Final Prac Manuals Signature-Signed

Theolan Pillay 210501974
Practical A: Deflection of a Simply Supported Beam

1.0) Introduction
In the design of engineering structures, such as buildings and bridges, beams are the main
structural elements. Beams are often subject to bending forces. The deflection of a beam is
dependent on several factors namely; the length of the beam, the cross-sectional area of the
beam, the material that it is made from and where the load is applied.
Thus the maximum deflection of a simply supported beam is given by:
δmax (1)
Where: δmax is the maximum deflection of the beam in (m)
: W is the applied load in (N)
: L is the distance between the supports of the beam in (m)
: E is Young’s Modulus of Elasticity for the beam in ( )
: I is the Second Moment of Area of the beam in ( )
The nature of the beam’s supports is also important but we can assume that the beam is
simply supported (at either end). Also it can be assumed the beam is constructed from
homogenous, linearly elastic materials, and the rotations of the beams are small.
From equation (1), it can be seen that the deflection of the beam is proportional to the
intensity of the applied load. This relationship is to be verified.
2.0) Theory
In this experiment, we will examine the deflection of a simply supported beam subjected to
an increasing point load. We will also vary the beam length by changing the distance between
the supports. This means we can find out the relationship between the deflection and the
length of the beam.
The Second Moment of Area of a cross-section is the resistance that the beam offers to
bending and deflection about an axis through which said cross-section lies. It is entirely
dependent on the dimensions of the cross-section.
Figure 1 shows a simple I-Beam. Typically I-

Beams are very efficient in carrying shear and
bending loads. These beams are widely used in
industry, as they have a great strength to weight
ratio.
Figure 1: Simple I-Beam

Young’s Modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a material, and is often used to classify
materials. It gives an indication to the degree to which the beam will deflect. [1]
3.0) Experimental Objectives
 To verify Equation (1) and evaluate the deflection of a simply supported beam
4.0) Apparatus
 TecQuipment Beam Deflection Apparatus: STR4

 5 100g identical mass pieces
 A Vernier Caliper
Figure 2: Apparatus
5.0) Experimental Procedure:

Part 1:
 Using the Vernier Caliper measure the width, b, and breadth, d, of the beam.
 From these values calculate the second moment of area for the beam.
 Remove the clamps from the back board and set the length between the supports to
400mm.
 Slide the dial test indicator, DTI, to the centre of the supports.
 Using the thumbnut at the rear, lock the DTI into place. (Figure 2)
 Once secured, attach the knife-edge hanger to the DTI
 Tap the frame lightly to zero the DTI, using the origin button. (Figure 2)
 Starting at 0 and progressing to 500g add mass pieces, in increments of 100g to the
hanger
 Record the deflection reading on the DTI for each increment in Table 1.
 Prior to a new increment the DTI must be zeroed accordingly.
 This will be the Actual Deflection. To obtain the Theoretical Deflection, use Equation
1 and substitute the relevant values.
 For the Theoretical values take E as 69 GPa and I as 4.712*
 For the Actual Deflection, take E as 69 GPa and I as the value calculated earlier.
 From these results plot the graph of deflection vs. applied mass for Theoretical and
Actual deflection on the same set of axis.
Part 2:
 Removing the mass pieces, set the distance between supports to 200mm.
 Ensure that the DTI and load hanger remain at the centre of the supports.
 Tap the frame lightly and zero the DTI with the origin button.
 Apply 500g to the hanger, and record the corresponding deflection in Table 2.
 Keeping the mass constant repeat this reading six times, whilst increasing the distance
between supports by increments of 60mm for each new reading.
 Using these results plot the graph of deflection vs.
6.0) Results
Table 1: Mass vs. Deflection

Mass(g) Actual Deflection(mm) Theoretical Deflection(mm)
0
100
200
300
400
500
Table 2: Deflection vs.

Length (mm) (mm) Deflection (mm)
200
260
320
380
440
500
560
7.0) Report Requirements
 Introduction: Provide a brief description of Beam Deflection.

 Theory: Derive the expression for the MOI of the I-beam (Figure 1)
 Experimental Objectives: List the objectives of the experiment
 Apparatus: List the apparatus used in the experiment, with neat labeled sketches.
 Procedure: List the procedure followed to obtain the results.
 Results:
 1) Copy out and complete table 1 & 2

 2) On the same set of axes plot the graph of deflection vs. applied mass (Part 1)
3) On another set of axes plot the graph of deflection vs. (Part 2)
4) Show a sample calculation for the MOI of the beam.
 Conclusion:
 1) How well do the results agree with the theory?
 2) List 3 reasons as to why the actual and theoretical deflections were different
 3) In which application would an I-beam be more suitable than a solid beam?
 4) Name an example where the type of bending observed in the experiment would be
desired. Justify.
8.0) References
 Figure 1:
http://www.had2know.com/technology/I-beam-calculator-moments-engineering.html
Date accessed: 21 June 2012
 Figure 2:
http://www.tecquipment.com/Datasheets/SM1004_0908.pdf
 [1] : http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/M03966.pdf
Practical B: Flow Measurement through an Orifice

