INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
Bachelor of Engineering (Aerospace Engineering)
AST-219 – Principles of Flight

DISCOVER . LEARN .
EMPOWER
 |

The Standard Atmosphere

Why a standard atmosphere?

Real
atmosp
here

ISA is reference for:

atmosphere
- Meaningful aircraft performance specification
- Pressure altitude definition & EAS/IAS/TAS definition
- Model atmosphere for simulation & analysis

|
International Standard Atmosphere
(ISA)

T = T0 + a(h − h0 )
a = lapse rate
p = ρ RT
dp = −ρ g dh
|
International Standard
Atmosphere
(= ICAO Std Atm)

Use this instead of

Anderson page
112!)

Watch out when using

lapse rate a,
it is often given per km,
but you should use SI-
units, so per m!

T = 288.15 K (15 ºC)

p0 = 101325 Pa
ρ = 1.225 kg/m3

R = 287.05 J/kg K
g0= 9.81 m/s2

(and no water vapour)

M = 28.97 g/mol

|
What do we need to define a
standard atmosphere?

• Physically correct:
• Pressure increases due to
gravity
• Gas law
• Two laws, while three variables define
state:
• Pressure
• Temperatur
• e
Density
• So by defining one state variable, we entir
define theby applying the two laws of
atmosphere e
nature

|
Hydrostatic equation
/geopotential altitude

real g geometric altitude

This is the one

we normally
use. Difference
is small
|
e.g. 63500 ft vs
63307 ft = 0,3%
Absolute altitude &
geometric altitude
Geometric altitude: real altitude with sea
level = 0
Absolut altitude: distance to of eart
e centre h

hG
hG = ha + Rearth
ha
Rearth = 6357 km

10 |
Relation geopotential & geometric altitude

11 |
International Standard Atmosphere
(ISA) Layer with T gradienttryAs toanmaking
exercise:
an
Excel sheet with a
table for steps of 100
m

12 |
Layer with constant temperature T
(11 km -20 km)
Usevalue at 11 kmas bas 1 for thi formula
s e s e

On exam should be able derive ISA

you to all formulae!
13 |
Straight, horizontal, steady flight

Four
forces:
• Weigh (W)
• t (L) L
• Lift (D)
• Drag (T)
Thrust
For V & = constan T
alt.
Force t D
Equilibrium: DO
L=WD=T W F
DOF= Direction Of Flight

How aircraft 17
fly
Forces

• Lift: mainly generated by the wing (small contributions

of e.g.
• tail surfaces)
Weight is composed of three main components: aircraft
• empty
• weight,
Thrustfuel, (passengers
payload by
is provided the + luggage, freight)
Drag is caused by fuselage, wings, tail surfaces, etc.
engines

Question: One of the main rules in design is creat

aerospace to e
LIGHTWEIGHT aircraft. WHY??

How aircraft 18
fly
Answer

An aircraft consists of 3 main

weights:
- empty weight (structure, systems,
- etc.)
- fuel payload
(Costs vs revenues)

If we reduce the empty weight (MTOW = we

constant), can
- transport more payload (higher revenue)
- take more fuel on board (fly longer distance)
General: Improve the PERFORMANCE of the
aircraft

How aircraft 19
fly
Lift L

The formula for the LIFT

is:
L = CL (½V2)  S

CL = Lift coefficient
 = Density of the [kg/m3]
V = air
S = Air speed [m/s]
Wing area [m2]
Question What is the CL ?
: dimension of
Answer: N = [?][kg/m3][m/s]2[m2] = [?][kg/m3][m4/s2] = [?]kg.m/s2
= [?]N; so [?] =[-]

How aircraft 20
fly
Lift-parameters
CL (Lift coefficient) depends
on
- airfoi or win profil
l g e

CL represents “quality of (ability to generate

airfoil” Lift)
How aircraft 21
fly
Lift-parameters

• CL (Lift coefficient) depends also

- angle of attack () on

•  (air density) depends on:

- altitude & temperature (atmosphere)

• V (air speed) and S (wing area) are design

parameters

How aircraft 22
fly
Lift Parameters

Question: Why do we use cambered profiles; why not

these simple
symmetrical ones?

