Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 1028–1041

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Present trends and future prospects of asynchronous machines in renewable MARK

energy systems
⁎
C. Carunaiselvane , Thanga Raj Chelliah
Department of Water Resources Development and Management, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: To fulfil the yearning of the majority population around the world and the need for environmental concerned
Asynchronous machines energy conservation made renewable energy system (RES) as much obligatory among other energy systems. The
Brushless doubly fed induction machine asynchronous machines are particularly used in wind and hydro for creating more opportunities and challenges
renewable to have a control over them in order to create a stabilized RES. This paper extensively reviews on various types
Doubly fed induction machine energy system
of asynchronous machines under different operating speeds and the existing control techniques deployed over
Power electronics
Variable speed drives
them to aid a stabilized RES. In this context an analysis on the gradual development of machines and the role of
power electronics over them to adopt with the up to date technology has been carried out. Additional benefits in
terms of energy efficiency comparison between the synchronous and asynchronous machines in variable speed
operation has also been premeditated. To a greater extent the paper advents the topical inclinations and
imminent directions on asynchronous machines that can widely contribute to the growth of RES.

1. Introduction
The world's foremost energy sources can be characterized under
conventional or non-renewable and non-conventional or renewable
energy sources. In which the non-renewable based on oil, coal, and
natural gas are being used expansively in such a way that their known
reserves have been depleted and are expected to end in nearby future
[41]. At the same time it is becoming difficult task to exploit their new
deposits. The scarcity of conventional energy resources, rise in the fuel
prices, concern for the environment and difficulties in accessing grid
power to remote areas and the nonexistence of rural electrification have
encouraged for never ending, non-polluting and widely available
alternative sources of energy [5]. This search for alternative energy
sources had forced the planners to end up with energy sources that can
replenish naturally. Energy existing within nature is converted into a
form which depends on the utilization say heat or electricity by a
renewable energy system. These advantages, combined with the almost
no emissions of both air pollutants and greenhouse gases made them
very attractive energy systems among engineers as well as national
interested common man also. However, global energy demand by this
renewable energy is only 15–20% of total energy demand. Whereas,
India, which is a developing country where most of the population lives
in isolated rural areas ranks world's 6th largest energy consumer,
accounting for 3.4% of global energy consumption are benefited by
electrification in a decentralized mode by nearby available renewable
energy resources [3] and [4]. The locally available renewable energy
resources in remote rural areas, mainly include micro hydro power,
biomass, wind and solar photo voltaic. The total renewable energy
installed capacity (as of November 2015) in India is 38,283.59 MW in
which, wind power capacity is 24,759.32 MW and hydro power is
4161.9 MW [105].
Though renewable energy sources have many advantages, those are
gainful only if the sources are converted into proper and efficient form
of electrical energy. In order to make a better renewable energy system
(RES) from these sources, it is very necessary to couple a prescribed
electrical machine along with these sources, depending on its applica-
tion. The paper chooses the turbine related renewable energy sources
i.e. wind power and hydro power and reviews about the asynchronous
electrical machines coupled with them to achieve a better renewable
energy system. This paper also suggests a suitable asynchronous
machine from the available asynchronous machines as shown Fig. 1,
for a particular operating condition and how these machines be
controlled to have a better energy efficiency system.
Since the paper mainly focuses on the application of asynchronous
machines it is very obligatory to have the following insight i.e. basic
ideas on how asynchronous machines serves for mechanical to
electrical energy conversion in RES (Section 2), the process by which
different types of electrical machines are believed to have developed
from earlier forms during the history of the RES (Section 3), a detailed
state of the art on the influence of controllers and many other modern