1.0) Introduction
The Bernoulli equation states that:
= constant (1)
Where : P is the pressure in (Pa)
: ρ is the density of the fluid in ( )
: V is the velocity that the fluid flows at in ( )
: h is the elevation of the flow in (m)
: g is the acceleration due to gravity in ( )
We can say that the tank is sufficiently large to neglect all flow velocities, except at the
orifice.
Through simple manipulation of equation (1) we find the velocity of the flow passing
through the base of the tank to be :
v  2 gH
If we multiply both sides of the equation by A, the area of the orifice, we have the ideal flow
rate:
v* A  Q
Q  A 2 gH
In practice there is a significant loss of energy for the fluid passing through the orifice and the
shape of the hole must be considered to determine the actual flow rate:
Q  Cd * A 2 gH (2)
Where Q = rate of flow in ( )
A = area of hole in ( )
H = head above orifice (m)
Cd = coefficient of discharge determined by the shape of the hole
Thus to determine the value of Cd the flow rate Q must be plotted against root head.
2.0) Theory
The Bernoulli Equation deals with the assumption that said system is under ideal conditions.
This is highly improbable in industry and thus the discharge coefficient, Cd is incorporated.
The values of, Cd typically range from: 0.5 < Cd <1. As discussed above the discharge
coefficient will be determined by plotting the results of the flow rate vs. root head.
Essentially the discharge coefficient is the ratio of the actual and theoretical flow rates.
Figure 1 shows a common inlet pump that relies heavily

on flow rates. The discharge coefficient removes energy Motor
from the system, and thus slows the flow velocity. This
is sometimes used advantageously, as illustrated.
 To verify the above relationship and find a value

Discharge Pump
for C d .
 To see how C d varies for a sharp and smooth
shaped orifice.
4.0) Apparatus
 Rectangular tank with two orifices of identical

size but different shape that can be fitted into the
base of the tank. The tank is fitted with a scale to
Figure 1: Inlet Pump
determine the head (or depth) of water above the
orifice.
 Stopwatch and graduated beaker for determining rate of flow.
Figure 2: Apparatus
5.0) Experimental Procedure
 Verify that the sharp edged orifice is in place.

 Open the water tap at the rear of the apparatus and maintain the level at 200mm.
 Determine the flow rate using a stopwatch and beaker. Repeat this three times and
find the average.
 Increasing the level by increments of 100mm repeat the flow rate measurement up to
500mm.
 Turn off the water and allow the tank to empty
 Moving to the tank with the smooth shaped orifice, repeat the aforementioned
procedure.
 On the same set of axes plot Q in the vertical axis and H in the horizontal axis for
the smooth and sharp edged orifices. From these graphs determine the value of Cd for
both orifices. Take the hole diameter as 10mm and assume g = 9.81 m .
s2
6.0) Results
Table 1: Sharp Orifice
Head(mm) 1st Time 2nd Time 3rd Time Avg Time H (m) Q(
200
300
400
500
Table 2: Smooth Orifice
Head(mm) 1st Time 2nd Time 3rd Time Avg Time H (m) Q
200
300
400
500
 Introduction: Provide a brief explanation of Bernoulli’s equation

 Theory: Derive the expression for the velocity of the flow through the orifices.
 Results:
 2) On the same set of axes plot the graph of flow rate vs. root head for both orifices
3) From the graphs determine the value of Cd for both orifices.
4) Show a sample calculation for the flow rate
 Conclusion:
 2) Give an example where a smooth/sharp shaped orifice would be suitable.
 3) What are the implications of a low Cd for a given system?
8.0) References:
 Figure 1:
http://www.sulzerpumps.com/Portaldata/9/Resources/brochures/power/vertical/JP_Ve
rtical_E00635.pdf
 Figure 2: http://www.electronicsinstrumentsmanufacturer.com/scientific-
instruments.html
Practical C: Torsional Pendulum and Gyroscopic Effects

