Characterization of landfilled materials: screening of the enhanced landfill mining 

potential 
Mieke Quaghebeur a, 
*, Ben Laenen a, Daneel Geysen b, Peter Nielsen a, Yiannis Pontikes b, Tom Van 
Gerven c, Jeroen Spooren a 
a 
Separation and Conversion Technology, VITO, Boeretang 200, 2400 Mol, Belgium b 
Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, K.U. Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 44, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium c 
Department of Chemical Engineering, K.U. Leuven, de Croylaan 46, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium 
a r t i c l e i n f o 
Article history: Received 30 May 2011 Received in revised form 8 June 2012 Accepted 19 June 2012 Available online 3 July 
2012 
Keywords: Enhanced landfill mining Resource recovery Recycling of mixed waste streams 
a b s t r a c t 
The main objective of “Enhanced landfill mining” is the valorization of the excavated waste materials that have been stored in the 
landfill.  Previous  landfill  mining  projects  have  shown  that  each  landfill  site  has  its own potential with regard to landfill mining. 
Factors such as the age of the landfill, type of landfill and the country or region where the landfill is located might have an impact 
on  the type of materials stored in the landfill and their valorization potential. In the present article, the valorization options for the 
materials  stored  at  the  REMO  site  in  Houthalen  (Belgium)  are  assessed  based  on  excavation  tests  done  at  locations  containing 
either  municipal  solid  waste  (MSW)  or  industrial  waste  (IW).  The  results  reveal  differences  in  the  composition  and  the 
characteristics  of  the  waste  materials  with  regard  to  type  of  waste (MSW versus IW) and the period during which the waste was 
stored.  Based  on  the  characteristics  of  the  different  fractions,  an  initial  assessment  was  made  with  regard  to  their  valorization 
potential.  For  the  plastics,  paper/cardboard,  wood  and  textile  recovered  in  this  study,  waste-to-energy  is  the  most  suitable 
valorization  route  since  the  level  of  contamination  was  too  high  to  allow  high  quality  material  recycling.  For  metals, 
glass/ceramics,  stones  and  other  inerts in the waste, material valorization might be possible when the materials can adequately be 
separated.  The  amount  of  combustible  in  the  excavated waste varied between 23 and 50% (w/w) with a calorific value of around 
18 MJ kg 
À1 
dw  and  confirm  the  large  potential  of  waste-to-energy 
for  landfill  mining.  All  waste  samples  recovered  from  the  landfill  contained  a  large  amount  (40e60%  (w/w))  of  a  fine  grained 
(<10  mm)  mainly  mineral  waste  material.  Especially  for  industrial  waste  (mainly  shredder  from ELV), the fines contained high 
concentrations  of  heavy  metals  (Cu,  Cr,  Ni  and  Zn)  and  offer  opportunities for metal extraction and recovery. The development 
of  a  treatment  plant  that  enables  maximum  resource  recovery  remains  however  one  of  the  technological  challenges  for  further 
development of enhanced landfill mining. 
© 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 
1. Introduction 
In  the  last  decade  new  technologies  and  processes  have  emerged  that enable more efficient recycling of materials from often 
complex  and  heterogeneous  waste  streams  (Simonds,  1999;  Archer  et  al.,  2005;  Cossu  and  Gadia,  2007).  The  principal drivers 
for  these  developments  are  the  local  and  EU  legislation  on  waste  (Directive  2008/98/EC),  as  well  as  the  growing  demand  for 
metals, 
high  quality  recycled  aggregates  and  waste  derived  fuels.  Both  the  legislative  framework  and  increasing  market  prices  for  the 
recycled  materials  create  conditions  that  justify  the  development  of  new  waste  recycling  and separation technologies (Archer et 
al., 2005; Forton et al., 2006; Tachwali et al., 2007). 
Recently, the concept of Enhanced Landfill Mining (ELFM) has been proposed as an improved practice of landfill mining. 
Essen- tially, ELFM includes the combined and integrated valorization of (historic and future) waste streams as both materials 
(Waste-to- Material, WtM) and energy (Waste-to-Energy, WtE), while * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ32 14335646; fax: þ32 
14321186. 
E-mail  addresses:  mieke.quaghebeur@vito.be  (M.  Quaghebeur),  ben.laenen@  vito.be  (B.  Laenen), 
daneel.geysen@mtm.kuleuven.be  (D.  Geysen),  peter.nielsen@  vito.be  (P.  Nielsen),  yiannis.pontikes@mtm.kuleuven.be  (Y. 
Pontikes), 
respecting stringent ecological and social criteria (Jones et al., accepted for publication). One of the main drivers of “Enhanced 
landfill mining” (ELFM) is the valorization of waste materials tom.vangerven@cit.kuleuven.be (T. Van Gerven), 
jeroen.spooren@vito.be (J. Spooren). 
excavated from landfills. Due to the heterogeneous nature of the 
Journal of Cleaner Production 55 (2013) 72e83 
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records waste streams in landfills, separation and treatment of the different 
provide no detailed information with regard to 
the physico- waste streams are required to enable the generation of valuable 
chemical properties of the waste necessary to assess 
the valoriza- (recycled) materials. Specific treatment and separation schemes are 
tion potential, an exploratory field test was carried out 
at the REMO available for the treatment of various specific (often) heterogeneous 
site. The objectives of the field test were to: waste 
streams such as shredder residue, bottom ash, C&D waste and contaminated soil. Most of these schemes make use of a combina- 
Evaluate differences in composition of the waste 
with regard to tion of dry and/or wet mechanical separation techniques including 
the type of waste stored (household versus 
industrial waste); crushing, milling, sieving, magnetic and eddy current separation of 
Assess the variation in composition for each 
specific waste ferrous and non-ferrous metals, density separation based on air 
type; flow, water based density separation 
techniques, jigging, etc. In 
Investigate the impact of storage time on the 
composition and case of ELFM, the treatment plant should be able to recover high 
characteristics of the waste; quality waste fuel and 
materials (e.g., ferro and non-ferro metals) 
Compare the composition of the waste with data 
available in from a mixture of heterogeneous waste streams of which the 
the records and in literature; composition and 
hence the physical and chemical properties are 
Make an assessment of the valorization potential of 
the influenced by the age of the waste and the degradation of the waste 
materials stored in the landfill. over time. Part of 
the waste streams are even residues from mixtures of the residual waste originating from elaborated treatment 
2. Materials and methods schemes that were designed 
in the past to recover and recycle materials from specific waste streams. The development of a sepa- 
2.1. Site description ration plant that enables 
maximum resource recovery is one of the technological challenges of enhanced landfill mining. 
The REMO landfill has been in operation since the 
start of the Previous pilot and pre-feasibility studies around the world as 
1970s and is located in Houthalen-Helchteren in the 
province of well as completed landfill mining projects have shown that 
Limburg in Belgium. The total area of the landfill 
containing non- different landfill sites have different potential with regard to 
hazardous waste that is considered for enhanced 
landfill mining landfill mining. Factors such as the age of the landfill, type of 
is about 1.286.200 m landfill, meteorological, 
hydrological conditions and the country or region where the landfill is located might have an impact on the type of materials 
stored in the landfill and their valorization potential. To determine the recycling potential for a specific landfill, quantitative and 
qualitative analysis of the waste streams stored are essential (Prechthai et al., 2008). 