Answer: For horizontal flight (cruise) an inclined win

symmetrical
profil generate mor dra = fue inefficie g
e s e g l nt

How aircraft 23
fly
History of wing profiles

Earl years man differen airfoi descriptio

y : y t l ns

How aircraft 24
fly
History of wing profiles

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA)

– 1915
supported researchlanding
a.o. retractable & development (at Langley)
gear; engine nacelles, etc
propellors, .
aerodynamics (first open windtunnels)
Als airfoils (large overview in
o 1933)
specifi (4- nomenclatu to describ
c numbered) re e:

How aircraft 25
fly
History of wing profiles

2412means
: 2% camber (of chord
length ) at chord (from LE);
0.4 of the
and
12% thickness/cho rati (or 0.12
rd o )

How aircraft 26
fly
 Generation of Lift
- Bernoulli

Sum of static and dynamic remains

pressure constant
p1 + ½ V12 = p2 + ½ V22
or p + ½V2 = constant (along a
streamline)
Consequence:
higher velocity = lower local
pressure!! So - Lift by pressure
difference
Airfoils:
Curvature of upper surface than for surface
larger lower s
And:
Angle of attack improves lift
How aircraft 27
fly
Question

How can you use the Bernoulli-law (p + ½V2 = to

constant)
measure the speed/velocity?
Do we measur theAir spee or thegroun speed
e d d ?

How aircraft 28
fly
Answers

1. Pito Stati tub

t c e

2. Air speed! (how to measure ground

speed?)

How aircraft 29
fly
Lift – by Pressure distribution
Lift due pressure ove theairfoi – Bernoul
to differences r l li
Example

How aircraft 30
fly
 Lift coefficient

Lift coefficient depends on:

Airfoil - NACA description ABCC – e.g. NACA 0012 NAC 241
andAngle of attack (which curve for airfoil? A 2
Wing features: size, width, angles, )
symmetrical
etc. CL

Coefficient has a
maximum
(separation of air flow)

 
How aircraft 32
fly
Lift - CL- curve

How aircraft 33
fly
Lift - Airflow

Laminar Boundary layer: thin, low

friction
Turbulent Boundary thick hig frictio
layer:
Stall: high friction but no lift. , h n

How aircraft 34
fly
 Lift - Airflow

Note the
forces
How aircraft 35
fly
Lift

What to do if we would like to fly at low air speeds an

(take-off
landing)? Tip: think about the formula lift d
for the .

The weight of the aircraft W does not

change
And remember L = W = CL (½V2)  S
If V decreases; to maintain the same L,
- S and CL should increase
- devices to increase both (flaps and
slats)

How aircraft 36
fly
 flap
s
Lift increasing devices CL
slat
s
Purpose:
Able to fly at low airspeeds

By: 
Increasing critical 
Increasing CLmax
maximum
Increasin win Are S
g g a

How aircraft 37
fly
Lift - Wing surfaces/areas
Top vie
Many different possible w
wings
- Wing span :
- Wing
- surface
- Taper
- Sweep
- angle
Chord & tip)
- (root
Dihedral
Winglet

Fron vie
t w

How aircraft 38
fly
Lift - Wings - examples

How aircraft 39
fly
Drag

D = CD (½V2) 
S D
CD (Drag coefficient) consists
- of:
profile drag (result of pressure & friction
forces)
- parasitic drag
 (air density) depends on:
- altitude (see previous lecture on atmosphere)

V (air speed) and S (wing area) are design

parameters

How aircraft 40
fly
Drag origins
• Skin friction
drag
• Pressure
drag
• Wave drag (at & supersonic
transonic speeds)
• Parasiti dra (no- device likefuselag engines,
c g lift s e, etc.)

Drag i dra
: Induced g

How aircraft 41
fly
 2D drag

• Low speeds: types of

two drag
• friction drag and
• pressure (form)
drag
• Dra coeffice (per1 mete span
g nt r )
cd

How aircraft 42
fly
Two dimensional shape & drag:
Note: Now cd relative to frontal surface (b x d iso b x c) !

