Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Biodegradation and hard machining performance comparison of eco-

friendly cutting fluid and mineral oil using flood cooling and
minimum quantity cutting fluid techniques
Kishor Kumar Gajrani a, Dhanna Ram b, Mamilla Ravi Sankar a, *
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: As manufacturing advances, there is a growing demand for harder materials in various fields, such as
Received 13 February 2017 aerospace and defence. Hard materials are difficult to produce, and hard machining causes high cutting
Received in revised form temperatures, which increase cutting force and affect the surface finish of the product. To lower the
27 July 2017
cutting forces and obtain better surface finishes on the workpiece, metal cutting fluids are generally
Accepted 28 July 2017
Available online 29 July 2017
preferred. However, the use of these fluids has been questioned by many researchers recently. Mineral-
oil-based conventional cutting fluids are essentially crude petroleum derivatives that have low biode-
gradability. Therefore, these fluids are associated with a high risk of environmental pollution (air, soil,
Keywords:
Biodegradability
water). In this study, the characteristics and biodegradable potential of bio-cutting fluid (BCF) and
Bio-cutting fluid commercially available mineral oil (MO)-based cutting fluid are compared, in addition to their hard
Hard machining machining performance during the machining of hardened AISI H-13 steel. To minimise the usage of
Minimum quantity cutting fluid cutting fluid during hard machining, an indigenously designed and fabricated minimum quantity cutting
Minimum quantity lubrication fluid (MQCF) application system is used. In the MQCF system, pressurised air is mixed internally with the
Hardened AISI H-13 steel cutting fluid, forming a uniform mist at the nozzle exit. The same is delivered to the machining region.
The influence of flood cooling and MQCF techniques using both BCF and MO on the cutting force, feed
force, coefficient of friction, and workpiece surface roughness, which were studied during hard
machining with industrial feed-speed combinations. The pressurised MQCF mist jet reduces the cutting
zone contact length, because of its optimised parameters and the better lubricating characteristics of BCF.
The experimental results show a significant reduction in cutting force, feed force, coefficient of friction,
and surface roughness for MQCF.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and Boothroyd, 1965). Pressurised soluble-oil-based cutting fluid

The hard machining of hardened AISI H-13 steel generates sig-
nificant heat, which results in high temperatures. Such high tem-
peratures drastically reduce the lifetime of the cutting tool
(Mulyadi et al., 2015; Tonshoff and Brinkomeier, 1986). Therefore,
cutting fluids are applied to reduce cutting temperatures during
machining. Conventional cutting fluid application techniques are
the least effective at removing heat from chip-tool interfaces (Shaw
et al., 1951; Sarıkaya et al., 2016). Extreme pressure additives are
added to the cutting fluids for better cooling and lubrication (Cassin
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: g.kishor@iitg.ernet.in (K.K. Gajrani), dhannaramdewasi208@
gmail.com (D. Ram), evmrs@iitg.ernet.in (M. Ravi Sankar).
jets can reduce machining force and improve surface finishes
(Mazurkiewicz et al., 1989; Alexander et al., 1998).
However, the use of cutting fluids in machining has various
detrimental effects. Prolonged exposure to cutting fluid emissions
leads to breathing and skin problems (Sokovic and Mijanovic, 2001;
Kuram et al., 2010). In addition, cutting fluids contaminate water
and soil resources. Therefore, the handling and disposal of cutting
fluids must follow the environmental protection laws.
At present, attempts are underway to eliminate or reduce the
use of cutting fluids and move towards more sustainable dry or
near-dry machining. Currently, vegetable-based eco-friendly cut-
ting fluids are in demand. They are highly biodegradable, and their
treatment cost is low (John et al., 2004). Vegetable oils have the
potential to reduce the occupational health hazards associated with