1.0) Introduction
A gyroscope is a term used to describe a rigid body, usually with symmetry about an axis,
that has a comparatively large angular velocity of spin about its spin axis. Typical examples
include the flywheel in an automobile.
Designers are often faced with the task of determining the moments of inertia of the
individual components of a
machine. If these parts are readily
available, then the moments of
inertia can be determined
experimentally.
For this practical a torsional

pendulum system was used to
determine the moment of inertia
of a gyroscope. Another reason
designers are interested in the
gyroscopic torque, is that they can
compensate for external forces.
Such as the forces that act on an
airplane propeller when it changes
direction.
Figure 1: A typical free spinning gyroscope
2.0) Theory
Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to a change in its state of motion.
A gyroscope is a rotating mass having freedom in one or more planes perpendicular to the
plane of rotation. It can also be defined as a rotating mechanism in the form of a universally
mounted spinning wheel that offers resistance to turning in any direction.
It possesses two characteristics, namely:
1) Gyroscopic inertia
2) Precession
Gyroscopic inertia is brought about by the rotation of a mass which is part of or makes up a
gyroscope.
Precession is the motion of a spinning body where a change in the orientation of the rotation
axis occurs. Also precession can be described as a resistance to angular movement, caused by
gyroscopic inertia, in the plane in which a torque is applied and it is this torque that disturbs
the plane of rotation of a body (in this case, a gyroscope).
The moment of inertia of the disk is given, geometrically, by Equation 1.
Idisc = (1)
Where : h is thickness of disc in (m)
: is density in ( )
: r is the radius of the disk in (m)
Another method to determine the MOI is to use the fundamentals of momentum, given by
Equation 2:
I= (2)
Where: M is the moment about the axis perpendicular to that of spin and precession in (Nm)
: 1 is the spin velocity in (rad/sec)
: 3 is the precession velocity (rad/sec)

 To observe gyroscopic inertia and precession
 To verify the relationship between I and the precession and rotor speeds.
4.0) Apparatus
 A steel fly wheel powered by a motor, with an adjustable speed dial.
Figure 2: Apparatus

 Position of the moment weight was adjusted to balance the head, as indicated by the
pointer.
 Obtain the initial reading by sighting along the side of the weight and reading the
scale.
 The precession drive belt was placed over the motor pulley.
 The rotor speed was then set to 1000 rpm
 Carefully adjust the precession speed until the gyroscope head is in the horizontal
balanced position
 Record the rotor speed and the precession speed in Table 1.
 Repeat the above procedure, increasing the rotor speed in increments of 500rpm and
finding the corresponding precession speed.
 Do this until the rotor speed is approximately 3000 rpm.
 Using these results plot the graph of Precession speed vs. Rotor Speed.
6.0) Results
Rotor Speed (rpm) Precession Speed (rpm) Rotor Inertia: I (
rpm rad/sec rpm rad/sec rpm rad/sec
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
 Introduction: Provide a brief explanation of the mechanism of a gyroscope

 Theory: With diagrams, explain the precession of a gyroscope
 Results:
 1) Copy out and complete table 1
 2) On the same set of axes plot the graph of precession speed vs. rotor speed
3) Show a sample calculation for the moment of inertia of the disk, using the
geometric method.
 Conclusion:
 2) Give an example where precession would not be desirable. Explain.
 3) Explain why the graph has its particular shape
8.0) References:
 Figure 1: http://www.cleonis.nl/physics/phys256/gyroscope_physics.php
Date accessed: 12 July 2012
 Figure 2: http://www.kcengineers.com/Labs/tom/tom_menu.htm
Practical D: Critical speeds of rotating shafts

1.0) Introduction
Most real objects are not perfect and in particular, shafts rarely rotate with the axis of the
shaft coincident with the axis through the bearing centres. Therefore, all rotating shafts, even
in the absence of an external load, will be subject to forces which change direction
continuously and this in turn will cause the
shaft to deflect. The combined weight of the
shaft and wheel can cause deflection that
will create resonant vibrations at certain
speeds. These speeds are known as critical
speeds.
The magnitude of the deflection depends on

the following factors:
 Stiffness of the shaft and its support

 Total mass of the shaft and its
associated parts
 Unbalance of the mass with respect
to the axis of rotation.
Figure 1: Typical use of a rotating shaft
 The degree of damping in the system.
When a shaft rotates about its longitudinal axis, it may undergo transverse oscillations if the
shaft is out of balance. The centrifugal developed force will cause the shaft to vibrate.
In Engineering, many structures will vibrate when they are excited or near their natural
frequency. For example if the wheels on a car are not aligned correctly, and if this
disturbance is caused by a rotational speed near the critical speed, then large deflections will
occur, and the car would spin out of control. This phenomenon is known as resonance.
Where forced vibrations are extant, there is the possibility of large deformations and stresses
occurring at resonance, with the probable outcome of catastrophic failure. This type of shaft
instability is called Whirling of Shafts.
2.0) Theory
The bending vibrations of shafts have always been a significant problem in Engineering
design. At critical speeds this vibration tends to assume large amplitudes, which can cause the
shaft to fracture. This is mostly due to the Resonance phenomenon, as a result of unbalanced
centrifugal forces that arise in the system.
These forces form a periodic excitation, with the frequency equal to the speed of the shaft.
Consequently a passage through resonance occurs when one of the natural frequencies of the
shafts coincides with the frequency of excitation. Through the phenomenon of resonance, a
structure is made to vibrate at the same frequency as another material, within close proximity.
If this frequency exceeds the natural frequency of the material, then the material will fail.
This phenomenon becomes more apparent at higher rotational speeds. There is however, a
rotational velocity where the vibrations and amplitude increase significantly.
As the rotational velocity increases beyond that speed the vibration and amplitude decrease
significantly.
The rotational velocity at which the vibration increases dramatically is called the "critical
speed of the rotating mass”
For this particular practical the critical speeds can be calculated using Equation 1:
Ncritical = (1)
Where: d is the shaft diameter in (m)