The  Closing  the  Circle  project  (CtC)  in  Houthalen-Helchteren  (Belgium)  is  the  first  ELFM  case study. The feasibility of the 
CtC/  ELFM  was  investigated  through  several  studies  and  analysis.  The  impact  on  biodiversity  and  recovery  of  natural  land  is 
described by De Vocht and Descamps (2011). The economic feasibility of ELFM was explored and special attention was given to 
the  environmental  impact  through the calculation of the carbon footprint (Van Passel et al., accepted for publication). Although it 
is  clear  that  all  these  aspects  are  important,  the  feasibility  of  ELFM  will  also  be  deter-  mined  by  the  quality  of  the  materials 
retained  in  the  landfill  and  the  WtM  and  WtE  technologies  available  for  valorization.  Therefore,  this  paper  focuses  on  the 
characteristics  and  the  valorization  potential  of  the  waste  streams  stored  at  the  REMO  site  in  Houthalen-Helchteren  (Belgium) 
obtained  during  an  exploratory  field  test  (EFRO-project  475,  2010e2011).  At  the  REMO  site  around  15  million  tons  of  waste 
have  been  landfilled  since  the  beginning  of  the  1970s.  Both  household  and  industrial wastes have been land- filled. Records are 
available specifying the amount, the type and the location of the different waste streams within the landfill. Since the 
2 
.  The landfill has been divided into sections based on the type of waste stored, the period during which the 
section  was  in  operation  and  the  location  in  the  landfill.  For  each  section  information  is  available  with  regard  to  the  type  and 
amount  of  waste  stored.  Roughly  half  of  the  16.5  million  tons  that have been landfilled at REMO is household waste. The other 
half  comprises  industrial  waste  such  as  shredder  material  from  the  ELV  recycling,  metallurgical  slags,  pyrite  containing  slags, 
dried  sludge,  etc.  Leachate collection and treatment, soil protection measurements and methane recovery are in place and comply 
with the Flemish and European legislation (VLAREM, landfill Directive/1999/31/EC). 
2.2. Excavation and sampling procedure 
An  important  aspect  of  the  field  test  was  the  design  of  the  sampling  procedure.  Several  sampling  methods were considered, 
however,  due  to  the  high  costs  related  to  the  excavation  and  analysis  of  the  samples  a  more  practical  approach  was  followed 
taking  into  account  the  information available with regard to the different sections in the landfill. It was therefore decided to test 6 
different  locations in detail during the field test. An overview of the type of waste and the time of disposal at a specific location is 
given  in  Table  1.  The  selection  of  the  test  locations  was  based  on  the  type  of  waste  and  the  period during which the waste was 
stored.  For  municipal  solid waste (MSW), the aim was to select 4 locations that varied with regard to the period during which the 
waste was generated. The 
Table 1 Description of the waste samples taken at the selected sampling locationsof the field test. 
Number Year of storage Type of waste Top liner Bottom liner Description of waste Depth of landfill (m) 
1 1980e1985 MSW 1 m clay þ 1 m soil Clay Municipal solid waste originating from both 
households, businesses and industrial companies 
11 
2 1985e1990 MSW 1 m clay þ 1 m soil Clay þ 2 mm foil Municipal solid waste originating from 
businesses and industrial companies 
13 
3 1990e1995 MSW 1 m clay þ 1 m soil Clay þ 2.5 mm foil Municipal solid waste originating from 
businesses and industrial companies 
11 
4 1995e2000 IW 1 m clay þ 1 m soil Clay þ 2.5 mm foil Industrial waste rich in shredder and fine 
residues such as sludge 
9 
5 1985e1990 IW 1 m clay þ 1 m soil Clay þ 2 mm foil Industrial waste 8 6 1995e2000 MSW 1 m clay þ 1 m soil Clay þ 2.5 mm 
foil Municipal solid waste originating from 
businesses and industrial companies 
13 
M. Quaghebeur et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 55 (2013) 72e83 73 
 
maximum  storage  time  of  the  MSW  varied  between  14  and  29  years  and  the  locations  were  chosen  to  collect  data  that  are 
representative  for  the  majority  of  the  municipal  solid  wastes  stored at the REMO site. For industrial waste only 2 locations were 
investigated  of  which  the  maximum storage time of the waste varied between 14 and 24 years. Since a variety of industrial waste 
materials  have  been  stored  at  the  REMO  site,  it  was  decided  to  focus  on  the  locations rich in old and more recent shredder-like 
waste.  Locations  rich  in  metallurgical  slag, pyrite containing slag, MSWI-bottom ash, sludge, etc.were therefore not investigated 
in  this  study.  It  is  clear  that  for  IW  the  exploratory  field  test  was  carried  out  to  get  a  first  impression  of  the  variability  of  the 
landfill but that more research is needed to ensure a complete characterization of the landfill. 
A  cactus  grab  crane was used to collect the waste samples up to the maximum depth of the landfill (Fig. 1). A shaft of about 1 
  1  m  and  up  to  15  m  deep  was  excavated  at  each  location  where  waste  samples  were  collected  at each depth interval (0e1 m, 
1e2  m,.)  in  the  bucket  of  a  wheel  loader.  This  sample  was  subsequently  loaded  into  a container in which the sample was mixed 
and  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer  at  the bottom of the container. Oversized (>200 mm) objects such as boulders, metal bars and very 
large  sheets  of  plastic  were  separated  from  the  bulk  sample  and  their  volume/mass  percentage  was  estimated  and  recorded.  To 
collect  a  representative  sample  from  each  container,  a  grid  was  placed  on  top  of  the  waste  layer.  The  composition of the waste 
samples from two grid cells (see Fig. 1) was described by visual inspection without detailed sorting. The waste samples were then 
stored  in  closed  plastic  buckets  (30 L). During the field excavation tests around 130 samples were collected of which 38 samples 
were investigated in detail. 
2.3. Composition and characterization of the waste 
For most environmental analysis, soil and waste samples need to be dried at low temperature (<40 C) to avoid changes in 
M. Quaghebeur et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 55 (2013) 72e83 74 
Fig.  1.  Overview  of  sampling  method  used  at  the  REMO  closed  landfill  site.  A  cactus  grab  crane  was used to collect the waste 
samples  up  to  the  maximum  depth  of  the  landfill  (A).  A  shaft  of  about  1    1  m  and  up  to  15  m  deep  was  excavated  at  each 
location  during  which  waste  samples  were  collected  at  each  depth  interval  (0e1  m, 1e2 m,.) in the bucket of a wheel loader (B). 
This  sample  was  subsequently  loaded  into  a  container  (C)  in  which  the  sample  was  mixed  and  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer at the 
bottom of the container (D). 
composition  (e.g., volatilization of organic compounds or melting of plastics retained in the waste). Initial tests, however, showed 
that  a  drying  temperature  of  40  C  resulted  in  very  long  drying  periods (7e10 days) for the large samples (20e30 L) of excavated 
waste.  Since  the  temperature  inside  a  landfill  is  known  to  increase  up  90  C  (Klein  et  al.,  2001)  it  was decided to determine the 
moisture  content  of  the  waste samples by drying the samples in a ventilated oven at 70 C for 48 h. Each of the dried samples was 
then  screened  with  a  sieve  mesh  of  10  mm.  Subsequently,  the  composition  of  the  oversized fraction was determined by manual 
sorting  into  8  sub-  fractions  (plastics,  textile,  wood,  paper/cardboard,  metal,  glass/  ceramics,  stone  and  an  undefined  fraction). 