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.07.217
0959-6526/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435
mineral-oil-based cutting fluids. Therefore, vegetable-based cut-
ting fluids have recently been considered to be environmentally
friendly fluids, which also possess better lubricating ability
compared to other fluids (Debnath et al., 2014; Gajrani and Ravi
Sankar, 2017a).
In manufacturing processes using conventional fluid application
methods, 15e17% of product cost is associated with cutting fluid
cost (Klocke and Eisennblatter, 1997). Research has shown that the
costs associated with cutting fluids are frequently higher than those
for cutting tools (Byrne and Scholta, 1993). Therefore, the elimi-
nation or minimization of cutting fluids is desirable from both
economic and environmental perspectives. Alternative eco-friendly
machining techniques, such as minimum quantity lubrication
(MQL), cryogenic machining, compressed air machining, etc. are
required. The use of eco-friendly cutting fluids further reduces
detrimental environmental effects.
Researchers are currently very interested in dry machining as an
eco-friendly manufacturing technique for meeting stringent gov-
ernment regulations and standards. This type of manufacturing
uses coated cutting tools (Klocke and Eisennblatter, 1999), textured
cutting tools (Gajrani and Ravi Sankar, 2017b; Gajrani et al., 2016),
and other sustainable techniques (Chetan et al., 2015). However,
dry machining is not an effective solution in terms of better surface
finish and tool life. Near-dry machining (NDM) or MQL or micro-
lubrication, also known as minimum quantity cutting fluid
(MQCF), is an alternative solution for reducing detrimental envi-
ronmental effects and improving machining performance (Sharma
et al., 2016; Dixit et al., 2012; Shaikh et al., 2014). In MQCF appli-
cations, a minute amount of cutting fluid is used at a flow rate of
5e600 mL/h. A cutting fluid with a high convective heat transfer
coefficient is mixed with compressed air to form a uniform atom-
ised mist. This generated mist is injected directly into the chip-tool
interface in the machining region (Giasin et al., 2016; Khandekar
et al., 2012). MQCF reduces occupational hazards, addresses envi-
ronmental issues, and produces economic benefits by reducing
cutting fluid costs.
MQCF is an accepted eco-friendly machining method that can
improve workpiece surface finish, and reduce tool wear and cutting
forces relative to dry machining (Sutherland et al., 2006;
Lugscheider et al., 1997). Gunter and Sutherland concluded that a
mist generated by mixing soluble oil and air showed better
machining performance than flood cooling (FC) (Gunter and
Sutherland, 1999). The machining of H13 with MQL shows bene-
fits in terms of environmental protection and total energy re-
quirements. Beatrice et al. predicted the surface roughness using an
artificial neural network (ANN) during the machining of AISI H13
steel using minimal cutting fluid (Beatrice et al., 2014). The surface
roughness predicted by the ANN model matched the experimental
results fairly well. Sarikaya and Gullu investigated the flank wear,
notch wear, and surface roughness of a cobalt-based super alloy
(Haynes 25) during turning with MQL (Sarıkaya and Gullu, 2015). A
Taguchi-based grey relational analysis (GRA) was used in order to
simultaneously optimise cutting fluids, fluid flow rates, and cutting
speed. The results showed that flank wear, notch wear, and surface
roughness were enhanced during the turning of Haynes 25 using
the Taguchi-based GRA. Another study showed that feed was the
most effective parameter in terms of surface roughness, and that
MQL successfully improved surface finishes during the machining
of AISI 1050 steel (Sarıkaya and Gullu, 2014). Sharma and Sidhu
compared dry machining and NDM using vegetable oil on AISI D2
steel (Sharma and Sidhu, 2014). The results showed that worketool
interface temperatures and surface roughnesses reduced with
NDM. Further surface roughness was reduced even more at higher
speeds.
MQCF provides several benefits during machining. MQCF
1421
techniques have existed since the past decade; however, the
effectiveness of its input parameters has not been discussed. The
efficiency of an MQCF system depends upon mist (mixture of
pressurised air and cutting fluid) formation and quality, which are
controlled by the MQCF input parameters, namely, emulsion
composition, stand-off distance between the nozzle and machining
zone, nozzle spraying angle, and air pressure. No clear guidelines
have been created by researchers for selecting or optimising these
parameters.
In this study, the biodegradable potential (% biodegradation) of
vegetable-based eco-friendly bio-cutting fluid (BCF) is compared
with that of mineral oil (MO). The physical properties of BCF and
MO are studied, and the MQCF input parameters are experimen-
tally optimised. Hard turning experiments are conducted to
investigate the relative influences of MQCF and FC on cutting force,
feed force, coefficient of friction, and surface roughness. This study
also compares the effectiveness of BCF and MO using MQCF and
conventional FC techniques.
2. Experimental investigation
2.1. Materials
In this study, hardened AISI H-13 steel with an average hardness
of 56 HRC is used as the workpiece material. The main composition
of hardened AISI H-13 steel is C 0.32e0.4%, Cr 5.13e5.25%, Mo
1.33e1.4%, Si 1%, V 1% and remaining is Fe. Tungsten carbide cutting
tool inserts TNMA 220412 (Make: Sandvik Coromant®) were used.
Uncoated rake face and TiN coated flank face based cutting tool
inserts are selectively chosen, because the MQCF mist is applied at
the chip-tool rake interface. The properties of the hardened AISI H-
13 steel and cutting tool material are presented in Table 1. Two
cutting fluids are considered in the present study: MO and eco-
friendly BCF.
2.2. Methods
The various properties of petroleum-based MO and eco-friendly
BCF are characterised. The pH of the cutting fluids is measured with
a Varian digital pH meter. The kinematic viscosities of the cutting
fluids are measured using a rheometer (Make: ANTON Paar, Model:
MCR 101) with a concentric cylinder tool master at 40
C. A Pensky-
Martens open cup flash point setup is used to measure the flash
point of the cutting fluids according to EN ISO 2719 (ECS, 2003)
standard (Janes and Chaineaux, 2013). Fig. 1 shows a workflow
diagram.
2.2.1. Biodegradability test of cutting fluids
The chemical breakdown or transformation of any substance by
micro-organisms like bacteria, enzymes, fungi, etc. is known as
biodegradation. The ability of a substance or matter to biodegrade
is known as biodegradability. Biodegradation has two major
extents:
 Primary biodegradation: Change in chemical and physical
properties of the substance caused by micro-organism activity.
 Ultimate biodegradation: Complete utilisation of substance
resulted in its conversion into methane (CH4), carbon dioxide
(CO2), water (H2O), biomass (microbial cellular constituents)
and mineral salts.
The main objective of biodegradation studies is to measure ul-
timate biodegradability. Generally, oil or cutting fluid biodegrad-
ability tests are performed in a free environment with ample
amounts of oxygen and water (aerobic aquatic biodegradation).
1422 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435

Table 1
Properties of tungsten carbide tool material and workpiece hardened AISI H-13 steel.

Material Density (g/cm3) Young's modulus (GPa) Flexural strength (GPa) Poisson's Ratio Co-efficient of thermal expansion (mm/(m
C))

AISI H-13 steel 7.8 210 950 0.3 7.42

Tungsten carbide 14.5 550 2000 0.23 4.51

Stage I: Cutting fluids Stage II: Minimum Stage III: Machining

quantity cutting fluid
Physical and
chemical properties Nozzle standoff Machining forces
distance
Biodegradability Coefficient of
friction
Nozzle spray
Emulsion angular position Workpiece surface
composition roughness

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of proposed work.

