http://gse.buffalo.edu/fas/shuell/cep564/metacog.

htm

Metacognition: An Overview
Jennifer A. Livingston
© 1997 by Jennifer A. Livingston

"Metacognition" is one of the latest buzz words in educational psychology, but what
exactly is metacognition? The length and abstract nature of the word makes it sound
intimidating, yet its not as daunting a concept as it might seem. We engage in
metacognitive activities everyday. Metacognition enables us to be successful learners,
and has been associated with intelligence (e.g., Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987;
Sternberg, 1984, 1986a, 1986b). Metacognition refers to higher order thinking which
involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. Activities
such as planning how to approach a given learning task, monitoring comprehension,
and evaluating progress toward the completion of a task are metacognitive in nature.
Because metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning, it is important to
study metacognitive activity and development to determine how students can be
taught to better apply their cognitive resources through metacognitive control.

"Metacognition" is often simply defined as "thinking about thinking." In actuality,

defining metacognition is not that simple. Although the term has been part of the
vocabulary of educational psychologists for the last couple of decades, and the
concept for as long as humans have been able to reflect on their cognitive experiences,
there is much debate over exactly what metacognition is. One reason for this
confusion is the fact that there are several terms currently used to describe the same
basic phenomenon (e.g., self-regulation, executive control), or an aspect of that
phenomenon (e.g., meta-memory), and these terms are often used interchangeably in
the literature. While there are some distinctions between definitions (see Van Zile-
Tamsen, 1994, 1996 for a full discussion), all emphasize the role of executive
processes in the overseeing and regulation of cognitive processes.

The term "metacognition" is most often associated with John Flavell, (1979).
According to Flavell (1979, 1987), metacognition consists of both metacognitive
knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognitive knowledge
refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge that can be used
to control cognitive processes. Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into
three categories: knowledge of person variables, task variables and strategy variables.

Metacognitive Knowledge

Stated very briefly, knowledge of person variables refers to general knowledge about
how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of
one's own learning processes. For example, you may be aware that your study session
will be more productive if you work in the quiet library rather than at home where
there are many distractions. Knowledge of task variables include knowledge about the
nature of the task as well as the type of processing demands that it will place upon the
individual. For example, you may be aware that it will take more time for you to read
and comprehend a science text than it would for you to read and comprehend a novel.

Finally, knowledge about strategy variables include knowledge about both cognitive
and metacognitive strategies, as well as conditional knowledge about when and where
it is appropriate to use such strategies.

Metacognitive Regulation

Metacognitive experiences involve the use of metacognitive strategies or

metacognitive regulation (Brown, 1987). Metacognitive strategies are sequential
processes that one uses to control cognitive activities, and to ensure that a cognitive
goal (e.g., understanding a text) has been met. These processes help to regulate and
oversee learning, and consist of planning and monitoring cognitive activities, as well
as checking the outcomes of those activities.

For example, after reading a paragraph in a text a learner may question herself about
the concepts discussed in the paragraph. Her cognitive goal is to understand the text.
Self-questioning is a common metacognitive comprehension monitoring strategy. If
she finds that she cannot answer her own questions, or that she does not understand
the material discussed, she must then determine what needs to be done to ensure that
she meets the cognitive goal of understanding the text. She may decide to go back and
re-read the paragraph with the goal of being able to answer the questions she had
generated. If, after re-reading through the text she can now answer the questions, she
may determine that she understands the material. Thus, the metacognitive strategy of
self-questioning is used to ensure that the cognitive goal of comprehension is met.
Cognitive vs. Metacognitive Strategies

Most definitions of metacognition include both knowledge and strategy components;

however, there are a number of problems associated with using such definitions. One
major issue involves separating what is cognitive from what is metacognitive. What is
the difference between a cognitive and a metacognitive strategy?