The  weight  of  the  different  sub-fractions  was  determined  and  the  physical  and  chemical  composition  of  a  number  of 
representative  samples  were  analyzed  after  size reduction. An overview of the sample treatment scheme is presented in Fig. 2. In 
addition  to  the  analysis  of  the  individual  separated  fractions,  the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  some  of  the  non-sorted 
waste  samples  were  also  determined.  For  waste-to-energy  applications  characteristics  such  as  moisture  content,  ash  content, 
calorific  value and amount of organic carbon, total carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N) are needed to assess the efficiency. 
In  addition  the  amount  of  sulfur  (S),  chlorine  (Cl),  fluorine (F) and bromine (Br) of the waste is needed to control the amount of 
emission  levels  during  thermal  conversion.  The  inor-  ganic  composition  of  certain  fractions  was  analyzed  to  evaluate  the 
waste-to-material valorization options. 
The dry weight of the samples was analyzed according to CEN/ TS 15414:2006. The ash content was determined at 550 C and 
815  C  according  to  CEN/TS  15403:  2006.  The  gross  and  net  caloric  values  were  analyzed  at  constant  pressure  according  to 
CEN/TS  15400:2006.  Carbon  (C),  hydrogen  (H)  and  nitrogen  (N)  were determined using CEN/TS 15407:2006 while sulfur (S), 
chlorine  (Cl),  fluorine  (F)  and  bromine  (Br)  were  analyzed  using  CEN/TS  15408:2006. TOC was determined with the Ströhlein 
TOC-analyzer 
 
C-mat  5500  according to EN13137: 2001.EOX was determined according to the local CMA procedure CMA/3/N (based on NEN 
5735),  while the inorganic composition of the samples (Al, Ca, P, Fe, Mg, Mn, Na, Si, Ti, As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu, Hg, Pb, Zn, Te, Sn, 
Ba, Mn, Mo, Se, Sr and V) was analyzed using microwave assisted digestion with acid (HF/HNO 
3 
/HCl) with subsequent analysis by ICP-AES or ICP-OES (EN13656: 2002). 
3. Results and discussion 
3.1. Composition of the waste material 
3.1.1. Influence between type of waste material and composition 
In  Fig.  3  an overview is given of the composition of the waste excavated at each location. Since no trend could be observed in 
the  composition  of  the  waste  with  increasing  depth  of  the  landfill  (data  not  shown),  average  values  and standard deviations are 
presented  in  Fig.  3.  Significant  differences  in  composition  could  be  observed between the MSW and the IW. Although the main 
fraction  in  both  the  MSW  and  the  IW  was  a  fine  soil  type  waste  fraction,  the  amount  present  in  the  IW  (64Æ16%  (w/w))  was 
significantly  higher  than  that  in  the  MSW  (44  Æ  12%  (w/w))  based  on  dry  sieving  with  a  mesh  of 10 mm. The composition of 
thefine  fraction  could  not  be  described  in  detail  without  further  analysis.  It  is  however  clear  that  for  the  MSW,  part  of the fine 
fraction  is  composed of degraded garden and food materials. The amount of plastic, paper/cardboard and textile was higher in the 
MSW  compared  to  the  IW.  It  is  clear that the compo- sition of MSW is significantly different compared to the shredder- like IW 
examined  in  this  study.  During  the  manual  separation test both MSW and IW contained respectively 4 Æ 4% (w/w) and 8 Æ 6% 
(w/w)  of  an  unknown  fraction  of  which  the  origin could not be determined by visual inspection. Chemical analysis revealed that 
the  unknown  fraction  was  most  likely  a  mixture  of  degraded  organic  materials  and  sand  (further  results  not  included  in  this 
study). No unexpected hazardous materials were excavated in this study. 
3.1.2. Influence of storage time in the landfill and composition of the waste 
For  MSW,  information  on  the  composition  of  waste  samples  stored  during  a  period  of  14,  19,  24,  29  year  is  available. 
Although  the  standard  deviation  of  the  average  content  of  the  individual  fractions  is  large,  trends  can  be  observed  for  some 
fractions  with  regard  to changes over time. These changes can be attributed to degradation/ decomposition of the waste over time 
or due to differences in the 
M. Quaghebeur et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 55 (2013) 72e83 75 
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the sample pretreatment procedure to determine the composition and physical and chemical 
characteristics of the excavated samples. 
composition  of  the  initially  landfilled  waste  resulting from differ- ences in waste management procedures, legislation or changes 
in  the  type  of  goods  produced  and  consumed  during  a  specific  period.  Due  to  the  large  standard  deviation,  confirmation  of the 
trend  is  needed  by  comparison  with  independent  data.  In  the  Flemish  region  of  Belgium  data  on  the  composition  of  fresh 
municipal  solid waste have been gathered since 1993 (OVAM, 2003). In the OVAM study, the average composition of municipal 
solid waste collected was typically based on the analyses of up to 2000 samples (total weight equals to 13 ton) collected all across 
the  Flemish  region  (Table  2).  At  the  REMO  site,  the  amount  of  plastic  increased  from  10  to  25%  (w/w)  for  MSW  initially 
landfilled  between  1980  and  2000.  This  increase  probably  reflects  an  increase  in  production  and  consumption  of  plastic during 
this period. Analysis of the composition of fresh household waste sampled between 1993 and 2000 also showed an increase in the 
amount  of  plastic  (from  17  to  24%  (w/w))  (OVAM,  2003)  (Table  2).  The  decrease  in  metal  content  (4.3e2.2%  (w/w))  and  the 
content  of  glass/ceramic  (1.7e0.5%  (w/w))  over  time  in  MSW  is  most  likely  also  caused  by  changes  in  the  composition  of  the 
fresh  waste  as  confirmed  by  the  Flemish  records  (OVAM,  2003). For the paper/cardboard content, the difference from 4 to 14% 
(w/w)  between  waste  landfilled  in  1980  and  2000  can  most likely be attributed to degradation of the material in the landfill over 
time.  Especially  since  based  on  the  Flemish  records,  the  content  of  paper/cardboard  in fresh household waste seems to decrease 
slightly  in  more  recent  years  (Table  2).  Since  only  two  locations  were  investigated for IW, no detailed analysis could be carried 
out with regard to changes in the composition of IW over time. 
Few  studies  exist  in  which  the  influence  of  storage  time  on  the  composition  of  excavated  waste  is  examined.  The  results in 
this  study  show  that  for  most  fractions  (metals,  plastics,  glass/ceramics, stones and textile) the amount found in excavated waste 
is  comparable  to  the  amount  originally  present  in  the  waste  when  it  was  initially  landfilled  (Table  2).  For  MSW,  records  with 
regard  to  the  composition  of  fresh  waste  over  time  are  therefore  a  good  source  of  information  to  estimate  the  composition  of 
landfilled  waste.  The  organic  waste  (food,  vegetables,  garden  waste,.)  cannot  be  distinguished  after  15 years of landfilling. The 
material  degrades  and  is  transformed  into  a  fine  soil  like  fraction.  Also  paper/cardboard  seems  to  degrade  over  time.  The 
exploratory  field  test in the REMO site also revealed that the composition of exca- vated MSW changed with regard to the period 
(1980e2000)  during  which  the  waste  was  landfilled.  Especially  the  changes  in amount of plastics and metals over time (and to a 
lesser degree also changes in 
 
organic  waste,  paper/cardboard  and  textile)  might  have  an  impact  on  the  materials  and  amount  of  energy  that can be recovered 
from excavated MSW. 