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: caruc.dwt2014@ittr.ac.in (C. Carunaiselvane), thangfwt@iitr.ac.in (T.R. Chelliah).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.069
Received 19 February 2016; Received in revised form 14 July 2016; Accepted 1 November 2016
Available online 21 March 2017
1364-0321/ © 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
C. Carunaiselvane, T.R. Chelliah
ELECTRICAL
GENERATORS
AC
Asynchronous Synchronous
(Induction) (Alternator)
Wound
Squirrel Cage
Induction Rotor
Generator
Permanent
i. Doubly Fed
Magnet
Rotor
Induction Generator
ii. Brushless Doubly
Fed Induction Papers reviewed in this area
Generator
Fig. 1. Classifications of generators.
control techniques to improve the system stability under fixed speed
(Section 4) and variable speed operation (Section 5), the role of power
converters as an efficient interface between asynchronous machine and
grid as well as for adjustable power transfer (Section 6), close to the
present trends and the time regarded as still to come developments in
asynchronous machines are discussed (Sections 7 and 9 respectively)
and finally an illustrative example is done (Section 8) where synchro-
nous and asynchronous machines are compared with a variable head
hydro turbine and concludes (Section 10).
2. Electrical generating equipments in renewable energy
system
To culminate the complete renewable energy system the mechanical
force from the turbine has to be converted to exploitable electrical
energy and it is evident that generators are the only rotating machines
that can convert a mechanical energy to electrical energy. The general
and complete electrical generation process in a renewable energy
system is shown in Fig. 2.
The conversion of mechanical to electrical energy is a complicated
task because it involves not only a mechanical and electrical system,
but apart from that there is also another system that connects both
these systems called the magnetic system. As illustrated in Fig. 3, an
electromechanical system entails a magnetic system with magnetic flux,
flux density, and field strength as their fields. All these field quantities
are governed using Maxwell's equations [2]. The magnetic system fits
as a “ferry” between the electrical and mechanical systems in an energy
conversion system. When this magnetic system coupled with a
mechanical system, the rotation of moving parts of the machine varies
the magnetic flux linkages. These magnetic flux linkages induce an
electromotive force (emf) in the electric circuit and current which are
the active components of the electrical system. The products of these
active components are equalized by the product of torque and speed.
On the other hand, when coupled with an electrical system, the
magnetic flux interrelating with the current in the circuit would
produce a torque on a mechanically movable part. Therefore, the
mechanical energy and the electrical energy are interconverted through
the magnetic field [1].
The magnetic system purely depends on the design features of a
machine [2]. From these discussions it is very evident that unless
otherwise the design features match with the requirement that
particular machine cannot be used for all operating conditions.
Hence, this paved the way for the perception to be based suggestion
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 1028–1041
of asynchronous machine based on applications. The turbines are
operated under two major operating conditions, one is fixed speed
operation and the other is variable speed operation as shown in Fig. 4.
The available AC generators can be classified under synchronous
DC and asynchronous machines, in which asynchronous machines can be
self-started whereas synchronous machines requires external resources
Separately to run it in synchronous speed. Since synchronous machine runs at
Excited
only synchronous speed, the power generation is possible only at that
speed range, which has been demonstrated with an illustrative example
in Section 8, however asynchronous machine generates power possibly
Self
Excited on super and sub synchronous speed along with synchronous speed [5].
These advantages combined with economic feasibility made intended
the review to focus on asynchronous generators, they lack more in
absorbing the reactive power from the utility grid and performing
voltage regulation which is the major source of voltage fluctuations.
When the same is done on synchronous generators experiences
stability problem due to voltage regulators [6]. Therefore, it is very
necessary to observe the responses of the generator in the renewable
energy system during faulty conditions to improve the system stability
[44]. These key points made mandatory the perception to be based on
system stability under different operating conditions as shown in Fig. 5.
3. Evolution of generators in renewable energy system
The power generation in renewable energy systems started with the
co-ordination of squirrel cage induction generators with standard layout
of generator coupled with gear boxes. Since the generators were limited to
operate at a fixed speed their stator was connected directly to the grid.
During this era, both synchronous and induction generators served the
renewable energy system equally. Later growing demand in role of
renewable energy power in the overall power system and precise
methodological requirement for coordinating grid, the alternate and
advanced technology for variable speed operation was developed. As
variable speed operation came into existence the change in the design of
existing synchronous and induction generator were prerequisites. To
change the design of synchronous generator to support variable speed
operation was quite tedious and more advanced researches were required
then. Similarly, in the case of an induction generator, the rotor were not
accessible through external circuits. Therefore, the induced currents that
are responsible for torque generation are firmly a function of the slip
speed. In-order to make induction generator a variable speed machine the
rotor circuits are to be made externally accessible so that the rotor
currents can be manipulated and therefore the electromagnetic torque
production. This type of induction machine where the three isolated rotor
windings can be electrically accessible via slip rings on the shaft of the
machine was popularly named as wound-rotor induction machine. The
variable speed technology was becoming more popular by the wound–
rotor induction machine as similar to the field of power electronics.
Though the wound–rotor induction machine was serving variable speed
technology healthier the slip power was not utilized efficiently by this
machine. As power electronics started spreading widely during this era,
they were involved in wound-rotor induction machine to recover the slip
power. When power converters were collaborating with the wound-rotor
induction machine, it was able to meet the requirements of grid, as the
machine was able to provide frequency support and reactive power
besides active power. After this development the variable speed renewable
energy system can be basically divided into types. The first type is
equipped with a wound-rotor induction generator whose stator is directly
connected to the grid and rotor with a small size back-to-back power
converter, they are popularly called as a doubly fed induction generator
(DFIG). The second type is equipped with a conventional synchronous
generator which is connected to the grid via power converters in between
[69], [7] and [8].
A schematic diagram of all types of generators associated with
renewable energy systems is shown in Fig. 5. In the figure, the
generators are primarily classified into synchronous and asynchronous
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C. Carunaiselvane, T.R. Chelliah Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 1028–1041

Fig. 2. Electrical generating system.

machines. The asynchronous machines are again sub-classified into
various types with respect to switching states. The switching states of
asynchronous machines are shown in Table 1.
Comparing both the types, DFIG equipped renewable energy
system is trending among power generation systems because of it's of
cutting-edge features and easy for grid integration. Moreover the DFIG
is adroit to deliver power at both sub-synchronous and super-synchro-
nous speed. Economically also DFIG aids better than the synchronous
generator in power generation. The power converters that are con-
nected in between the rotor and the grid are most commonly rated at
25–30% of the machine's nominal rating whereas in the case of
synchronous generator it is 100% [69]. Apart from regulating both
the active and reactive power delivered to the grid the power electronic
converters of DFIG can also eradicate the need of soft-starter when
integrated with grid. The complete control scheme of DFIG includes
two electrical and mechanical subsystems whose main objective are to
have a control over the power injected into the grid. Mechanically,
limiting of power is done by pitch control, whereas in case of electrical
it is done by sustaining appropriate currents and voltages on the
machine side, in the DC link and on the grid side. Apart from this the
electrical subsystem also improves the power quality and contributes to
voltage/frequency stability of the grid. Generally, the active power
supplied to the grid is controlled by the rotor side convertor and the
reactive power injection by both the converters.
At high prime mover speeds, the generator power exceeds that
tends to enable the pitch control in-order to perimeter the output
power within the rated value as a protective measure of mechanical
damage. But in the case of below rated prime mover speed, the pitch

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEM

MECHANICAL SYSTEM MAGNETIC SYSTEM ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

mechanically movable parts

magnetic field in the electric circuits such as
such as a plunger in a linear
magnetic cores and airgaps inductances in a coil
actuator and a rotor in a
rotating electrical machine

POSITION, SPEED and VOLTAGES and

MAGNETIC FLUX
ACCLERATION CURRENTS

Force/torque
Force/Torque Equations by Circuit Equations Obtained
Newton’s Law by KVL and KCL
EMF KVL – Kirchoff voltage law
KCL – Kirchoff current law

Fig. 3. Electromechanical system modelling.

