution approach used.
The distribution of the luminous intensity of a lamp or
luminaire in all spatial directions. Luminous intensity distri- sky component of the daylight factor (SC)
butions are usually shown in the form of a polar diagram or a The illuminance received directly at a point indoors from a
table for a single vertical plane, in terms of candelas per 1000 sky of known or assumed luminance distribution expressed
lumens of lamp luminous flux. as a percentage of the horizontal illuminance outdoors from
lux (lx) an unobstructed hemisphere of the same sky. Direct sunlight
The SI unit of illuminance, equal to one lumen per square is excluded from both values of illuminance.
metre.
spacing/height ratio (SHR)
maintenance factor (MF) This ratio describes the distance between luminaire centres
The ratio of the illuminance provided by an installation in the in relation to their height above the working plane. For a
average condition of dirtiness expected in service, to the regular square arrangement of luminaires, it is the distance
illuminance from the same installation when clean. The between adjacent luminaires divided by their height above
maintenance factor is always less than unity. the working plane. More generally,
minimum illuminance
The lowest illuminance occurring at any point and at any
time on the working plane in the working area.
where A is the total floor area, N is the number of luminaires
mounting height (hm) and hm is their height above the working plane.
Usually the vertical distance between a luminaire and the
working plane, but sometimes the distance between the special location emergency lighting
luminaire and the floor. Emergency lighting provided to allow machinery, plant or
processes, to be placed in a safe and stable condition before
Munsell system leaving the location.
A system of surface colour classification using uniform
colour scales of hue, value and chroma. A typical Munsell specular reflection
designation of a colour is 7.5 BG6/2, where 7.5 BG (blue- Reflection without diffusion in accordance with the laws of
green) is the hue reference, 6 is the value and 2 is the chroma optical reflection as in a mirror.
reference number.
standard service illuminance
narrow distribution The service illuminance recommended for the assumed
The luminous intensity distribution of a class of luminaires, standard conditions of the application.
characterised by a spacing/height ratio of 1.0 or less.
standby lighting
power factor Emergency lighting provided to enable normal activities to
In an electric circuit, the power factor is equal to the ratio of continue.
the root mean square power in watts to the product of the root
mean square values of voltage and current; for sinusoidal stroboscopic effect
wave forms the power factor is also equal to the cosine of the An illusion caused by oscillation in luminous flux, that makes
angle of phase difference between voltage and current. a moving object appear as stationary or as moving in a
108
manner different from that in which it is truly moving. VDU (visual display unit)
A self-luminous screen on which information is displayed
symmetric distribution (when the VDU is part of a computer system, it is sometimes
A luminous intensity distribution which is symmetrical called a VDT (visual display terminal))
about the vertical axis through the luminaire.
visual environment
transmittance The environment either indoors or outdoors as seen by an
The ratio of luminous flux transmitted by a material to the observer.
incident luminous flux.
visual field
transverse distribution The full extent in space of what can be seen when looking in a
The luminous intensity distribution of a linear luminaire in a given direction.
plane normal to the length of the luminaire.
waste light factor
uniformity ratio The proportion of light produced by an exterior area
The ratio of the minimum illuminance to the average floodlighting installation that falls on the area to be lit
illuminance. In some instances, the ratio of the minimum to (typically 0.8).
the maximum illuminance is quoted. The ratio usually
applies to values on the working plane over the working area. widespread distribution
The luminous intensity distribution of a class of luminaires
utilisation factor (UF) characterised by a spacing/height ratio of > 1.5.
The proportion of the luminous flux emitted by the lamps
which reaches the working plane. working plane
The horizontal, vertical, or inclined plane in which the visual