Can declarative knowledge be metacognitive in nature? For example, is the

knowledge that you have difficulty understanding principles from bio-chemistry
cognitive or metacognitive knowledge? Flavell himself acknowledges that
metacognitive knowledge may not be different from cognitive knowledge (Flavell,
1979). The distinction lies in how the information is used.

Recall that metacognition is referred to as "thinking about thinking" and involves

overseeing whether a cognitive goal has been met. This should be the defining
criterion for determining what is metacognitive. Cognitive strategies are used to help
an individual achieve a particular goal (e.g., understanding a text) while metacognitive
strategies are used to ensure that the goal has been reached (e.g., quizzing oneself to
evaluate one's understanding of that text). Metacognitive experiences usually precede
or follow a cognitive activity. They often occur when cognitions fail, such as the
recognition that one did not understand what one just read. Such an impasse is
believed to activate metacognitive processes as the learner attempts to rectify the
situation (Roberts & Erdos, 1993).

Metacognitive and cognitive strategies may overlap in that the same strategy, such as
questioning, could be regarded as either a cognitive or a metacognitive strategy
depending on what the purpose for using that strategy may be. For example, you may
use a self-questioning strategy while reading as a means of obtaining knowledge
(cognitive), or as a way of monitoring what you have read (metacognitive). Because
cognitive and metacognitive strategies are closely intertwined and dependent upon
each other, any attempt to examine one without acknowledging the other would not
provide an adequate picture.

Knowledge is considered to be metacognitive if it is actively used in a strategic

manner to ensure that a goal is met. For example, a student may use knowledge in
planning how to approach a math exam: "I know that I (person variable) have
difficulty with word problems (task variable), so I will answer the computational
problems first and save the word problems for last (strategy variable)." Simply
possessing knowledge about one's cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the nature of
the task without actively utilizing this information to oversee learning is not
metacognitive.
Metacognition and Intelligence

Metacognition, or the ability to control one's cognitive processes (self-regulation) has

been linked to intelligence (Borkowski et al., 1987; Brown, 1987; Sternberg, 1984,
1986a, 1986b). Sternberg refers to these executive processes as "metacomponents" in
his triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 1984, 1986a, 1986b). Metacomponents
are executive processes that control other cognitive components as well as receive
feedback from these components. According to Sternberg, metacomponents are
responsible for "figuring out how to do a particular task or set of tasks, and then
making sure that the task or set of tasks are done correctly" (Sternberg, 1986b, p. 24).
These executive processes involve planning, evaluating and monitoring problem-
solving activities. Sternberg maintains that the ability to appropriately allocate
cognitive resources, such as deciding how and when a given task should be
accomplished, is central to intelligence.

Metacognition and Cognitive Strategy Instruction

Although most individuals of normal intelligence engage in metacognitive regulation

when confronted with an effortful cognitive task, some are more metacognitive than
others. Those with greater metacognitive abilities tend to be more successful in their
cognitive endeavors. The good news is that individuals can learn how to better
regulate their cognitive activities. Most often, metacognitive instruction occurs within
Cognitive Strategy Instruction programs.

Cognitive Strategy Instruction (CSI) is an instructional approach which emphasizes

the development of thinking skills and processes as a means to enhance learning. The
objective of CSI is to enable all students to become more strategic, self-reliant,
flexible, and productive in their learning endeavors (Scheid, 1993). CSI is based on
the assumption that there are identifiable cognitive strategies, previously believed to
be utilized by only the best and the brightest students, which can be taught to most
students (Halpern, 1996). Use of these strategies have been associated with successful
learning (Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987; Garner, 1990).

Metacognition enables students to benefit from instruction (Carr, Kurtz, Schneider,

Turner & Borkowski, 1989; Van Zile-Tamsen, 1996) and influences the use and
maintenance of cognitive strategies. While there are several approaches to
metacognitive instruction, the most effective involve providing the learner with both
knowledge of cognitive processes and strategies (to be used as metacognitive
knowledge), and experience or practice in using both cognitive and metacognitive
strategies and evaluating the outcomes of their efforts (develops metacognitive
regulation). Simply providing knowledge without experience or vice versa does not
seem to be sufficient for the development of metacognitive control (Livingston,
1996).