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C. Carunaiselvane, T.R. Chelliah Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 1028–1041

Fig. 4. Perception of paper.

angle is customarily fixed to minimum value. Under these circum- Table 1

stances the generator's speed is actively controlled electrically by Switching states of induction machines.
means of authentic techniques say direct torque or vector control to
Switches Type of induction machine
extract maximum power.
In induction machines the direct torque control technique is in 1 2 3 4
practice from mid 1980 s [11]. This method utilizes the measured
integral value of the stator terminal voltages in terms of stator flux and ON OFF OFF OFF Squirrel cage
OFF ON OFF OFF Wound rotor
torque to control the machine for suitable voltage vectors. At very low OFF OFF ON ON Doubly fed Induction
speed and at start-up this scheme was quite mediocre [12]. To
overcome this problem and to maintain a sequence in voltage vectors,
many methodologies say predictive techniques [14], using a modified more accurate and reliable than the rotor position sensors [9] and [10].
switching table [15] and usage of a dither signal were proposed [13].
The vector control technique is based on the alignment of reference 4. Fixed speed operation of asynchronous generators
d-q frame to start or rotor flux of the machine at synchronous speed.
Through vector control it is possible to independently control the active When the rotor speed is same for all change in turbine speed with
and reactive power flow in between the grid and machine. The vector respect to change in wind or water level over it is called as fixed speed.
control technique requires basically the information of rotor position If the generator is operated under this condition then it is called as
and the winding's resistance and inductance. The rotor-position angle fixed speed operation. Initially the rotor is parked through brakes, as
can be acquired either by rotor position sensor or sensorless operation. the turbine accelerates due to the nature force acting on it makes the
Sensorless operation requires observers with the combination of stator rotor also to accelerate along with the same speed of the turbine till the
voltages and current to estimate rotor position. Sensorless operation is required fixed speed is attained. As soon as the required speed is

DC SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINES
LOAD

4
TORQUE

3 RSC GSC

1 2

ASYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Fig. 5. Evolution of generators in RES.

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C. Carunaiselvane, T.R. Chelliah Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 1028–1041

attained the grid, which is connected to the generator holds that speed Table 2
constant. Whenever the turbine accelerates beyond that particular Researches on fixed speed operation.
speed at which rated power was generated, then the increased power is
Types of Topologies Algorithms
regulated by stalling or pitching [57–59]. research

Stability analysis Dynamic maximum Comparison of state variables

4.1. Squirrel cage induction generator available power with eigen values
Fault ride through • Insertion of series resistance
The stator core of a squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG) is built technique with generators
• Using static VAR compensators
•
of laminated silicon-steel punchings that are insulated to minimize
Using STATCOM
eddy current loss and assembled as a hollow cylinder within a steel
frame. The rotor is of caged copper or aluminium bars housed in as
• Using UPFC

rotor slots which are circuited on both the ends through rings called as Pitch control Mechanically • Increase of pitch angle
end rings.
Using VSC
•Reduction
Adapting gear ratio
of torque when
For a fixed speed operation the generators cannot be directly
nominal power exceeds the limit
coupled with the turbine, rather it is coupled through the gear box Using CSC Forming linear quadratic
[21]. The machine speed purely depends on the turbine speed and regulator based state feedback
turbine acts according to the wind speed or varied with the water level gain matrix
in a dam or water flow in the river in case of run of river scheme that Unbalanced Matching flux waves Providing damper winding
magnetic pull with pole pairs
has no control [60]. To operate the generator at constant speed they are
coupled with gear box which actually helps the generator to operate at a
fixed gear ratio that is nothing but the fixed speed [42]. The soft
VOLTAGE STABILITY
starters are used to reduce the load and torque temporarily and
electrical current surge of the induction machine during start-up, also
reduces the mechanical stress on the same [54]. A combination of
GENERATOR GRID
several identical capacitors, making a star or delta connection to form a PARAMETERS PARAMETERS
capacitor bank. These capacitor banks are typically used to increase
stored energy and improve the ripple current capacity of the power
supply as shown in Fig. 6. The overall researches on fixed speed • Stator Resistance • Short Circuit Power
operation in renewable energy system has been summarized in Table 2. • Stator Reactance • Reactive Power
• Mutual Reactance • Wind Speed
• Rotor Resistance • Fault Location
• Rotor Reactance • Fault Duration
4.1.1. Stability analysis
Whenever any fault occurs in the system the voltage at coupling Fig. 7. Parameters affecting voltage stability on fixed speed asynchronous generators.
point drops, which results in a generator speed drop resulting
instability. This instability mainly occurs due to the increase in system has only one turbine machine, then insertion of resistor serves
generator slip and mechanical dynamics of the generator [51,52]. as a best stability regulator whereas when many turbine machines are
The parameters on which this instability depends are shown in Fig. 7. shared to form a single system, then insertion of braking resistor does
To improve the voltage stability, parameters such as stator resis- not regulate in a shared way rather it regulates individual machine
tance and reactance and also the rotor reactance values are to be stability [27]. So particularly for this type of system, the equivalent
increased. In the same way parameters such as rotor resistance and parameters of the individual turbine machines are collected and
mutual reactance are to be decreased. To maintain a stable system the formed as a set of state variables with corresponding Eigen values to
stability analysis has to be performed intermittently. While performing form an index called Dynamic Maximum Available Power (DMAP)
stability analysis generally the stator transients are neglected to achieve [18]. For particular drop in impedance the amount of power injection is
more accurate results [31–36]. The methodologies to maintain the calculated from the index using which the system cannot be stabilized
stability are carried out in many ways considering the above facts. As rather it is possible to depict the instability [21] and [36]. In-order to
fault occurs a slight modification happens in power and electric torque, maintain stability in voltage and smoothened power, capacitor banks
i.e. imbalance in active power which is regulated by connecting a are plugged along with Static Var Compensator to the generators
dynamic braking resistor in series with the generator terminal [26,28]. because of which additionally its active power is also controlled [30].
This is justified to be one of the best fault ride through technique to Further the reactive power is controlled by connecting a STATCOM and
maintain stability since the gear ratio is also regulated [25]. If the

SOFT
STARTERS

GEAR BOX

TRANSFORMER
INDUCTION GRID
TURBINE GENERATOR

CAPACITOR
BANK

Fig. 6. Fixed speed renewable energy system using SCIG.