value task lies. If no information is available, the working plane
In the Munsell system, an index of the lightness of a surface may be considered to be horizontal and at 0.7 m above the
ranging from 0 (black) to 10 (white). Approximately related floor for offices, horizontal and 0.85 m above the floor for
to percentage reflectance by the relationship industry.
R = V(V- I)
where R = reflectance (%), and V = value.
Bibliography Regulations made under the Factories Act 1961
Legislation relevant to lighting The Locomotive and Wagons (used on Lines and Sidings) Regulations 1906
SR&O 1906 No. 679.
Sections 2-4 of the Health and Safety at Work Act apply to all
places of work. Section 2 places a general duty on the The Electricity Regulations 1908 SR&O 1908 No. 1312.
employer to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the
The Chemical Works Regulations 1922 SR&O 1922 No. 731.
health, safety and welfare of all his employees. Section 3
requires the employer and the self- employed to ensure, so far The Grinding of Cutlery and Edge Tools Regulations 1925 SR&O 1925 No.
as is reasonably practicable, that people not in their employ 1089.
who may be affected by their work activities are not exposed
to risks to their health or safety. Section 4 requires that The Grinding of Metals (Miscellaneous Industries) Regulations 1925 SR&O
premises made available to people as a place of work or 1925 No. 904.
equipment provided for use there are safe and without risks
to health. These general duties include, where appropriate, The Construction (General Provisions) Regulations 1961 SI 1961 No. 1580.
the provision of suitable lighting.
The Construction (Health and Welfare) Regulations 1966 SI 1966 No. 95.
Other requirements dealing specifically with lighting are
The Carcinogenic Substances Regulations 1967 SI 1967 No. 879.
contained in the Factories Act 1961, the Offices, Shops and
Railway Premises Act 1963 and the Mines and Quarries Act The Woodworking Machines Regulations 1974 SI 1974 No. 903.
1954. These require effective provision of ‘sufficient and
suitable’ lighting, whether by artificial or natural means, in
every part of the premises where people work or pass, and all The Horizontal Milling Machines Regulations 1928 SR&O 1928 No. 548.
apparatus for producing artificial lighting to be properly
maintained. There are also a number of specific Regulations The Docks Regulations 1934 SR&O 1934 No. 279.
made under these and other Acts of Parliament which The Patent Fuel Manufacture (Health and Welfare) Special Regulations
contain lighting requirements. The relevant legislation is 1946 SR&O 1946 No. 258.
listed below:
The Jute (Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1948 SI 1948 No. 1696.
The Factories Act 1961 Sections 5, 7 and 69.
The Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963 Sections 8 and 9. The Clay Works (Welfare) Special Regulations 1948 SI 1948 No. 1547.
The Mines and Quarries Act 1954, Sections 61 to 65 and 111. The Pottery (Health and Welfare) Special Regulations 1950 SI 1950 No. 65.
109
The Mule Spinning (Health) Special Regulations 1953 SI 1953 No. 1545. CIBSE Application Guide: Hostile and Hazardous Environments 1983.
The Work in Compressed Air Special Regulations 1958 SI 1958 No. 61. CIBSE Lighting Guide: Hospitals and Health Care Buildings 1979.
The Shipbuilding and Ship-repairing Regulations 1960 SI 1960 No. 1932. CIBSE Lighting Guide: Lecture Theatres 1973.
Regulations made under The Offices Shops and Railway CIBSE Lighting Guide: Museum and Art Galleries 1980.
Premises Act 1963
CIBSE Lighting Guide: Sports 1974.
The Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963 (Exemption Order No.
7) 1968 SI 1968 No. 1947. CIBSE Lighting Guide: Shipbuilding and Ship Repair 1979.
Regulations made under the Mines and Quarries Act 1954 CIBSE Technical Memorandum 5: The calculation of utilisation factor
1980.
The Quarries Order 1956 SI 1956 No. 1780.
CIBSE Technical Memorandum 6: Lighting for visual display units 1981.
The Coal and Other Mines (Safety-lamps and Lighting) Order 1956 SI 1956
No. 1765. CIBSE Technical Memorandum 10: The calculation of glare indices 1985.
The Coal and Other Mines (Sidings) Order 1956 SI 1956 No. 1773. CIBSE Technical Memorandum 12: Emergency lighting 1986.
The Miscellaneous Mines Order 1956 SI 1956 No. 1778. CIBSE Window Design Guide, 1987.
Quarries Vehicles Regulations 1970 SI 1970 No. 168.
Regulations under the Agriculture (Safefy, Health and

