ELEKTRONICS 245

! INTRODUCTION
!
!
!In  following  Donald  Neamen’s  book,  read  every  chapter’s  introduction  - represents an
!excellent overview of the work to come.
!
!Electronics 245 - lays the foundation of electronic circuit studies in 3 rd and 4th years.

!
!In immediate future, course examines Chapters 1,2,5,6 (see the study guide) in detail. Chapter
9 will also be used. The third year electronics courses continue with  FET’s  in  Chapters 3 and 4.
!
!Prologue to book gives interesting historical perspective & background:
!
! December 1947, Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain, demonstrated first transistor at Bell
! Labs
! Until 1959 transistor was only available as discrete device
! Sept 1958, Kilby at Texas Instruments demonstrated first germanium integrated circuit
! At similar time, Noyce, Fairchild Semiconductor, introduced silicon integrated circuits
!
! Neamen categorizes: passive and active devices; electronic circuits; discrete and

! integrated circuits; analogue and digital signals

! Book’s  notation:     iB, vBE - total instantaneous values; IB, VBE - DC values; ib, vbe - total

! instantaneous ac values; Ib, Vbe - phasor values

!
!
! CHAPTER 1: SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND DIODES
!
! Overall: analysis and design of circuits containing semiconductor devices
!
! Semiconductor material properties and pn junction

! pn junction diode and nonlinear I-V characteristics

! Diode models to assist circuit analysis

! Other diodes: Schottky barrier, Zener, LED and photodiode

!
!The controlled flow of charged particles is at the heart of electronic devices.

!Silicon is the most common semiconductor material. Other materials such as GaAs and related
!compounds used for specialised applications.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
 periodic table
III IV V
5 6
B C
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Boron Carbon
! 13
Atom
14 15

! Al Si P
Nucleus (positive protons and neutral neutrons)
! Aluminum Silicon
31 Negatively
32
Phosphorus
charged
33 electrons that classically orbit the nucleus in shells
! Ga Electrons
Ge in outermost
As shell: valence electrons - determine chemical activity
! Gallium Germanium Arsenic

! 49
In
51
Sb according to valence electron number, eg:
! Elements grouped in periodic table
Indium Antimony
!
! III IV V

! 5
B 6
C
! atoms come into close proximity to each other, the valence electrons interact to form
13 14
Siconfiguration in 15which
! Al is a tetrahedral
a crystal. The final crystal structure P each

! silicon atom has four nearest 31neighbors, as shown32 in Figure 1.1(b). 33

Ga forming whatGeare called covalent
electrons are shared between atoms,
The valence
As bonds.
! Germanium, gallium arsenide, and49
In many other semiconductor materials 51
Sbhave the
! same tetrahedral configuration.
(Antimony)
! Figure 1.1(c) is a two-dimensional representation of the lattice formed by the

! five silicon atoms in Figure 1.1(a). An important property of such a lattice is that
Si andelectrons
valence Ge: group IV elemental
are always semiconductors
available on the outer edge of the silicon crystal so that
! additional atoms can be added to form very large single-crystal structures.
Group III-V, compound semiconductors eg. GaAs, are possible
!
!
!
Si !
!
!
Si Si Si Si !
!
Si Si Si
!
Figures 1.1 & 1.2
Si !
Si
!
(a) (b) (c) !
!
Figure 1.1 Silicon atoms in a crystal matrix: (a) five noninteracting silicon atoms, each with
four valence electrons, (b) the tetrahedral configuration, (c) a two-dimensional representation !
! showing the covalent bonding

! Covalent bonds exist in the crystal where valence electrons are shared between atoms.
!
! At T = 0 K Si an insulator : all electrons in lowest state; each covalent bonding position filled

! As temp. increases, electrons gain enough energy to break the bonds: free to move in crystal. A
! positively charged empty state is also created.
!
!
!
!
Si Si Si Si Figure 1.3 The breaking of a ! Figure 1.3

e– covalent bond for T > 0 K !

Si
+
Si Si Si creating an electron in the !
conduction band and a !
positively charged “empty !
Si Si Si Si
state” !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
 Valence electron must gain minimum Eg - bandgap energy to break bond
q1q 2
F m. a ( N )
F (N)
4 r2

Conduction Conduction
F m. a ( N )
band (–) band
Figure 1.4
q1q 2
F (N)
4 r2
Ec Ec
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Valence electron must gain minimumElectron
E Forbidden Eg - bandgap energy to break bond
g generation !
bandgap
!
Ev Insulators EgEv 3 to 6 eV
!
ValenceSemiconductors
electron
Valencemust gain minimum E(+)
band
Eg 1 eVg - bandgap
Valence energy to break bond
band !
Figure 1.4
(a)
Conductors 1have large numbers of (b)
free electrons at room13
temperature !
Chapter Semiconductor
disk:Desktop Folder:ALI-06-10-09:MHDQ134-01 Folder:MHDQ134-01:
Materials and Diodes
!
Figure 1.4 !
! Insulators Eg 3 to 6 eV
ductor constants
!
What isSemiconductors
an electron-volt? Eg 1 eV
Eg (eV)
! −3 −3/2
B (cm K )
1.1 ! Conductors
An electron have
Insulators
5.23 × 10
has
15
1large Enumbers
eV energy
g 3 iftoit6ofhas
free
eV electrons
been at room
accelerated temperature
through a potential of 1V.
) 1.4 ! Semiconductors
apter 1 Semiconductor Materials and Diodes
2.10 × 1014
Eg 131 eV

0.66 ! W 1.66
= m.g.h
15
× 10have
Conductors large
= m.a.d = numbers
F.d ≡ q.E.d of free electrons =
= q.(V/d).d at q.V
room temperature
J ≡ eV
!
What is an electron-volt?
! (energy) (force on electron) (1 eV = 1.6 x 10-9 Joules)
−3
K−3/2) ! An electron has 1 eV energy if it has been accelerated through a potential of 1V.
ature increases,
× 1015 ! Whatcovalent
more is an electron-volt?
bonds are broken, and
ive empty
× 1014 !
states are created. Si Si Si Si
as a certain
× 10 15
!
thermal energy W =electron
Anand m.g.h =
hasm.a.d
is adjacent
sition, as shown in Figure 1.5, making it appear as if
1 eV
to an=energy
F.d
empty ≡ifq.E.d
it has=been
Si
q.(V/d).d
+
accelerated
Si
= q.Vthrough
Si + Si
J ≡aeV
potential of 1V.
Figure 1.5
!
through the semiconductor. (energy)This positively charged (force on electron) (1 eV = 1.6 x 10-9 Joules)
! then, two W =types
m.g.h of =charged
m.a.d =particles
F.d ≡ q.E.d = q.(V/d).d = q.V J ≡ eV
n semiconductors,
!
e negatively charged free electron, and the positively
Si Si Si Si