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C. Carunaiselvane, T.R. Chelliah
adjusting its voltage magnitude [38]. Additionally, these STATCOM are
responsible even for reduction of torque ripple on both positive and
negative sequences [34], [43], [55] and [56]. But they do not have
control over the speed oscillation which is damped perfectly by
connecting UPFC instead of STATCOM which also supports the system
economically because when UPFC is installed even capacitor banks can
be avoided [35]. These compensators supports only linear system for
non-linear system separate two PI controllers to control the reactive
power are to be employed, which are applied even for larger systems
with proper robust scheme [37].
4.1.2. Pitch control
The pitch control is performed either mechanically or with the
support of converters by relating the rotational speed and nominal
power. Under normal conditions, both the sensed nominal power and
the rotational speed limit of the generator are matched whereas the
power exceeds the rotational speed limit under faulty conditions
[16,17]. During fault occurrence, mode the reference torque is mod-
ified with respect to the change in capturing energy which results in
reduction of machine torque with an increase in generator speed, thus
the speed of the generator is maintained constant [23]. These torque
and magnetizing current mainly influence the active and reactive power
of the generator which are controlled either by using a voltage source or
a current source converter. While using a current source converter
additionally a unified power quality conditioner is also implanted along
with it which acts as shunt compensators as well maintains unity power
factor [24]. This scheme has been implemented for a 2 MW turbine
based on Irish grid code and justified be better than STATCOM both
performance wise as well as economically [48]. Pitch control is done
efficiently when the machine torque does not increase instantaneously
[46].
4.1.3. Unbalanced magnetic pull
The unbalanced magnetic pull (UMP) which is quite similar to the
cogging torque or detent torque in a permanent magnet machine which
is mainly due to alignment of stator teeth and rotor poles in the same
line resulting in vibration of machines, which obviously has to be
rectified for system stability. The UMP is predominant when the
machine is lightly loaded. The major cause for unbalanced magnetic
pull is the eccentricity of the rotor. This is rectified by providing an
additional winding in the generator called the damper windings. The
flow of current through this damper winding is relatively low which
gives an imbalance in air-gap flux as a result UMP has been reduced
[53].
5. Variable speed operation
When the rotor of the generator is operated at a speed that matches
with nature speed that rotates the turbine then it is called as variable
speed operation. In this operating condition the rotor maintains the
best flow geometry for maximum efficiency. Under this condition the
rotor connected to the grid at low speeds at very low turbine speed and
can be increased through necessary regulation and vice versa [39].
When rotor goes below rated power the energy capture is increased.
Similarly, when it goes above rated power the loads can be relieved
considerably.
5.1. Squirrel cage induction generator
The speed of the induction generators used for fixed speed
operation can be varied and can be used for variable speed operation
by connecting back-to-back converters as shown in Fig. 8. The reason
behind this is that mostly the generators used in fixed speed renewable
energy systems are based on squirrel cage induction generators in
which the power is controlled by its rotor speed [40]. Similarly,
whenever the power is under control, there is a corresponding control
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 1028–1041
over the rotor speed, this control of power is done by the back-to-back
converters [29]. Practically implementing the back-to-back converter
and controlling the power in less complex and that can be made easier
by implementing a fuzzy-logic based controller to track the power and
control the rotor speed correspondingly. A distinct advantage of this
method is power factor improvement at all power levels [46].
Later on the progress of induction generators, a new induction
generator exclusively for variable speed operation came into existence
called wound rotor induction generator (WRIG). For a WRIG the stator
is same as that of the squirrel cage induction generator whereas the
rotor winding has distributed polyphase windings as that of the stator.
Both stator and rotor have the same number of poles. Generally the
windings are star-connected fetched out to slip-rings which are short-
circuited at the brushes under normal operating conditions. To have
control over speed external resistances are connected to the carbon
brushes. Also a WRIG is more similar to that of Doubly Fed Induction
Generator (DFIG) which the advanced prototype of modern induction
generator, both have slip-rings on the rotor. In both the cases rotor
winding is connected through power electronics converters for control
the power [45,47,50]. Researches focused on WRIG are very few
because the researches that is carried out in WRIG can sustenance or
characterized either in SCIG or WRIG also. Therefore, to sum up, the
maximum researchers focused on WRIG were providing PWM signals
to rotor side converter through current controllers. In this method the
rotor flux angle of IG has been calculated and fed to the controllers
according to which they provide the PWM signal to the converters [61–
66]. Most of those researches are same for both WRIG and DFIG and
reviewed in depth in the following section.
5.2. Doubly fed induction generator
Doubly fed Induction Generators are one among the available
induction generators which are widely used complex and nonlinear
variable speed generators in renewable energy system [70]. A DFIG is a
wound rotor induction generator whose stator windings are connected
to the grid directly and the rotor windings connected through a back-
to-back power converter that operates bi-directionally [71] as shown in
Fig. 9. Usually in a DFIG it is expected that slip control is mostly done
at the rotor-side converters in-order to confirm that the injected rotor
voltage at slip frequency gives a constant stator frequency [20,72]. In
case of a DFIG, both the stator currents and rotor currents can be
measured, which is a unique advantage when compared to other types
of induction generators [67].
In 2013, Jadhav and Roy have comprehensively reviewed about the
DFIG's control techniques and its integration with grid massively
[69,22]. Thus the review done here mainly focuses on late 2013 and
summarized in Table 3.
5.2.1. Fault ride through
Since power electronics have a vital role in variable speed renew-
able energy system, it is very necessary to follow certain fault ride
through (FRT) techniques to build a stable system. In fixed speed
operation only resistors were used to perform fault ride, whereas in
variable speed operation power electronic devices takes that part.
Though PI controllers were used conventionally [74], crowbar circuit
is the standard method that has been used to safeguard the rotor side
converters during voltage dips [19]. Whenever overcurrent is detected,
this short circuit the rotor terminals and isolates the rotor side
converter from the rotor by which the rotor side converter is
conservatively protected [76,77]. Later the need for robust and non-
linear control needs paved the way for the introduction of an oversized
converter to accommodate rotor voltages and full rotor current control
called the sliding mode control. At present a high-order sliding mode
control as an enhanced resolution for chattering problems from the
prior model has been proposed. This high-order sliding mode control
avoids using additional devices for protection and oversizing of
C. Carunaiselvane, T.R. Chelliah
SSC
GEAR BOX
INDUCTION
TURBINE
GENERATOR
Fig. 8. Variable speed renewable energy system with SCIG.
converters. Using this high-order sliding mode controller the maximum
torque and stator current are compared and necessary signal is
generated for the rotor side converter during voltage dig conditions
[74]. For symmetrical grid faults these schemes work perfectly,
whereas for asymmetrical grid faults special compensators are intro-
duced. Normally DFIG absorbs reactive power from the grid and to
have control over the active power VAR compensators are used [78].
The active compensator determines the rotor current which is being
compared with a reference and accordingly rotor over voltages are
reduced [80,81]. Whereas the passive compensators were based on the
rotor current limiter that has always been located at the generator rotor
windings. Exactly at instants of rotor over current occurring the passive
compensator considerably clears the grid fault with deep sags. These
compensators improve FRT capability under both symmetrical and
asymmetrical grid faults [75]. Though the rotor current is limited its
oscillations are high which has to be reduced to minimize the noise and
vibration. Thus a non-linear current strategy has been applied to the
rotor-side converter and a DC link voltage control applied to the grid
side converter in order to improve the damping of DFIG transient
response and minimizes the oscillations of rotor current [79].
5.2.2. Voltage sag ride
Customarily DFIGs are highly sensitive to voltage sag due to its high
reactive power capabilities. For voltage sag ride, conventionally phase
locked loops were used which actually circuit locks to the frequency and
the input phase signals to match with the reference frequency and
phase [68]. Later, as a development in voltage sag ride the direct model