: L is the distance between bearings in (m)
Theory has made several great assumptions about the shaft in order to obtain a tractable
solution. Equation 2 yields the fundamental frequency of whirling and its harmonics. It also
shows that for geometrically similar shafts of the same material, critical speeds are inversely
proportional to the dimensions.
(2)
Where: i is the number of the vibration mode
: L is the shaft length in (m)
: E is the Modulus of Elasticity of the shaft in (GPa)
: I is the Second moment of Area of the shaft in ( )
The harmonics of the shaft are related by i:
Table 1: List of Harmonics

Fundamental First Mode i=1
First Harmonic Second Mode i=2
Second Harmonic Third Mode i=3
Third Harmonic Fourth Mode i=4
 To observe and measure the critical or whirl speeds

 To understand the natural frequency of a material, and how it relates to vibrations
caused by rotation.
4.0) Apparatus
For this practical a shaft was supported at either end by bearings. The shaft is driven by a
motor, and the rotational speed is controlled by an adjustable dial.
Figure 2: Experiment Apparatus
Experiment 1
 Set up the two self-aligning bearings and the 6mm shaft

 Set the bearings to 600mm apart.
 Find the critical speed. Should this prove difficult find the critical range and take the
midpoint.
 Stop the apparatus and move the bearings a further 200mm apart.
 Find the critical speed.
 Repeat this process in increments of 200mm until the bearings are 1000mm apart.
 Tabulate the experimental results in Table 2.
 Using Equation 1 determine the theoretical speeds of the shaft at the indicated bearing
spacing.
 On the same set of axes plot the graph of Critical Shaft Speed vs. Bearing spacing for
both the experimental and theoretical shaft speeds.
Experiment 2
 Set up the self-aligning bearings at 1000mm apart with the 6mm shaft.
 Calculate the critical speeds of the shafts for the associated harmonics, using Table 1.
Record this in Table 3.
 Using Equation 2, calculate the theoretical critical speed and record this in Table 3.
 On the same set of axes plot the graph of Critical Shaft Speed vs. Harmonics for both
the experimental and theoretical shaft speeds.
6.0) Results
Table 2: Effect of bearing spacing on Critical Speed
Bearing Spacing (m) Theoretical Critical Speed Experimental Critical Speed
(rpm) (rpm)
0.6
0.8
1.0
Table 3: Harmonics and corresponding critical speeds
Vibration Theoretical Critical Speed Experimental Critical Speed

(rpm) (rpm)
First Harmonic
Second Harmonic
Third Harmonic
 Introduction: Provide a brief explanation of Resonance

 Theory: Explain, with diagrams, the difference between the first 3 Harmonic
frequencies.
 Results:
 2) On the same set of axes plot the graph of Critical Shaft Speed vs. Bearing spacing
 3) On the same set of axes plot the graph of Critical Shaft Speed vs. Harmonics
 4) Show a sample calculation for the Theoretical shaft speed for Experiment 1 and
Experiment 2.
 Conclusion:
 2) List 3 reasons as to why the theoretical values varied from the experimental values.
 3) Comment on the natural damping of the bearings. Are they effective?
Practical E: Deflection of a Cantilever

1.0) Introduction
Previously we have worked with a simply supported beam. A cantilever is different in that it
is a beam that is only supported at one end. Despite this the deflection of a cantilever is based
on similar factors to that of a simply supported beam. Cantilevers are often found in
construction, most notably in balconies. Cantilevers are also used in the construction of
bridges. A noted example of this is The Forth Bridge in Scotland.
A cantilever will also experience a bending stress and a

corresponding deflection when it is loaded by a uniform
load. For a simple cantilever the maximum deflection
generally occurs at the point where the load is applied.
For a cantilever, that is homogenous, the maximum

deflection is given by:
δmax (1) Figure 1: The Forth Bridge
Where: δmax is the maximum deflection of the beam in (m)
: W is the applied load in (N)
: L is the distance between the support and the end of the beam in (m)
: E is Young’s Modulus of Elasticity for the beam in ( )
: I is the Second Moment of Area of the beam in ( )
It can be assumed that the cantilever is constructed from linearly elastic materials, and the
rotations of the beams are small.
From equation (1), it can be seen that the deflection of the beam is proportional to the
intensity of the applied load. This relationship is to be verified.
2.0) Theory
In addition to its use in architecture,

cantilevers are utilized as airplane wings.
However in this situation, the beam will be
subjected to torsional stresses as well as static
and dynamic bending. For simplicity we shall
be focusing solely on a simple cantilever.
Figure 2: Cantilevers as airplane wings