bonds
on of a hole !
are broken,
is greatly and
e-’s  and  holes  h
(energy)+ ’s  contribute  to  current  (very  simplified  picture)
oversimplified, and is meant only (force on electron) (1 eV = 1.6 x 10-9 Joules)
!
moving positive charge.) We may Si note Si that the
Si charge
Si of Figure 1.5 A two-dimensional
de is asadjacent
the charge !
to anofempty
an electron. representation of the silicon
Figure 1.5
making
3 it
m ) of electrons and !
appear as if
Concentrations +
holes areSiimportantofSielectrons + and
Si holes
parameters
Si in (#/cm
3
crystal)showing
important the directly affects current magnitude
This
conductor positively
!
material,chargedbecause they directly influence the movement of the positively
esintrinsic
of charged
! particles
Intrinsic
semiconductor semiconductor
is aSisingle-crystal
e-’s  and  holes  h + Si Siis single
Si crystal
semicon- charged
material“empty
with state”
’s  contribute  to  current  (very  simplified  picture)
no other atom types includedFigure 1.5
- electron
ron, and the
! positively
and hole density
er types of atoms within the crystal. In an intrinsic is the same. Speak of intrinsic carrier concentration:
ified,
yare
of electrons
notethe that !
and is meant only are equal, since the thermally
and holes
only source- ofofsuchFigure
the charge
! eConcentrations
’s  and  holes  h
1.5
particles.
+
of
ATherefore,
two-dimensional
electrons
we use
and holes (#/cm3) important directly affects current magnitude
’s  contribute  to  current  (very  simplified  picture)
representation of the silicon
mportant !
ic carrier concentration for the concentration
parameters in crystal
for ni showing the
of the
𝑛 = 𝐵𝑇 𝑒                  (1.1)
of the holes.
!
y directly influence the
The equation
Intrinsic movement
is as follows:
semiconductorof the is single
positively crystal material with no other atom types included - electron
!
single-crystal semicon- and hole
Concentrationsdensity
charged is
of the
“empty same.
electrons
state” Speak
and of
holes (#/cm 3 carrier concentration:
intrinsic ) important directly affects current magnitude
!
crystal. In an intrinsic B = constant (1.1) to material
related

!
al, since the thermally Intrinsic Egsemiconductor
T density
= bandgap
= is thematerial,
energy
is single
temperature
in eV
crystal
(K)
material with (NOT a strong
no other function
atom of temp)- electron
types included
elated to the
!
icles. Therefore, we use and
specific holesemiconductor
k =
same. Speak
E of
is intrinsic
𝑛g = 𝐵𝑇 𝑒
Boltzmann’s  constant  
carrier concentration:
                 (1.1)
(86 x 10-6 eV/K) or (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
Theisconcentration
!
the temperature of the(K), k is Boltzmann’s constant
ni isthis
!
context, represents the exponential function.
as follows:
several semiconductor materials are given in Table 1.3. to material
!
oefficient B are not strongEfunctions
B =
of
constant
temperature.
related
𝑛 = 𝐵𝑇
The
𝑒                  (1.1)
! (1.1) g
a parameter that appearsToften in
= bandgap energy in eV
= the current–voltage
(NOT a strong function of temp)
devices. ! k
temperature (K)
Boltzmann’s  constant   -6
related to material (86 x 10 eV/K) or (1.38 x 10 J/K)
-23

!
ductor material, Eg is B
Boltzmann’s constant Eg
=
=
constant
bandgap energy in eV (NOT a strong function of temp)
! T = temperature (K)
!
exponential function.
Table 1.3. k in silicon = Boltzmann’s  constant   (86 x 10-6 eV/K) or (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
insicgiven
are carrier
!
in concentration
ons of temperature. The
at T = 300 K.
300in theK, we !
can write
current–voltage
! Material Eg (eV) B (cm-3 K-3/2 )
!
! −1.1
!
)3/2 e 2(86×10−6 )(300)
"
Si 1.1 5.23 x 1015

icon at T = 300 K.
! GaAs 1.4 2.10 x 1014
Ge 0.66 1.66 x 1015

Example 1.1
 (c.f. Material
Material
concentration ofEESi (eV)
gg (eV)
atoms: BB (cm
(cm cm K
5 xcontribute
10 K ))
)to the
being free to move through the crystal and electron current in the
semiconductor. When Si
Si the fifth phosphorus
1.1
1.1 valence electron
5.23 xx 10
5.23 10 15moves into the conduction
15
band, a positively charged phosphorus ion is created as shown in Figure 1.6(b).
Extrinsic The
Semiconductors GaAs atom is called
GaAs
phosphorus 1.4a donor impurity,
1.4 2.10 xx 10
2.10 14
14
10since it donates an electron
that is free to move. Although the remaining 1.66
phosphorus 15 atom has a net positive
! Ge
Ge 0.66
0.66 1.66 xx 10
10 15
e/h concentrations relatively small in intrinsic semiconductors; therefore small currents.
charge, the atom is immobile in the crystal and cannot contribute to the current.
! Therefore, when a donor impurity is added to a semiconductor, free electrons are
! Impurities from III or V group elements implanted in crystal lattice to improve situation
created without generating holes. This process is called doping, and it allows us to
! Example
Example
control the 1.11.1
concentration of free electrons in a semiconductor.
! Process called doping (practicalities  can  be  explained),  freer  valence  electrons  or  “holes”  can  
A semiconductor
be made available. that contains 10 donor-3-3impurity atoms is called an n-type semi-
1010 cm
! conductor nnii in
in Sithe
Si
(for
at 300
at 300 KK == 1.5
negatively
1.5charged
xx 10 cm
electrons) and has a preponderance of elec-
! trons compared
Phosphorous from groupto holes.
V is
(c.f. concentration
(c.f. a donor
concentration of of Si impurity
atoms: 55-xxgives
Si atoms: 10 22 rise-3
1022 cm-3to
cm )) n-type semiconductor
!
! Extrinsic
! Extrinsic Semiconductors
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Semiconductors
Si Si Si Si Si e–
! e–

! e/h concentrations
e/h concentrations
Si P
relatively
relatively
Si
small in
small
Si
in intrinsic
intrinsicSisemiconductors;
semiconductors;
P+ Si
therefore small
therefore Figure 1.6
small currents.
currents.
! Figure 1.7
! Impurities from
Impurities from III
Si
III or
or V
V group
Si
group elements
elements implanted
Si
implanted in
Si
in crystal
crystal lattice
lattice to
Si
to improve
improve situation
situation

! Process called
Process called doping Chapter 1 Semiconductor Materials and Diodes
doping (practicalities  can  be  explained),  freer  valence  electrons  or  “holes”  can  
(practicalities  can  be  explained),  freer  valence  electrons  or  “holes”  can   15
! be made
be available.(a)
made available. (b)
! Boron from group III is an acceptor impurity - gives rise to p-type semiconductor
! Figure 1.6
Fundamental
Phosphorous
Phosphorous
atom from
showing
(a) Two-dimensional
relationship
from group
group
the V
V
fifth
between
phosphorus
representation of
electron/hole
isis aa donor
donor impurity
impurity
valence
a silicon lattice doped
--concentrations
gives
gives
electron, (b) rise
the to n-type
to n-type
with a phosphorus
in semiconductor
riseresulting semiconductor
semiconductor
positively
in thermal
charged
! equilibrium:Si Si Si Si Si Si + Si Si
phosphorus ion after the fifth valence electron has moved into the conduction band
! nopo =Sini 2
(1.2)– B
! Si B Si Si Si Si