reference adaptive (MRAS) internal model controller came into ex-
istence. Using this controller rotor current is controlled with a variable
gain adjustment mechanism [73]. To achieve this variable gain
adjustment mechanism all the direct and quadrature variables of
DFIG are formed into fuzzy sets called adaptive network based fuzzy
inference (ANFIS) to generate necessary variable gain output. During
voltage sag the active power decreases and rotor speed increases, this
increase in rotor speed is minimized by ANFIS which in turn reduces
the voltage sag [73]. Though this algorithm is simple, at low speed it is
very difficult to vary the parameters. The rotor position and speed
estimation have been achieved by another closed loop observer based
GEAR BOX
INDUCTION
GENERATOR
TURBINE
RSC
DC LINK
Fig. 9. Variable speed renewable energy system with DFIG.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 1028–1041
GSC
DC LINK
TRANSFORMER GRID
on modified phase-locked-loop (MPLL). Contrariwise to other methods
this method does not require estimated or intermediate quantities. As
the conventional PLL the MPLL locks with the rotor position and its
speed, thus the position of the rotor is sensed without any rotor
position sensor on shafts. But this method suffers from tracking the
reference current during dynamic behaviour in entire operating range
[68]. To overcome the aforementioned drawback a space-vector-based
hysteresis current controller (SVBHCC) has also been introduced along
with MPLL to regulate the rotor currents to bring the errors in the
same stationary space-vector reference frame to reduce the interfer-
ence between the commutations of the three phases [68] and [74].
So far the asynchronous machines and their role in renewable
energy system are discussed, the act of finding out the differences and
similarities between these machines provides the engineers or any
readers to choose their own machines according to the requirements.
The comparison based on control parameters and the advantages and
disadvantages [45,47,49,50] are tabulated in Tables 4, 5 respectively.
From Table 4 it is very obvious that to govern a system, i.e. to regulate
the control parameters, power electronic devices or power converters
are to be interfaced between the machine and grid.
6. Interfacing power electronics in renewable energy system
As discussed in the earlier sections the evolution of renewable
energy systems began with squirrel-cage induction generator con-
nected directly to the grid. But the system was found to be suffering
from power pulsations since the nature speed was almost directly
transferred to the electrical grid [86]. Furthermore, there was also no
control over the active and reactive power, which is considered to be
the vital control parameters to regulate the voltage and frequency,
especially for machines with high power ranges [88,89]. These key
factors made very necessary to introduce power electronics as a
crossing point between the generator and grid [83]. A power converter
is designed of semiconductor elements to form rectifiers and inverters
in which IGBT takes the major role [82]. In-between the GSC and GSC
a DC link capacitor or DC bus is placed in order to have an independent
controllability [92]. Finally to filter out harmonics capacitors and
inductances connects the grid side converter and the grid is connected
TRANSFORMER GRID
SSC
C. Carunaiselvane, T.R. Chelliah
Table 3
Researches on variable speed operation using DFIG.
Types of research Topologies
Fault ride through Crow bar circuit
Slide mode control
Active and passive compensators
Flux damping
Voltage sag ride Direct model reference adaptive internal model controller
Modified phase-locked-loop
[85] most commonly or basically as shown in Fig. 10.
By integrating power converters in between the generator and grid
the renewable energy system apart from being an energy source, it also
behaves as an active power source. Power electronics circuits in some
situations, even serves as a control system, especially in variable speed
operation during maximizing the output power even at lower turbine
speed [87]. Depending on the topology and applications the direction
of power flowing through these power electronic devices is decided and
this makes the installed power electronic circuit to work bidirectional.
The power converters are used to convert one form of electrical signal
to another form [83–85] and is tabulated in Table 6.
The factors that are to be considered before the installation of
power converters are its reliability, efficiency and cost [83]. More than
grid synchronization, nowadays standalone mode is more attractive
among consumers in increasing demand to meet that technology took
the concept of the integrated renewable energy system into existence.
Integrated RES (IRES) mainly support remote areas carrying mini-
mized energy losses reliability and quality of power as their advantages
from the grid synchronized mode [90,91]. Though these IRES are
advantageous they are not cost effective, hence the introduction of
multi-level converters in high voltage/power RES makes this IRES cost
effective [85].
7. Recent trends in asynchronous machines in renewable
energy
Though the use of DFIG machines increased the long term cost and
complexity of the renewable energy system, they suffer from major
setback because of their brushes and copper rings which actually
transfers power to or from the rotor windings. These characteristics
demands frequent inspections and maintenance charge due to the
wearing of brushes and accumulation of carbon on the internal
components as losses. The robustness physiognomies are very much
decreased because of the brushes [2]. Thus, these setbacks made the
design engineers to create a DFIG without brushes. This ended up with
a new configuration according to which the rotor energy has been
transferred by means of a second fractional induction machine (control
machine). This control machine is directly coupled to power machine
which is the main generator through the back-to-back connection of
rotor circuit [96] as shown in Fig. 11.
The Brushless Doubly-Fed Induction Generators (BDFIG) are the
topically trending asynchronous machines that aid as an alternative to
Table 4
Comparison of asynchronous machines in renewable energy system.
Control parameters SCIG
Active power • Pitch control
Frequency • ItCapacitor
is possible through partial power converter
Reactive power • Static VARbanks
• Capacitor banks
compensators
Reactive power during VRT • Static VAR compensators
• • Static VAR compensators
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 1028–1041
Algorithms
Rotor current limiter
Maximum power point tracking
Rotor current limiter
Rotor fault current and DC-link overvoltage limiter
Control of rotor current with variable gain adjustment
Frequency locks with phase of input signal
Permanent Magnet and Wound Rotor machines in renewable energy
systems [94]. BDFIG was reported literally from the 20th century by
Hunt and Creedy. From conventional DFIG the BDFIG differs in
construction the stator consists of two windings magnetically coupled
through a nested caged rotor and this constructional feature support
BDFIG for even very low speed operation also [101]. The one winding
of the stator is connected directly to the grid, whereas the other
winding is connected to the same through a converter which is
normally a voltage source converter [102]. These voltage source
converters are to regulate the current supplied to the BDFIG, supplying
the excitation energy to the renewable energy system. These conven-
tional converters were then replaced by a matrix converter to have a
high power to volume ratio, additionally these matrix converters were
also used for stator excitation [96]. When compared to equivalent
DFIG, BDFIG has heavy series leakage reactance and thereby experi-
ences a reduced transient current. Necessarily the machine side
converters can also be utilized to supply reactive current during these
faulty conditions to satisfy grid regulations by which the crowbar
circuit or any compensations or control feedback loop are disregarded
[98]. During asymmetrical voltage conditions, i.e. areas where the grid
is imbalanced practically also these BDFIG can be used by applying
proper vector control for LVRT [97,99] and [100]. These generators are
more suitable for small power rating and installed either as direct drive
generators or in combinations of gear boxes [95]. When used in high
power rating BDFIG is less efficient than the DFIG. In order to make
BDFIG more efficient than DFIG the primary flux of the machine has to
be maintained in control [93].
8. Comparison of energy efficiency in synchronous and
asynchronous machines used in hydropower plants
In this section the asynchronous machines are compared with
synchronous machines based on the energy and water use efficiency in
hydro power plants. The hydropower system based on asynchronous
machine (DFIG) and synchronous machine is shown in Figs. 12 and 13
respectively.
Normally in hydropower plants within a year the gross head may
vary between 130 and 220 m which has been graphically represented
and shown in Fig. 14. and the turbine efficiency varies with variation in
these head and various input power levels.
These efficiencies can be computationally extracted with the help of
hill curves. A hill curve is a unique graph plotted between the
WRIG DFIG
• Pitch control • Pitch or stall control
• Rotor speed control • Power converter
• Not possible • ItPower
is possible through partial power converter
• Capacitor banks • converter
• Static VAR compensators
• Capacitor banks • Crowbar circuit (if required)
C. Carunaiselvane, T.R. Chelliah Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 1028–1041