The deflection of a simple cantilever has many

implications. For example, certain applications
may require excessive deformation whereas
other scenarios require deflection to a certain
point.
Figure 3 shows a simple cantilever. As the Figure 3: A simple Cantilever

beam is fixed to the wall at A, we can assume
that there will be zero deflection at this point.
As previously stated the maximum deflection

will occur at B; where the load is applied.
Figure 4 shows the projected deflection of the

cantilever.
Figure 4: Projected Deflection
 To verify Equation 1 and evaluate the deflection of a simple cantilever.

 To determine the Moment of Inertia of the cantilever.
4.0) Apparatus
 10g weight hanger

 5 x 100g weights
 Cantilever beam deflection apparatus
including:
 Dial Gauge
 A set of Allen Keys
Figure 5: Apparatus
Part 1:
 Add the 10g weight hanger onto the dial indicator.

 Slide the dial gauge along the length of the beam until it reads 10mm.
 At this point, remove the weight hanger and zero the outer scale.
 Ensure that the beam is clamped parallel to the blackboard.
 Add a 100g mass to the dial indicator and record the reading.
 Repeat this process by adding 100g for each new reading, until 500g.
 Using these results plot the graph of load vs. deflection for both Theoretical and
Actual Deflection on the same set of axes.
Part 2:
 Remove the mass from the dial, whilst keeping the weight hanger.
 Slide the indicator along the beam until it is at the 130mm position.
 Slide the dial gauge until it reads 10mm
 Removing the weight hanger, zero the outer scale
 Add a 300g mass to the dial indicator and record the dial gauge reading.
 Keeping the weight constant, increase the distance between the indicator and the fixed
end of the beam to 250mm, in increments of 20mm.
 Using these results plot the graph of vs. deflection for both Theoretical and Actual
Deflection on the same set of axes.
6.0) Results
Table 1: Mass vs. Deflection

Mass(g) Actual Deflection(mm) Theoretical Deflection(mm)
0
100
200
300
400
500
Table 2: vs. deflection

Length Actual Theoretical (mm)
(mm) Deflection(mm) Deflection(mm)
130
150
170
190
210
230
250
 Introduction: Provide a brief description of Beam Deflection.

 Theory: Determine the moment of inertia of the beam for both experiments and
compare this value with the theoretical value given.

 Results:
 2) On the same set of axes plot the graph of deflection vs. weight (Part 1)
 3) On another set of axes plot the graph of deflection vs. (Part 2)
 Conclusion:
 2) List 3 reasons as to why the actual and theoretical deflections were different
 3) List 4 methods that could improve the accuracy of the readings.
 4) Name an example where the type of bending observed in the experiment would be
desired. Justify.
8.0) References
 Figure 1:
http://dorothylam-arch1101.blogspot.com/2012/05/finalised-mashup-bridge-
inspirations.html
 Figure 2:
http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/flight12.htm
 Figure 3:
http://ocw.nthu.edu.tw/ocw/upload/8/258/Chapter_9-98.pdf
 Figure 4:
http://ocw.nthu.edu.tw/ocw/upload/8/258/Chapter_9-98.pdf
 Figure 5:
http://staffweb.itsligo.ie/staff/gmuir/structureslab/StructuresEquip8.htm
Practical H: Statistical Quality Control

1.0) Introduction
Many of us have had the unfortunate experience of purchasing a product only to discover that
it is defective. In some way or another it is not fully functional. As consumers, we expect the
products we purchase to function as intended.
Thus a method was developed to improve the quality of goods produced. This process is
known as Statistical Quality Control. The phrase “Statistical Quality Control” (SQC) refers to
the application of statistical methods to monitor and evaluate systems, and thus improve the
quality of said systems output’s.
Two common statistical methods that are used are the mean and the standard deviation.
The mean, or the numerical average, is a statistic that measures the central tendency of a set
of data. Knowing the central point of a set of data is highly important. Essentially the mean is
ratio of the sum of the data to the number of data samples.
Thus the equation for computing the mean is given by:
(1)
Where: is the mean
: y is the observation
: n is the number of observations
The disadvantage associated with using this method, is that extreme values used when
calculating the mean can lead to erroneous conclusions.
Another statistical method that is used is the standard deviation. This shows the variation of
results from the mean, and is given by:
(2)
Where: is the standard deviation
: is the mean
: y is the observation
: n is the number of observations

The standard deviation is used to calculate the probability of an anomaly, i.e. an unexpected
scenario.
Figure 1: Schematic of varying Standard Deviations

2.0) Theory
Statistical Quality Control can be divided into three broad categories:
 Descriptive statistics are used to describe quality characteristics and relationships.

