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META-ETHICS
The foundation of morality
Moral Realism
The belief that there are moral facts, in the same way that there are scientific facts.
Any moral disposition statement can be true or false.
Our gut intuition tells us that there are moral facts, somethings are just wrong and others are indisputably
right.
Moral Absolutism
There are absolute standards against with moral questions can be judge.
There are moral facts that don’t change regardless of the culture or circumstances.
Moral facts should be applied.
It is universal and constant as gravity.
Moral Relativism
More than one moral position on a given topic can be correct. Cultural relativism is most famous form of
moral relativism. Cultural relativism has two types.
Grounding Problem
It is the search for a foundation for our moral belief, something solid that would make them true in a way
that is clear, objective and unmoving.
Moral Anti-Realism
The belief that moral proposition doesn’t refer to objective features of the world at all. That there are no
moral facts.
Moral Subjectivism
Moral standards can be true or false, right or wrong but they refer only to people’s attitude rather than
action.
Those preferences are the key into personal attitude but not into actual objective moral facts about the
norms.
There are no moral facts only moral attitudes. These were grounded in moral beliefs and strengthens
the moral principle of an individual.
Ethical Theories
There are the moral foundations to come up with consistent answers to right and wrong.
These are composed of moral principles as building blocks of the theory.
NORMATIVE ETHICS
Branch of ethics that studies how man ought to act morally. Simply, it’s prescribing ethics.
It examines ethical norms that is, those about what is right, worthwhile, virtuous and just.
It attempts to discover which actions are in fact right or wrong.
Teleology
An outcome-based theory. A theory that sees the end of every decision.
Refers to moral system that determine the moral value of action as morally right if favorable
consequences are greater than its adverse outcomes.
Also referred to consequentialism.
Consequentialism where in morality is determined solely by a cost-benefit evaluation of the actions or
consequences. A theory that attains the end goal.
Virtue Ethics
A character-based theory that implies what is the intention or benefit of the action.
It means, the choice of an individual could be either and both considered equally good.
APPLIED ETHICS
It examines specific, controversial moral issues. Ethics attempts to determine the ethically correct course of
action in specific realm of human action
Environmental Ethics
Moral issues that are not limited to environment and surroundings but also in the animal welfare.
Business Ethics
Moral principles concerning business environment which involves issues about corporate practice, policies,
business behaviors and conduct and relationships
Sexual Ethics
Moral issues about sexuality and human sexual behavior.
Social Ethics
Deals with what is right for a society to do and how it should act as a whole. Focus on the proper behavior for
people as a whole
Self-knowledge is a sufficient condition to good life. If knowledge can be learned, so as virtue. It can be taught.
“Human actions aim toward the good in accordance with purpose in nature. No one chooses evil, no one
chooses to act in ignorance. We seek the good but fail to achieve it by ignorance or lack of knowledge.
No one would intentionally harm themselves”
The Euthydemus
Happiness is what all people desire since it’s the end goal of our activity. (Unconditional goods)
Happiness does not depend on external things but how those external things are USED.
Ex. You’ll use your money to buy something that will make you happy.
Conditional goods/external goods are the things we can used to be happy such as possession, good looks or
abilities.
Misuse of it will lead to worse situation far from happiness.
Happiness cannot be found in goods but in the agency of the person himself who gives his life direction and
focus.
Happiness leads to satisfaction of desire that is worth satisfying. We need to use wisdom to distinguish the
right desire to be fulfilled.
The Symposium
In a dinner party held by Eros (the God of love and desire) he asked his three friends to say something about
him
Dr. Eryximachus
Above all gods, he is capable of bringing us happiness.
He is a force which gives life to all living things including human desires and the source of all goodness.
Socrates
Eros has a darker side
He is representing desire and he is constantly longing and never completely satisfied.
He is not a full god because it takes divinity to be a god. Divinity is supposed to be eternal and self-sufficient.
Yet, Eros is vitally important in human quest for happiness.
The power of desire begins by sending physical pleasure but it can be retrained to pursue higher things of mind.
Retrain means, human can be educated to move away from love of beautiful things which perish and move to
a pure love of beauty itself.
When we come up to this retraining, our soul will find complete satisfaction.
And this complete satisfaction of the soul will result to Rapture or Epiphany.
3. Relativity of Pleasure
The most powerful argument.
The relationship between pleasure, happiness and virtue.
Most pleasure are not really pleasure but just a result from the absence of pain.
Socrates believed that some pleasures are concern to higher parts of the soul which is called philosophical
pleasures.
Philosophical pleasures are pure pleasure of coming to a greater understanding of reality.