Table 5
Comparison of advantages and disadvantages of asynchronous machines in renewable energy system.

Fixed speed machine (SCIG) Variable speed machines (WRIG & DFIG)

Advantages 1. Simple and low cost 1. Complete control of real and reactive powers
2. Low maintenance 2. High energy efficiency
3. Reduced capacity converter
4. Decoupled control of active and reactive power flow
5. Smooth grid connection
Disadvantages 1. No control on real and reactive power 1. Additional cost of power electronics
2. Less optimum power extraction capability 2. Limited fault ride through capability
3. Poor power factor 3. Regular maintenance of slip ring and gearbox
4. High mechanical stress on turbine mechanical components 4. Limited fault ride-through capability

peripheral velocity factor and the input power through the efficiencies Table 6
of the turbines for various heads, discharge, and input power level Electrical signal conversion in power converters.
variations are obtained. A typical Francis turbine hill curve has been
Power converters Input signal Output signal
regenerated for this study [103].
The input power (Pin) and peripheral velocity factor (Фn) analogous Rectifier AC DC
to various head variations has been computed from the equation below: Inverter DC AC
Chopper DC DC
Pin = g . Q. H . ηg . ηt (1) Cycloconverter AC AC
Back to back VSC AC AC
where ‘g′ is specific gravity of the water, ‘Q′ is the discharge in m /s, ηg 3

and ηt are the efficiencies of the generator and turbine respectively.