How aircraft 43
fly
Why 2D & 3D different?
Finite wings
Dra by vortice - Cause by pressur difference ove thewin
g s d e s r g

Note:
winglets
reduce fuel
consumption

How aircraft 44
fly
Drag: Lift-Drag polar

Lift vs. Drag coefficients

1,8

1,6

1,4

Lift 1,2

co 1
effi
cie 0,8
nt
0,6

0,4

0,2

0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15
0,2

Draf coefficient

Maximum CL/CD -
Look at ratio
scales!
How aircraft 45
fly
Drag: Lift-Drag polar

Why is the maximum CL/CD ratio

important?

This value indicates the minimum Drag at a

specific Lift.an aircraft should fly (as much as
If possible, wit this
possible) h
CL/CD ratio – low fuel consumption
CL/CD ratio is an important design parameter.

How aircraft 46
fly
Drag – Glide ratio

L/D ratio = CL/CD ratio (glid ratio

e )
Some typical
numbers:  60
Modern sail plane 28
LockheedAlbatross
U2 20
B-747
Concorde (cruise)
Cessna
? 17
7.1
7
Concorde (take- 4.35
off) House sparrow 4
Space shuttle flight 1
(hypersonic )

How aircraft 47
fly
Drag – Glide ratio

L/D ratio = CL/CD ratio (glid ratio

e )
Some typical
numbers: 
Modern sail plane 60
LockheedAlbatross
U2 28
20
B-747
17
Concord (cruise
e ) 7.1
Cessna 7
Concorde (take-
off) House sparrow
4.35
4
Space shuttle flight
(hypersonic ) 1

How aircraft 48
fly
Thrust
T
Maintains spee
constant d
T=D
Engine types:
Propeller engine
Piston engine
Turbopro engin
p e
Jet
engine
Turbojet
Turbofa
n Ramjet

How aircraft 49
fly
Trust
For straight, steady, horizontal
flight
T=
D
But : Why do we fly at high
altitude?

D = CD x (½ V2) x S
Fly at optimum glide ratio – CD more or less fixed; Wing area (S) is constant
Only variables are density and air speed – 4 options
V and  are low; not sufficient Lift
V = low;  = high; fly at low altitude; low speed (general
aviation) V = high;  = low; high speed and high altitude
V= high and = high; high speed at low altitude; very fuel inefficient

How aircraft 50
fly
Weight
W
• Aircraft Empty
Weight
• Structure: Wing - Horizontal Tail - Vertical Tail – Fuselage -
Landing
Gear - Surface
• Systems: Controls and
Instruments - Propulsion System
Navigation – APU and
- Hydraulics -
Pneumatics
Electrical System – Electronics – Conditioning
Furnishings - Air and
Anti-Ice
• Crew and Flight Attendants
• • Operating Items
• Payload
Fuel
 One should minimize the weight of aircraft
structures &
systems, and Fuel, in order to maximize Payload
How aircraft 51
fly
 Weight examples

A32 Passenger 180

0 s 73. tonne
MTOW 5 s
OEW 42.
Max. Fuel 4
Payload 19.
B747- Passenger 2
416-524
400 s 
397
MTOW 16
tonnes
OEW 178
Max Fuel 173
Payload  65

How aircraft 52
fly
Weight

Weight reduction with constant Maximum Take Off

Weight
- More fuel – longer distance
- More passengers or cargo – more
- revenues
Combination
If we decide not to increase the payload or the amount we
of fuel,
can create
(much) larger athan
“snowball-effect”
the (ultimate
weight weight
original/starting reduction is reduction).
Can you explain the “snowball-
effect”?

How aircraft 53
fly
Answer – “snowball effect”
• Reducing the weight of e.g. structures, etc., result
systems, in
lower overall weight of the aircraft
 Which results in less required LIFT
 Which results in a smaller wing
 This
Andreduces
therefore thethe
DRAG
THRUST can be (smalle engines
reduced r )
Both the wing and the engine W
smaller smaller
weight and cycl s
will result in the e
less T L
can start that the weight for fuel
It is assumed
again!!
and pa yloa d doesn’t
change D

How aircraft 54
fly
Summary

 Flying in Heavier than Air vehicles is a very young

discipline
 In a steady horizontal flight we can discover 4 forces
Weight, Lift, Thrust and Drag
 Lift is generated by the airflow and created by
pressure
differences overlaw
 The Bernoulli theisairfoil
important in order to to fly.
understand How
(p + ½V2 = constant)
 Lift is L = CL. ½V2.S; Drag = CD. ½V2.S

 Weight consist of: empty weight + fuel + payload

 By reducing empty weight, the fuel and/or payload may
increase
How aircraft 55
fly
 “When this one feature [balance and
control]
has been worked out, all
othe
the agedifficulties are of
of flying machines importance
will have
r minor
arrived, for .”