Welfare Provisions) Act 1956 Health and Safety Executive publications (available from HMSO
Publications Centre, P.O. Box 276, London).
The Agriculture (Circular Saws) Regulations 1959 SI 1959 No. 427.
Health and Safety Guidance Note 38: Lighting at work.
The Agriculture (Stationary Machinery) Regulations 1959 SI 1959 No.
1216. Electricity Council publications (available from The Electricity Council
Marketing Department, 30 Millbank, London, SWlP 4RD).
The Agriculture (Threshers and Balers) Regulations 1960 SI 1960 No. 1199.
Electricity Council and Lighting Industries Federation, Interior Lighting
Design, London, 6th Edition, 1986.
British Standards (available from British Standards Institution, Sales
Department, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE). Electricity Council, Farm Electric 25, Essentials of farm lighting (Ref.
4764).
BS 667 Specification for portable photoelectric photometers.
Electricity Council, Essentials of Security Lighting (Ref. 4804).
BS 4533 Luminaires
BS 4800 Specification for paint colours for building purposes. Other Publications
BS 5266 Part 1: Code of Practice for the emergency lighting of premises Boyce PR Human Factors in Lighting. Applied Science Publishers, London
other than cinemas and certain other specified premises used for (1981).
entertainment.
Building Research Establishment. BRE Digest 272, Lighting controls and
BS 5345 Code of Practice for selection, installation and maintenance of daylight use. BRE Watford, (1983).
electrical apparatus for use in potentially explosive atmospheres
(other than mining applications or explosive processing and Cayless MA and Marsden AM Lamps and Lighting Edward Arnold, London,
manufacture). (1983).
BS 5489 Code of Practice for road lighting. De Boer JB and Fischer D Interior Lighting Philips Technical Library
Antwerp, (1978).
BS 8206 Part 1: Code of Practice for artificial lighting.
De Boer JB and Van Bomell Road Lighting Philips Technical Library.
BS DD 73 Basic data for the design of buildings: daylight.
Lyons SL Exterior Lighting for industry and Security, Applied Science
CIBSE Publications (available from CIBSE, Delta House, 222 Balham Publishers, London, (1980).
High Road, London, SW12 9BS).
Lyons SL Handbook of Industrial Lighting. Butterworth, London, (1981).
CIBSE Code for Interior Lighting 1984
Batchelor BT Hill DA & Hodgson DC Automated visual inspection. IFS
CIBSE Lighting Guide: Building and Civil Engineering Sites 1975. (Publications) Ltd., Bedford, U.K. (1985).
110
Index Electrical and electronic engineering, 25 Lanterns, 61