Included are statistics such as the mean, standard deviation and a measure of the
distribution of data.
 Statistical process control (SPC) involves inspecting a random sample of the output
from a process and deciding whether the process is producing products with
characteristics that fall within a predetermined range. SPC answers the question of
whether the process is functioning properly or not.
 Acceptance sampling is the process of randomly inspecting a sample of goods and

deciding whether to accept the entire lot based on the results. Acceptance sampling
determines whether a batch of goods should be accepted or rejected.
 To determine the average volume of a small nail by using a sample from a larger
population
4.0) Apparatus
 5 identical steel nails

 Vernier calliper
 Measuring cylinder
 Electron Mass Balance
 Micrometer Figure 2: Measuring Cylinder
Figure 3: Electronic Mass Balance

Note 3 different methods shall be attempted to determine the average volume of 1 nail.
Method 1: Displacement Method
 Fill the measuring cylinder to any level.
 Record this reading
 Place the 5 nails into the cylinder
 Record the new volume of water in the cylinder
 Determine the increase the volume, and divide this value by the number of nails to
determine the average value of a single nail.
Method 2: Density Method
 Note the density of metal from which the nails are manufactured.
 Using the electronic scale, weigh the 5 nails
 Record these readings in Table 2
 Using the density formulae, determine the volume of the 5 nails.
 Divide this value by the number of nails to determine the average volume of a single
nail.
Method 3: Dimensional Method
 Label the nails from 1 to 5.
 Using the Vernier Caliper and the micrometer
measure the dimensions of each nail, as shown
in Figure 4.
 Record these values in Table 3 and find the
average value for each dimension.
 Using equation 3, find the average volume a
single nail.
 Average Volume of Nails is given by:
Figure 4: Diagram of a nail
VCone  VCylinder  VDisc = D2 2 h +

D2 2 l +
D1 2 t (3)
12 4 4
From these three methods, plot a histogram. There will be 3 columns on the x-axis,
each depicting a different method used to obtain the average volume. On the y-axis
must be the average volume.
6.0) Results
Table 1: Mass of each nail
Nail Mass (g)
Table 2: Recorded nail dimensions
Nail D1(mm) D2 (mm) t (mm) l (mm) H (mm)

1
2
3
4
5
Average
 Introduction: Provide a brief explanation of your understanding of SQC

 Theory: List 4 advantages and disadvantages of SQC in industry.
 Results:
 2) Plot the histogram graph as previously discussed.
 3) Show a sample calculation for the Average Volume using Method 3.
 Conclusion:
 1) As an Engineer would you adhere to SQC? Substantiate
 2) Which method is the most reliable/accurate? Explain why you thought so.
 3) Explain how the error of parallax affected the results.
 4) List 3 ways in which the experiment can be improved upon.
8.0) References:
 Figure 1:
http://www.sulzerpumps.com/Portaldata/9/Resources/brochures/power/vertical/JP_Ve
rtical_E00635.pdf
 Figure 2: http://www.electronicsinstrumentsmanufacturer.com/scientific-
instruments.html
Practical J: Loading and Testing of Springs

1.0) Introduction
A spring can be defined as an elastic component that can exert forces and torques, and store
mechanical energy. This energy is later released and this phenomenon attributes to the great
diversity in the mechanical industry in which springs are utilized.
If a spring is not stretched to the point of permanent deformation the behavior, of said spring
when subjected to an axial force, can be described by Hooke’s Law.
Hooke’s Law states:
(1)
Where: F is the force in (N)
: is the spring constant in ( )
:δ is the extension of the spring from equilibrium in (m)
Thus through simple manipulation the actual spring constant can be derived.
However, when considering a spring, there exists a relationship between the theoretical
spring constant and certain physical properties. The theoretical spring constant is given as:
(2)
Where: d is the wire diameter in (m)
: G is the Modulus of Rigidity in (GPa)
: n is the number of active coils of the spring
: D is the mean/inner diameter of the spring in (m)
The mean diameter is the

difference between the
outer diameter and the
wire diameter of the
spring.
Generally the active

number of coils is two less
than the total number of
coils.
Figure 1: Simple diagram of a Spring

2.0) Theory
The Modulus of Rigidity, also known as the Shear Modulus, is one of several methods for
describing the stiffness of a material. The Shear Modulus is used to describe the deformation
of a solid when a force acts parallel to its surface.
Hooke’s Law also has a basis of Thermodynamics.