The study of metacognition has provided educational psychologists with insight about
the cognitive processes involved in learning and what differentiates successful
students from their less successful peers. It also holds several implications for
instructional interventions, such as teaching students how to be more aware of their
learning processes and products as well as how to regulate those processes for more
effective learning.

References

Borkowski, J., Carr, M., & Pressely, M. (1987). "Spontaneous" strategy use:
Perspectives from metacognitive theory. Intelligence, 11, 61-75.

Brown, A. L. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other

more mysterious mechanisms. In F. E. Weinert & R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition,
motivation, and understanding (pp. 65-116). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.

Carr, M., Kurtz, B. E., Schneider, W., Turner, L. A., & Borkowski, J. G. (1989).
Strategy acquisition and transfer among German and American children:
Environmental influences on metacognitive development.Developmental Psychology,
25, 765-771.

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of

cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906-911.

Flavell, J. H. (1987). Speculations about the nature and development of

metacognition. In F. E. Weinert & R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, Motivation and
Understanding (pp. 21-29). Hillside, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Garner, R. (1990). When children and adults do not use learning strategies: Toward a
theory of settings. Review of Educational Research, 60, 517-529.

Halpern, D. F. (1996). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical

thinking. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Livingston, J. A. (1996). Effects of metacognitive instruction on strategy use of

college students. Unpublished manuscript, State University of New York at Buffalo.

Roberts, M. J., & Erdos, G. (1993). Strategy selection and metacognition. Educational
Psychology, 13, 259-266.

Scheid, K. (1993). Helping students become strategic learners: Guidelines for

teaching. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

Sternberg, R. J. (1984). What should intelligence tests test? Implications for a triarchic
theory of intelligence for intelligence testing. Educational Researcher, 13 (1), 5-15.

Sternberg, R. J. (1986a). Inside intelligence. American Scientist, 74, 137-143.

Sternberg, R. J. (1986b). Intelligence applied. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,

Publishers.

Van Zile-Tamsen, C. M. (1994). The role of motivation in metacognitive self-

regulation. Unpublished manuscript, State University of New York at Buffalo.

Van Zile-Tamsen, C. M. (1996). Metacognitive self-regualtion and the daily academic

activities of college students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, State University of
New York at Buffalo.

© 1997 by Jennifer A. Livingston 210117

http://theelearningcoach.com/learning/metacognition-and-learning/

Metacognition And Learning: Strategies

For Instructional Design
by Connie Malamed

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Do you know how to learn? Many people don’t. Specifically,

they don’t know how to look inward to examine how they learn and to judge what is
effective.

That’s where metacognitive strategies come in. They are techniques that help people
become more successful learners. Shouldn’t this be a crucial goal of instructional
design?

Improved metacognition can facilitate both formal and informal learning. It can improve
the performance of new tasks on the job and help teams problem solve more effectively.

But let’s start at the beginning. Here are some things instructional designers should
know about metacognition.

What is metacognition?
1. Metacognition is often referred to as “thinking about thinking.” But that’s just a
quick definition. Metacognition is a regulatory system that helps a person
understand and control his or her own cognitive performance.
2. Metacognition allows people to take charge of their own learning. It involves
awareness of how they learn, an evaluation of their learning needs, generating
 strategies to meet these needs and then implementing the strategies. (Hacker,
2009)
3. Learners often show an increase in self-confidence when they build
metacognitive skills. Self-efficacy improves motivation as well as learning
success.
4. Metacognitive skills are generally learned during a later stage of development.
Metacognitive strategies can often (but not always) be stated by the individual
who is using them.
5. For all age groups, metacognitive knowledge is crucial for efficient independent
learning because it fosters forethought and self-reflection.

The Two Processes of Metacognition

Fortunately, many theorists organize the skills of metacognition into two components.
This makes it easier to understand and remember.