3.1.3. Influence of geographic origin on composition of the waste 
It  is  known  that  the  composition  of  MSW  will  change  according  to  the  geographic  region  where  the  waste  is  generated 
(UNEP, 2004). This has been explained by differences in waste legislation, 
M. Quaghebeur et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 55 (2013) 72e83 76 
Fig. 3. Average composition and moisture content of municipal solid waste and industrial waste that had been stored in the 
REMO landfill for between 9 and 29 years. For each weight percentage a standard deviation is indicated by an error bar. 
recycling  practices,  cultural  and  consumer  habits,  standard  of  living,  etc.  (Thitame  et  al.,  2010;  Abu-Qudais  and  Abu-Qdais, 
2000).  Few  studies  have  however investigated the composition of excavated MSW after landfilling (Hogland et al., 2004; Kurian 
et  al.,  2004;  Prechthai  et  al.,  2008).  Variations  in  the  composition  of excavated waste can be observed between waste excavated 
from  a  landfill  in  Sweden,  Thailand  and  Belgium  (Table  3).  The  amount  of  combustibles  (plastics,  textile,  wood  and  paper) 
varied between 21 
 
Table 2 Average composition of fresh MSW sampled in the Flemish region of Belgium in the period 1993e2001 (OVAM, 2003). 
The composition at each period is based on manual separation of up to 2000 fresh MSW samples collected in the Flemish region. 
The average composition of fresh MSW in the period 1994e2001 was compared with the average composition of excavated 
MSW at location 6 of the REMO landfill as analyzed in this study. For the fresh waste the composition is based on the analysis of 
6 samples. The standard deviation is given between parentheses. 
Fresh MSW (OVAM, 2003) Excavated MSW (location 6, REMO) 
2000e2001 1995e1996 1994e1995 1993e1994 1994e2001 1995e2000 
Organic waste 43 48 48 49 47 (3) e Soil e e e e e 45 (18) Wood e e e e e 4.1 (4) Paper/cardboard 14 18 18 16 17 (2) 14 (8) Glass 
2.4 3.2 4.1 3.8 3 (0.8) 0.5 (À) Metals 3.2 3.9 4.1 3.7 4 (0.4) 2.2 (2) Plastics 24 17 17.0 17 16 (7) 25 (13) Textile 2.9 2.2 2.4 3.0 3 
(0.4) 3.1 (5) Hazardeous waste 0.68 0.87 0.55 0.55 1 (0.2) e Inert fraction 3.3 3.6 2.2 4.4 3 (0.9) 2.0 (6) Rest 5.9 3.6 2.8 2.0 4 (2) 
4.1 (4) 
and  50%  (w/w).  The  content  of  inerts  (glass/ceramics  and  stones)  varied  between  10  and  17%  (w/w)  while  the  amount  of  soil 
type material ranged between 34 and 60% (w/w). For metals the content varied between 3 and 6% (w/w). 
The  average  moisture  content  of  the  waste  samples  excavated  at  one  location  at  the  REMO  landfill  varied  between  48  and 
66%  (w/w)  and  is  comparable  to  previous  reported  values  (Hogland  et  al.,  2004;  Prechthai  et  al.,  2008).  During the excavation 
test  it  was  observed  that  the  moisture  content  in  the  landfill  varied  signifi-  cantly  due  to  the  presence  of  poor-draining  or 
impervious  layers  in  the  landfill.  Some  layers  were  saturated  with  water,  while  other  regions  in  the  near  vicinity  were  dry. For 
each  location  large  difference  in  moisture  content  were  indeed  observed  with  regard  to  the  depth  of  the  landfill  (standard 
deviation  between 10 and 48%). The water balance of the landfill and hence the moisture content of the excavated waste can vary 
significantly  and  need  to be taken into consideration when evaluating the valorization and treatment options for enhanced landfill 
mining. 
3.2. Degradation of the waste material: changes in calorific value and total amount of waste 
For  MSW  the  average  calorific  value  and  the  average  TOC  content  of the waste excavated at the 4 locations were calculated 
using  the  individual  material  fractions  (<10  mm,  plastic,  paper/cardboard,  wood,  textile, glass/ceramic, metal and stone) at each 
location  (Fig.  3)  and  the  calorific  value  and  the  TOC  content  of  the  individual  material  fractions.  For  plastic,  paper/cardboard, 
wood  fractions  and  the  fines  (<10  mm),  measured  TOC  and  calorific  values  were  used  (see  paragraph  3.4).  For  textile  values 
from literature were used (TOC-content 55% (w/w) (UNEP, 2009), calorific value 
Table 3 Comparison of the average composition of excavated MSW from this field test with that of other landfill mining studies. 
For Sweden the average composition of the waste from the Masalycke and Gladsax landfill were used as reported by Hogland et 
al. (2004). For Thailand the average composition of excavated waste from the Nonthaburi dump was used as reported by 
Prechthai et al. (2008). The standard deviation is given between parentheses. The number of samples (N) analyzed during each 
study is indicated. 
Country (age) Reference Number of samples (N) 
Thailand (3e5 years old) 
Sweden (17e25 year old) 
Belgium (14e29 years old) Prechthai et al. (2008) 
Hogland et al. (2004) 
This study 
12 6 23 
Glass 6.5 0.5 (1) 1.3 (0.8) Inert fraction (stone) 3.3 16 (9) 10 (6) Metal 6.4 1.6 (0.4) 2.8 (1) Textile 7.6 1.8 (2) 6.8 (6) Wood 8 7.2 
(5) 6.7 (5) Paper/cardboard 3.3 7.2 (7) 7.5 (6) Plastic/rubber/foam 31 4.4 (3) 17 (10) Soil 34 60 (13) 44 (12) 
M. Quaghebeur et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 55 (2013) 72e83 77 
À1 18.8 MJ kg 
 dw (UNEP, 2009)). For glass/ceramic, metal and stone the calorific value and the TOC content were neglected. 
As illustrated in Fig. 4, the calorific value and the TOC concen- trations in MSW decreased respectively from 11.8 to 6.7 MJ 
kg 
À1 
dw  and  28  to  19%  (w/w)  with  increasing  storage  time  in  the 
landfill.  This  decrease  is  most  likely  the  result of decomposition of C-rich material into landfill gas over time. Landfill gas is the 
mixture  of  carbon  dioxide  and  methane,  and  other  trace  components,  gener-  ated  by biological decomposition of organic waste. 
At  the  REMO  landfill,  methane  gas is collected in the landfill and converted to electrical energy. The most important factors that 
affect  methane  generation  include  waste  composition,  moisture  content,  temper-  ature,  waste  nutrient  level, and the presence or 
absence  of  buffering  agents  (which  may  be  provided  from  sources  such  as  cover  soils).  It is therefore clear that the degradation 
varies  significantly  between  different  landfills  as  well  as  inside  each  landfill.  In  this  study,  the  average  degradation  could  be 
described reasonably well with a first order k 1⁄4 decay curve 0.0269 year 
À1 
] [C(t) 1⁄4 C 
0 (Fig. 3). The e 
Àkt ; factor R 
2 
1⁄4 0.98, C 
0 
1⁄4 42%; ‘k’ is the first order rate constant and reflects the rate at which the degradation of carbon- rich material occurs. The 
estimated value can be compared to the first order rate constant often used in models to predict methane recovery from landfills. 
Although various types of models are available (Vogt and Augenstein, 1997), simple first order models have been used 
successfully to describe and predict landfill gas generation (Vroonhof and Croezen, 2006) with k-values ranging between 0.02 
year 
À1 
en 0.10 year 
À1 
. The factor ‘C 
0 
’  represents  the  concentration  of  TOC  in  the  MSW  at  the  time  of  burial. 
