Cto C Ratio: From Last Time

Exam 3: Wed. Apr.
19
14C to 12C ratio
Covers Quantum Physics, Solids, Nuclear Physics
HW11: Griffith Chap 19: • 14C
has a half-life of ~6,000 years,
Q9, Q11, Q13, E6, E8, E12
continually decaying back into 14N.
From last time… • Steady-state achieved in atmosphere,
with 14C:12C ratio ~ 1:1 trillion (1 part in 1012)
• Radioactive decay: alpha, beta, gamma
• Radioactive half-life As long as After death, no exchange
biological with atmosphere. Ratio
• Decay type understood in terms of number material alive, starts to change
neutrons, protons. atmospheric as 14C decays
carbon mix
• Understand in terms of weak interaction, ingested (as CO2),
Quark internal structure. ratio stays fixed.
Wed, Apr. 12, 2006 Phy107 Lecture 32 1 Wed, Apr. 12, 2006 Phy107 Lecture 32 2
Carbon-dating question Other carbon

The 14C:12C ratio in a fossil bone is found to be 1/4
decays
that of the ratio in the bone of a living animal.
The half-life of 14C is 5,730 years. • Lightest isotopes of carbon are observed to emit a
What is the approximate age of the fossil? particle like an electron, but has a positive charge!
A. 17,200 years
B. 7,640 years Since the ratio has been reduced
C. 22,900 years by a factor of 4, two half-lives
have passed.
D. 11,460 years
2 x 5,730 years = 11,460 years
•This is the antiparticle of the electron.
•Called the positron.
Antimatter What is going on?

• Every particle now known to have an antiparticle. • 14Chas more neutrons
• Even antimatter has been generated. than the most stable
form 12C.
– So it decays by electron
emission, changing
Matter and antimatter neutron into a proton.
annihilate when in • Other isotopes of carbon
have fewer neutrons
close proximity. – Decays by emitting
positron, changing
Photons are created so proton into neutron.
that energy is
conserved.
1
Decay question Gamma decay
• So far
20Nadecays in to 20Ne, a particle is emitted? – Alpha decay: alpha particle emitted from nucleus
What particle is it?
– Beta decay: electron or positron emitted
Na atomic number = 11
• Both can leave the nucleus in excited state
Ne atomic number = 10
– Just like a hydrogen atom can be in an excited state
– Hydrogen emits photon as it drops to lower state.
A. Alpha 20Na has 11 protons, 9 neutrons
20Ne has 10 protons, 10 neutrons
B. Electron beta So one a proton (+ charge ) changed to a Nucleus also emits photon as
C. Positron beta neutron (0 charge) in this decay. it drops to ground state
A positive particle had to be emitted. This is gamma radiation
D. Gamma
But energies much larger,
so extremely high energy
photons.
Radioactive decay summary Energy stored in the nucleus

• Alpha decay
– Nucleus emits alpha particle (2 neutrons + 2 protons) N P
– Happens with heavy nuclei only These
pulled
• Beta decay together by
– Nucleus emits electron (beta-) or positron (beta+) strong force N P
– Internally,
neutron changes to proton (beta-), or Requires lots of
proton changes to neutron (beta+) work to pull
them apart
• Gamma decay
– Nucleus starts in internal excited state So energy of nucleus is LESS than that of isolated nucleons…
– Emits photon and drops to lower energy state …and energy is released when nucleons bind together.
Nuclear Binding Energy How much energy?

• The energy difference between nucleus and isolated • This doesn’t sound like much.
nucleons is the binding energy. • Mass difference = 0.0305u
• From E=mc2, shows up as mass difference. • 1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
Helium • But E=mc2 says
nucleus
2 protons &
2 neutrons E=(0.0305) x (1.66x10-27 kg) x ( 3x108 m/s) 2
= 4.56x10-12 J
4He
• Not much, but this is for each nucleus!
nucleus is 0.0305u
lighter than isolated • 1 gm of Helium has 1.5x1023 nuclei.
2 protons, 2 neutrons
(12.000u defined as mass of 12C)
2
Energy production Another comparison
•Hydroelectric plant
–Uses 60,000 tons/sec water
to produce 1,000 MW
•Coal-burning plant
–10,000 tons coal/day
to produce 1,000 MW
•Fission reactor
–Uses 100 tons uranium/yr How can we release this energy?
to produce 1,000 MW
Binding energy of different nuclei Differences between nuclei

• Schematic view of
previous diagram
• 56Fe is most stable
Mass difference / nucleon
Energy of separated
nucleons
• Move toward lower
energies by fission or
fusion.
• Energy released
(MeV/c2)
related to difference
in binding energy.
Nuclear fission Nuclear Fusion