! no Si
= thermal equilibrium conc. of freeSielectrons
! Si Si Si
po = thermal equilibrium conc. of free holes
Si Si Si Figure 1.6
Figure 1.6

! Figure 1.7
Figure 1.7
! (a) (b)

! Each donor
Figure atom free electron (typically
1.7 (a) Two-dimensional at room
representation temp).lattice
of a silicon If donor conc.
doped withNadboron
>> atom
ni
! showing the vacant covalent bond position, (b) the resulting negatively charged boron ion

! Boronafter
Boron fromit group
from group III noan
III isis
has accepted N d (majority
an acceptor
acceptor
electron thecarriers
impurity
from
impurity : n-type)
-- gives
valence gives
band. rise
rise (1.3)charged
to p-type
to p-type
A positively semiconductor
hole is created.
semiconductor
! Fundamental relationship
Fundamental relationship between
between electron/hole
electron/hole concentrations
concentrations in in semiconductor
semiconductor in in thermal
thermal

! equilibrium:
equilibrium: The most common group III element used for silicon doping is boron. When a

! boron atom replaces a silicon atom, its three valence electrons are used to satisfy
the covalent bond = nnii22
nnoopprequirements
oo = (1.2)of the four nearest silicon atoms (Fig-
(1.2)
for three
! ure 1.7(a)). This leaves one bond position open. At room temperature, adjacent silicon
! nnoo == thermal
valence thermal equilibrium
equilibrium
electrons have sufficient conc.thermal
conc. of free
of free energy
electrons
electronsto move into this position, thereby cre-
! ppoo ==athermal
ating thermal equilibrium
equilibrium
hole. This effect is shown conc. of
conc. of Figure
in free holes
free holes
1.7(b). The boron atom then has a net neg-
! ative charge, but cannot move, and a hole is created that can contribute to a hole current.
! Because the boron atom has accepted a valence electron, the boron is therefore
! Each donor
Each donor
called atomatom
an acceptorfree impurity.
free electron (typically
electron (typically
Acceptoratatatoms
roomlead
room temp).
temp). If donor
to If
thedonor conc.
conc.
creation Nholes
ofN >>without
dd >> nnii

! electrons being generated. This process, also called doping, can be used to control the
concentration ofnnholes Nin (majority carriers :: n-type)
n-type) (1.3) (1.3)
! oo N dd a (majority carriers
semiconductor.
! A semiconductor that contains acceptor impurity atoms is called a p-type semi-

! conductor (for the positively charged holes created) and has a preponderance of
Then, hole conc.:
! holes compared to electrons.
The materials containing impurity atoms are called extrinsic semiconductors, or
! po = ni2 / Nd (minority carriers : n-type) (1.4)
doped semiconductors. The doping process, which allows us to control the concentra-
! tions of free electrons and holes, determines the conductivity and currents in the material.
! A fundamental relationship between the electron and hole concentrations in a
! Similarly for acceptor atoms:
semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by
! po N
n oa p(majority
2 carriers : p-type) no = ni2 / N (minority carriers : p-type)(1.2)
! o = ni
(1.5 & 1.6)
! where no is the thermal equilibrium concentration of free electrons, po is the thermal
! equilibrium
Example 1.2 concentration of holes, and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
! At room temperature (T = 300 K), each donor atom donates a free electron to
! the
Si,semiconductor.
300 K, doped withIf theP@donor 1016 cm-3 (recall
Nd =concentration Nd isni much 1010than
= 1.5 xlarger cm-3the
) intrinsic
! concentration, we can approximate
then: no Nd = 1016 cm-3
! no ∼ = Nd po = ni2 / Nd = 2.25 x 10 4 cm-3 (1.3)
!
! Then, from Equation (1.2), the hole concentration is
NB: extrinsic semiconductor, e/h conc. differ by orders of magnitude
n i2
po = (1.4)
Nd
Similarly, at room temperature, each acceptor atom accepts a valence electron, creat-
Drift ing
anda Diffusion
hole. If the Currents
acceptor concentration Na is much larger than the intrinsic concen-
 Drift Current Density
NB: extrinsic semiconductor, e/h conc. differ by orders of magnitude
To understand drift, assume an electric field is applied to a semiconductor. The field
produces a force that acts on free electrons and holes, which then experience a net drift
velocity and net movement. Consider an n-type semiconductor with a large number of
free electrons
Drift (Figure 1.8(a)).
and Diffusion An electric field E applied in one direction produces a
Currents
! force on the electrons in the opposite direction, because of the electrons’ negative
! charge. The electrons
Two processes acquire
causing a drift velocity v dn (in cm/s) which can be written as
e/h movement
! vdn = −µn E (1.7)
! Drift caused by E-fields
! where µn is a constant
Diffusion caused bycalled the electron
concentration gradients
2
mobility and has units of cm /V–s. For

! low-doped silicon, the value of µn is typically 1350 cm2/V–s. The mobility can be

! thought of as a parameter indicating how well an electron can move in a semicon-

ductor. The negative sign in Equation
J = E(1.7) indicates
(1.11) that the electron drift velocity is
! Drift current density
opposite to that of the applied electric field as shown in Figure 1.8(a). The electron
! drift produces awhere
drift current density Jn (A/cm2) (ohm-cm)
= conductivity given by -1 =  1/resistivity  (ρ)
! Jn =fuller
−envpicture = enµ n + epµ ρ
! dn = −en(−µn E) = +enµn E
where
(1.8)
µ n = electron mobility and µ ρ = hole mobility (cm2 /V-s)
! 3
where n is the electron concentration (#/cm ) and e, in this context, is the magnitude
! Note
of thethat electrons
electronic acquire
charge. Thedrift current velocity
conventional vdn (opposite
drift current is in thetoopposite
convention) and holes
direction
! acquire
from thea flow
velocity in the same
of negative direction
charge, whichasmeans
conventional
that thecurrent.
drift current in an n-type
! semiconductor is in the same direction as the applied electric field.
! Diffusion currenta p-type semiconductor
Next consider particles flow
phenomenon
withfrom high
a large conc. of
number
linked toa kinetic
to holes
low conc.
theory
Statistical
(Figure l.8(b)).