Despite  the  heterogeneity  of  the  organic  matter  content  of  fresh  organic  MSW,  several  studies  have  shown  that  in  Europe  the 
average TOC is constant around 43e44% (w/w) (Baky and Eriksson, 2003; Jiménez 
 
fine  fraction separated from waste by Hogland et al. (2004). The calorific value and the TOC concentration for the soil like MSW 
seem higher than those for the fine fraction IW. In addition, the calorific value (2.2e4.8 MJ kg 
À1 
dw)  and  the  TOC  concentration  (7.6e12%  (w/w))  decreased  with  increasing  storage  time  of 
the  MSW.  A  large  portion  of  the  organic  carbon  in  the  soil like fraction has been converted and recovered as landfill gas during 
storage in the REMO landfill. Further stabilization of the organic matter by composting the soil type fraction after excavation was 
therefore not considered in this study. In Sweden lower calorific values (0.4e0.9 MJ kg 
À1 
) were reported for fines screened from waste that had been landfilled for a period of 14 years (Hogland et al., 
2004). 
The  concentrations  of  major  and  minor  elements  determined  in  the  fine,  soil  type  fraction  are  presented  in  Table  5.  The 
average  chemical  composition  of the fine fraction separated from IW clearly contains more Ca, Fe and metals such as Cr, Cu, Ni, 
Pb  and  Zn  compared  to  the  soil  type  fraction  originating  from  MSW.  For  MSW,  a  decrease  in  the concentration of As, Cd, Cr, 
Cu,  Hg,  Ni,  Pb  and  Zn  with  decreasing  storage  time  could  be  observed  and  can  most  likely  be  attributed to an improved initial 
quality  of  the  fresh  MSW  that  has  been  landfilled  over  time.  The  concentrations  of  heavy  metals  in  the  fine  fraction  of  MSW 
investigated  in  this  study  are  generally  higher compared to the values reported for a landfill mining study in Sweden (Hogland et 
al.,  1995)  but  are  in  agreement  with  values  reported  for  a  landfill  site  in  Thailand  (Prechthai  et  al.,  2008).  A  magnet  was 
subsequently  used  to  determine  the  amount  of  ferrous  metals  in  the  soil  type  fraction. The magnetic fraction in the fine fraction 
from IW was significantly higher (25e29% (w/w)) than the magnetic fraction from MSW (0.5e5.3% (w/w)). 
For  MSW,  an  increase  in  the  amount of magnetic material was observed with increasing age of the waste. Since the magnetic 
fraction  separated  from  the  soil  type fraction was still a mixture of metals, oxides and other minerals, XRF analysis after ignition 
combined  with  microscopic  analyses was used to determine the amount and speciation of the metals present in the magnetic frac- 
tion  (data  not  presented).  The amount of metallic iron in the magnetic fraction was estimated to be between 8 and 9% (w/w) with 
the metallic iron often embedded in an oxide-rich matrix (Fig. 5). 
3.4. Characteristics of plastics 
The plastic fraction is characterized by an elevated ash content (20e35% (w/w)) and a lower calorific value (19e28 MJ kg 
Fig.  4.  Relation  between  average  TOC  concentration and maximum storage time of the “soil type” waste fraction separated from 
MSW  at the REMO landfill (left axis). Correlation between the calorific value (right axis) and the average TOC concentration for 
the “soil type” waste fractions separated from excavated MSW and IW landfilled between 1980 and 2000 at the REMO site. 
obtained and Garcia (1992)). The fact that the value for C 
0 
in  this  study  (42%  (w/w))  is  similar  to  the  reported  values  in 
literature  suggests  that  the  methodology  and  the  sampling  procedures  used  for MSW in this exploratory field test were adequate 
and representative. 
The  decay  curve  was  subsequently  used  to  calculate  the  amount  of  MSW  waste  that  was  lost  during  degradation.  Data 
available  with  regard  to  type,  amount  and  period  during  which  the  waste  was  landfilled  at  a  specific  location  in  the  REMO 
landfill  was  used  as  input.  Calculations  predict  that  from  the 7.5 million ton dry MSW (10.2 million ton wet) initially landfilled, 
approximately 1.5 million ton dry organic matter (or 20% (w/w)) was lost during landfilling. 
3.3. Characterization of fraction <10 mm 
The  fraction  <10  mm  is  the  major  fraction in both MSW and IW and is composed of all the waste materials that pass through 
a  sieve  with a mesh size of 10 mm. Due to the unknown and heterogeneous nature of the material, this fine, soil type fraction was 
analyzed  in  detail.  The  results  of  the  properties  relevant  for  energy  recovery  and  material valorization are presented in Tables 4 
and 5. 
The ash content for MSW seems generally lower than the ash content for IW and is comparable to the ash content reported for 
the 
À1 
)  compared  to  the  ash  content  and  calorific  value  of  mixed 
plastic streams reported in literature (Phyllis database) (ash content: 1%; 
Table 4 Average characteristics of the soil type waste fraction (<10 mm) separated from waste samples excavated at the REMO 
site during the field test. The standard deviation is given between parentheses. The number of samples (N) on which each result is 
based is indicated. 
Location 1 2 3 6 5 4 
Type MSW MSW MSW MSW IW IW 
Age 1980e1985 1985e1990 1990e1995 1995e2000 1985e1990 1995e2000 
Number of samples (N) 2 2 1 2 1 2 
Ashcontent (815 C) 85 (7) 77 (2) 64.4 80.9 (5) 87.50 85.2 (2) Total carbon (%) 7.8 (5) 11 (0.8) 14.7 11.3 (5) 5.93 7.1 (5) TOC 
(%) 7.6 (3) 9.5 (0.4) 12 12.4 (5) 4.60 5.4 (3) Hydrogen (H) (%) 0.88 (0) 1.2 (0.1) 1.7 1.1 (0.1) 0.81 1.2 (0.2) Nitrogen (N) (%) 
0.39 (0.2) 0.53 (0.0) 0.66 0.39 (0.1) 0.30 0.28 (0.1) Net calorific value (MJ kg 
À1 
dw) 2.2 (0.7) 3.2 (0.5) 4.7 4.8 (2) 1.30 2.0 (2) Bruto calorific value (MJ kg 
À1 
dw) 2.4 (0.8) 3.4 (0.6) 5.7 5.0 (2) 2.30 2.1 (2) Bromide (%) 0.03 (0) 0.03 (0.0) 0.03 0.03 (0.0) 0.03 0.03 
(0) Chloride (%) 0.15 (0.02) 0.41 (0.2) 0.26 0.26 (0.2) 0.17 0.36 (0.09) Fluoride (%) 0.009 (0.005) 0.01 (0.0) 0.01 0.02 (0.0) 0.30 
0.38 (0.5) Sulfur (%) 0.19 (0.1) 0.26 (0.1) 0.23 0.22 (0.1) 0.31 1.5 (2) 
M. Quaghebeur et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 55 (2013) 72e83 78 
 
À1 calorific value: 35 MJ kg 
(Table 6). Since the plastics were sepa- rated from the waste by handpicking without further washing 
or  treatment  it  is  likely  that  some  dust  or  sand  particles  sticking  to  the  plastics  influenced  the  measurements.  The  chloride 
concentration varied between 0.5 and 7.3% (w/w). 
