METHODS OF FORMAL PROOFS

An argument is a finite sequence p1 , p2 ..., pn , q of statements. The statements p1 , p2 ..., pn are

called the premises of the argument and q is its conclusion.
An argument p1 , p2 ..., pn , q is called logically valid if ( p1  p2  ...  pn )  q is a tautology.

Example 1: Consider the following argument.

If Bryan solved ten math problems correctly then Bryan obtained a grade of 1.0. Bryan solved 10
math problems correctly. Therefore, Bryan obtained a grade of 1.0.
Solution: Let p: Bryan solved ten math problems correctly.
q: Bryan obtained a grade of 1.0.
Symbolizing the given argument,
pq p q p  q ( p  q)  p [( p  q)  p ]  q
p
q
T T T T T
T F F F T
The argument can be written in the form F T T F T
[( p  q)  p ]  q . We use the truth table to F F T F T
determine the argument’s validity.
[( p  q)  p ]  q is a tautology. Hence the argument is valid.

Example 2: Consider a parallel argument.

If Romeo solved six Calculus problems correctly then Romeo obtained a grade of 2.0. Romeo
obtained a grade of 2.0. Therefore, Romeo solved six Calculus problems correctly.
Solution: Let p: Romeo solved six Calculus problems correctly.
q: Romeo obtained a grade of 2.0.
Symbolizing the given argument,
pq p q p  q ( p  q )  q [( p  q)  q]  p
q T T T T T
 p T F F F T
The argument can be written in the form F T T T F
[( p  q)  q]  p . We use the truth table to F F T F T
determine the argument’s validity.
[( p  q)  q]  p is not a tautology. Hence the argument is invalid.

Rules of Inference

1. Modus Ponens (MP) 4. Disjunctive Syllogism 7. Simplification (Simp)

pq (DS) pq
p pq p
q p
q
 2. Modus Tollens (MT) 5. Constructive Dilemma 8. Conjunction (Conj)
pq (CD) p
q ( p  q)  ( r  s ) q
 p pr  pq
qs
3. Hypothetical Syllogism 6. Absorption (Abs) 9. Addition (Add)
(HS) pq p
pq  p  ( p  q)  pq
qr
pr

Rules of Replacement

1. De Morgan’s (DM) 6. Transposition (Trans)

 ( p  q)   p   q p  q ~ q ~ p
 ( p  q)   p   q
2. Commutative (Com) 7. Material Implication (Impl)
pq  q p pq ~ p  q
pq  q p
3. Associative (Assoc) 8. Material Equivalence (Equiv)
p  ( q  r )  ( p  q)  r ( p  q)  ( p  q)  ( q  p )
p  ( q  r )  ( p  q)  r ( p  q)  ( p  q)  (~ p  ~ q )
4. Distributive (Dist) 9. Exportation (Exp)
p  ( q  r )  ( p  q)  ( p  r ) ( p  q)  r  p  ( q  r )
p  ( q  r )  ( p  q)  ( p  r )
5. Double Negation (DN) 10. Tautology
p ~ ~ p p  ( p  p)
p  ( p  p)

Formal Proofs of Validity

Every proposition must satisfy one or more of the following criteria:
i. It is a premise of the argument.
ii. It can be derived from one or more of the propositions already included in the list using one of the
rules of inference.
iii. It is equivalent to a proposition already included in the list because one of the replacement rules
guarantees the logical equivalence of the appropriate underlying prepositional forms.

Example 1: Construct a formal proof of the validity of the following argument. If Mel is enrolled in
Algebra then Joan is enrolled in Calculus. Mel is enrolled in Algebra and Vince is enrolled in Physics.
Therefore, Joan is enrolled in Calculus.
Solution:

We symbolize the component simple The premises of the argument are p  q and
propositions: p  r . The conclusion is q.
p: Mel is enrolled in Algebra. Use the rules of inference,
q: Joan is enrolled in Calculus. 1. p  q Premise
r: Vince is enrolled in Physics.
2. pr Premise
3. p Simp, 2
4. q MP 1, 3

Example 2: Provide a formal proof of the validity of the following arguments.

If Mark is correct then his analysis is correct and if Anne is correct then her calculation is correct.
Anne is correct. Therefore, Mark’s analysis is correct or Anne’s calculation is correct or both.

Solution:
Let p: Mark is correct. We commence the formal proof:
q: Mark’s analysis is correct. 1. ( p  q)  ( r  s ) Premise
r: Anne’s is correct. 2. r Premise
s: Anne’s calculation is correct. 3. r  p Add, 2
4. pr Com, 3
The argument is symbolized as follows:
5. q  s CD, 1, 4
( p  q)  ( r  s )
or
r
q  s 1. ( p  q)  ( r  s ) Premise
2. r Premise
3. ( r  s )  ( p  q) Com, 1
4. r  s Simp, 3
5. s MP, 2, 4
6. s  q Add, 5
7. q  s Com