• A heavy nucleus is split apart into two • ‘Opposite’ process
smaller ones. also occurs, where
• Energy is released because the lighter nuclei nuclei are fused to
are less tightly bound. produce a heavier
nucleus, but requires
large initial energy
input.
• Called nuclear fusion.
3
Fission and Fusion Fission
• Fission: • Fission occurs when a heavy nucleus breaks apart
– Heavy nucleus is broken apart into smaller pieces.
– Total mass of pieces less than original nucleus • Does not occur spontaneously, but is induced by
– Missing mass appears as energy E=mc2 capture of a neutron
• Fusion
– Light nuclei are fused together into heavier nuclei
– Total mass of original nuclei greater than resulting
nucleus
– Missing mass appears as energy.
Neutron capture Neutron production

• Fission fragments
• When neutron is captured, 235U becomes 236U have too many
– Only neutron # changes, same number of protons. neutrons to be
stable.
# neutrons
• So free neutrons are
produced in addition
to the large fission
fragments.
Nucleus distorts and • These neutrons can
initiate more fission
oscillate, eventually
events
breaking apart
(fissioning) # protons
Chain reaction Neutrons

• If neutrons produced by fission
can be captured by other • Neutrons may be captured by nuclei that do
nuclei, fission chain reaction not undergo fission
can proceed. – Most commonly, neutrons are captured by 238U
– The possibility of neutron capture by 238U is lower
for slow neutrons.
• The moderator helps minimize the capture of
neutrons by 238U by slowing them down, making
more available to initiate fission in 235U.
4
The critical mass The first chain reaction
• Construction of CP-1,
(Chicago Pile Number
• An important detail is the probability of One) under the football
neutron capture by the 235U. stadium in an abandoned
squash court.
• If the neutrons escape before being captured, • A ‘pile’ of graphite,

uranium, and uranium
the reaction will not be self-sustaining. oxides.
• Graphite = moderator,
• Neutrons need to be slowed down to encourage uranium for fission.
capture by U nucleus • On December 2, 1942:
chain reaction produced
1/2 watt of power. • 771,000 lbs graphite,
• The mass of fissionable material must be large 80,590 pounds of uranium oxide and
enough, and the 235U fraction high enough, to 12,400 pounds of uranium metal,
capture the neutrons before they escape. • Cost ~ $1 million.
• Shape was flattened ellipsoid
25 feet wide and 20 feet high.
Pile assembly How much energy?

Level 3
Graphite layers form
Binding energy /nucleon

the base of the pile.
Binding
Level 7 energy/nucleon ~1
Uranium oxide MeV less 235Uranium
pseudospheres
start at level 7 for fission fragments
than for original Fission
nucleus fragments
This difference
Level 10 appears as energy.
Level 19
Tenth layer of
graphite blocks
containing
The 19th layer of
graphite covering
Energy/nucleon Mass number
pseudospheres of
uranium oxide
layer 18 containing
slugs of uranium
released by fission
oxide.
Energy released Uranium isotopes

• 235U has 235 total nucleons,
so ~240 MeV released in one fusion event. • 235U will fission.
• However after 238 92 U absorbs neutron to
• 235U has molar mass of ~235 gm/mole
become 23992 U
, it beta decays
– So 1 kg is ~ 4 moles = 4x(6x1024)=2.5x1025 particles 239
(neutron changes to proton) to 93Np , t1/2=23 min
• Fission one kg of 235U 239
• This quickly beta decays to 94Pu , t1/2=2.3 days
– Produce ~6x1033 eV = 1015 Joules !
– 1 kilo-ton = 1,000 tons of TNT = 4.2x1012 Joules Uranium,
! Neptunium, Plutonium
– This would release ~250 kilo-tons of energy!!!
!
1941: discovered that!Pu will fission.
• Chain reaction suggests all this could be
released almost instantaneously. Fission limited to 235U, 239Pu
5
Uranium isotopes Where does uranium come from?
•Uranium is one most abundant
elements, but in low
• Only the less concentration
abundant 235U will •E.g. uranium is mixed with
fission. granite, covering 60% of the
Earth’s crust.
• Natural abundance
is less than 1%, •But only four parts of uranium
per million million parts of
most is 238U
granite.
Uranium ore processing Uranium Hexafluoride