Dissolved oxygen in any liquid substance is a very important

element for measuring its life cycle. Biological oxygen demand
(BOD) tests measure only the biodegradable portion of the organic
matter in cutting fluid, whereas chemical oxygen demand (COD)
tests measure the oxygen demand for both biodegradable sub-
stances/matter and non-biodegradable oxdisable substances/mat- Emulsions
ter. Therefore, the BOD/COD ratio is quantitative measure of the
degree of biodegradation.
Standard Methods 2005 (American Public Health Association
et al., 2005) are followed to conduct BOD5 and COD tests with
BCF and MO using 1:100000 (lubricant: aerated water) diluted
samples.

2.2.2. Selection of optimum cutting fluid emulsion concentration,

standoff distance, and nozzle spray angle position
Cutting fluids are primarily used in machining to reduce
generated heat (cooling) and friction (lubrication). Water is known
to be the best coolant. Thus, emulsions (mixtures of cutting fluid
and water) with higher water content provide better cooling and
partial lubrication. However, higher oil content in an emulsion
provides better lubrication and partial cooling. To obtain better
cooling and lubricating performance from a cutting fluid emulsion,
optimum quantity of the cutting fluid and water are mixed.
Experiments are carried out in three stages to successively
determine the optimum emulsion composition, standoff distance,
and nozzle position. First, preliminary experiments are carried out
to estimate the optimum emulsion composition (Fig. 2). The heat
extraction capacity of a particular cutting fluid emulsion typically
depends on its thermal conductivity and specific heat. Therefore,
the thermal conductivity and specific heat of all cutting fluid
emulsions (cutting fluid to water ratio varied from 1:2 to 1:20) are
measured using the KD2 Pro thermal properties analyser.
In an MQCF system, the distance between the machining zone
and nozzle position is known as the standoff distance. This distance
governs mist formation. If the standoff distance is too large, MQCF
jet flaring may occur. This leads to mist divergence, resulting in
lesser force being applied by the cutting fluid emulsion mist in the
machining region. Therefore, the MQCF mist experiences difficulty
in penetrating the air boundary layer created by workpiece
Fig. 2. Cutting fluid emulsions with varying compositions in test tubes.
rotation, resulting in reduced effectiveness in cooling and lubrica-
tion. In contrast, for smaller standoff distances, the MQCF mist may
not completely cover the high-temperature machining region.
Therefore, experimental optimisation of the standoff distance to
maximise the effectiveness of the MQCF system is carried out.
An indigenously developed MQCF system is used to spray the
cutting fluid emulsion. A Kistler piezoelectric quartz dynamometer
is used to measure the force exerted by the MQCF spray. The
standoff distances are varied from 10 to 100 mm, with an interval of
10 mm. At each standoff distance, the forces exerted by the MQCF
spray are recorded multiple times and the average force values are
considered. Apart from the force exerted by spray, it is also
important that the spray completely covers the high-temperature
machining region.
Brinksmeier et al. discuss in detail about types and nozzle po-
sitions in grinding with MQL technique (Brinksmeier et al., 1999).
The systematic study of various types of cutting fluid and nozzle
positions in FC and MQL are carried out. Among all, shoe nozzle is
best from useful flow rate point of view.
 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435
Ebbrell et al. conducted surface grinding experiments using
different nozzle positions and measured the resulting grinding
forces (Ebbrell et al., 2000). The minimum grinding forces were
found when the nozzle was placed at an angular position. There-
fore, optimising the nozzle spray angle position is important for
maximising the effectiveness of the MQCF system and minimising
machining forces. In the present experimental study, the nozzle
spray angle was varied from 15
to 90
(at 15
intervals), and the
machining forces were measured.
2.3. Experimental design
The experiments were planned and designed in such a way that
useful inferences could be obtained by performing a minimum
number of experiments. The total number of experiments in a
central composite rotatable design (CCRD)
technique ¼ 2k þ rotatable þ central runs. Therefore, for this study,
experiments were planned for different variables (k ¼ 2): cutting
speed and feed. The total number of experiments required to be
performed for one type of cutting fluid application system is
2k þ 2k þ 5 (4 þ 4 þ 5 ¼ 13 (with each technique)). Depth of cut is
kept constant at 0.5 mm. All experiments are carried out with FC
and MQCF using MO and BCF cutting fluid emulsions (Total
experiments ¼ 13  4 ¼ 52 (each experiment repeated thrice)). The
effects of control variables on the output responses are also
determined. The CCRD coded values are presented in Table 2, and
the machining control parameters are presented in Table 3.
2.4. Machining experiments
Machining experiments are carried out on a lathe (Make: HMT,
Model: NH26) equipped with a commercial tool holder PTGNR
2525 M22. The experiments are performed for an MQCF spray
environment with BCF and MO. Tests are conducted at optimised
machining input parameters. For comparison purposes, FC experi-
ments are also performed with both cutting fluids. A compressed
air pressure of 0.5 MPa (5 bar) and oil flow rate of 35 mL/h are
maintained for MQCF experiments. Fig. 3 shows an overview of the
MQCF experimental setup. The average cutting temperature of the
chip-tool interface is measured by an infrared thermography
camera (Make: Infratech, Model: VARIOCAM hr-400). The cutting
and feed forces are measured using a piezoelectric quartz dyna-
mometer (Make: KISTLER, Model: 9272B). The surface roughness of
the workpiece is measured at five different positions using a
contact-type surface profilometer (Make: MAHR), and the average
values are plotted. The morphology of cutting tool wear regions are
examined by optical microscope and field emission scanning elec-
tron microscope.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Characterization of bio-cutting fluids and mineral oil
The physical properties of BCF and MO cutting fluids are pre-
sented in Table 4. BCF has a higher viscosity and flash point than
MO, which suggests that BCF possesses better lubrication ability.
Additionally, these properties suggest that BCF is safer, even for the
Table 2
CCRD coded and actual values of input parameters for hard machining.
CCRD coded values 1.414 1.000 0.000 1.000
Cutting speed (m/min) 55 65 90 115
Feed (mm/rev) 0.04 0.08 0.16 0.24
1423
Table 3
Machining conditions.
Parameter Values
Cutting speed 55125 m/min
Feed 0.04e0.28 mm/rev
Depth of cut 0.5 mm
Environments FC, MQCF
Cutting fluid Mineral oil and bio-cutting fluid
Air pressure 5 bar (0.5 MPa)
higher temperatures that occur during the hard machining of
hardened AISI H-13 steel.
3.2. Biodegradability tests
The biodegradation of BCF and MO are assessed using BOD5/COD
ratio measurements taken at varying times. BOD5 tests are
measured for a period of only five days. The BOD5/COD ratio in-
dicates the degradation percentage (%) of biodegradable substances
(Fig. 4).
The results show that the biodegradability of cutting fluids is
primarily determined by the chemical structure of the organic
matter. Within five days of biodegradation, BCF is degraded by 41%;
however, MO is degraded by only 10%. This occurs because the BCF
contains easily degradable organic matter, while MO contains pri-
marily non-degradable volatile or fixed solids. Substances such as
waste water or chemicals with a BOD5/COD ratio of 40% or more are
considered to be completely degradable (Adams et al., 1979).
However, substances with values lower than 20% contain a greater
amount of unoxidisable organic matter, which may be toxic. BOD5
does not provide complete information about total biodegradation.
For complete biodegradation information, ultimate BOD (BODu) is
calculated using the least square method, per Standard Methods
2005 (APHA et al., 2005). Thus, BODu and COD for BCF and MO are
calculated (Table 5).
Over the five-day test period, the degree of degradation may
seem low. However, Table 5 indicates that the BCF has a higher
BODu value, while the MO has a higher COD value. Organic matter
with a BODu/COD ratio over 0.5 is considered to be biodegradable; if
the ratio is greater than 0.8, the organic matter is considered to be
highly and readily biodegradable, as reported in (Adams et al.,
1979). Cutting fluids containing organic matter and exhibiting
higher BOD values are easily oxidised by natural bacteria present in
the atmosphere.
MO is not susceptible to high biodegradation. With the passage
of time, these fluids become much more susceptible to metallic
cations, which are harmful to sewage organisms and further reduce
the efficiency of disposal plants.
Ultimate biodegradability tests show that sewage micro-
organisms and organisms present in natural water bodies possess
the capacity to degrade BCF on their own. However, MO was not
degraded satisfactorily during the incubation time. Thus, a few
components of MO may appear in the environment as pollutants.
3.3. Selection of cutting fluid concentration in emulsion
The thermal conductivity and specific heat for various emul-
sions are measured by the KD2 Pro thermal properties analyser.
Fig. 5 shows variations in thermal conductivity and specific heat
with respect to the concentration of cutting fluid in the emulsion.
With increasing emulsion water content, the thermal conductivity
1.414
of both cutting fluids increases up to the saturation point
125 (0.55 ± 0.03 W/(m
C)). Thermal conductivity saturation levels for
0.28
both cutting fluids are reached, because the thermal conductivity of
1424 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435

