MTH6132, Relativity

Lecture 4
Given 4th October 2018

Hans Bantilan
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Causality

The most important lesson we’ve learned so far can be stated in one sentence: a point p in spacetime has
many labels (t, x, y, z), (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ), (t00 , x00 , y 00 , z 00 ), and so on, but these labels all describe exactly the
same unchanging point, and so are equivalent to each other.
Demanding that (∗) the speed of light is the same in all frames allowed us to write down these labels in
different frames in terms of each other
t = γt0 + γβx0
x = γβt0 + γx0
y = y0
z = z0, (1)
and it also gave us a notion of ”distance” that is the same in all frames
−∆t2 + ∆x2 + ∆y 2 + ∆z 2 = −∆t02 + ∆x02 + ∆y 02 + ∆z 02 (2)

Today I want to show you that (∗) also gives us a notion of causality: the idea that one event can cause
another event, in a way that is independent of frame.
Let’s put p 7→ (0, 0, 0, 0) as the event that’s the cause, and ask if another event q 7→ (t, x, y, z) can be
caused by p. Let’s start with the simplest case that we know obeys causality. Let’s label the point
q 7→ (t, 0, 0, 0) in frame F : (t, x, y, z) with x = 0. Here p just sits there at x = 0, and q is also at x = 0
just at a later time t > 0, so it is clear that p can cause q to happen. Notice that the spacetime interval
0
between p and q is negative spq = −t2 +  2
x
> < 0.
Let’s think of the same point q 7→ (t0 , x0 , 0, 0) labeled by coordinates from any another frame F 0 :
(t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) that labels q with a nonzero x0 .
We know three things:
I) p can cause q because we know there is a frame F : (t, x, y, z) where p just sits there at x = 0 to cause
q at x = 0 at some later time t > 0,
II) the spacetime interval doesn’t care which coordinates you write it in, so the spacetime interval between
0
p and q is still the same negative number spq = −t02 + x02 = −t2 + 2
x
> < 0,
0 0 02 02
III) t > x because of −t + x < 0 according to (II).

t t' t
q q

p x p x'
3
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Remark. (III) is another way to see what we called “time dilation” in the last lecture. It’s just
a coordinate effect that can be stated colloquially as: “for a fixed spacetime interval but expressed in
different coordinates, to have more x0 you have to compensate by having more t0 ”
Importantly, (III) shows that if t > x in some frame F : (t, x, y, z), then t0 > x0 in any other frame
F : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ).
0

One way to see this is as we did above: starting with the p 7→ (0, 0, 0, 0), q 7→ (t, 0, 0, 0) with x = 0
and t > 0, then going to any other frame with nonzero x0 where you know from the invariant spacetime
0
interval −t2 + 2
x
> = −t02 + x02 between p and q that by having more x0 you have to compensate with even
more t0 , and so t0 > x0 .

t' t
t' t

q
q
x'
x
p x

p x
x'

We say that two events p and q are timelike separated if the spacetime interval between them is
negative spq = −∆t2 + ∆x2 + ∆y 2 + ∆z 2 < 0. Intuitively, there is “more time than there is space”
separating the two events. An event q that is timelike separated from event p and whose time label is
greater than that of event p in some frame (and thus, in any frame) is said to be to the future of event p.
Similarly, an event q that is timelike separated from event p and whose timelike label is less than that of
event p in some frame (and thus, in any frame) is said to be in the past of event p. The events that are
to the future and past of an event p are bounded by the future and past light cones of p, which are the
locus of all possible light rays that pass through p. We say that two events p and q are null separated if
the spacetime interval
p between them is zero spq = −∆t2 + ∆x2 + ∆y 2 + ∆z 2 = 0. Points that lie on light
rays have ∆t = ∆x + ∆y 2 + ∆z 2 in any frame (i.e. you can replace t → t0 , x → x0 , y → y 0 , z → z 0 in
2

this expression, and it will still hold) so any two points p and q on a light ray are null separated because
spq = −∆t2 + ∆x2 + ∆y 2 + ∆z 2 = 0.