In  this  study,  no  differences  could  be  observed  in  TOC  concen-  tration  and  calorific  value  between  the  plastic  fraction 
separated  from  IW  versus  MSW.  The  amount  of  TOC  compares  well  with  the  values  reported  for  plastics  in  MSW  in  the 
Netherlands  (59%  (w/w))  (Agentschap  NL,  2010).  The  plastic  fraction  separated  from  IW,  seems  to  contain  higher 
concentrations  of  metals  such  as  Ba,  Cd,  Cr,  Cu,  Pb  and  Zn  compared  to  the  plastic  fraction  from  MSW  (Table  7).  The 
concentrations  of  heavy  metals  in  the  plastics  recovered  from  MSW  in  this  study  were  up  to  factor  10  high  compared  to  the 
values  reported  in  other  studies  (Prechthai  et  al.,  2008;  He  et  al.,  2006;  Riber  et  al.,  2005).  No  indication  was  found  that  the 
calorific  value  of  the  plastic  waste  is  influenced  by  degradation  of  the  plastic  during  storage  since  no  change  in  calorific value 
with  increasing  storage  time  of  the  plastic  waste  could  be  observed.  It  is  known  that  plastics are very durable and degrade little 
during landfilling (Shah et al., 2008). 
3.5. Characterization of paper/cardboard 
Only  the  paper/cardboard  fractions  separated  from  MSW  were  analyzed  in  this  study.  The  paper/cardboard  fraction  was 
charac- terized by a high and variable ash content (25e61% (w/w)) 
M. Quaghebeur et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 55 (2013) 72e83 79 
Table 5 Average concentrations of major and minor elements of the soil type waste fraction (<10 mm) separated from MSW and 
IW waste samples excavated at the REMO site during the field test. In the bottom rows the limit values of the Flemish 
regulations VLAREA and VLAREBO for the heavy metals are given for comparison. The standard deviation is given between 
parentheses. The number of samples (N) on which each result is based is indicated. 
Nr Type Year N Si g/kg Ca g/kg Fe g/kg EOX als 
Cl mg/kg 
As mg/kg Cd mg/kg Cr mg/kg Cu mg/kg Hg mg/kg Ni mg/kg Pb mg/kg Zn mg/kg 
1 MSW 1980e1985 2 260 (57) 31 (17) 34 (23) 715 (686) 61 (30) 8.5 (8) 770 (325) 285 (78) 2.0 (2) 335 (134) 500 (396) 670 
(297) 2 MSW 1985e1990 2 235 (35) 35 (1) 39 (4) 960 (481) 31 (28) 8.4 (5) 380 (141) 205 (106) 0.50 (0.1) 164 (107) 310 (184) 
735 (219) 3 MSW 1990e1995 1 220(À) 33 (À) 18 (À) 670 (À) 7.2 (À) 3.3 (À) 720 (À) 760 (À) 0.27 (À) 160 (À) 180 (À) 800 (À) 
6 MSW 1995e2000 2 243 (6) 14 (7) 17 (3) 1787 (2872) 9.1 (2) 3.3 (2) 113 (6) 107 (37) 0.19 (0.1) 46 (2) 172 (89) 463 (329) 5 IW 
1985e1990 1 230(À) 73 (À) 53 (À) 410 (À) 19 (À) 15 (À) 3800 (À) 1200 (À) 2.4 (À) 2200 (À) 1100 (À) 2600 (À) 4 IW 
1995e2000 2 181 (126) 78 (88) 54 (8) 284 (334) 22 (6) 19 (1) 5730 (7453) 5750 (6010) 0.99 (1) 4640 (6166) 2640 (2489) 5600 
(849) 
VLAREBO limit values unrestricted use of soil (mg/kg) 
a 
19 2.6 91 135 1.7 56 120 529 VLAREBO limit values for contaminated 
soil (type III) (mg/kg) 
a 
103 6 240 396 4.8 95 560 881 VLAREBO limit values for use of soil in 
or as 
construction material (mg/kg) 
250 10 880 375 5 250 1250 1250 
VLAREA limit values for use of waste as soil 
fertilizer and compost (mg/kg) 
150 6 250 375 5 50 300 900 
VLAREA guidance value for use of waste in or 
as construction materials (mg/kg) 
250 10 1250 375 5 250 1250 1250 
a 
Calculated with 2% clay, 10% OM and pH 7. 
Fig. 5. Photomicrographs of thin-sections from the magnetic fraction of the soil type waste fractions showing details of a metallic 
Fe particle embedded by iron-oxide from IW landfilled in 1995e2000 (left) and IW landfilled in 1985e1990 (right). 
(Table  8).  The  TOC  concentration  varies  between  25  and  34%  (w/w)  and  is  comparable  to  the  TOC  concentration reported for 
paper in MSW (27% (w/w)) (Agentschap NL, 2010). The net calorific value varied between 6,7 and 12 MJ kg 
À1 
dw and is slightly lower than the caloric value reported for mixed paper streams (15 MJ kg 
À1 
dw).  The  metal  concentration  is  generally  lower  than  the 
concentration reported for the plastic fraction (Table 9). 
3.6. Valorization options 
Based  on  the  characteristics  of  the  individual  fractions  separated  from  the  waste,  the  valorization  options  were  assessed.  It 
should  however  be  taken  into  account  that  handpicking  was  used  in  this  study  to  separate  individual fractions from the original 
waste  samples.  During  full  scale  excavation  of  the  landfill,  a  specific  treatment  plant  will  be  designed  to  treat  and  separate the 
waste which could result in different characteristics (ash content, chem- ical composition,.) or level of contamination compared to 
the  fractions  obtained  during  this  study  by  handpicking.  Although  a  variety  of industrial waste materials have been stored at the 
REMO  site,  only  locations  rich  in  shredder  type  waste  were  inves-  tigated  in  the field test. For IW only the valorization options 
for shredder type waste material will therefore be evaluated. 
3.6.1. Fine soil type fraction 
For both IW and MSW more than 40% (w/w) of the waste material was classified as a “fine soil type fraction”. Since this 
 
3.6.2. fraction is a combination of all the materials that pass through 
Metals, glass/ceramic and stone a 10 mm sieve 
further treatment and fractionation will be 
Although the characteristics of these fractions have 
not been required to optimize the valorization of the materials contained 
presented in this paper, large part of these materials 
might be in this fraction. Three valorization options can be considered: i.e. 
suitable for material valorization. Further research 
including Waste-to-Energy, reuse as soil or construction material and metal 
leaching tests and determination of organic 
contaminants will be recovery. Waste-to-Energy is based on the large amount of 
required to further assess and confirm the valorization 
routes. For organic material (>10% for MSW; >8% for IW) present in this 
MSW, the metal fraction consists mainly of ferrous 
metals (75e84% fraction. When the organic material is removed, the remaining 
(w/w)) while the remaining non-ferrous is mainly 
aluminum (>90% material might be recycled as filler or construction material. It is, 
(w/w)) (OVAM, 2003). For IW, more variation can be 
expected. however, clear that the quality of the fine fraction may not always be suitable for material recovery because of elevated 
metal 
3.6.3. Paper/cardboard, textile, wood and plastic 
concentrations (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn), especially in the fine 
For the plastic, textile, paper/cardboard and wood 
excavated fraction from IW. One of the options is to reduce the concentra- 
from the landfill “Waste-to-Energy” with valorization 
of the resi- tion (and later on recover) metals such as Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, from the 
dues (e.g., slag, bottom ash) seems the most feasible 
valorization fine fraction. Although only preliminary results are available, 
route. The quality and state of the textiles recovered 
from the removal of the magnetic fraction could result in a reduction of the 
landfill, makes direct reuse as textile not an option. 