(a) Cutting fluid reservoir

Infrared camera

Live temperature

Data recorder

(b) (c)
Air hose
Emulsion hose
Nozzle
Tool insert

Dynamometer

Infrared camera

Fig. 3. (a) Overview of MQCF experiment setup, (b) magnified view of infrared camera, emulsion-air hoses, tooling, etc., and (c) magnified view of tool-workpiece-mist interaction.

Table 4
Physical properties of bio-cutting fluid and mineral oil.

Metal cutting fluid pH Density (g/mL) Viscosity 40
C (mm2/s) Flash point (
C)

Bio-cutting fluid 8.65 ± 0.06 0.9420 ± 0.04 64.721 ± 0.74 310e320

Mineral oil 9.05 ± 0.08 0.890 ± 0.07 33.082 ± 0.52 206e214

45 Fig. 6 shows the specific heat for the varying cutting fluid con-
MO centrations in the emulsion. It can be observed that with increasing
40
BCF emulsion water content, the specific heat of both cutting fluids
% Degradation (BOD/COD)

35 continues to increase, up to 1:20. BCF can extract more heat than

MO because of its higher specific heat. Therefore, from Figs. 5 and 6,
30
it can be observed that emulsion compositions ranging from 1:16 to
25 1:20 produce better heat extraction. However, considering the
20 lubrication properties of the cutting fluid, a 1:16 emulsion
composition is selected to attain a better surface finish.
15
10 3.4. Selection of standoff distance or spraying distance

5 A dynamometer is used to record the forces exerted by MQCF

0 sprays with respect to different standoff distances, as shown in
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fig. 7. It is observed that at a distance of 10 mm, the MQCF system is
Time (days) able to exert maximum force, whereas force gradually decreases as
standoff distance increases for both cutting fluids. With increasing
Fig. 4. Biodegradability of MO and BCF over five days.
standoff distance, the cutting fluid mist/spray begins to diverge,
and the velocity decreases. Thus, spray exerting forces gradually
decrease.
water falls in the range of 0.6 ± 0.05 W/(m
C). For BCF and MO, the
In addition to the force exerted by spray, the area covered by the
saturation point is reached at a 1:8 composition for thermal con-
spray is also important. The spray should cover the complete
ductivity (Fig. 5).
machining region, where temperatures are high. Fig. 8 shows an
 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435 1425

Table 5
Ultimate aerobic biodegradability of BCF and MO.