1. According to theory, metacognition consists of two complementary processes: 1)

the knowledge of cognition and 2) the regulation of cognition.
2. Knowledge of cognition has three components: knowledge of the factors that
influence one’s own performance; knowing different types of strategies to use for
learning; knowing what strategy to use for a specific learning situation.
3. Regulation of cognition involves: setting goals and planning; monitoring and
controlling learning; and evaluating one’s own regulation (assessing results and
strategies used).

Metacognition and Expertise

1. Many experts cannot explain the skills they use to elicit expert performance.
(Perhaps this is due to the automatic functioning of the expert.)
2. Metacognitive strategies often separate an expert from a novice. For example,
experts are able to plan effectively on a global level at the start of a task—a
novice won’t see the big picture.
3. Some adults with expertise in one domain can transfer their metacognitive skills
to learn more rapidly in another domain.
4. On the other hand, some adults do not spontaneously transfer metacognitive
skills to new settings and thus, will need help doing so.
Examples of Metacognition Skills You May Use
Successful learners typically use metacognitive strategies whenever they learn. But
they may fail to use the best strategy for each type of learning situation. Here are some
metacognitive strategies that will sound familiar to you:

1. Knowing the limits of your own memory for a particular task and creating a
means of external support.
2. Self-monitoring your learning strategy, such as concept mapping, and then
adapting the strategy if it isn’t effective.
3. Noticing whether you comprehend something you just read and then modifying
your approach if you did not comprehend it.
4. Choosing to skim subheadings of unimportant information to get to the
information you need.
5. Repeatedly rehearsing a skill in order to gain proficiency.
6. Periodically doing self-tests to see how well you learned something.

Metacognitive Strategies
Metacognitive strategies facilitate learning how to learn. You can incorporate these, as
appropriate, into eLearning courses, social learning experiences, pre- and post-training
activities and other formal or informal learning experiences.

1. Ask Questions. During formal courses and in post-training activities, ask

questions that allow learners to reflect on their own learning processes and
strategies. In collaborative learning, ask them to reflect on the role they play
when problem solving in teams.
2. Foster Self-reflection. Emphasize the importance of personal reflection during
and after learning experiences. Encourage learners to critically analyze their own
assumptions and how this may have influenced their learning.
3. Encourage Self-questioning. Foster independent learning by asking learners to
generate their own questions and answer them to enhance comprehension. The
questions can be related to meeting their personal goals
4. Teach Strategies Directly. Teach appropriate metacognitive strategies as a part
of a training course.
5. Promote Autonomous Learning. When learners have some domain
knowledge, encourage participation in challenging learning experiences. They
will then be forced to construct their own metacognitive strategies.
 6. Provide Access to Mentors. Many people learn best by interacting with peers
who are slightly more advanced. Promote experiences where novices can
observe the proficient use of a skill and then gain access to the metacognitive
strategies of their mentors.
7. Solve Problems with a Team: Cooperative problem solving can enhance
metacognitive strategies by discussing possible approaches with team members
and learning from each other.
8. Think Aloud. Teach learners how to think aloud and report their thoughts while
performing a difficult task. A knowledgeable partner can then point out errors in
thinking or the individual can use this approach for increased self-awareness
during learning.
9. Self-explanation. Self-explanation in writing or speaking can help learners
improve their comprehension of a difficult subject.
10. Provide Opportunities for Making Errors. When learners are given the
opportunity to make errors while in training, such as during simulations, it
stimulates reflection on the causes of their errors.

In summary, metacognition is a set of skills that enable learners to become aware of

how they learn and to evaluate and adapt these skills to become increasingly effective
at learning. In a world that demands lifelong learning, providing people with new and
improved metacognitive strategies is a gift that can last forever.