Paper of Wilbu an Orvill Wrigh

s r d e t

Wilbu Orvill
r e

|
 “A spin is like a love affair;
you don’t notice how you it
get into and it is very hard
to get out of”

Theodore von
Kármán,
answerin a questio durin a conferen
g n g ce

|
Concept of Wing Warping

|
First ailerons

• Monoplane

• Failed to cross
channel on 19
July 1909

• World distance
record: 154.6
km on 26
Augustus
1909 in 2 hr 17m

Antoinette IV,1908 by Leon

designed Lavasseur
11 |
R

Aileron L

Elevator
udder
Throttle

Aileron R
12

|
“Itis not immediately obvious how a wit four
control manages to control an
pilot h six
s aircraft degrees of wit
freedom.” h

D. Stinto
n

13 |
 14

|
Classic Flight δT
positiv deflectio
Control System (FCS) e ns

15 |
Classic FCS: F-15 Eagle

16 |
Classic FCS: F-15 fly by cable

17 |
Fly by wire FCS

First in military jets later in airliners (weight

(agility) saving).

18 |
Demo
Stable
Flight
• Mod 1: Controls vertical speed
•e 2: Controls vertical
• Mod 3: acceleration
Contro chang of vertic acceleratio
e l e al n
Mod
e

19 |
Integrators in control loop
x
spee v xi 1  xi  v  t
d t

v
accelerati a vi 1  vi  a 
on t
t

a v x
∫ ∫
Mod 1
e
20 |
Integrators in control loop
x
spee v xi 1  xi  v  t
d t

v
accelerati a vi 1  vi  a 
on t
t

a v x
∫ ∫
Mode
2
21 |
Integrators in control loop
x
spee v xi 1  xi  v  t
d t

v
accelerati a vi 1  vi  a  t
on t

a v x
∫ ∫ ∫
Mode
3
22 |
2.
Angles and axes

23 |
Body Axes
Force in bod axe
Y s y s

c.g.

Difference lift drag

X with & ?
Defined relative to
direction of speed vector
Z
24 |
 Control surfaces and rotations
Sign convention: negative deflections €
positive a/c response its primar axis
around y !

-δe

Elevator pitch angle

: θ
Top view
View from front

-δr
-δa,r
-δa,l
Rudder yaw angle
Ailerons roll angle
: ψ
: φ 25 |
 Stability axes and body axes
Stability: xs-axis is attached to velocity
Bod axes: xb-axis is fixe to
y d aircraft
angl
e of
attac pitc angl θ
k
h e
airs
pee air
cra
f
t

climb
angle
horizo
n
+ =θ

26 |
Moments
M
L, M, N

Pitching M
moment
Nos up = positiv
c.g.
L e e

N
27 |
Stability axes and body axes
Stability: xs-axis is attached to velocity
Body axes: xb-axis is fixe to
d aircraft Nort
V
(a h
irs
pe
ed
)
cours χ
e
Sidesli angle
p β

Headin ψ
g

Geodetic axes: xg-axis is attached North horizo

to and n
28 |
Force & moment coefficients

• Forces dimensionless ½ ρV2 S

with
• Moments dimensionless
with:
• Longitudinal M : ½ ρV2 S c (c = chord)
• L, N : ½ ρV2 S b (b = span)
Lateral:

•CX CY CZ Cl Cm Cn

29 |
For now: symmetrical movements
in stability axes

30 |
Bank angle: Horizontal steady turn

Loa facto n:
d r

31 |
Stability notation issue

Cm = chang in pitch moment due to angle of

e attack
Cn = chang in yawin momen du to sidesli angl
β e g t e p e

Etc.etc
.

34 |
3.
Stability

35 |
Static stability

36 |
Dynamic stability

Harder to judge static

than stability
37 |
4.
Static stability
- Lateral examples
- Longitudinal

38 |
Lateral stability: dihedral

39 |
Lateral stability: wing sweep

40 |
Tail configurations …. or no tail?