Metal cutting fluid BODu ultimate (g/L) (least square method) COD (g/L) BODu/COD Final degradation (%)

BCF 1392 1440 0.9667 96.67

MO 417.8 2280 0.1832 18.32

0.60
MO
0.55 BCF
Thermal conductivity (W/(m ºC))

0.50 Heater and

sensor
0.45
Test tube
0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Cutting fluid concentration in emulsion 1:W
Fig. 5. Variation in thermal conductivity with varying cutting fluid emulsion compositions.

2.5
MO
Volumetric specific heat (MJ/(m3 ºC))

3.8
BCF
2.0 Acrylic sheet
Force exerted by spray (N)

3.3 Standoff
Spray
distance
1.5
2.8

Dynamometer
1.0
2.3

0.5
1.8 MO
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
BCF
Cutting fluid concentration in emulsion (1:W)
0.0
Fig. 6. Variation of volumetric specific heat with varying cutting fluid emulsion 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
compositions. Nozzle stand-off distance (mm)
Fig. 7. Variation in the radial force exerted by a spray for varying standoff distances.
infrared micrograph of the machining region, highlighting the
length of the high-temperature zone during dry machining
(L ¼ 27.15 mm). The shape of the high-temperature zone in (Fig. 9).
machining is approximately elliptical. Therefore, in the present An MQCF atomised mist is sprayed onto an acrylic sheet that is
study, an MQCF nozzle with a rectangular slit (1  5 mm2) outlet is properly fixed over the dynamometer. Fig. 10 shows the minor axis
selected for generating an elliptical mist. The minor axis of the el- lengths covered by the MQCF spray nozzle using both cutting fluids
lipses is considered to cover the machining region with spray in all at varying standoff distances. From Fig. 8, it is evident that the
directions during machining. To inform the selection of optimum minor elliptical axis of the spray should be longer than the minor
standoff distance, the minor axis lengths covered by the MQCF axis of the machining region (27.15 mm). However, from Fig. 10, it is
spray nozzle for both cutting fluids are recorded at varying standoff observed that at a 30 mm standoff distance, the minor axis covered
distances, using an indigenously developed experimental setup by both cutting fluids mist is longer than 27.15 mm. Beyond a
standoff distance of 30 mm, the exerted spray force gradually
1426 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435

Machining region
Workpiece

Tool
holder

20 mm

Fig. 8. Infrared micrograph of machining zone with maximum length of high-temperature zone.

(a) (b)
Emulsion hose

MQCF nozzle
Standoff
Area covered distance
Air hose

Fig. 9. (a) Experimental setup for spray area measurement at varying standoff distances and (b) area covered by mist using MQCF technique.

decreases. Thus, the optimum standoff distance is 30 mm standoff
from the perspective of spray exerted force and corresponding
covered area. Fig. 11 shows images of the area covered by the MQCF
spray for both cutting fluids.
3.5. Selection of nozzle spray angular position
Nozzle placement must ensure the easy injection of spray into
the machining zone through the penetration of a stiff peripheral air
boundary layer, formed on the rotating workpiece. To overcome the
influence of surrounding air boundaries on the cutting fluid, re-
searchers have suggested that angular nozzle positions are better
than horizontal or vertical positions (Ebbrell et al., 2000).
Fig. 12 shows the cutting forces for MQCF spray machining using
both cutting fluids (1:16 oil to water emulsion concentration ratio)
at a standoff distance of 30 mm. Nozzle angular position is varied
from 15 to 90
from the horizontal axis (at 15
intervals). Machining
experiments are carried out (cutting speed ¼ 90 m/min, feed ¼ 0.16
mm/rev and depth of cut ¼ 0.5 mm) in order to evaluate the effect
of nozzle angle on cutting forces. Initially, with an increase in angle
from the horizontal axis, cutting forces are reduced by up to 45
,
and begin increasing after 45
(Fig. 12). At a 15
nozzle angle, spray
passes directly over the chip, pushing the chip towards the cutting
tool and resulting in an increase in machining forces (Fig. 13 (a)).
With an increase in nozzle angle position, the MQCF spray can
penetrate the stiff peripheral air boundary layer formed on the
rotating workpiece, which results in the reduction of cutting forces
until an angle of 45
. With further increases in nozzle angle posi-
tion, cutting forces increases (Fig. 13(bee)). Fig. 14 shows a sche-
matic of the MQCF mist and nozzle angle position.
 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435 1427

35
MO
33 BCF 5 mm

31
Minor axis (mm)
29

27

25

23

21
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Nozzle stand-off distance from stationary plate (mm)
Fig. 10. Minor axis length covered by spray using minimum quantities of both cutting fluids.

(a) (b)
L
L

MO BC

Fig. 11. Minor axis length (L) covered by MQCF spray nozzle at 10 mm standoff distance for: (a) MO and (b) BCF.