We can model the spring as an elastic material, so
any linear expansions can be approximated as
adiabatic processes. Using the First Law of
Thermodynamics, we can say that the total change
in the body’s internal energy is equal to the total
work done on the body. Figure 2: A simple coiled spring
(3)
 To determine the actual stiffness of the spring

 To compare this value with the theoretical stiffness
 To determine the initial tension in the spring prior to loading.
4.0) Apparatus
 Spring loader with gauges to

measure deflection
 Helical coil spring
 10 x 30g weights
 Weight hanger:
Note, the weight hanger is assumed to be

massless.
Figure 3: Apparatus
 Using the Vernier Caliper, measure all the relevant dimensions of the spring
 The spring was attached to the apparatus
 One end was secured to the weight hanger, whilst the other was attached to the top
hook
 The reading was recorded.
 A mass of 30g was added to the hanger, and the reading was recorded.
 This process was repeated with the mass increased in increments of 30g until 300g.
 Using these results, plot the graph of Extension vs. Force.
6.0) Results
Table 1: Force and Extension
Mass (kg) Force (N) Scale Reading (mm) Extension (mm)
0.000
0.030
0.060
0.090
0.120
0.150
0.180
0.210
0.240
0.270
0.300
 Introduction: Provide a brief description of Hooke’s Law and its applications.

 Theory: Explain why the linear expansion of an elastic spring can be treated as an
adiabatic process.
 Results:
 1) Copy out and complete Table 1
 2) On the same set of axes plot the graph of Extension vs. Force
 3) Show a sample calculation for theoretical stiffness of the spring
 4) Show the calculation for the actual stiffness of the spring
 Conclusion:
 2) List 3 reasons as to why the actual and theoretical stiffness constants were different
 3) Why would the results be meaningless if you exceeded the elastic limit of the
spring?
 4) Is it possible for a spring to be used to launch a projectile? What wire diameter
would the spring need, to launch a 100kg projectile into the air, whilst being
compressed 1.5 m? Take G as 280GPa, and the number of coils as 145, with D as 1m.
8.0) References
 Figure 1:
http://www.oal.co.za/tension-springs.htm
 Figure 2:
http://www.gungfu.com/htm-training-gear/boxing-accessories/training-gear-boxing-
accessories-bag-spring-coil.htm
 Figure 3:
http://www.indiamart.com/janta-scientific/laboratory-equipment.html
Practical K: 4 Stroke Engine Part Identification and Manufacture

1.0) Introduction
An engine is a device, which converts chemical energy from fuel to mechanical energy. In
the case of the auto mobiles, this chemical energy is in the form of heat caused which results
from the combustion of fuels such as petroleum and various gasses. The mechanical energy
produced is then used to perform work, which aids the motion of the motorized vehicle.
A four-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine that is commonly found in

automobiles. It is characterised by having a piston completing for separate strokes. These
four strokes are intake, compression, power, and exhaust.
The cycle is often characterised on a Pressure vs. Volume curve: Where each stroke has a
different effect on the cycle. The Otto Cycle is an idealized model of the thermodynamic
cycle that occurs in such an engine.
2.0) Theory
The four strokes each serve a different purpose:
Intake stroke:
The piston descends from the top of the cylinder,

commonly referred to as TDC, to the bottom of
the cylinder, BDC. This reduces the pressure
inside the cylinder. The inlet valve opens and a
mixture of fuel and air enters the cylinder. For a Figure 1: PV diagram of the Ideal
diesel engine only air would enter. Otto Cycle
The pressure of the gas mixture is
generally taken as atmospheric.
The inlet valve closes, and the ratio of this mixture and the volume of the cylinder is known
as the volumetric efficiency.
Figure 2: The piston sweeps back Figure 3: The inlet valve opens, and
the fuel-air mixture enters
Compression stroke:
The piston sweeps forward, and the volume is reduced. The air-fuel mixture is compressed.
During this process no heat is added or transferred to the air-fuel mixture. As a result of the
reduced volume the pressure is increased. We can say that work is done to increase the
pressure.
During the compression

stroke, the electrical contact
is kept closed. When the
volume is the smallest, and
the pressure the highest as
shown in Figure 4, the
contact is closed, and
electricity flows through the
plug.
Figure 4: The Compression Stroke
Power stroke:
At the beginning of this stroke the electric contact is opened. The sudden opening of this
contact produces a spark. This ignites the air-fuel mixture which results in rapid combustion.
Heat is released and the exhaust gasses are produced in the combustion chamber. As the
intake and exhaust valves are closed, the combustion of the fuel takes place in an almost
constant volume vessel. The combustion increases the temperature of the exhaust gasses, the
combustion chamber and any residual air in the combustion chamber. From the ideal gas law,
the increase in the temperature of the gasses also results in an increase of pressure in the
combustion chamber. It is this increased pressure that causes the piston to sweep back. The
hot gas does work on the piston during this stroke. The volume if the gas is then increased
due to the motion of the piston. As such the pressure and temperature of the gas
correspondingly decrease.
Figure 5: Rapid combustion Figure 6: Increased pressure