Electricity, 8 Large assembly, 25
Elevators, 9 Leather, 33
Emergency lighting, 7, 51, 97, 106 Life of a lamp, 69
Aspect factor, 105 Energy, 6 Lifts, 45
Assembly, 22 Environmental conditions, 6 Light loss factor, 107
Assembly shops, 23 Equipment, 69 Light sources, 69
Asymmetric distribution, 105 Escalators, 45 Lighting design lumens, 107
Automatic control, 84 Escape lighting, 51, 106 Limiting glare index, 107
Average daylight factor, 80 Exterior, 51 Loading bays, 53
Average illuminance, 105 Exterior walkway, 9 Local lighting, 81, 107
Average illuminance for exterior areas, 90 Externally reflected component, 106 Localised lighting, 81, 107
Axial distribution, 105 Fabrics, 29 Low luminance luminaires, 11
Bakeries, 27 Flicker, 106 Lumen, 107
Beam angle, 105 Floor cavity reflectance, 106 Lumen method, 86
Beam factor, 105 Fluorescence, 46 Luminaires, 71,107
Boiler house, 8,45 Flux fraction ratio, 106 Luminance, 107
Boot, 34 Food, 26 Luminous efficacy, 69, 108
Bottling, 26 Footpath, 106 Luminous flux, 108
Brewing, 26 Footway, 106 Luminous intensity, 108
Bulk disposal of lamps, 76 Footwear, 34 Lux, 108
Bulk storage, 41 Forges, 14 Magnification, 49
Cabinet making, 35 Frozen foods, 26 Maintenance, 6, 13, 75, 85
Cafeterias, 44 Fuel industries, 8 Maintenance factor, 108
Candela, 105 Full radiator, 106 Marshalling yards, 65
Canning, 26 Full radiator locus, 106 Mechanical engineering, 21
Canteens, 44 Furnaces, 13 Metal manufacture, 13
Carpet manufacture, 30 Furniture, 33 Meter rooms, 8
Cavity index, 86, 105 Gantry, 58 Mills, 27
Ceiling cavity reflectance, 105 Gas, 8 Mimic diagram, 10
Ceramics, 16 Gatehouses, 62,63 Mine lighting, 9
Checkpoints, 62,63 General dispersive distribution, 106 Minimum illuminance, 108
Chemical, 19 General lighting, 81, 107 Mounting height, 108
Chocolate, 27 Glare, 4, 107 Munsell system, 108
Chroma, 106 Glare Index, 95 Narrow distribution, 108
Chute transfer, 9 Glare index system, 107 Obstruction, 3
Circulation areas, 45 Glassworks, 17 Off-shore, 9
Clean rooms, 20 Glove, 34 Oil plant rooms, 9
Closed circuit TV, 64 Goods depots, 65 Oil refining, 9
Clothing, 33 Goods yards, 65 Overhead lighting, 15, 58
Coke ovens, 9 Group replacement, 76 Paint, 20, 24
Cold stores, 41 H.V., 8 Paint shops, 24
Colour, 5 Hat, 34 Pallet storage, 43
Colour appraisal, 48 Hazardous areas, 13 Paper, 35
Colour matching, 48 Hazardous environment, 107 Paper mills, 35
Colour rendering, 70, 106 Health, 2 Perimeter, 63
Colour Rendering Index, 5, 106 High precision work, 25 Pharmaceutical, 20
Compressor house, 9 Highways, 60 Picking belts, 9
Concrete, 16 Hosiery, 34 Pickling, 14
Continuous operation, 12 Hostile areas, 13 Plane of the task, 2
Contrast, 106 Hostile environment, 107 Plastics, 40
Control, 75, 84 Hue, 107 Plating, 22
Control rooms, 10 Illuminance, 107 Point source formulae, 100
Control systems, 75, 84 Illuminance at a point, 100 Polarised light, 49
Correlated colour temperature, 106 Illuminance on the task, 2 Post rooms, 45
Corridors, 45 Illumination, 107 Potteries, 16
Cranes, 15, 58 Incandescent lamp, 107 Power factor, 108
Daylight, 80 Indirect lighting, 107 Power loadings, 6
Daylight factor, 80, 106 Ingress-protection (IP) number, 107 Printing, 36, 38
Diffuse reflection, 106 Initial light output, 107 Process plant, 9
Diffused lighting, 106 Inspection, 25, 46 Processor control, 84
Dimming, 75 Inspection lighting, 25, 46 Quays, 68
Direct lighting, 106 Internally reflected component, 107 Reflectance, 3, 108
Directional lighting, 106 Introduction, 1 Reprographic room, 36, 45
Disability glare, 106 Ironmaking, 13 Restaurants, 44
Discharge lamp, 106 Isolux diagram, 107 Restrike time, 71
Discomfort glare, 106 Jetties, 68 Roadway, 60, 90
Distilling, 26 Kitchens, 44 Room index, 86, 108
Distribution, 41 Knitting, 38 Rubber, 40
Dockyards, 67 Knitwear, 34 Run-up time, 70
Drink, 26 Ladders, 9 Sawmills, 34
Dyeing, 30 Lamp prefix letters, 69 Scope, 1
Effective reflectance, 106 Lamp replacement, 75 Security lighting, 62
111
Service illuminance, 108 Steelmaking, 13 Uplighting, 11