! An electric field E applied in one direction produces force on the holes in the same

! direction, because of the positive charge on the holes. The holes acquire a drift
velocity v dp (in cm/s), which can be written as
! Total current density consists of drift + diffusion current. In most cases only one
! vdp = +µ p E dominates at a time (1.9)
!
!
!
xd 06/08/2009 05:15 PMn-type
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p-type Del Rakesh:June:Rakesh 06-08-09:MHDQ134-01 Folder:MHDQ134-01:

! Figs 1.8/1.9

! E E

! vdn e– h+ vdp

! Jn Jp

! (a) (b)

!
rt 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications
Figure 1.8 Directions of applied electric field and resulting carrier drift velocity and drift
! current density in (a) an n-type semiconductor and (b) a p-type semiconductor
!n p

! Electron Hole
! diffusion diffusion

! Electron diffusion Hole diffusion

! current density current density

!
! x x

! (a) (b)

!Figure 1.9 (a) Assumed electron concentration versus distance in a semiconductor, and
!the resulting electron diffusion and electron diffusion current density, (b) assumed hole
!concentration versus distance in a semiconductor, and the resulting hole diffusion and hole

! Excesscurrent
diffusion Carriers
density

!
! When external voltage applied, or current exists, equilibrium disturbed
!to a low-concentration region produces a flow of electrons in the negative x direction.
!Since electrons
Valence e's canare negatively
obtain charged,
sufficient energythe
to conventional current
break covalent bondsdirection
(becomingis in the if they
free),
!positive direction.
interactx with the high-energy photons.
!(for
The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of electrons can be written as
onee/hdimension)
! If so, pair created. Called excess electrons and excess holes

! Jn = eDn
dn
(1.12)
! In steady-state dx creation of e/h pairs does not increase indefinitely of electron-hole

! recombination
where e, in this context, is the magnitude of the electronic charge, dn/dx is the gra-
!dient of the electron concentration, and Dn is the electron diffusion coefficient.
Refer to e/h excess
1.9(b), carrier
the holelifetime.
concentration is Also have equilibrium
of distance. disturbed with solar cells
! In Figure
of holes from a high-concentration region to a where
a function
excess carriers
The diffusion
are also produced
! low-concentration region produces a

!flow of holes in the negative x direction. (Conventional current is in the direction of

the flow of positive charge.)
The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of holes can be written as (for
one dimension)
The pn Junction
dp
Jp = −eD p (1.13)
Equilibrium pn dxJunction
 The interface at x = 0 is called the metallurgical junction. A large density
gradient in both the hole and electron concentrations occurs across this junction. Ini-
Figure 1.10(a)
tially, then, is aissimplified
there a diffusionblock diagram
of holes fromofthe
a pn junction.
p-region intoFigure 1.10(b) and
the n-region, shows
a
the
diffusion of electrons from the n-region into the p-region (Figure 1.11). The flow ofin
respective p-type and n-type doping concentrations, assuming uniform doping
The
each pn Junction
holesregion, as p-region
from the well as the minority
uncovers carrier concentrations
negatively charged acceptor in each
ions,region,
and theassuming
flow of
! thermal equilibrium. Figure 1.10(c) is a three-dimensional diagram of the pn junction
Equilibrium pn Junction area of the device.
! showing the cross-sectional
The interface at x = 0 is called the metallurgical
Doping
junction. A large density
! gradient in both the hole and electron
concentration
Na concentrations occurs across this junction. Ini- Cross-sectional

! tially, then, there is a diffusion of holes from the p-region into Nd the n-region, and a area

! diffusion of electrons from the n-region n i2

into the p-region (Figure 1.11).n2
The flow of
! holes pfrom the p-region
n npo = negatively
uncovers Na charged acceptorpnoions, = i and the flow of
Nd
p n

! x=0 x=0 x = 0 1.10

Figure
! (a) (b) Doping (c)
! concentration

! Figure 1.10 (a) The pn junction: (a) simplified

of an ideal uniformly doped06/08/2009
N
pn junction, and
a
one-dimensional geometry, (b) doping profile
(c) three-dimensional
PM Page 24 F506representation
Nd showing
Cross-sectional
area

!
nea80644_ch01_07-066.qxd
the cross-sectional area
05:15 Tempwork:Dont' Del Rakesh:June:Rakesh 06-08-09:MHDQ134-01 Folder

! p n npo =
n i2
pno =
n i2 p n

! p-region n-region
Na Nd

! Above assumes
x=0 thermal equilibrium. Interface, xx==0 0, is metallurgical junction - largexdensity
=0

! gradient
Na
arises
(a)
field as shown
initially causing
Hole (no external source):
diffusion; gives rise
(b) to charge separation and sets up electric
(c)

! Figure 24
1.10 (a) The Part
diffusion
Nd
pn junction: (a) simplified
1 Semiconductor one-dimensional
Devices geometry, (b) doping profile
and Basic Applications

! of an ideal uniformly Electron

doped pn junction, and (c) three-dimensional representation showing
diffusion
! the cross-sectional area

! x=0 – –– + +

! p – –– + +
p-region n-region
Figure 1.11 Initial diffusion of electrons and holes across– the
E-field n
–– metallurgical
+ + (a)at the
junction
! – –
–
“instant in time” that the p- and n-regions are joined together
Na
+ +

! Hole Nd
x=0 Figures 1.11/1.12

! diffusion
Electron Potential

! diffusion

! x=0
! vbi (b)

! Figure 1.11 Initial diffusion of electrons and holes across the metallurgical junction at the
“instant in time” that the p- and n-regions are joined together
!
! Figure 1.12 The pn junction in thermal equilibrium. (a) The space charge region with

! negatively charged acceptor ions in the p-region and positively charged donor ions in the
n-region; the resulting electric field from the n- to the p-region. (b) The potential through
! the junction and the built-in potential barrier Vbi across the junction.
!
! Thermal equilibrium when E-field  and  gradient  “force”  balance; Gives rise to space-charge or
depletion region and built-in potential barrier
! electrons from the n-region uncovers positively charged donor ions. This action
! creates a charge separation (Figure 1.12(a)), which sets up an electric field oriented
! in the direction from the positive charge to the negative charge.
! V bi e
kT
ln
Na Nd
2
VIf no N
T ln
a Nd
voltage
2
is(116
applied
. ) to the pn junction, the diffusion of holes and electrons
! ni must ni
eventually cease. The direction of the induced electric field will cause the

! resulting force to repel the diffusion of holes from the p-region and the diffusion of

! electrons from the n-region. Thermal equilibrium occurs when the force produced by
the electric field and the “force” produced by the density gradient exactly balance.
! VT = kT/e thermal voltage, (0.026 V at 300K)
The positively charged region and the negatively charged region comprise the
! Example 1.5: Si pn junction,space-charge
300 K, dopedregion, or depletion
as specified, region,
Vbi = 0.757 V of the pn junction, in which there are
! essentially
(because of ln, not strong function no mobile
of doping electrons
densities; or within
usually holes. 0,2
Because of the electric field in the space-
V of this.
! Cannot be measured with probes
chargebecause
region,ofthere
barriers formed) difference across that region (Figure 1.12(b)). This
is a potential
! potential difference is called the built-in potential barrier, or built-in voltage, and
! is given by
! Reverse-Biased pn Junction
kT
!
Na Nd
" !
Na Nd
"

! Vbi =
e
ln
n i2
= V T ln
n i2
(1.16)

!
! where VT ≡ kT /e, k = Boltzmann’s constant, T = absolute temperature, e = the
! magnitude of the electronic charge, and Na and Nd are the net acceptor and donor

! concentrations in the p- and n-regions, respectively. The parameter VT is called