Timelike
Separated
(future)

Light
Cone
p Spacelike
Separated
(acausal)

Timelike
Separated
(past)
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We say that two events are spacelike separated if the spacetime interval between them is positive
spq = −∆t2 + ∆x2 + ∆y 2 + ∆z 2 > 0. Intuitively, there is “more space than there is time” separating
the two events. We will now show that such events are acausal in the sense that for these events, one
cannot be thought of as being the cause of the other. To show this, it suffices to argue by contradiction.
Suppose that such events are causal in the sense that we can extend our definitions of future and past to
the spacelike separated events, denote these extensions tentatively as “future” and “past”. Consider two
spacelike separate events p 7→ (0, 0, 0, 0) and q 7→ (t, x, 0, 0) are labeled by frame F : (t, x, y, z) for some
x > 0 and with t > 0.
So you conclude that t > 0.
i.e. q is to the “future” of p as seen in frame F : (t, x, y, z)
But t < x because they are spacelike separated, so p and q both lie on a straight line t = bx for some
0 < b < 1. We can then always boost to another frame F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) by

t = γt0 + γβx0
x = γβt0 + γx0 (3)

whose x0 axis, defined by t0 = 0 and thus t = βx according to (7), has a larger slope β > b as seen in the
F : (t, x, y, z) frame.
You can arrive at our required contradiction either by spacetime diagram or by Lorenz transformations.
1) By spacetime diagram, the labels p 7→ (0, 0, 0, 0) and q 7→ (t0 , x0 , 0, 0) in the new frame F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 )
has t0 < 0, so q is to the past of p i.e. q is in the past of p as seen in frame F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ).

t t'

x'
q
p x

2) By Lorentz transformation of the point q,

t0 = γt − γβx = (b − β)γx, (4)

and we again use β > b, and remembering that we placed q at x > 0, to conclude that t0 < 0.
Either way, you conclude that t0 < 0.
i.e. q is to the “past” of p as seen in frame F : (t, x, y, z)
The q cannot be both to the “future” of p in one frame, and to “past” of p in another frame, because our
definition of causality demands that any tentative definition of “future” and “past” must be independent
of frame. We have arrived at our contradiction.
Remark. Notice that we could have chosen x < 0 in the above argument by contradiction, which
would have placed the point q in the upper left quadrant of the t, x slice of the spacetime diagram, so we
would have to alter the argument accordingly.
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More Examples

To understand a situation involving different frames, our recurring strategy has been the following:

1. draw a spacetime diagram to identify the relevant points p,

2. use the Lorentz transformations to relate the different coordinate labels (t, x, y, z), (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) of
the point p

t = γt0 + γβx0 ,
x = γβt0 + γx0 ,
y = y0 ,
z = z0, (5)

3. or, use the invariance of the spacetime interval as a way to relate the different coordinate labels
(∆t, ∆x, ∆y, ∆z), (∆t0 , ∆x0 , ∆y 0 , ∆z 0 ) for the interval between two points p and q

−∆t2 + ∆x2 + ∆y 2 + ∆z 2 = −∆t02 + ∆x02 + ∆y 02 + ∆z 02 . (6)

Doppler Shift

Example. F : (t, x, y, z) and F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) are in standard configuration with boost parameter β.
An emitter of light is at rest in F 0 at x0 = 0, y 0 = 0, z 0 = 0, and emits light at regular intervals at points
p, q, and so on, with a period ∆t0 . With what period ∆t does this emitter of light observe in according
to someone at rest in F ?

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t t'

Δt'

Δt = Δt1+Δt2

Δt'
Δt2
Δx q x'

Δt1 Δt'

p x
Let’s decompose ∆t into ∆t = ∆t1 + ∆t2 , where ∆t1 is the time that point q is projected to have in
frame F , and ∆t2 is the time taken by a light ray emitted from q to reach x = 0 in frame F .
To find ∆t1 :
First notice that ∆x0 = 0 since the emitter is at rest in F 0 .
Use the Lorentz transformations to relate the different coordinate labels for point q
0
∆t1 = γ∆t0 + γβ
∆x 0
*


0
∆x = γβ∆t0 + γ
∆x 0
, (7)
*



to see straight away that ∆t1 = γ∆t0 .

(In other words, the time ∆t that point q is projected to have in the F frame where it is not at rest
∆x 6= 0 is “time dilated” by γ compared to the time ∆t0 it has in the F 0 frame where it is at rest ∆x0 = 0).
To find ∆t2 :
First notice that ∆t2 = ∆x since a light ray has the speed of light.
Use the Lorentz transformations (7) for point q again see straight away that ∆x = γβ∆t0 .
To find ∆t:
p
Just put it all together, ∆t = ∆t1 + ∆t2 = γ∆t0 + γβ∆t0 = γ(1 + β)∆t0 = (1 + β)/(1 − β)∆t0 .
Recall that frequency f is defined as the inverse of the period ∆t of an occurrence. We have thus obtained
a Doppler shift to a lower frequency f of the light emissions seen in frame F , compared to the frequency
f 0 of the same light emissions seen in frame F 0
s
f ∆t0 1−β
= = . (8)
f0 ∆t 1+β