After Socrates, philosopher Epicurus made a distinction between positive and negative pleasures.
Positive Pleasure
It always depends on pain because it’s nothing but the removal of pain.
Always quantifiable Ex. I want to sleep than to eat.
Somewhat frustrating as a result because there’s always contrast.
Negative Pleasure
A state of harmony where you no longer feel any pain, we no longer have positive pleasure.
It is the removal of desire.
According to Epicurus, he concludes that the true state of happiness is the state of negative pleasure, the state
of not experiencing any unfulfilled desire.
Pleasure is not the goal of existence but integral aspect of the exercise of virtue in a fully human life.
Virtue theory
It will not tell you what to do.
It is an ethical theory that emphasizes in individual’s character rather than following a set of rules.
If we can be good people, the right actions will follow effortlessly.
Being a good person is equal to good/right actions
Proper Functioning
Aristotle believes that everything has their specific function
Ex. Worms are created not just to live but to be a food for birds
Knife is to cut Teachers to teach
Students are to study Doctor to heal
For Aristotle, it’s not about God’s plan but rather our built in nature to desire to be virtuous.
Ex. An Acorn is destined to be an oak tree.
You don’t need to specific because if you are virtuous, you just know what to do, all the time.
You know how to handle yourself You know what is right and when
Know how to get along with others Can deliver tough news gracefully
You can give good judgment Confident without being arrogant
You always know what to say Brave but not reckless
You can read a room Generous but not extravagant
Virtue is a set of robust character that the moment its developed, it will lead to predictively good behavior.
Courage
Deficiency: Cowardice when we let our fears intervene and hold us to do something
Excess: Recklessness we act without analyzing the situation.
Golden Mean: Finding the right way to act
Honesty
Deficiency: failing to say something that need to be said
Excess: Brutal honesty that will lead to offense
Golden Mean: knowing how to deliver hard truth gracefully. Know to break bad news gently. Offers criticism in
a way that is constructive.
Generosity
Deficiency: Stinginess unwillingness to spend
Excess: Over spending
Golden Mean: giving when you have in some considerable situations.
Based on Aristotle, we have this built in ability to recognize this people and the desire to imitate them
First, it will be hard for individuals to copy certain virtue from people who are better than them, and but in due
time, it will be an engraved part of their character. It will just manifest everytime they need it.
Virtue theory tells us to be virtuous to attain the pinnacle of humanity. It allows us to achieve EUDAIMONIA.
Choosing this life means you’re not done improving. You are constantly setting up new goals, develop new skills
and create new learning.
Eudaimonia is the feeling of being accomplished and pushing yourself to be the best person you could be.
This is morality for Aristotle. Being the best person you can be, honing your strengths while working with your
weakness.
According Aquinas, God made us, preloaded with all the tools that we need to know what is good.
Aquinas argued that God created the world according to natural law- a predictable and goal-driven system,
whereby life is sustained and everything functions smoothly.
In line with the 7 basic goods, we have this form of Prohibitions and Positive Injunction to cause prevention and
promotion.
Examples:
The Basic Good is LIFE
ProhibitionPreserve life Do not kill
Positive Injunction promote life feeding the hungry, charity works etc.
Ignorance
Sometimes, we seek what we think is good, but we’re wrong because we’re just ignorant. But this ignorance
cannot cover all the stupid things we do in our lives.
Emotion
We see what we should do but emotion overpowers our reason, and we fail to do the things we know we should.
In Aquinas theory of natural law, the grounding problem was clearly answered.
It tells that morality is grounded in God, that He created the moral order.
Categorical Imperatives
These are commands you must follow regardless of your desire.
Your moral obligation is derived from pure reason.
It doesn’t matter whether you want to be moral or not, but the moral law is binding on all of us.
It also stated that we don’t need to have religion to determine what the law is, because what is right and what
is wrong is totally knowable just by using intellectual.
We always ask ourselves, what is the maxim, what is the moral rule that we have with our actions.
If you are able to do it, everyone should do it.
Ex. If you want to choose sleep over studying, everyone is entitled to do it also.
The main morality of this principle is that, it’s not fair to make exemptions to yourself.
We do use people but not for mere means yet some people agreed of being used.
Ex. Teachers, Parents
You and I do not deserve to be used as mere means because of our autonomy.
We’re self-governed. We are to make our own free decision based on our rational skills.
Absolute moral worth is that we shouldn’t be manipulated nor manipulate others for our own benefits.
Some people treat us as mere means to accomplish their goals without thinking our goal and interest. This
is a violation of Kant second categorical imperative.