41 |
Tail-Wing Configurations

42 |
Longitudinal static stability

43 |
We have a situation at the tail…

H  iH

 H d H d d
(   H 1
d d i ) d
44 |
Definition Aerodynamic center (subscript a.c.):

Point around which there is no change

in moment due to a change in the angle
of attack

45 |
46 |
47 |
Wing alone is statically unstable

48 |
Unfortunately wing with positive
camber not stable!

49 |
 Longitudinal static stability
This is the situation
we want

Stable when two conditions both

are met:

1. Cm0 > 0 ;sufficiently positive zero lift moment AND

2. < 0 ;negative change in moment sign due to CL

due | 50
First condition:
positive zero lift moment

51 |
Static longitudinal stability

52 |
 ≈0

=>

53 |
For static
stability:

54 |
 Stability and Cm : neutral point
Factors for pitch stability:

• Position of tail surface

• Position of center of
gravity
Meanin of neutra point
g l ?

Estimate neutral point: more or less than

0.4?

55 |
Neutral point

56 |
How about a canard?

Zero lift
situation

57 |
 Tail vs. canard (foreplane)

Staticall stable
Inherently stable tail y by moving
canard,
c.g.
config forward
rel. to wing
58 |
Stability margin

59 |
Piaggio P180 Avanti

| 60
 61

Beechcraft Starship 2000

|
5.
Dynamic stability
- typical modes oscillations of conventional
aircraft

62 |
 Typical longitudinal oscillations
Period: 30 sec – several minutes Exchanging:
- Kinetic energy (speed)
- Potential Energy (altitude)

Langzame slingering (fugoïde) Modern airliners:

Long period oscillation (phugoid) Low drag, low damping
(sometimes noticeable as passenger)

Period: 2 - 5 seconds
Reaction on disturbance from
balance

High damping
Snelle slingering
Short period pitching

63 |
Typical lateral oscillations
Zwierbewegi
ng
Dutc roll
h

64 |
 Typical lateral modes
Aperiodi rollin Spira
c g l
mode

low speed:
may become unstable

high speed: stable

65 |
Vrille, spin = stalled

Norma stal
l l

Flat spin
(similar to steep
spin)

66 |
Choose an aircraft…
• Estimate for your aircraft in which range the
center
of gravity would be from the planform
• For the following stability
derivatives:
• The sign of the derivative: negative, zero (negligible) or
• positive
Reason for the sign
• (contributing factors: change of lift of wing, position of
surfaces etc) Contribution to static stability (or reduction)
Cl r Cnp Clβ

• Judge the configuration of your aircraft and the position

of the
control surfaces. Try to explain why this was chosen as it
is from a static stability and/or control point of view.
67 |
68 |
Example A300
General data:
• Wing area S = 260 m2
• Span b = 44.85 m
• Length 54.08 m
• Typical operating weight = 90,060 kg
• MTOW = 165,000 kg
• Distance wing ac to tail ac: lH=25,0 m

Engineering data:
• CL-alpha wing, awing = 4.4 1/rad (=0.076 per degree)
• CL-alpha tail, atail = 2.7 1/rad (= 0.047 per degree)
• Downwash at tail 1.0 degree per 10.0 deg alpha
• When c.g. 3.55 m after a.c of wing, it should still be stable

Question:
• What is minimum horizontal tail area?

69 |
Example A300
General data:
• Wing area S = 260 m2 lnp at  d  SH  H
VH  1   with VH
• Span b = 44.85 m c a  d  S l
• Length 54.08 m c
• Typical operating weight = 90,060 kg
• MTOW = 165,000 kg
• Distance wing ac to tail ac: lH=25,0 m

Engineering data:
• CL-alpha wing, awing = 4.4 1/rad
• CL-alpha tail, atail = 2.7 1/rad
• Downwash at tail 1.0 degree per 10.0 deg alpha
• When c.g. 3.55 m after a.c of wing, it should still be stable

Question:
• What is minimum horizontal tail area? Other potential what is ih?
• SH=67 m2 questions:

70 |
lnp at  d  SH  lH
H  1   with VH
c aV  d  S
c

72 |