occurs forcing the piston back
Exhaust stroke:
At the end of the power stroke the piston has been swept backward and the left over heat is
transferred to the water jacket. This occurs until the pressure is almost atmospheric. The
exhaust valve is then opened by the cam pushing on the rocker arm. The purpose of this
stroke is to clear the cylinder of spent exhaust in preparation for another ignition cycle. As
this stroke begins, the cylinder and combustion chambers are full of exhaust products at low
pressure. The exhaust valve is opened and the exhaust gas exits the engine.
Figure 7: The exhaust valve Figure 8: The piston sweeps forward,

opens clearing the cylinder
 To become familiar with the components of a 4-stroke engine

 To gain an understanding of manufacturing processes.
4.0) Apparatus
 A 4-stroke Honda engine

 A set of Phillip’s screwdrivers
 Remove the ten screws holding on and remove the large slide cover, exposing the
clutch.
 Remove the clutch pad/sleeve, from the center of the clutch assembly.
 Remove the hexagonal screw locking the pedal to the shaft and remove the pedal.
 Remove the two screws holding on and remove the guard, exposing the front
sprocket.
 Remove the two hexagonal screws on the sprocket locking plate.
 Turn the locking plate sprocket to line up the teeth with the splines on the shaft and
slide it off.
 Slide the front sprocket off its shaft.
 Remove the four screws holding on and remove the small side cover exposing the
magneto.
 Unscrew the piston cap clamp ring and remove the piston, noting the alignment of the
cap and piston with the top and bore respectively.

 Introduction: Provide a detailed description of the Otto Cycle

 Theory: Explain the difference between adiabatic and polytropic expansion with PV
diagrams.
 Conclusion:
 1) Name the primary manufacturing processes that were used to produce the:
 i) Clutch release arm
 ii) Engine covers and casings
 iii) Gear selector plate
 For the above three, name 7 secondary manufacturing processes that have also been
done.
7.0) References:
 Figure 1: http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/engopt.html

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Practical A: Deflection of a Simply Supported Beam

Thus the maximum deflection of a simply supported beam is given by:

Where: δmax is the maximum deflection of the beam in (m)

: W is the applied load in (N)

: L is the distance between the supports of the beam in (m)

: E is Young’s Modulus of Elasticity for the beam in ( )

: I is the Second Moment of Area of the beam in ( )

Figure 1 shows a simple I-Beam. Typically I-

Figure 1: Simple I-Beam

3.0) Experimental Objectives

 TecQuipment Beam Deflection Apparatus: STR4

5.0) Experimental Procedure:

Table 1: Mass vs. Deflection

Table 2: Deflection vs.

7.0) Report Requirements

 Introduction: Provide a brief description of Beam Deflection.

 1) Copy out and complete table 1 & 2

Practical B: Flow Measurement through an Orifice

The Bernoulli equation states that:

Where : P is the pressure in (Pa)

: ρ is the density of the fluid in ( )

: V is the velocity that the fluid flows at in ( )

: h is the elevation of the flow in (m)

: g is the acceleration due to gravity in ( )

Where Q = rate of flow in ( )

H = head above orifice (m)

Cd = coefficient of discharge determined by the shape of the hole

Figure 1 shows a common inlet pump that relies heavily

3.0) Experimental Objectives

 To verify the above relationship and find a value

 Rectangular tank with two orifices of identical

5.0) Experimental Procedure

 Verify that the sharp edged orifice is in place.

Table 2: Smooth Orifice

7.0) Report Requirements

 Introduction: Provide a brief explanation of Bernoulli’s equation

Practical C: Torsional Pendulum and Gyroscopic Effects

For this practical a torsional

It possesses two characteristics, namely:

The moment of inertia of the disk is given, geometrically, by Equation 1.

Where : h is thickness of disc in (m)

: r is the radius of the disk in (m)

: 1 is the spin velocity in (rad/sec)

: 3 is the precession velocity (rad/sec)

3.0) Experimental Objectives

5.0) Experimental Procedure

Rotor Speed (rpm) Precession Speed (rpm) Rotor Inertia: I (

rpm rad/sec rpm rad/sec rpm rad/sec

7.0) Report Requirements

 Introduction: Provide a brief explanation of the mechanism of a gyroscope

Practical D: Critical speeds of rotating shafts

The magnitude of the deflection depends on

 Stiffness of the shaft and its support

Where: d is the shaft diameter in (m)

The harmonics of the shaft are related by i:

Table 1: List of Harmonics

3.0) Experimental Objectives

 To observe and measure the critical or whirl speeds

Figure 2: Experiment Apparatus

5.0) Experimental Procedure

 Set up the two self-aligning bearings and the 6mm shaft