References:

1. Hacker, Douglas J., John Dunlosky and Arthur C. Graesser (Eds.). Handbook of Metacognition in Education,
2009.
2. Pashler, H. et al., Organizing instruction and study to improve student learning. IES practice guide,
2007. http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/practiceguides/20072004.pdf
3. Smith, Cecil M. and Thomas Pourchot. Adult Learning and Development: Perspectives From Educational
Psychology, 1998.
4. White, Barbara and John Frederiksen. A Theoretical Framework and Approach for Fostering Metacognitive
Development. Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 211–223, 2005.
5. Wilson, Arthur L. and Elisabeth Hayes, Handbook of Adult and Continuing Education by American
Association for Adult and Continuing Education.
6. Handbook of Metacognition in Education Douglas J. Hacker, John Dunlosky and Arthur C. Graesser (Eds.).
https://www.edutopia.org/blog/8-pathways-metacognition-in-classroom-marilyn-price-mitchell
Metacognition: Nurturing Self-Awareness in the
Classroom
APRI L 7, 2015

 6K SHARES

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How do children gain a deeper understanding of how they think, feel, and act so that they can improve
their learning and develop meaningful relationships? Since antiquity, philosophers have been intrigued
with how human beings develop self-awareness -- the ability to examine and understand who we are
relative to the world around us. Today, research not only shows that self-awareness evolves during
childhood, but also that its development is linked to metacognitive processes of the brain.

Making Sense of Life Experiences

Most teachers know that if students reflect on how they learn, they become better learners. For example,
some students may think and process information best in a quiet library, while others may focus better
surrounded by familiar noise or music. Learning strategies that work for math may be different from those
applied in the study of a foreign language. For some, it takes more time to understand biology than
chemistry. With greater awareness of how they acquire knowledge, students learn to regulate their
behavior to optimize learning. They begin to see how their strengths and weaknesses affect how they
 perform. The ability to think about one's thinking is what neuroscientists call metacognition. As students'
metacognitive abilities increase, research suggests they also achieve at higher levels.

Metacognition plays an important role in all learning and life experiences. Beyond academic learning,
when students gain awareness of their own mental states, they begin to answer important questions:

 How do I live a happy life?

 How do I become a respected human being?
 How do I feel good about myself?

Through these reflections, they also begin to understand other people's perspectives.

At a recent international workshop, philosophers and neuroscientists gathered to discuss self-awareness

and how it is linked to metacognition. Scientists believe that self-awareness, associated with the
paralimbic network of the brain, serves as a "tool for monitoring and controlling our behavior and adjusting
our beliefs of the world, not only within ourselves, but, importantly, between individuals." This higher-order
thinking strategy actually changes the structure of the brain, making it more flexible and open to even
greater learning.

Self-awareness is part of The Compass Advantage™ (a model designed for engaging families, schools,
and communities in the principles of positive youth development) because it plays a critical role in how
students make sense of life experiences. Linked by research to each of the other Compass abilities,
particularly empathy, curiosity, and sociability, self-awareness is one of the 8 Pathways to Every
Student's Success.
Image Credit: Marilyn Price-Mitchell

Self-awareness plays a critical role in improved learning because it helps students become more efficient
at focusing on what they still need to learn. The ability to think about one's thinking increases with
age. Research shows that most growth of metacognitive ability happens between ages 12 and 15 (PDF,
199KB). When teachers cultivate students' abilities to reflect on, monitor, and evaluate their learning
strategies, young people become more self-reliant, flexible, and productive. Students improve their
capacity to weigh choices and evaluate options, particularly when answers are not obvious. When
students have difficulty understanding, they rely on reflective strategies to recognize their difficulties and
attempt to rectify them. Improving metacognitive strategies related to students' schoolwork also provides
young people with tools to reflect and grow in their emotional and social lives.

7 Strategies That Improve Metacognition

1. Teach students how their brains are wired for growth.

 The beliefs that students adopt about learning and their own brains will affect their
performance. Research shows that when students develop a growth mindset vs. a fixed mindset, they are
more likely to engage in reflective thinking about how they learn and grow. Teaching kids about the
science of metacognition can be an empowering tool, helping students to understand how they can
literally grow their own brains.