3.6. Machining performance

FcðFCBCFÞ ¼ 36:16 þ 2610:45f þ 0:49v  5:585vf
3.6.1. Cutting force
 3033:83f 2  0:00066v2 (2)
The experiments are carried out according to the central com-
posite rotatable design (CCRD), and the results are analysed using
response surface methodology (RSM). Input parameters (feed, FcðMQCFMOÞ ¼ 173:37 þ 2501:81f þ 3:61v  4:507vf
cutting speed) and output responses (cutting force) for all types of  2907:17f 2  0:016v2 (3)
cutting fluids and application techniques are presented in Table 6.
Equation models for cutting force per CCRD are given below (Eqs.
(1)(4)). FcðMQCFBCFÞ ¼ 33:88 þ 1415:003f þ 1:27v  0:4125vf
 1116:49f 2  0:005v2 (4)

FcðFCMOÞ ¼ 47:17 þ 2671:99f þ 0:58v  8:721vf where v and f represent the cutting speed (m/min) and feed (mm/
 1526:85f 2  0:00086v2 (1) rev), respectively, and Fc-(FC-MO), Fc-(FC-BCF), Fc-(MQCF-MO) and Fc-(MQCF-
BCF) are the cutting forces for machining under FC and MQCF spray
machining using MO and BCF emulsions.
1428 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435

300
290
280
Cutting force (N)
270
260
250
240
MO
230
BCF
220
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105
Nozzle angle from horizontal axis (º)
Fig. 12. Variation of cutting force with nozzle angular position.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Fig. 13. Variation of nozzle angle from horizontal axis (a) 15
, (b) 30
, (c) 45
, (d) 60
and (e) 75
.
 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435 1429

Workpiece MQCF nozzle

Chip

MQCF mist

Tool holder

Tool insert

Fig. 14. Schematic of MQCF mist and nozzle direction.

Table 6
Complete CCRD table showing input parameters and output responses for both cutting fluids using FC as well as MQCF.

Exp. No Feed (mm/rev) Cutting speed (m/min) Fc-(FC-MO) (N) Fc-(FC-BCF) (N) Fc-(MQCF-MO) (N) Fc-(MQCF-BCF) (N)

1 0.24 115.00 347.33 334.93 339.03 302.3

2 0.16 90.00 275.67 274.43 282.6 230.56
3 0.16 90.00 275.12 272.71 280.19 233.78
4 0.16 125.00 249.27 260.93 257.43 241.4
5 0.28 90.00 422.8 365.53 377.17 343.15
6 0.08 115.00 155.63 160.77 172.36 146.8
7 0.24 65.00 403.4 351.3 359.83 295.3
8 0.16 90.00 274.96 276.31 282.73 228.94
9 0.04 90.00 90.93 112.1 94.89 90.01
10 0.16 55.00 311.61 308.3 257.43 211.8
11 0.16 90.00 274.58 274.33 280.13 232.43
12 0.08 65.00 141.93 132.46 157.1 136.5
13 0.16 90.00 276.89 272.67 281.76 232.79

Table 7 time during machining decreases, but the material removal rate
ANOVA for cutting force (Fc-(MQCF-BCF)) for MQCF condition with BCF.
(MRR) increases. Therefore, the temperatures in the primary and
Source F-Value p-value Prob>F Percentage contribution secondary shear zones increase. Because of the good thermal
Model 7.14 0.0007 conductivity of the workpiece, the probability of preheating adja-
A-Feed 35.42 0.0081 35.80 cent to the machining region increases. Thus, thermal softening of
B-Speed 15.88 0.0033 16.05 workpiece surface occurs. Rising temperatures in the secondary
AB 0.11 0.7411 0.11 shear zone cause the decrease of flow stress in the workpiece
A2 34.24 0.0003 34.61
B2 13.28 0.0041 13.43
material, thereby reducing cutting force with increasing cutting
Lack of Fit 1.07 0.4366 speed (Fig. 15 (b)).
After the uniform mixing of the cutting fluid and compressed air
Bold represents “higher percentage contribution”.
in MQCF, the pressurised mist is forcibly injected into the chip-tool
interface. The results show that the performance of the MQCF spray
Table 7 shows the ANOVA for cutting force using MQCF and BCF; is superior to that of FC, because of greater cutting fluid mist
feed is found to have the highest contribution (70.41%), followed by penetration ability in the chip-tool interface.
cutting speed (29.48%). The coefficient of determination (R2) is Because the MQCF method uses a mist, micro-cutting fluid
found to be 0.9763. All CCRD terms are considered in the regression droplets have a better chance of reaching between the chip-tool
models to improve prediction accuracy. R2 values for machining interface relative to FC. An MQCF spray containing cutting fluid
with FC and MQCF using both cutting fluids are also found to be can penetrate the sliding zone and probably small areas of the
higher than 0.95 for all output responses. This shows good agree- sticking zone, because of the high force exerted by the pressurised
ment between input parameters and output responses. mist in the chip-tool interface. The penetration force of the MQCF
Figs. 15 and 16 illustrate two cutting force components at spray is an important parameter affecting machining performance.
varying cutting speeds, as well as the feed at a constant depth of cut In machining with MQCF, the mist penetration force, specific heat
of 0.5 mm. As can be observed from the experimental results, feed carrying capacity of the cutting fluid, and coverage area for the BCF
has a profound effect on cutting force. As feed increases, the shear mist is compared to these properties for the MO mist. From cutting
angle decreases, and chip thickness increases. The increase in chip force results, the cutting fluid mist supplied at the chip-tool inter-
thickness increases the chip load and friction on the tool rake face. face is considered to prevent chip adhesion. Thus, an MQCF mist
Therefore, the cutting force increases with feed (Fig. 15 (a)). with a BCF emulsion shows the smallest cutting force of all inves-
With increasing cutting speed, the tool-workpiece interaction tigated systems.
1430 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435