Also the paper/ concentration of metals by more than 50% (w/w). This can be 
cardboard, wood and plastic fractions are too 
heterogeneous or explained by the high amount of metal-oxides associated with 
contaminated to make the fractions suitable for direct 
material metallic iron (see Fig. 5). More research with regard to metal 
valorization. Technology to produce new 
paper/cardboard based on recovery will be done in the future. For MSW, a decrease in the 
recycled paper is available and well established 
(Miranda and concentration of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn can be observed 
Blanco, 2010). Recycling of post-consumer paper is, 
however, with decreasing storage time of the waste. For the most recent 
known to be problematic in paper pulping due to the 
high level of landfilled MSW (1995e2000), the fine fraction might even be 
contamination (food, glass,.). In addition it is likely 
that the valorized directly as soil fertilizer or compost without further 
degradation of the paper during storage in the landfill 
makes the treatment. The metal concentrations in this fraction is below the 
paper unsuitable for production of new paper since the 
fiber length Flemish limit values for use as soil fertilizer and compost 
is important in paper to paper recycling. Other material 
recycling (VLAREA) and approach the Flemish limit values for unrestricted 
options include recycling as cellulosic insulation 
material (patent reuse of excavated soil (VLAREBO, 2008) (Table 5). Further 
US7758719) or the use of paper pulp as pore forming 
agent in the research including leaching tests and determination of the 
brick production (Huybrechts et al., 2008). The 
efficiency of the concentrations of organic contaminants will be conducted on sub 
separation plant will determine to what extent material 
to material fractions of the treated soil type fraction to further assess the 
routes might be feasible for paper/cardboard in the 
future. valorization options. For the older MSW fines the concentrations 
With regard to material recycling of plastic, 
distinction can be of Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb exceed the limit values for compost and hence 
made between primary, secondary and tertiary 
recycling (ASTM further treatment is needed. 
D5033). Primary recycling is also called “closed-loop recycling” and 
Table 7 Average concentrations of major and minor elements of the plastic fraction separated from MSW and IW waste samples 
excavated at the REMO site during the field test. 
Nr Type Year Si g/kg Ca g/kg Fe g/kg EOX Cl 
mg/kg 
As mg/kg Ba mg/kg Cd mg/kg Cr mg/kg Cu mg/kg Hg mg/kg Ni mg/kg Pb mg/kg Zn mg/kg 
1  MSW  1980e1985  68  13  18  53,333  33  430  51  490  1767  0.6  327  550  1063  2  MSW  1985e1990  110 20 26 380 6.9 540 18 320 
150  0.36  86  280  620  3  MSW  1990e1995  100  15  13  9600  6.2  600  19  280  690  0.46  73  230  1700  6  MSW 1995e2000 41 7.8 10 
39,000  7.6  110  18  270  270  0.1  740  160  470  5  IW  1985e1990  72  26  23  3800  9.9  2300  47  780  10,000 2.0 640 1300 5500 4 IW 
1995e2000 74 17.5 38 1860 12 3600 41 530 2405 1.1 275 1900 3800 
M. Quaghebeur et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 55 (2013) 72e83 80 
Table 6 Average characteristics with standard deviation (between parentheses) of the plastics separated from waste samples 
excavated at the REMO site during the field test. The number of samples (N) on which each result is based is indicated. 
Location 1 2 3 6 5 4 
Type MSW MSW MSW MSW IW IW 
Age 1980e1985 1985e1990 1990e1995 1995e2000 1985e1990 1995e2000 
Number of samples (N) 3 1 1 2 1 1 
Ashcontent (815 C) 25 (2) 32 38 20 23 35 (2) Total carbon (%) 50 (2) 44 41 59 57 39 (7) TOC (%) 57 (4) 51 53 67 58 37 (16) 
Hydrogen (H) (%) 6.7 (1) 7 6.0 8.1 6.9 5.4 (0.2) Nitrogen (N) (%) 0.7 (0) 1 0.59 0.2 0.7 0.75 (0.5) Net calorific value (MJ kg 
À1 
dw) 24 (3) 21 18 27 26 21 (4) Bruto calorific value (MJ kg 
À1 
dw) 25 (3) 23 19 28 28 22.1 (4) Bromide (%) <0.025 (À) <0.025 <0.025 <0.025 <0.025 <0.025 (À) 
Chloride (%) 7.3 (3) 0 1.8 5.5 3.9 1.6 (1) Fluoride (%) 0.01 (0) 0 0.006 0.0 0.056 0.061 (0.03) Sulfur (%) 0.2 (0) 0 0.27 0.2 0.47 
0.42 (0.01) 
 
3.6.4. Table 8 
Resource mining: material and energy 
recuperation Average characteristics of the paper/cardboard separated from waste samples excavated at the REMO site during the 
field test. 
It is well known that waste can be turned into valuable raw materials providing both environmental and economic benefits. In 
Location 1 2 3 6 
enhanced landfill mining the objective is to combine and integrate 
Type MSW MSW MSW MSW 
the valorization of waste streams as both materials (Waste-to- 
Age 1980e1985 1985e1990 1990e1995 1995e2000 
Ashcontent (815 C) 43 61 25 35 Total carbon (%) 32 23 34 33 TOC (%) 34 25 33 31 
Material,  WtM)  and  energy  (Waste-to-Energy,  WtE),  while  respecting  stringent  ecological  and  social  criteria  (Jones  et  al., 
submitted for publication). 
Based on the characteristics of the individual fraction 
and Hydrogen (H) (%) 3.9 2.6 4.0 3.7 
the composition of the excavated MSW, the amount of 
combus- Nitrogen (N) (%) 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 Net calorific 
value (MJ kg 
tibles (paper, textile, plastic and wood) varied between 34 and 50% (w/w) depending on the period during which the MSW was 
landfilled. The more recent the waste, the more combustible materials it contained mainly due to the higher content of plastic in 
the fresh waste that was initially landfilled. The average calorific value of the combustible fraction recovered from MSW was 
18.2 Æ 0.6 MJ kg 11 6.7 12 12 À1 
dw) Bruto calorific 
value (MJ kg 
12 7.3 13 13 À1 
dw) Bromide (%) <0.025 <0.025 <0.025 <0.025 Chloride (%) 0.50 0.43 0.17 0.28 Fluoride (%) Sulfur (%) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 
0.31 0.19 0.31 0.90 
À1 
dw  and  varied  little  between  the  locations  studied.  The  average  ash  content  was  29  Æ  3%  (w/w).  It  is 
however possible that during full scale excavation of the landfill, 
it  can  be  described  as  mechanical recycling during which no modifications occur in the chemical properties of the polymers. The 
plastic  can  therefore  be  used  for  the  production  of  new  products  without  quality  loss.  Primary  recycling  is  often  limited  to 
thermo-  plastic  polymers  (PE,  PP,  PS,.)  (melting  and  re-extrusion  is  often  used)  and  post-industrial  packaging  waste. 
Post-consumer  plastic  is  seldom  recycled  through  re-extrusions  because  the  level  of  contamination  is  mostly  too  high  and  the 
logistics  involved  in  collection/separation  is  challenging.  Secondary  recycling  is  also  called  “mechanical  recycling  with 
downgrading”  and  it  involves  a  thorough  washing,  separation  and  mechanical  treatment  to  be  able  to  use  the  waste  for  the 
production  of  new  plastic  consumers  goods  such  as  piping,  plastic  bags,  plastic  chairs,..  Although  secondary  recycling  might 
technically  be  feasible  for  some  of the plastic recovered from the landfill it will be a challenge to make the process economically 
feasible taking into account the heteroge- 
a specific treatment plant will be used that is able to separate the combustibles more efficiently resulting in higher calorific values 
and  lower  ash  contents.  The  other  dominant  fraction  in  excavated  MSW  is  the  soil  like  fraction  which  varied  between  41  and 
45%.  Although  some  further  treatment  might  be  required,  this  mate-  rial  might  be  reused  as  soil  or  construction  material.  In 
addition  the  MSW  contained  an  average  content  of  10  Æ 6% (w/w) stones, 1.3 Æ 0.8% (w/w) glass and 2.8 Æ 1% (w/w) metals 
that can be recycled as raw materials. 