Фn = n. D / H1/2
where ‘n′ is the rotational speed in rpm, ‘D′ is the diameter of the
turbine runner and ‘H′ is the head.
Corresponding to p.u. input power and p.u. peripheral velocity
factor for various heads the efficiencies have been derived from the hill
curve. Then to achieve the next possible best efficiency the peripheral
velocity factor is changed, i.e. moved to the next position in the hill
curve with respect to the efficiency that can be achieved. Now the
change in speed is calculated from the newly changed peripheral
velocity factor for various head variations from (2). This variation in
speed both in generating and pumping mode is compared with
asynchronous and synchronous machines and their possibilities to
match the speed variation are demonstrated.
throughout the calculation. The synchronous speed is considered to
(2) be 250 rpm because the generators used in most of the hydropower
plants are operated at the specified synchronous speed. Therefore the
procedure is carried out as discussed in the earlier part of this section
and the range of speed variations are tabulated in Table 7.
From the above table it is very clear that as synchronous machine
has to rotate at synchronous speed for certain variation in head level, it
can match with the synchronous speed with plus or minus 5 rpm error.
Whereas asynchronous machines can show variation for all change in
head level. Coming to additional power generated it is given by the
difference between the output power for new peripheral velocity and
the output power for existing peripheral velocity which is calculated
and tabulated in Table 8. The table indicates that through a change in
speed the additional power delivery is possible in DFIM in generating
mode in comparison with the fixed speed synchronous machine.

8.1. Generating mode

When any machine operated in generating mode the common
output of the machine is the electrical output power. So the main
objectives, analysed and compared between the synchronous and
asynchronous machines here are the wide range of speed variation
for achieving the next best efficiency and the additional power that can
be generated. The specifications to carry out the calculations are taken
from commonly used ranges in hydropower plants around India.
Accordingly the discharge of water is considered as 143 m3/s and the
synchronous speed as 250 rpm and they are maintained constant
8.2. Pumping mode
As done in generating mode the similar calculations are carried out
pumping mode also but here the output is the discharge. So the objectives
are the wide range of speed variation for achieving the next best efficiency
and the discharge requirement to save power. In pumping mode the input
power and speed are considered as 230 MW and 250 rpm respectively
and are maintained constant throughout the calculation. The calculations
are done and the results are tabulated in Table 9 for two cases, i.e.
190 MW and 210 MW surplus powers.

POWER CONVERTER

GEAR GENERATOR AC-DC DC-DC DC-AC TRANSFORMER GRID

BOX

TURBINE

GENERATOR SIDE GRID SIDE

CONTROL CONTROL

CONTROL DATA MONITORING DATA

Fig. 10. Placement of power electronics in RES.

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C. Carunaiselvane, T.R. Chelliah Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 1028–1041

POWER WINDING

GEAR BOX

INDUCTION GENERATOR GRID

TURBINE

CONTROL
WINDING
AC/DC DC/AC

Fig. 11. Variable speed renewable energy system with BDFIG.

POWER FLOW where “Qadditonal” is the additional discharge which is achieved by

variation in speed. From Eq. (3) the power that can be saved through
TORQUE additional discharge has been calculated.
Table 9 indicates that DFIM offers more energy storage in pumping
ASYNCHRONOUS mode in comparison with the fixed speed synchronous machine. Hence
MACHINE
it is evident from the above study that asynchronous machines serve
POWER
CONVERTERS
better than the synchronous machines in hydropower systems. This
GRID made asynchronous machines to be the emerging trend in renewable
energy system around the world, including Tehri Hydropower
Development Corporation Ltd., Uttarpradesh, India.

POWER FLOW 9. Future prospects

Fig. 12. Asynchronous generator based hydropower system.
Taking into account different considerations or concepts from the
earlier sections a clear idea of the trending scenario and the key to take
POWER FLOW
it to the next level has been discussed in this section. From an extensive
TORQUE
study on the researches done so far the fact established is that the
computational study to calculate the internal parameters of any
SYNCHRONOUS asynchronous machines from the available datasheet values is very
MACHINE less which actually helps the design engineers a lot to design either
machine structure or controllers. Furthermore the researches or
GRID implementations on asynchronous machines are considerable only if
it is operated efficiently based on energy saving demands.
+ -
EXCITATION
9.1. Multi-channelled power converter
Fig. 13. Synchronous generator based hydropower system.

Generally in pumped storage hydro power plants equipped with

230
220 large asynchronous machines employs multi-channelled power con-
210 verters in the rotor circuit for variable speed operation. In this case a
200
mismatch in DC output voltage across each channel befalls when fed
Gross head (m)

190
180
170 with non-ideal input voltage is fed to these converters. As a result, these
160 multi-channelled power converters can experience circulating current
150
140 within them. Therefore, a research can be carried out in designing a
130 proper real time controller for minimizing these circulating currents.
120
110 Moreover, these multi-channelled power converters has the maximum
100
probability of experiencing short term over voltages and hence a
suitable crowbar circuit supported with chopper can also be imple-
Months mented for protection.
Fig. 14. Water head variations in a year.
9.2. Overloading of machines
Same as in the generating mode in pumping mode also the speed of
In majority of renewable energy system, the available natural
synchronous machines cannot be varied for all head variations which
source is season dependent for example Fig. 14. The amount of input
can be achieved in case of asynchronous machines that has been shown
given to the machines varies season to season, i.e. based on the season
in the above table. The next objective, i.e. power saving is given by
the input may be high or low. Though the available input is more in
some season, the machines are operated only at rated values and not
Power saved = 9.81 x Qadditonalx H (3) beyond that. So a detailed analysis on, the maximum allowable range

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C. Carunaiselvane, T.R. Chelliah Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 1028–1041

Table 7
Comparison of speed variations between synchronous and asynchronous machines [104].