450 advancement per revolution by the cutting tool increases, i.e. the
FC-MO amount of workpiece material that comes into contact with the
FC-BCF cutting tool per unit time increases. Therefore, the load on the tool
MQCF-MO and thus the feed force increase, irrespective of cooling technique.
350 MQCF-BCF For a constant feed and depth of cut, with increasing cutting
Cutting force (N)

speed, feed force reduces as MRR increases (Fig. 16 (b)). Increases in

MRR leads to increases in temperature, resulting in the thermal
250 softening of the workpiece and reducing the feed force.
Optical micrographs of the cutting tool rake face after machining
with FC and MQCF are characterised for a cutting speed of 90 m/
150 min, feed of 0.28 mm/rev, and depth of cut of 0.5 mm, for 5 min of
machining. Fig. 17 shows the sticking and sliding zone under FC
using MO. The sticking region exhibits full metal to metal contact,
(a) and the overall surface has a similar morphology. In contrast, the
50
sliding region exhibits abrasion marks. The sticking and sliding
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32
regions are separated by an interface, which is highlighted in Fig. 17
Feed (mm/rev)
(b). The contact length was measured and tabulated as presented in
Table 8. It was observed that the sticking and sliding widths for FC
340 were much larger relative to the widths under machining with
FC-MO
FC-BCF MQCF.
320
MQCF-MO In MQCF machining, the BCF emulsion performs better than the
MQCF-BCF MO emulsion; this is confirmed by the least chip-tool contact
300 length (sticking and sliding zone widths) among all four types of
Cutting force (N)

cutting fluid application techniques. The chip-tool contact length

280 on the cutting tool rake face with MQCF machining using BCF is
843.47 mm, whereas that length for MO is 914.66 mm. A shorter
260 chip-tool contact length results in less contact area, which leads to
a reduction in the coefficient of friction. Reductions in coefficient of
240 friction are directly related to lower machining forces and surface
roughnesses, because of better cooling and lubrication. Thus, MQCF
220 machining with BCF performs better relative to other
(b) combinations.
200
50 70 90 110 130
Cutting speed (m/min) 3.6.3. Coefficient of friction at chip-tool interface
The average coefficient of friction at the chip-tool interface is
Fig. 15. Variation of cutting force with (a) feed and (b) cutting speed for FC and MQCF.
calculated by:


. 
3.6.2. Feed force m ¼ tanðaÞ ¼ tan l þ tan1 Ff Fc (9)
Response surface methodology models for feed force per CCRD
are given below (Eqs. (5)(8)). where a is the rake angle, l is the friction angle, Ff is the feed force,
and Fc is the cutting force. Fig. 18 illustrates the average coefficient
Ff ðFCMOÞ ¼ 51:08 þ 281:68f þ 0:053v  0:72vf þ 282:09f 2 of friction at the chip-tool interface for FC and MQCF (using MO and
BCF). The frictional force at the chip-tool interface depends on the
 0:00093v2
chip-tool contact length. MQCF spray penetrates the chip-tool
(5) interface and reduces the contact area by providing both lubrica-
tion and cooling, resulting in the reduction of friction coefficients.
Ff ðFCBCFÞ ¼ 25:52 þ 335:13f þ 0:36v  0:682vf  16:69f 2 For MQCF using a BCF emulsion, a minimum coefficient of fric-
tion is observed, resulting from the maximum penetration force,
 0:0025v2 higher specific heat, and larger spray coverage area. Fig. 19 shows
(6) the tool rake face morphology after 15 min of machining for FC and
MQCF machining using both cutting fluids (cutting speed ¼ 90 m/
min, feed ¼ 0.16 mm/rev, and depth of cut ¼ 0.5 mm).
Ff ðMQCFMOÞ ¼ 3:86 þ 357:98f þ 0:625v  0:412vf  103:05f 2
In the case of machining with FC, more workpiece material
 0:0035v2 adheres to the cutting tool rake face, but fewer abrasion marks are
(7) observed (Fig. 19(aeb)). However, for machining with MQCF, less
adhesion of workpiece material to the tool rake face occurs, but
abrasion marks are observed (Fig. 19(ced)). This occurs because of
Ff ðMQCFBCFÞ ¼ 27:98 þ 315:97f þ 0:27v  0:655vf  18:12f 2 the high-pressure MQCF mist, which easily flushes away chip
 0:00209v2 debris particles and does not allow material to stick to the cutting
tool rake face. MQCF sprays provide proper cutting tool cooling that
(8)
reduces adhesion due to rising temperatures. It also lubricates the
Fig. 16 (a) shows the variation of feed force with feed for a chip-tool interface, thereby avoiding any type of built up edge
constant depth of cut (0.5 mm) during machining with FC and formation. Fig. 19 (e) shows the elemental composition of adhered
MQCF using both MO and BCF emulsions. As feed increases, the material (Area A), which is similar to the composition of workpiece
 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435 1431

140

120
Feed force (N)

100

80
FC-MO
FC-BCF
60
MQCF-MO
(a) MQCF-BCF
40
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32
Feed (mm/rev)

100
FC-MO
95 FC-BCF
MQCF-MO
90 MQCF-BCF
Feed force (N)

85

80

75

70
(b)
65
50 70 90 110 130
Cutting speed (m/min)
Fig. 16. Variations in feed force with (a) feed and (b) cutting speed under FC and MQCF.
1432 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435

Sticking
region width

Abrasion
marks

Fig. 17. Sticking and sliding regions of chip-tool interface during machining with FC using MO.