Although  a  variety  of industrial waste materials have been stored at the REMO site, only locations rich in shredder type waste 
were  investigated  in  the  field  test.  It  is  therefore  only  possible  to  evaluate  the  valorization  options  for shredder type waste. The 
amount  of  combustibles  in  the  shredder  type  waste  (23  Æ  8%  (w/w))  was  rather  low  compared  to  that  of  MSW.  The  calorific 
value of the combustibles was 18 Æ 2 MJ kg 
neity  and  the  quality  of  the plastic fraction recovered from the landfill (Table 6). It should also be mentioned that a limit value of 
100 mg kg 
À1 
dw and the ash content was 35 Æ 5% (w/w). Most of the shredder type waste consisted of a soil like material (64 Æ 16% (w/w)) 
which contained À1 
for  heavy  metals  such  as  Pb,  Cd,  Hg  and  Cr(VI)  is  stipulated  in  Europe  for  packaging  material  according  to the 
Council  Directive  94/62/EC  with  regard  to  packaging  and  packaging  waste.  It  is  well  known that elevated metal concentrations 
(e.g.,  Cd)  can  be  present  in  plastic recovered from landfill due to the type of softeners, stabilizers and pigments used in plastic in 
the past 
elevated  concentrations  of  heavy  metals  like  Cu,  Cr,  Ni  and  Zn.  Recovery  of  the  metals  combined  with  valorization  of  the 
mineral  material  as  construction  material  will  be  investigated  in  the  future.  In  addition  the  shredder  type  waste  contained  an 
average  content  of  10  Æ  10%  (w/w)  stones,  0.05  Æ  0.04%  (w/w)  glass  and  3.2 Æ 3% (w/w) metals that can be recycled as raw 
materials. It 
(Prudent et al., 1996; Rotter et al., 2004). Taking into account the elevated metal concentrations measured in the plastic recovered 
from the landfill (Table 7) it is unlikely that the excavated plastic will be suitable for primary or secondary material recycling. 
Tertiary  or  feedstock  recycling  of  plastic  uses  depolymerization  reactions  to  break  up  the  polymers  into  smaller  molecules, 
mostly  gasses  and  liquids,  that  can  be  used  as  feedstock  for the production of new plastics or petrochemical products (Al-Salem 
et  al.,  2009).  Although,  from  a  technical  point  of  view,  tertiary  recycling  might  be  a  good  option  for  plastic  recovered  from 
landfills, the number of industrial plants able to process plastic waste is still very limited in Europe. 
should  however  be  mentioned  that  for  the  shredder  type  waste  only  2  locations  were  investigated  in  detail  so future research is 
recommended to confirm the data and obtain a more represen- tative assessment of the valorization potential of this waste stream. 
Even  though landfills are a potential for both energy and material valorization, few landfills have been mined on commer- cial 
basis  so  far.  It  is  clear  that  both  technological,  economical  and  legislative challenges exist in order to start full scale recovery of 
resources from landfills (Van Passel et al., accepted for publication; Jones et al., accepted for publication; Krook et al., 2012). 
Table 9 Average concentrations of major and minor elements of the paper/cardboard fraction separated from MSW waste 
samples excavated at the REMO site during the field test. 
Nr Type Year Sig/kg Cag/kg Feg/kg EOXalsClmg/kg Asmg/kg Bamg/kg Cdmg/kg Crmg/kg Cumg/kg Hgmg/kg Nimg/kg 
Pbmg/kg Znmg/kg 
1  MSW  1980e1985  100  17 26 1300 39 240 1.4 310 150 0.45 120 440 900 2 MSW 1985e1990 130 32 29 640 9.7 480 16 200 210 
0.27  56  330  560  3  MSW  1990e1995  88  27  6.5  270  4.9  180 <0.40 140 570 0.38 45 54 520 6 MSW 1995e2000 91 33 30 260 5.5 
280 2.7 160 100 0.35 86 380 1900 
M. Quaghebeur et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 55 (2013) 72e83 81 
 
4. Conclusions 
In  this  paper  an  overview  is  given  of  the  composition  and  the  characteristics  of  the  waste materials stored at the REMO site 
based on data obtained during a field excavation study. The results reveal differences in the composition and the characteristics of 
the  waste  materials  with  regard  to  type  of  waste  (municipal  solid  waste  (MSW)  versus  industrial  waste  (IW))  and  the  period 
during  which  the  waste was stored. The study showed that for MSW changes in the amount of plastics and metals over time were 
mainly  influ-  enced  by  changes  in  the  composition  of  fresh  MSW  initially  land-  filled  over  time.  For  organic  waste  and 
paper/cardboard  changes  over  time  were  mainly  governed  by  degradation  of  the  material  during  landfilling.  Decomposition  of 
C-rich materials into landfill gas resulted in a significant decrease in calorific value (11.8e6.7 MJ kg 
À1 
dw)  for  MSW  with  increasing  storage  time  (from  14  to  29  years)  in  the  landfill.  For  the  REMO landfill, the 
degradation of MSW could be described reasonably well with a first order decay curve [C(t) 1⁄4 C 
0 
e 
Àkt 
; R 
2 
1⁄4 0.98, C 
0 
1⁄4 42%; k 1⁄4 0.0269 year 
À1 
].  Based  on  the  characteristics  of  the  different  fractions,  an  initial 
assessment  was  made  with  regard  to  their  valorization potential. For the plastics, paper/cardboard, wood and textile recovered in 
this  study,  waste-to-energy  is  the  most  suitable  valorization  route  since  the  level  of  contamination  was  too  high  to  allow  high 
quality material recycling. For metals, glass/ceramics, stones and other inerts in the waste, material valorization might be possible 
when  the  materials  can  be  separated  adequately.  The  amount  of  combustible in the excavated waste varied between 23 and 50% 
(w/w) with a calorific value of around 18 MJ kg 
À1 
dw  and  confirm  the  large  potential  of  waste-to-energy  for  landfill 
mining.  All  waste  samples  recovered  from  the  landfill  contained  a  large  amount  (40e60%  (w/w))  of  a  fine  grained  (<10  mm) 
mainly  mineral  waste  material.  Especially  for  industrial  waste  (mainly  shredder  from  ELV),  the  fines  contained  high 
concentrations  of  heavy  metals  (Cu,  Cr,  Ni  and  Zn)  and  offer  opportunities  for  metal  extraction  and  recovery.  Even  though 
landfills  are  a  potential  for  both  energy  and  material  valorization,  the  development  of  a  treatment  plant  that  enables  maximum 
resource recovery remains one of the technological challenges for further development of enhanced landfill mining. 
Acknowledgment 
The  authors  acknowledge  the  European  and  Flemish  authorities  for  the  funding  of,  respectively,  the  EFRO  project proposal 
‘Closing  the  Circle,  a  demonstration  of  Enhanced  Landfill  Mining  (ELFM)’  (with  additional  support  from  VEA)  and  the  IWT 
O&O Project 100517 ‘Closing the Circle & Enhanced Landfill Mining as part of the transition to SMM’. 
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