Figures 1.13/1.14
! the thermal voltage and is approximately VT = 0.026 V at room temperature,
T = 300 K.
!
!
! EXAMPLE 1.5
E-fields outside space-charge region essentially zero; magnitude in region above thermal
Objective: Calculate the built-in potential barrier of a pn junction.
equilibrium
Consider a silicon pn junction at T = 300 K, doped at Na = 1016 cm−3 in the
p-region
This E-field holds back holes in p-region andand 1017
Nd = in
electrons cm−3 in- the
n-region n-region.
essentially no current
across junction Solution: From the results of Example 1.1, we have n = 1.5 × 1010 cm−3 for silicon
i
 (because
When the of ln, notfield
electric strong
in function of doping region
the space-charge densities; usually within
increases, 0,2 V of
the number of this.
Cannot be measured with probes because of barriers formed)
positive and negative charges must increase. If the doping concentrations are not
changed, the increase in the fixed charge can only occur if the width W of the space-
kT Therefore,
charge region increases. N N N a increasing
Nd
Vwith an . )reverse-bias voltage VR ,
Reverse-BiasedV
ln a 2 d T ln (116
pnbi Junction 2
e ni
space-charge width W also increases. ni is shown in Figure 1.14.
This effect
!
!
! VT = kT/e thermal voltage, (0.026 V at 300K)
W(VR)

! – – – + + +
EA
–∆Q – –
– –
+ +
+ +
+∆Q

! p – – 1.5:
Example – +Si
– – – + + +
+ pn
+ junction, 300 K, doped as specified, V = 0.757
n bi p V – –
Figures + +
1.13/1.14
n

! (because
– –of– ln,+not
+ +strong
E-field function of doping densities; usually within 0,2 V
– of– this.
+ +

! Cannot be measured
W
with probes because of barriers formed) W(VR + ∆VR)

!
! Reverse-Biased pn
– Junction
+ – +

! E-fields outside space-charge

equilibrium
VR region essentially zero; magnitude in region aboveVthermal
R VR + ∆VR

! Figure 1.13 A pn junction with an applied reverse-bias voltage, Figure 1.14 Increase in space-charge

! showing the direction of the electric field induced by VR and the width with an increase in reverse bias
This E-field holds back holes in p-region and electrons in n-region - essentially no current
! direction of the original space-charge electric field. Both electric
across junction
voltage from VR to VR + !VR . Creation

! fields are in the same direction, resulting in a larger net electric

field and a larger barrier between the p- and n-regions.
of additional charges +!Q and −!Q
leads to Figures
a junction1.13/1.14
capacitance.
! Applied voltage called reverse bias (if too great: breakdown)
!
! When E-field in space-charge region increases, no. of +ve and -ve charges also increases. AS

! doping unchanged, the increase in charges can only occur with increased width (W)

! E-fields outside space-charge region essentially zero; magnitude in region above thermal
! equilibrium
Junction capacitance associated with this depletion layer and separated charges
!
! This E-field holds back holes in p-region and electrons in n-region - essentially no current
across junction
! VR
1/ 2

! C j C jo 1
Applied voltage called reverse bias V(if
(117
. )
bi too great: breakdown)
!
! When E-field
Because in space-charge
W(bias), these diodesregion increases,
are tunable no. of diodes
- varactor +ve and(electrically
-ve chargestunable
also increases. AS
oscillators)
! doping unchanged, the increase in charges can only occur with increased width (W)
! Example 1.6 Given pn junction (Vbi = 0,637 V), Cj = 0,312 pF and 0,168 pF
! for VR = 1 and 5 V respectively
! Junction capacitance associated with this depletion layer and separated charges

!
! 1/ 2

! Cj C jo 1
VR
(117
. )
! Vbi

!
! Because W(bias), these diodes are tunable - varactor diodes (electrically tunable oscillators)

!
! Example 1.6 Given pn junction (Vbi = 0,637 V), Cj = 0,312 pF and 0,168 pF
for VR = 1 and 5 V respectively
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
 over the barrier.
This applied voltage polarity (i.e., bias) is known as forward bias. The forward-
bias voltage vD must always be less than the built-in potential barrier Vbi.
As the majority carriers cross into the opposite regions, they become minority
Forward-Biased pn Junction
carriers in those regions, causing the minority carrier concentrations to increase.
! Figure 1.16 shows the resulting excess minority carrier concentrations at the space-
! Zero applied bias: Vbi charge
(built-in barrier)
region prevents
edges. Thesemajority carrierscarriers
excess minority diffusing across
diffuse junction
into the neutral n- and
p-regions, where they recombine with majority carriers, thus establishing a steady-
! With +ve forward bias, VDcondition,
, the potential barrier decreases;
1.16. all applied voltage appears
! across junction
state as shown in Figure

! Forward-Biased pn Junction

! Zero applied bias: Vbi (built-in barrier) – –prevents majority carriers diffusing across junction
! p
+ +
– – + + E-field Figure 1.15
! With +ve forward bias, VD , the potential
– – + +
EA barrier
n
decreases; all applied voltage appears
! across junction
– – + +

! Forward-Biased pn Junction i
EA resulting from appliedD voltage in opp. direction to thermal equilibrium space-charge field
!
! Zero applied bias: Vbi (built-in barrier)
Net result: E-field value in space-charge +
prevents majority carriers diffusing across Figure 1.15
junction
vDregion lower than equilibrium value - upsets balance
–

! between diffusion and E-field force

! With +ve forward bias,
across junction
VD 1.15
Figure
, the potential
A pn junctionbarrier decreases;
with an all appliedvoltage
applied forward-bias voltage appears
showing the direction of

! Majority electron the electric

carriers from field induced
n-region by Vin
diffuse D and the direction
p-region, and of the original
majority holes
EA resulting from applied voltage in opp. direction to thermal equilibrium space-charge field
space-charge
from electric field.
p-region
! into n-region The two electric fields are in opposite directions resulting in a smaller net electric field and a
smaller barrier between the p- and n-regions. The net electric field is always from the n- to
! Net result: E-field value
the in space-charge
p-region. region lower than equilibrium value -06-08-09:MHDQ134-01
upsets balance
Figure 1.15
!
h01_07-066.qxd 06/08/2009
Process 05:15 PM Page 28 F506 Tempwork:Dont'
creating currentDel
in Rakesh:June:Rakesh Folder:MHDQ134-01:
betweencontinues
diffusion in
andpresence
E-field of bias,
force junction. Note: forward bias VD
always < Vbi
!
! Majority electron carriers from n-region diffuse in p-region, and majority holes from p-region
into n-region
! E A resulting from applied voltage in opp. direction to thermal equilibrium space-charge field

28
! Process
Net continues
result: E-fieldinvalue
presence of bias, creating
in space-charge
Part 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications
always <diffusion
Vbi
regioncurrent
lower in junction.
than Note:value
equilibrium forward Figure
bias
- upsets VD 1.16
balance
! between and E-field force
!
! Majority electron carriers pfrom n-region diffuse in p-region, n and majority holes from p-region
! into n-region
Majority carriers diffusing into opposite p (x = 0)
Holes regionnbecome minority carriers, causing these
! concentrations to increase n (x' = 0)
Figure 1.16

! Process continues in presencep of bias, creating current in junction. Note: forward bias VD
Electrons Excess hole
! always < Vbi Excess electron
These minority carriers diffuse further into respective neutral
concentration concentration
regions and combine with
! majority carriers - give
np(x') steady state conditions pn(x)

! npo
Majority carriers diffusing into opposite region become minority carriers, pno
causing these
! concentrations to increase Figure 1.16
! Ideal I-V Relationship
x' x' = 0 x=0 x

! These minority carriers

Figure diffuse further
1.16 Steady-state VDinto carrier
minority respective neutral regions
concentrations in a pn and combine
junction under with
forward bias.