Shoe, 33 Storage, 41 Utilisation factors, 86, 109
Sidings, 65 Stroboscopic effect, 5, 108 Value, 109
Sky component, 108 Stroboscopic illumination, 50 VDUs, 11, 109
Slaughterhouses, 26 Switchboard rooms, 45 Vibration, 15
Soap, 20 Switching, 75 Visual environment, 109
Spacing to height ratio, 88 Switchroom, 8 Visual field, 109
Spacing/height ratio, 10 Symmetric distribution, 109 Wagon loading, 9
Spacing/mounting height ratio, 3 Terminals, 67 Warehouses, 41
Special location emergency lighting, 108 Textile, 29 Waste light factor, 109
Specular reflection, 108 Timber, 34 Weaving, 30
Spinning, 29 Tobacco, 26, 29 Welding, 22
Spray booths, 22 Transmittance, 109 Welding/soldering shops, 22
Stairs, 9, 45 Transverse distribution, 109 Widespread distribution, 109
Standard service illuminance, 108 Turbine houses, 8 Working plane, 109
Standby lighting, 51, 108 Uniformity, 2 Workshop units, 8
Steel, 13 Uniformity ratio, 109 Yarns, 30
112

Lighting Guide - Industrial Environment

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The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

Appendix 1 Light source colour ............................................................ 99

Appendix 2 Illuminance at a point reference diagrams ............................... 100

Appendix 3 Field measurements of illuminance ...................................... 103

Glossary ...................................................................................... 105

Bibliography ................................................................................. 109

Index .......................................................................................... 111

Lighting, as used in industry, has three objectives: to facilitate quick and

It must be stressed that it is as important to apply the correct colour and

takes two forms. First, the ratio of minimum illuminance to average

This criterion is appropriate for a space which is to be lit uniformly.

Of course, sub-dividing any space into working and non-working areas

Discomfort glare occurs when people experience discomfort without any

Figure 2.2 Variation in light output with control circuit

Figure 2.3 Typical scheme for bulk materials handling plant

It should be noted that the power consumed by any control system

recommended lighting conditions. With careful design it may be possible to

3 Recommendations interior lighting

3.2 Workshop unit

3.3 Fuel industries Electricity generation, transmission and distribution

Gas Manufacture, storage and distribution

Coal Mining (Surface buildings) With Fuel Industries

For a mimic diagram, such as a network diagram, it is important to provide

Figure 3.1 Lighting control room showing (a) Mimic diagram;

It should be noted that while the illuminance recommended, 500 lx, is

The first is by a careful choice of position for each luminaire. This is

Further advice on these problems can be obtained from CIBSE TM6

3.4 Metal manufacture

Figure 3.5 Metal manufacture control room

Pottery and porcelain which is hand-crafted or painted presents rather

To increase the vertical illuminance on the task the luminaires, which

There is to a large extent, a form of continuous visual inspection taking

Section 3.18 covers the principles of lighting for visual inspection.

It is only on the rare occasions when a new production plant specifically

A high proportion of decorative glass manufacture involves complex

The essential characteristic of the supplementary lighting is that it should

Figure 3.6 Principles for lighting of glassware

Many of the techniques recommended for the visual inspection of specular

where obstruction is excessive. If the plant is used for continuous

Figure 3.7 Individual placement of luminaires on a chemical platform

Other relevant documents

The majority of machine shops contain rotating machinery and although

Where large assembly is involved particular care should be taken to ensure a

Lighting of these areas must be designed so that the illumination enables

Where colour matching is required care will have to be taken in the

3.8 Electrical and

In a typical electrical engineering workshop, work is not performed in every

3.9 Food, drink and

Where the product is processed openly, the Food Hygiene (General)

Figure 3.11 Luminaire arrangement for flour mill

This gives access for maintenance and provides illumination through

As stated earlier, some areas may be hazardous. Distilleries of alcohol and

It should be noted that there are statutory requirements covering2

Bottling plants have particular inspection problems as the bottles have to be

Figure 3.13 Booth for inspection of bottles

Figure 3.14 Spinning frames forming a ‘corridor’ in a large area

Beaming or warping is the process of laying threads onto a beam or roller

3.12 Clothing and

It is advisable to consider that finished goods may be displayed under

3.13 Timber and furnishing

The visual approach to lighting in the timber and furniture industry is to

However, there are a number of particular aspects of the industry which