Table 8
Sticking and sliding regions for various machining conditions.

Machining condition Sticking region width (mm) Sliding region width (mm)

FC with MO emulsion 192.67 ± 0.9 1341.36 ± 2.2

FC with BCF emulsion 182.27 ± 0.5 887.92 ± 1.4
MQCF with MO emulsion 178.96 ± 0.4 732.39 ± 1.9
MQCF with BCF emulsion 162.45 ± 0.6 681.02 ± 1.1

0.60
FC-MO RaðFCMOÞ ¼ 1:931 þ 5:54f  0:028v  0:005vf þ 30:33f 2
0.55 FC-BCF þ 0:00013v2
MQCF-MO
0.50 (10)
Friction coefficient

MQCF-BCF
0.45 RaðFCBCFÞ ¼ 1:38 þ 3:641f  0:015v  0:0087vf  37:63f 2
0.40 þ 0:000084v2
(11)
0.35

0.30 RaðMQCFMOÞ ¼ 1:247 þ 3:27f  0:0142v  0:0078vf þ 33:87f 2

0.25
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
Feed (mm/rev)
Fig. 18. Variations in coefficient of friction for feed using FC and MQCF.
material. This evidence supports the adhesion of workpiece mate-
rial to the tool rake face.
The maximum amount of adhered material is observed in the
case of FC using MO, which is a symptom of high coefficient of
friction (Fig. 19 (a)). However, no built-up edge formation is seen
with MQCF using BCF (Fig. 19 (d)). MQCF machining with both
cutting fluids also shows lower machining forces and less chip-tool
contact length. Reductions in the chip-tool contact length reduce
the chip-tool contact area, which in turn leads to less heat pro-
duction and lower friction coefficients.
3.6.4. Workpiece surface roughness
The surface roughness of a machined product is an important
machinability index. Equation models for workpiece surface
roughness (per RSM of CCRD) are given below (Eqs. (10)(13)).
Table A1 (appendix) shows a surface roughness ANOVA for MQCF
using BCF.
þ 0:0000763v2
0.24 0.28 0.32 (12)
RaðMQCFBCFÞ ¼ 1:09 þ 2:402f  0:013v  0:0032vf  26:05f 2
þ 0:0000715v2
(13)
Fig. 20 shows variations in workpiece surface roughness with
feed and cutting speed. Workpiece surface roughness is observed to
increase with increasing feed, irrespective of the cutting fluid
application technique. In the case of FC, because of high adhesion
and friction at the chip-tool interface, the workpiece has a higher
surface roughness. Workpiece surface roughness is lower when
machined with MQCF, because of lower cutting and feed forces.
This may cause comparatively less tool chatter, leading to better
surface finishes, i.e. low surface roughness. From the experimental
results, cutting force, feed force, coefficients of friction, and work-
piece surface roughnesses are reduced with MQCF (for both cutting
fluids) relative to FC. Because of its better cooling and lubrication
properties, BCF produces better results than MO.
4. Conclusions
The characteristics and biodegradability of eco-friendly BCF as
 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435
(a)
A
Adhered material
(c)
Abrasion wear
Adhered material
(e)
Fig. 19. Tool rake face morphology showing chip-tool region during machining with (a) FC using MO, (b) FC using BCF, (c) MQCF using MO, (d) MQCF using BCF showing adhesion
and abrasion wear and (e) elemental composition of adhered material (Area A, Fig. 19 a).
well as MO were assessed. An indigenous MQCF setup was devel-
oped. Cutting experiments were carried out with FC and MQCF
using both cutting fluids (BCF and MO). The following conclusions
were obtained:
 The viscosity and flash point of BCF are high, which confirms
that the fluid has better lubrication performance and is safer for
high-temperature hard machining compared to MO.
 Biodegradability tests (Standard methods 2005) were used to
calculate ultimate aerobic biodegradability. Results showed that
BCF was 96.67% biodegradable, compared to MO, which was
only 18.32% biodegradable.
 When a MQCF nozzle angle position of 45
was used, the MQCF
spray could penetrate the periphery of the air boundary
generated by the rotating workpiece better.
 Relative to FC, machining with MQCF (using both cutting fluid
emulsions) produced better results in terms of the cutting force,
feed force, coefficient of friction, and workpiece surface
roughness.
1433
(b)
Adhered material
(d)
Abrasion wear
Adhered material
 The BCF emulsion performed better than MO, in terms of its
higher thermal conductivity, high specific heat, and better
ability to penetrate the chip-tool interface.
 Sticking and sliding zones were reduced in the case of MQCF
machining. The BCF emulsion performed better than the MO
emulsion in this regard.
Machining with MQCF has multiple advantages over machining
with FC. However, chip evacuation ability and initial equipment
cost are two major challenges, which will require attention in full
MQCF implementations. In addition, not all cutting fluid composi-
tions are suitable for MQCF. The optimisation of cutting fluid
compositions requires more detailed investigations. In addition,
new MQCF setup designs using controlled air-entrapped cutting
fluids may have good potential in achieving better machining. In-
vestigations into MQCF should also emphasise reducing power
consumption, enhancing lubrication, and improving cooling capa-
bility, in order to create a sustainable and clean manufacturing
environment.
1434 K.K. Gajrani et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 165 (2017) 1420e1435

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