! majority carriers - give steady

The gradients in the state
I S econditions
iD minority nVcarrier
T
1 concentrations
(118
. ) generate diffusion currents in the device.

!
! Majority carriers diffusing into opposite region become minority carriers, causing these
Ideal I-V Relationship
concentrations to increase
! 1.2.4saturation
IS = reverse-bias Ideal Current–Voltage
current (typically 10 Relationship
-15
to 10-13 for Si pn junctions)
! n = ideality factor: from 1 (ideal) to 2nV
These minority carriers diffuse iD further
VD

I S e aninto 1respective
. ) neutral regions and combine with
! (voltage
118
T
As shown
majority carriers - giveinsteady
Figure 1.16,
state applied
conditions results in a gradient in the minority car-

! Note: VD causes
ID depends on
gradient in minority
rier concentrations,
doping
whichcarriers
concentrations and
which causes
in turn causes diffusion
thecross-sectional
diffusion
area
current.
currents. The theoretical relation-

! ship between the voltage and current in the pn

-15
junction is given by
to 10-13 for Si pn junctions)
! IS = reverse-bias
Ideal
pn
saturation
I-V Relationship
n = junction current:
! " v current
example D
# $ (typically 10
-14
300 K, IS = 5 x 10 , VD = 0.65 V; then ID = 3,6 mA
! ideality factor:
i D =from
I S e1 (ideal)
nVT
− 1to 2
VD
(1.18)

! I S e nV
Note: VD causes gradient iniDminority
T
1 which
carriers (118
. )causes diffusion current.
! The parameter IS is the reverse-bias saturation current. For silicon pn junctions,
ID depends on doping concentrations and cross-sectional area
! typical values of IS are in the range of 10−18 to 10−12 A. The actual value depends on the

! Ipn junctiondoping concentrations

current: example and300
S = reverse-bias saturation current
is also proportional
K, I(typically
tion. The parameter VT is the thermal
to the=cross-sectional
-14-15
S = 5 x 1010 , Vto
D 100.65
voltage, as defined
-13 V;
infor
then
Si pn
Equation
area
ID =of3,6
junctions)
themAjunc-
(1.16), and is ap-
! n = ideality factor: from 1 (ideal) to 2
proximately VT = 0.026 V at room temperature. The parameter n is usually called the
! emission coefficient or ideality factor, and its value is in the range 1 ≤ n ≤ 2.
! Note: VD causes gradient in minority carriers which causes diffusion current.
The emission coefficient n takes into account any recombination of electrons
! ID depends on doping concentrations and cross-sectional area
and holes in the space-charge region. At very low current levels, recombination may
! pn junctionbecurrent:
a significant factor and300
example the value
K, IS =of5nxmay
10-14be
, Vclose to 2. At higher
D = 0.65 V; then IDcurrent
= 3,6 mAlevels,
! recombination is less a factor, and the value of n will be 1. Unless otherwise stated,
! we will assume the emission coefficient is n = 1.
! This pn junction, with nonlinear rectifying current characteristics, is called a pn
junction diode.

EXAMPLE 1.7
Objective: Determine the current in a pn junction diode.
 by orders of magnitude. For a forward-bias voltage v D > +0.1 V, the (−1) term in 10
Equation (1.18) can be neglected. In the reverse-bias direction, the current is al-
most zero. nea80644_ch01_07-066.qxd 06/08/2009 05:15 PM Page 30 F506 Tempwork:Dont' 10–5 Del Rakesh:June:Rakesh 06-08-09:MHDQ134-01 Folder:MHDQ134
30 the diode circuit
Figure 1.19 shows Part 1symbol
Semiconductor Devices
and the conventional and direc-
current Basic Applications
tion and voltage polarity. The diode can be thought of and used as a voltage con- 10–6
pn Junction Diode
trolled switch that is “off” for a reverse-bias voltage and “on” for a forward-bias
10–7
! voltage. In the forward-bias or “on” state, a relatively large current is produced by a
fairly small applied voltage; in the reverse-bias,
iD (A)
or “off” state, only a very smallDevices
cur- and Basic Applications
! The
rent I-V characteristics are plotted30on linear
is created.
Partand log scales for clarity.
1 Semiconductor
10–3
Discuss: 10–8

! pn Junction Diode 10–4

10–9

!
iD (A)
iD (mA)
10–3 10–10
! The I-V characteristics
5 10–5 log scales for clarity. Discuss:
are plotted on linear and 10–4

! 10–6 10–5
10–11

! pn Junction Diode 4
10–7 10–6 10–12

! The I-V characteristics are plotted on linear and

10–8 log scales–8for clarity. Discuss:
10–7
10–13
! 3 10

! pn Junction Diode
10–9 10–9
Figures
10–14 1.17/1.18

! 2 Forward-bias
10–10
10–10
IS
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 vD (V)

! The I-V characteristics are plotted on linear and log

region
scales for clarity. Discuss:
10–11

! 1
–11
10 10–12 Figures 1.18 Ideal forward-biased I–V characteristics of a pn
Figure1.17/1.18
plotted an a log scale for I S = 10−14 A and n = 1. The diod
! Reverse-bias
region 10–12 10–13
approximately one order of magnitude for every 60-mV incr
! 10 –13 10–14

! –1.0
iD = – IS
0 1.0 vD (V) IS
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Figures 1.17/1.18
0.7 v (V)
D

! 10–14
Figure 1.17 Ideal I–V characteristics of a pn junction diode for I S = 10−14 A. The diode When a diode is reverse-biased by at least 0.1 V, the
Figure 1.18 Ideal forward-biased I–V characteristics of a pn junction diode, with the current
p n
! nearly zero in the reverse-bias
underlying physics, region.
but isThewhat
pn junction
we usediodein
IS region and isplotted
The diode symbol and polarity give a macroscopic circuit picture which can mask
current is an exponential function of diode voltage in the forward-bias
is acircuit 0 electronic
nonlinear iD 0.1approximately
0.2
device.
developments: 0.3
one order 0.5 current
0.4of magnitude for
the is in the reverse direction and is a constant, henc
very an a log scale for I S = 10−14 A and n = 1. The diode current increases
0.6 0.7 vDincrease
every 60-mV (V) in diode voltage.
! + vD – tion current. Real diodes, however, exhibit reverse-bias
! The diode symbol and polarity givei a macroscopic
Figure 1.18 Ideal forward-biased
p plotted n ancircuit
approximately
a log scale
(a)
Whenfor
picture
a diode
Iwhich
S = 10−14
I–V characteristics
Figures
is reverse-biased
can Amask
1.17/1.18
larger
and
and
bynat=
than ISof
least
holes
the 1. 0.1
The
being
a pnadditional
. This
V, the
diode
junction diode,
diodecurrent
generated
with
current
current isincreases
i D = −I S . The
within the
current is in the reverse direction and is a constant, hence the name reverse-bias satura-
one order of magnitude for every 60-mV increase in diode voltage.
the current
is called a generatio
space-charge regio
! underlying physics, but is what weDuse + in circuit
vD
developments:
– tion current. Real diodes, however, mayexhibit 10−14 A, currents
be reverse-bias a typicalthat value of reverse-bias current
are considerably
! (a) larger than IS. This additional current Figure
is called 1.19 current and is due to electrons
a generation
! iD + vD – though this current is much larger than IS, it is still sma
and holes being generated within the space-charge region. Whereas a typical value of IS

