MTH6132, Relativity

Lecture 2
Given 27th September 2018

Hans Bantilan
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Boosts

The Lorentz transformations provide the set of rules to transform from one inertial frame to another,
which hold for velocities v all the way up to the speed of light c, and are constructed from the assumption
that the speed of light c is the same in all frames.
The two inertial frames F : (t, x, y, z) and F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) move relative to one another in standard
configuration when F 0 moves along the x axis of the frame F in the +x direction with uniform speed
v, with all other spatial axes remaining parallel. We then say that F 0 is boosted by β = v/c in the +x
direction with respect to F .

t = γt0 + γβx0 ,
x = γβt0 + γx0 ,
y = y0 ,
z = z0. (1)

t t'

x'

x
• To draw the t0 axis, inspect (1) at x0 = 0 to find that the t0 axis is the parametric curve t = γt0 ,
x = γβt0 parametrized by t0 and is thus a straight line with slope 1/β ≥ 1.
• To draw the x0 axis, inspect (1) at t0 = 0 to find that the x0 axis is the parametric curve t = γβx0 ,
x = γx0 parametrized by x0 and is thus a straight line with slope β ≤ 1.

The boost parameter β is bounded from above 0 ≤ β ≤ 1 by the speed of light, i.e. 0 ≤ v ≤ c. This
bound is a consequence of assuming that there exist no interaction that is instantaneous. The logic is
as follows: there is no instantaneous interaction, so there must be a finite velocity of propagation of the
interaction. In particular, there must be a maximum velocity of speed of the interaction, let us call this
maximum speed c.
The principle of relativity dictates that this c is the same in all frames and is thus a universal constant,
and the theory of electromagnetism shows that this c is the same as the speed of light.

3
4

Composition of Boosts
Consider three inertial frames F : (t, x, y, z), F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and F 00 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ), with F 0 boosted by
β1 with respect to F , and F 00 boosted by β2 with respect to F 0 . We would like to determine the boost β
by which F 00 is boosted with respect to F .
In other words, we know β1 and β2 in the boost from F to F 0 and the boost from F 0 to F 00
β1 β2
F −→ F 0 −→ F 00

t = γt0 + γβx0 ,
x = γβt0 + γx0 ,
y = y0 ,
z = z0 (2)

t0 = γt00 + γβx00 ,
0
x = γβt00 + γx00 ,
y0 = y 00 ,
z0 = z 00 (3)

t t' t' t''

x'
x''

x x'
and we would like to know β in the boost from F to F 00 that follows as a consequence of these two
composed boosts
β
F −→ F 00 .

t = γt00 + γβx00 ,
x = γβt00 + γx00 ,
y = y 00 ,
z = z 00 (4)

t t'
t''

x''
x'

x
 5

Try the expression β = β1 + β2 ? But, e.g. β1 = 12 and a ray of light β2 = 1 gives β = 32 which gives
the ray of light a different speed in different frames, and directly contradicts the assumption with which
we built up the Lorentz transformations. So, this cannot be the correct expression.
Just do the calculation.
p p p
Define γ1 = 1/ 1 − β12 , γ2 = 1/ 1 − β22 and γ = 1/ 1 − β 2 . Using (2) and (3),
γ γβ
z }| { z }| {
t = γ1 (γ2 t + γ2 β2 x ) + γ1 β1 (γ2 β2 t + γ2 x ) = t γ1 γ2 (1 + β1 β2 ) + x00 γ1 γ2 (β1 + β2 )
00 00 00 00 00

x = γ1 β1 (γ2 t00 + γ2 β2 x00 ) + γ1 (γ2 β2 t00 + γ2 x00 ) = t00 γ1 γ2 (β1 + β2 ) + x00 γ1 γ2 (1 + β1 β2 ) (5)
| {z } | {z }
γβ γ

so the boost β from F to F 00 can be obtained by dividing the expression for γβ by the expression for γ:

(γβ) γ1 γ2 (β1 + β2 ) β1 + β2
β= = = (6)
(γ) γ1 γ2 (1 + β1 β2 ) 1 + β 1 β2

1 (1/2)+(1)
e.g. β1 = 2 and β2 = 1 gives β = 1+(1/2)(1) = 1.
β1 +(1) (1)+β2
In fact, any β1 with β2 = 1 gives β = 1+β1 (1) = 1 and any β2 with β1 = 1 gives β = 1+(1)β2 = 1.
6
Measuring in Space and in Time

The rest frame of a particle is the frame F : (τ, X, Y, Z) in which the particle’s worldline is simply the
τ axis. The proper time experienced by a particle is the time τ measured in its rest frame at constant
X, Y, Z e.g.
√ at X = 0, Y = 0, Z = 0. The proper length of a spatially extended object is the spatial
distance X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 measured in its rest frame at constant τ e.g. at τ = 0.
For a particle at rest in the F : (t, x, y, z) frame, it will find the time elapsed by defining a measurement
at its own fixed constant spatial position x, y, z = 0 between points p and q. For a particle at rest in the
F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) frame, it will find the time elapsed by defining a measurement at its own fixed constant
spatial position x0 , y 0 , z 0 = 0 between a different set of two points, a and b. In both cases, each particle
is measuring its own proper time.

t t t'
q b

x'

p a x
x
For an object at rest in the F : (t, x, y, z) frame, it will find its length by defining a measurement at a
fixed constant time t = 0 between points p and q. For an object at rest in the F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) frame, it
will find its length by defining a measurement at a fixed constant time t0 = 0 between a different set of
two points, a and b.

t
t t'

x'
b
p q x
a x
The lesson here is: identify the two points that define a measurement before you make a measurement.