2. Give students practice recognizing what they don't understand.

The act of being confused and identifying one's lack of understanding is an important part of developing
self-awareness. Take time at the end of a challenging class to ask, "What was most confusing about the
material we explored today?" This not only jumpstarts metacognitive processing, but also creates a
classroom culture that acknowledges confusion as an integral part of learning.

3. Provide opportunities to reflect on coursework.

Higher-order thinking skills are fostered as students learn to recognize their own cognitive growth.
Questions that help this process might include:

 Before this course, I thought earthquakes were caused by _______. Now I understand them to be the
result of _______.
 How has my thinking about greenhouse gases changed since taking this course?

4. Have students keep learning journals.

One way to help students monitor their own thinking is through the use of personal learning journals.
Assign weekly questions that help students reflect on how rather than what they learned. Questions might
include:

 What was easiest for me to learn this week? Why?

 What was most challenging for me to learn? Why?
 What study strategies worked well as I prepared for my exam?
 What strategies for exam preparation didn't work well? What will I do differently next time?
 What study habits worked best for me? How?
 What study habit will I try or improve upon next week?

Encourage creative expression through whatever journal formats work best for learners, including mind
maps, blogs, wikis, diaries, lists, e-tools, etc.

5. Use a "wrapper" to increase students' monitoring skills.

A "wrapper" is a short intervention that surrounds an existing activity and integrates a metacognitive
practice. Before a lecture, for example, give a few tips about active listening. Following the lecture, ask
students to write down three key ideas from the lecture. Afterward, share what you believe to be the three
key ideas and ask students to self-check how closely theirs matched your intended goals. When used
often, this activity not only increases learning, but also improves metacognitive monitoring skills.

6. Consider essay vs. multiple-choice exams.

Research shows that students use lower-level thinking skills to prepare for multiple-choice exams, and
higher-level metacognitive skills to prepare for essay exams. While it is less time consuming to grade
multiple-choice questions, even the addition of several short essay questions can improve the way
students reflect on their learning to prepare for test taking.
7. Facilitate reflexive thinking.
Reflexivity is the metacognitive process of becoming aware of our biases -- prejudices that get in the way
of healthy development. Teachers can create a classroom culture for deeper learning and reflexivity by
encouraging dialogue that challenges human and societal biases. When students engage in
conversations or write essays on biases and moral dilemmas related to politics, wealth, racism, poverty,
justice, liberty, etc., they learn to "think about their own thinking." They begin to challenge their own
biases and become more flexible and adaptive thinkers.

What other ways do you help students reflect on their thinking in your classroom?

https://elearningindustry.com/5-instructional-design-tips-to-enhance-metacognition-in-
elearning

5 Instructional Design Tips

To Enhance Metacognition
In eLearning
An empowered learner is a successful learner. Not only do they have the
confidence they need to solve problems autonomously, but they are active
participants who are motivated and inspired to learn. One of the most effective
ways to empower your online learners is to incorporate metacognition into your
eLearning strategy. In this article, I’ll share 5 tips on how to enhance
metacognition in eLearning.
Friday 26 June 2015
Enhancing Metacognition in eLearning:
What eLearning Professionals Should Know
Metacognition involves not just having knowledge and being able to
cognitively process information, but being able to control these mental
processes. This typically involves modification, monitoring, and
organization of the information in order to apply it in real world settings.
Metacognition also focuses on analyzing a challenge or task to
determine which problem solving approach would be the most effective.
One of the most significant advantages of using metacognition in
eLearning is that it encourages learners to become more independent
and empowered. They must identify their strengths and weaknesses,
and fine tune their study, organization, problem-solving, and
communication skills. In this article, I’ll delve into the categories of
metacognition, its best practices, and I’ll share 5 tips that will help you
use metacognition in eLearning.

Metacognitive Knowledge vs. Metacognitive

Regulation

Based upon the research of Flavell (1979, 1987) and Schraw& Dennison
(1994), metacognition involves 2 distinct elements: knowledge and
regulation.