• Mechanically crush the ore
• Acid treatment to separate the uranium metal from rock. • Yellowcake converted to Uranium Hexafluouride
• Purified with chemicals to leach out (dissolve) the uranium. • Main use is separation of two main isotopes of uranium;
235U has only 0.71% natural abundance.
• Chemically precipitate uranium-rich fraction.
• Dry the uranium-rich solution, giving U3O 8 , (yellowcake)
• Yellowcake packaged into special steel drums, 400 kg when full. • What is UF6 like?
• Hauled by truck to uranium refinery. • White crystalline solid at room temperature
Sublimes (turns to gas) at 56.5°C (133.8°F)
Liquid only under pressures > 1.5 atmospheres T > 64°C
Barrel of
Ampule of UF6
yellowcake
Isotope separation Gas diffusion enrichment

• UF6 gas diffuses thru foil.
• Lighter 235UF6 molecules diffuse
• How is the separation achieved? slightly faster than the 238UF6
• Several methods have been used:- molecules. As the gas moves,
the two isotopes are separated.
– Gaseous diffusion
• Over 1000 stages are required
– Electromagnetic isotope separation to produce a UF6 product with
– Gas centrifugation even 3-4% enrichment!
• Electromagnetic isotope separation, using UCl4, • US (Paducah, KT)
was the original method used in the Manhattan

project in a plant at Oak Ridge Tennessee.
• Gas diffusion and Gas centrifuge now produce more
than 90% of the world's enriched uranium.
person
6
What about the 238UF ?
6
Gas centrifuge enrichment
• As of June 1998, the US Department of Energy (DOE) owned • Gaseous UF6 is placed in a centrifuge.
approximately 57,800 steel cylinders of depleted UF6 .
• The total radioactivity of depleted UF6 is approximately 8.6
• Rapid spinning flings heavier U-238 atoms
Ci/cylinder. to the outside of the centrifuge,
• Depleted UF6 continues to be produced at the rate about 150
leaving enriched UF6 in the center
cylinders (2,100 short tons or 1,900 metric tons) per year. • Single centrifuge insufficient
to obtain required U-235 enrichment.
• Many centrifuges connected
in a ‘cascade’.
• U-235 concentration gradually
increased to 3 – 5% through
many stages.
Electromagnetic
Reactor vs bomb
separation
• 3-5% enrichment ok for reactor. • Original separation method
used in Manhattan project
• Bomb needs much higher fraction of 235U • Uses essentially a mass
• Oppenheimer suggested needed as much as spectrometer.
90% 235U vs 238U
Oak Ridge EM separation Uranium fission bomb

• Control panels and
operators for
calutrons at Oak
Ridge. Operators,
worked in shifts
covering 24 hrs/day
• Produced 10
kilograms of 90 • Uranium ‘bullet’
percent enriched U- fired into Uranium
235 target
• Thought by • Critical mass formed,
Oppenheimer resulting in
sufficient for bomb. uncontrolled fission
chain reaction
7
Plutonium fission bomb Trinity test of Pu bomb
• Plutonium produced
in reactor from 238U • Uranium fission
bomb not tested
• Required implosion.
before dropped.
• Pu bomb much more
complex.
• Tested at Trinity
site, New Mexico.
Active plutonium for bomb • Sgt. Herbert Lehr delivering

plutonium core
Active material for the (or more probably half of it) to
Trinity device is moved assembly room in
from the sedan that McDonald Ranch farmhouse.
brought it to McDonald
Ranch.
Box contains reactor-

produced Plutonium
Test bomb being lifted to top

of tower.
Jumbo
• Pu supply extremely limited
• Tower and firing electronics assembly
• failure could scatter tens of
millions of dollars of Pu
across New Mexico desert.
• Steel vessel to contain the
explosion was built.
• Nicknamed “Jumbo,” a
special 64-wheel trailer was
required to carry it across the
desert to Trinity site.
• As confidence in Pu bomb
grew, Jumbo was not used.

Cto C Ratio: From Last Time

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Cto C Ratio: From Last Time

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Exam 3: Wed. Apr.

Carbon-dating question Other carbon

Antimatter What is going on?

Radioactive decay summary Energy stored in the nucleus

Nuclear Binding Energy How much energy?

Binding energy of different nuclei Differences between nuclei

Nuclear fission Nuclear Fusion

Neutron capture Neutron production

Chain reaction Neutrons

• If the neutrons escape before being captured, • A ‘pile’ of graphite,

Pile assembly How much energy?

Graphite layers form

Binding energy /nucleon

Energy released Uranium isotopes

Uranium ore processing Uranium Hexafluoride

Isotope separation Gas diffusion enrichment

was the original method used in the Manhattan

Oak Ridge EM separation Uranium fission bomb

Active plutonium for bomb • Sgt. Herbert Lehr delivering

Box contains reactor-

Test bomb being lifted to top

Potrebbero piacerti anche