!
The diode symbol andppolarityn give aiD macroscopic When a diode
circuit picture
though this
(b)−14 A, a typical value of reverse-bias current may be 10−9 A or 1 nA. Even
may be 10
is reverse-biased
which
current byTemperature
canlarger
is much mask at least
than the 0.1
IS, it is stillV,small
the diode
Effects
and current
negligible is icases.
in most D = −I S . The

!
+ vD –

underlying physics, current is

Figure
but isvwhat we–use in circuit developments: in the
1.19 reverse
The direction
basic pn and is
Sincea constant,
Figure
both I1.19 hence the name reverse-bias satura-
S and VT are functions of temperature, the diod
iD (b)

! +
Note temperature effects (a)
D tion
Figure 1.19 The basic pn
and reverse bias breakdown
junction
current. Temperature
diode:
Real (a)
diodes, Effects
simplified
however, exhibit
Since both IS and VT are functions temperature.
Iconditions: (b) circuitcurrent isofcalled
reverse-bias
temperature, theThe
currents that
diodetemperature-related
are considerably
characteristics also vary withvariations in forwa
!
The diode symbol and polarity give ageometry
junction diode:
macroscopic
larger geometry
than
(a) simplified
circuit
andadditional
S.temperature.
This
picture which
and (b) circuitsymbol, and conventional trated
The temperature-related
can mask the inaFigure
variations generation 1.20.
in forward-bias current
For a and isare
given
characteristics due
current,to electrons
illus- the required fo
!
underlying physics, but is what we use in circuit
symbol, and holes being
developments:
and conventional
current
generated
trated in
direction
10−14temperature
Figure within
1.20. For
and voltage
increases.
a the
given space-charge
current,
temperature
the required region. Whereas
forward-bias
increases. For
For silicon diodes, the change is approximately 2 mV/°C.
voltage a typical
decreases
silicon
as
diodes, valuethe of IS is a
change
!
−9
may
current direction and be
voltage A,Thea typical value of reverse-bias
parameter IS is a function of FigureThe
the
current
1.19
parameter
intrinsic
may be 10
IS is a function
carrier concentration
A or
ni, whichof
1 nA. Even
in the intrinsic carr
polarity polarity
! though this conditions:
current is much larger on than IS, isit is still small and negligible in most cases.
nea80644_ch01_07-066.qxd 06/08/2009 05:15 PM Page 31 F506 Tempwork:Dont' Del Rakesh:June:Rakesh 06-08-09:MHDQ134-01 Folder:MHDQ134-01:
Note temperatureiDeffects + vand
D – reverse bias breakdown turn is strongly dependent temperature.
turn Consequently,
strongly the value
dependent of approxi-
onIS temperature. Conseque
mately doubles for every 5 °C increase in temperature. The actual reverse-bias diode
! (b)
Temperature
mately doubles for every 5
current, as a general rule, doubles for every 10 °C rise in temperature. As an example
Effects Figure
°C
1.19 value of n in germanium, is large,
increase in temperature.

! Figure 1.19 The basic pn

junction diode: (a) simplified
Since both IS and
of the importance of this effect,
VT are
resulting in a functions
in thistemperature-related
temperature.conditions:
The reverse current with increases
current,
of
the relative
of temperature,
large reverse-saturation
the
as a generali rule, doubles for every 10 °C rise
current inthe
importance
in the temperature
variations in
diodeof characteristics
germanium-based
thisdiodes.
effect,
make the germanium
forward-bias
also
the vary
Increases withvalue o
relative
diode are illus-
characteristics
! Note temperature effects and reverse bias breakdown
geometry and (b) circuit
symbol, and conventional tratedChapter
in Figure
highly impractical for most circuit
1.20. For a given
1 Semiconductor Materials
Figures
resulting
current,
and Diodes
in this
1.20/1.21
applications.
required31
the reverse !
in a large reverse-saturation current in germa
forward-bias
current voltage decreases
with increases as
in the temperatu
current direction and voltage temperature increases.
Breakdown For silicon
Voltage diodes, the change ! is approximately
highly impractical for most circuit applications. 2 mV/°C.
Note temperature effects
polarity
and reverse bias breakdown conditions:
The parameter IS is a function
charge region increases. !
When a reverse-bias voltage is applied to a pn junction, the electric field in the space-
of the intrinsic carrier concentration ni, which in
iD The electric
Figuresfield may become large enough that covalent
iD T2 T1 T0
turn is strongly dependent on temperature. Breakdown
1.20/1.21
!
Consequently,
Voltage the value of IS approxi-
mately doubles for every 5 °C increase in temperature.
When a reverse-bias ! The actualisreverse-bias
voltage applied to adiode pn junction
current, as a general rule, doubles forcharge every 10 °C
!rise in temperature.
region increases. The electric As anfield example
may becom
of the importance of this effect, the relative value of ni in germanium, is large,
resultingBVin BV1 Figures 1.20/1.21 !
2 a large reverse-saturation current
!
in germanium-based diodes. Increases
in this reverse current with increases in the temperature make the germanium diode
!
vD
T2 > T1 > T0
Si V changes 2mV / oC IS doubles every 5 oC.impractical
highly Twodoped breakdown
Low for most Figures
circuit
mechanisms 1.20/1.21
applications.
are
avalanching and tunnelling (Zener breakdown). !
Breakdown Voltage !
Si V changes 2mV / C IS doubles every 5 oC. Two breakdown
o When a reverse-biasdoped
High
!
voltage is applied to a pn junction, the electric field in the space-
avalanching and tunnelling (Zener breakdown).
mechanisms are
charge region increases. The electric field may become large enough that covalent !
0 v D
!
Figure 1.20 Forward-biased pn junction Figure 1.21 Reverse-biased diode characteristics
!
!characteristics versus temperature.
Si V
diode changes
voltage 2mV
to produce
o The required
/ CcurrentISdecreases
a given
showing breakdown for a low-doped pn junction and
doubles every 5a ohigh-doped
C. Two breakdown
pn junction. Themechanisms are
reverse-bias current
! avalanching
with an increase inand tunnelling
temperature. (Zener breakdown).
o increases rapidly once breakdown has occurred.