Metacognitive Knowledge is the information that learners actually

know about themselves, as well as the various problem-solving
approaches that can be used, and what is required to complete a
particular learning activity. Flavell also states that metacognitive
knowledge involves three key variables:

 Self-awareness.
Learners’ capacity to recognize and acknowledge their own strengths
and weaknesses during the learning process.

 Task analysis.
What learners already know or can learn about the task at-hand, as
well as what they will need to successfully complete the task. For
instance, they may understand that a complex problem will require
more time and critical thinking skills.

 Selection of strategy.
The strategies and problem-solving approaches that learners already
have at their disposal to complete the task. For example, they might
read through the research material before answering a set of
questions or engage in an online scenario before completing the
same process in real-world settings.
Metacognitive Regulation refers to how well learners are able to
modify their mental processes in order to take control of their learning
experience. For instance, they might fine tune their post-evaluation
process, plan more effectively, or re-evaluate their learning goals to
prepare for the next learning activity.

Best Practices To Enhance Metacognitive Skills

According to Fogarty (1994), in order to enhance their metacognitive

skills learners must participate in the three different phases of
metacognition, which are:

1. Creating a study plan.

Learners should create a study plan before beginning any learning
task.

2. Monitoring their comprehension.

Learners must be able to monitor their understanding and
comprehension throughout the task, making adjustments as needed.

3. Evaluating.
After the task has been completed learners should evaluate their
learning processes and determine how they can improve.

5 Instructional Design Tips To Enhance Metacognition

in eLearning

1. Integrate a wide range of skills and subjects.

In the real world learners will need to be able to apply their
metacognitive abilities in a wide range of situations and settings. As
such, you will want to integrate a wide range of skills and subjects
into your eLearning course design, so that your learners can fine tune
their metacognitive talents by completing diverse learning tasks.

2. Model the metacognitive process.

Leading by example is one of the most effective ways to encourage
metacognition in your learners. Create a tutorial
or video presentation that showcases the metacognitive process.
 State the problem or question in the beginning of the presentation;
then guide them through the steps you would use to solve it. Be as
detailed as possible and include every mistake they could make
along the way, as mistakes can serve as invaluable teaching tools as
well.

3. Give them control.

Allow students to take control of their own eLearning experience by
giving them freedom of choice. Give them the ability to choose what
projects to complete, when, as well as which topics they would like to
explore. By doing this, you generate authentic interest, rather than
forcing them to master a particular subject. They are also more likely
to use their critical thinking, analysis, and creative thinking skills to
solve the problem if they were the ones who chose to tackle the
problem themselves.

4. Review, identify, and evaluate.

At the end of every eLearning activity, encourage your students to
review, identify, and evaluate the process. Ask them to review the
eLearning activity, itself, including their personal opinions about it.
Then ask them to identify the strategies they utilized and why they
chose these strategies, before evaluating their
overall performance and assessing their strengths and weaknesses
throughout the task.

5. Encourage learners to differentiate what they know from what

they need to know.
The main goal of any eLearning experience is to fill the learning gap,
whatever or however large that gap might be. Before each eLearning
activity encourage your learners to determine what they currently
know and what they need to learn by the end of the task. This might
be developing specific skills or acquiring new information. Once they
have completed the task, have them evaluate their original
statements in order to determine if they have achieved their individual
goals. You can also ask them to modify or add to their statements
throughout the eLearning activity if necessary.

Metacognition gives your learners the ability to self-regulate and self-

reflect, whether they have the skills and information they need to tackle
challenges in and out of the virtual classroom. You can utilize these
tips and best practices to develop metacognition in eLearning and
benefit your online learners by facilitating their learning process and
helping them to achieve better results.

Using metacognition in eLearning can empower your audience, but they

must also first have the motivation and drive to become active
participants. The article Intrinsic Motivation In Online
Training features 6 top tips to help you bring intrinsic motivation into
your online learning environment.