Head Discharge Input Base input Input Syn. Peripheral Base Peripheral Efficiency Efficiency
variation power power power speed velocityfactor peripheral velocity factor fixed speed variable
p.u. velocity p.u. speed

222.5 143 312.130 277.285 1.13 250 82.459 85.244 0.97 88 88

215 143 301.608 277.285 1.09 250 83.885 85.244 0.98 89.2 89.7
210 143 294.594 277.285 1.06 250 84.878 85.244 1.00 88 91
203.2 143 285.055 277.285 1.03 250 86.287 85.244 1.01 87 94
200 143 280.566 277.285 1.01 250 86.974 85.244 1.02 86.5 95
195 143 273.552 277.285 0.99 250 88.082 85.244 1.03 86 93
190 143 266.538 277.285 0.96 250 89.234 85.244 1.05 83 89.8
185 143 259.524 277.285 0.94 250 90.431 85.244 1.06 81.7 89
180 143 252.509 277.285 0.91 250 91.679 85.244 1.08 80 88.8
175 143 245.495 277.285 0.89 250 92.979 85.244 1.09 NA 88
170 143 238.481 277.285 0.86 250 94.337 85.244 1.11 NA NA

Table 8 9.3. Controller designs

Comparison of output power requirement between synchronous and asynchronous
machines [104].
It is a well-known fact that DFIG are one of the flexible and effective
Head Output power Output power for Additional output asynchronous machine for variable speed operations and controllers
variation for variable speed power (MW) play an essential role in their operation. The overall control techniques
fixed speed (MW) over DFIG aids for active and reactive power control and all are carried
(MW) out on the rotor side which is more complicated in design as well as
222.5 269.18 269.18 0.00
replacement. So to make the idea more innovative and intelligent the
215 263.65 265.13 1.48 control techniques can be designed and carried out on the stator side
210 254.06 262.72 8.66 for a smart and ease operation of the system. Then, unlike other type of
203.2 243.04 262.59 19.55 asynchronous machines discussed here the torque control of BDFIG is
200 237.84 261.21 23.37
not done to meet the expected performance. Hence, to have an
195 230.55 249.32 18.77
190 216.80 234.56 17.76 improved performance at wide researches are to be done for enhanced
185 207.79 226.36 18.57 torque control [93] and is more approachable if the controllers have
180 197.97 219.74 21.78 indirect control with suitable observers than direct control through
175 0.00 211.72 211.72
sensors. Since the DFIG consists of two parts of windings on the stator
they suffer a lot of iron losses which can be minimized through any
dynamic modelling on power electronic circuits.
that a machine can be overloaded can be studied. Similar type of
analysis is done for transformers but not for generators. This analysis
will serve as a complete data log for plant engineers on the maximum 9.4. Design amendments
operating conditions of a machine.
By modifying the flux pattern the BFDIG can be made to work more

Table 9
Comparison of speed variations between synchronous and asynchronous machines [104].

Power Input: 190 MW

Head (m) Power Power Peripheral Base Peripheral Efficiency Efficiency Discharge Discharge Additional Power
input input velocity peripheral velocity fixed (%) variable fixed speed variable water saved
(MW) p.u. factor velocity factor p.u. (%) (m3/s) speed (m3/ pumping (MW)
factor s) (m3/s)

230 190 0.70 81.10 89.23 0.91 84.2 84.5 69.49 69.73 0.25 0.56
210 190 0.70 84.88 89.23 0.95 83.2 84.5 75.20 76.37 1.17 2.42
190 190 0.70 89.23 89.23 1.00 81.5 84.5 81.42 84.41 3.00 5.59
170 190 0.70 94.34 89.23 1.06 0 84.5 0.00 94.34 94.34 157.34
160 190 0.70 97.24 89.23 1.09 0 84.5 0.00 100.24 100.24 157.34
150 190 0.70 100.43 89.23 1.13 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Power Input: 210 MW

Head (m) Power Power Peripheral Base Peripheral Efficiency Efficiency Discharge Discharge Additional Power
input input velocity peripheral velocity fixed (%) variable fixed speed variable water saved
(MW) p.u. factor velocity factor p.u. (%) (m3/s) speed (m3/ pumping (MW)
factor s) (m3/s)

230 210 0.78 81.10 89.23 0.91 86.2 86.4 78.62 78.81 0.18 0.41
210 210 0.78 84.88 89.23 0.95 84.5 86.4 84.41 86.31 1.90 3.91
190 210 0.78 89.23 89.23 1.00 83 86.4 91.64 95.40 3.75 7.00
170 210 0.78 94.34 89.23 1.06 80.2 86.4 98.97 106.62 7.65 12.76
160 210 0.78 97.24 89.23 1.09 0 86.4 0.00 113.28 113.28 177.81
150 210 0.78 100.43 89.23 1.13 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

1038
C. Carunaiselvane, T.R. Chelliah
efficiently than DFIG but the complication is that the air gap flux of
BDFIG is complex. The major obstacle of DFIG is the transient EMF
induce high current in the rotor which is avoided by additional crowbar
circuits. In case of BDFIG both the above said issues can be rectified
only by showing variations in magnetic systems as discussed in Section
II i.e. through design parameter variations (nested loop rotor) [95].
DFIG has low inertia and smooth torque, but BDFIG suffers from
cogging torque due to alignment of permanent magnets with stator
teeth that can be minimized through design variations.
9.5. Reliable self-commissioning
In growing society, everything in this world demands to be
automated in such a way that wherever the supervisor may be that
particular work can be done. This feature can be implemented for
controlling the asynchronous machines in renewable energy system by
monitoring the machines performance online. The same idea can also
be implemented as a learning tool, i.e. through online anybody around
the world can conduct experiments on machines installed in any
laboratory. Moreover, let it be either technically educated or not safety
is a very essential aspect among all engineers as well as common man.
This addresses the necessity of taking measures against fallback or
redundancy operation by developing a suitable software understanding
the standards of the machines and nature of the operation. Fault
detection occurring at the internal part of the machine is less identified
through controllers under running conditions. So a unique controller
can be designed to detect the damages inside the machine by sensing
the rise in the current profile.
10. Conclusion
To end up with sharp note a weighty quantity of energy around the
world has been consumed by asynchronous machines especially in
renewable energy system. So control over the utilization of asynchro-
nous machines is forced to be a responsibility of all the citizens. This
paper has extensively reviewed all the control techniques over the
asynchronous machines to make a power managed and system
stabilized renewable energy system. As surveyed it was quite acceptable
that the role of power converters /electronic devices plays very
important role throughout the controllability. Thus the role of power
converters in renewable energy system has also been discussed briefly.
To take the study to next level trending asynchronous machine has also
brought into the arena and concluded by spotting lights on how the
study can be brought to future examines.
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