!
o
Si V changes 2mV / C IS doubles every 5 C. Two breakdown mechanisms are
avalanching and tunnelling (Zener breakdown).
!
!bonds are broken and electron–hole pairs are created. Electrons are swept into the

!n-region and holes are swept into the p-region by the electric field, generating a large
reverse bias current. This phenomenon is called breakdown. The reverse-bias cur-
!rent created by the breakdown mechanism is limited only by the external circuit. If
!the current is not sufficiently limited, a large power can be dissipated in the junction
that may damage the device and cause burnout. The current–voltage characteristic of
a diode in breakdown is shown in Figure 1.21.
The most common breakdown mechanism is called avalanche breakdown,
which occurs when carriers crossing the space charge region gain sufficient kinetic
energy from the high electric field to be able to break covalent bonds during a
collision process. The basic avalanche multiplication process is demonstrated in
 The voltage at which breakdown occurs depends on fabrication parameters of the
The minority carrier concentrations for an applied forward-bias voltage and an
pn junction, but is usually in the range of 50 to 200 V for discrete devices, although
applied reverse-bias voltage are shown in Figure 1.24. Here, we neglect the change
breakdown voltages outside this range are possible—in excess of 1000 V, for example.
in the space charge region width. When a forward-bias voltage is applied, excess
A pn junction isSwitching in terms of its peak inverse voltage or PIV. The PIV of a
Transient
usually rated
minority carrier charge is stored in both the p- and n-regions. The excess charge is the
diode must never be exceeded in circuit operation if reverse breakdown is to be avoided.
Diodes canOne
designed to operate
!
to
usage of diode
be fabricated
on
with aisspecifically
reverse-bias
in the breakdownoff). For t
region. < 0
difference between the minority carrier concentrations for a forward-bias voltage and
that of switch.
These
Therefore
designed
diodes are
switching
breakdown
called
voltagetransient
Zener
important (eg. forward-bias
and are
those for a reverse-bias voltage as indicated in the figure. This charge must be
diodes
!
!
and are discussed later in this chapter as well as in
removed when
𝑖 the
= 𝐼next
V − the𝑣 diode is switched from the forward to the reverse bias.
= chapter.      (1.19)
! R
Switching Transient
!
Switching Transient
Minority carrier
concentrations
!
Since the pn junction diode can be used as an electrical iD
+ –
switch,Dan important para-
v

!
One usage
meter is its transient of diode
response, that is
is,that of switch.
its speed Therefore
p switching
and characteristics, as
n it is transient
switchedimportant (eg.p forward-bias n
from one state to
!
onthe
to other.
reverse-bias
Assume, off).
forFor t < 0 that the diode is switched from the
example,
t=0
V − 𝑣 shows a simple Figure 1.23 Forward bias
!
forward-bias “on” state to the reverse-bias “off”𝑖 state.
circuit that will switch the applied voltage
= 𝐼 Figure
=
at time t = 0. For t R
1.23      (1.19)
< 0, the forward-bias
current iD is ! IF Excess minority Excess minority

! F R
R R
carrier electrons carrier holes

i D = IF = !
Switching
VF − v D Transient
IR (1.19)
One !
RF
usage of diode is that
+ of switch. Therefore
– switching transient important (eg. forward-bias
The minority !
Neglecting obvious change
on carrier concentrations
to reverse-bias F for
off).V–For
in space charge
t<an0applied
region width, before and
VR forward-bias voltage and an
after minority carriers:
Figure 1.23
! +
applied reverse-bias voltage are shown in Figure 1.24. Here, V we −𝑣neglect the change
!
in the space charge region width. When a forward-bias𝑖 = 𝐼 =voltage is      (1.19)
R applied, excess x' = 0 x=0
Reverse bias
!
minority carrier charge is stored in both the p- and n-regions. The excess charge is the
!
difference between the minority carrierFigure
diode
1.23 Simple
concentrations
from forward
forcircuit
to
for switching
a forward-bias
reverse bias
a
voltage
Neglecting obvious change in space charge region width, before and after
and Figure 1.24 Stored excess minority carrier charge
those for a reverse-bias voltage as indicated in the figure. This charge must be under forward bias
minority
compared to reverse bias. This
Figure
carriers:1.24
! charge must be removed as the diode is switched
!
removed when the diode is switched from the forward to the reverse bias.
from forward to reverse bias.
! Figure 1.23

! Minority carrier
concentrations
iD
+
! vD –
p
! n p n
This charge has to be removed when switching - done by relatively large diffusion currents
Figure 1.24
t=0 ! (takes time). Will later see Schottky diodes do not have minority
Forward bias carriers; therefore faster
! Neglecting obvious change in space charge region width, before and after minority carriers:
! Initially reverse-bias current limited by RR : ID = -IR -V
Excess minority R/R
Excess minority
R (1.20)
F RR ! carrier electrons carrier holes

IR ! Junction capacitances do not allow voltage to change instantaneously (infinite W required!)

– ! This charge has to be removed
0+ see
when switching - done by relatively large diffusion currents
VR
! IR approx.
(takes const.
time). Willfor
later <t< ts
Schottky ts is storage
diodes do not time (timecarriers;
have minority taken fortherefore
space charge
faster
region minority carriersFigure 1.24
to reach
+
! Initially reverse-bias current limited byx'R=R0 : IDx== 0-IR -VR /equilibrium)
RR (1.20)
! Reverse bias
!
Junction capacitances do not allow voltage to change instantaneously (infinite W required!)
.23 Simple circuit for
m forward to reverse bias!
switching a Figure 1.24 Stored excess minority carrier charge
under forward bias compared to reverse bias. This
! This
+
IR approx. const. for 0charge
< t <must
charge has to be removed
ts be removed
ts is storage
when switching as the time is switched
diode
- done
Figure 1.25
(time taken for space charge
by relatively large diffusion currents
! (takes time). Will laterfrom
see forward to reverse
Schottky diodes bias.
region minority carriers to reach
do not have minority carriers; therefore faster
! equilibrium)
! Initially reverse-bias current
nea80644_ch01_07-066.qxd limited by 05:15
06/08/2009 RR : IPM
D = Page
-IR 33
-VF506
R / RRTempwork:Dont'
(1.20)
Del Rakesh:June:Rakesh 06-08-09:MHDQ134-01 Fold
! Total turn-off time = ts + tf To switch quickly, sometimes high reverse current pulses used
! Junction capacitances
turn-on time do not
establishes allowbias
forward voltage to change
minority carrierinstantaneously (infinite< W
distributions; usually required!)
turn-on
Figure 1.25
!
! ITYU
R approx.
(1.6 -const.
1.8) :for 0+ < t <diode
Reviews ts eqntsusage
is storage
(notetime (time taken
different results for Vfor space charge
bi of Si and GaAs)

! region minority carriers to reach

equilibrium)Chapter 1 Semiconductor Materials and Diodes 33
!
! Total turn-off time = ts + tf To switch quickly, sometimes high reverse current pulses used

! turn-on time establishes forward bias minority carrier distributions; usually < turn-on
iD
! Figure 1.25
TYU (1.6 - 1.8) : Reviews diodeI eqn usage (note different results for Vbi of Si and GaAs)
! F

!
! Time
! 0.1IR
Total turn-off time = ts + tf To switch quickly, sometimes high reverse current pulses used
! turn-on time establishes forward bias minority carrier distributions; usually < turn-on
! –IR
! TYU (1.6 - 1.8) : Reviews diode eqn
ts usagetf(note different results for Vbi of Si and GaAs)

Figure 1.25 Current characteristics versus time during diode switching

As the forward-bias voltage is removed, relatively large diffusion currents are

created in the reverse-bias direction. This happens because the excess minority car-