Module – I

Introduction to Design Process

Dr. A. Vinoth Jebaraj, SMEC

VIT University, Vellore
Text Books

1. Joseph Edward Shigley and Charles, R. Mischke, (2000), Mechanical Engineering Design,
McGraw –Hill International Editions.
2. 2. Joseph Edward Shigley and Charles, R. Mischke, (2008) Mechanical Engineering Design,
McGraw –Hill International Editions. Eighth Edition.
3. Bhandari.V.B. “Design of Machine elements”, (2010) Tata Mc Graw Hill Book Co, Third
Edition.
4. R.S.Khurmi, J.K.Gupta. “Machine Design”, (2008) Eurasia Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Revised Edition.

Reference Books

1. V.B. Bhandari, Design of Machine elements, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2001

2. Design Data – PSG College of Technology, DPV Printers, Coimbatore., 1998 1. Design Data
book– PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore., 2006
3. Juvinal, R.C., Fundamentals of Machine component Design, John Wiley, 2002.

Mode of Evaluation Quiz/Assignment/ Seminar/Written Examination

 Basics of Solid Mechanics
Varying cross section Constant cross section

There is a variation in the cross section of the wind mill pillar. But, not in the sign board.
Why?
Simple Design

Image courtesy: NPTEL

 Elementary Equations

For Direct loading or Axial loading

For transverse loading

For tangential loading or twisting

Where I and J  Resistance properties of cross sectional area

I  Area moment of inertia of the cross section about the axes lying on the section
(i.e. xx and yy)

J  Polar moment of inertia about the axis perpendicular to the section

Pure Bending
 If the length of a beam is subjected to a constant bending
moment and no shear force ( zero shear force) then the
stresses will be set up in that length of the beam due to
bending moment only then it is said to be in pure bending.

 Under bending, top fibers subjected to compressive

stresses and bottom fiber subjected to tensile stresses and
vice versa.

 In the middle layer (neutral axis), there is no stress due to

external load.
Assumptions in the Evaluation of Bending stress
 Practical Application of Bending Equation

 In actual situation , when you consider any structure

bending moment varies from point to point and it
also accompanied by shearing force.

 In large number of practical cases, the bending

moment is maximum where shear force is zero.

 It seems justifiable that to apply bending equation at

that point only.

 Hence our assumptions in pure bending (zero shear

force) is a valid one.
 Plane of Bending Bending

Under what basis Ixx, Iyy and Izz (J)

have to be selected in bending and
torsional equations?
X – Plane

Bending Twisting

Y - Plane Z - Plane
Gear

Reaction Torque

Torque Applied
Key

Resisting Tangential force

Shaft
Torsion – Example
 Torsional Equation
R = Radius of shaft, L = Length of the shaft
T = Torque applied at the free end
C = Modulus of Rigidity of a shaft material
τ = torsional shear stress induced at the cross section
Ø = shear strain, θ = Angle of twist
 Design for Bending

 When a shaft is subjected to pure rotation, then it has to be designed for

bending stress which is induced due to bending moment caused by self
weight of the shaft.

Example: Rotating shaft between two bearings.

Design for Bending & Twisting

 When a gear or pulley is mounted on a shaft by means of a key, then it

has to be designed for bending stress (induced due to bending moment)
and also torsional shear stress which is caused due to torque induced
by the resistance offered by the key .

Example: gearbox shaft (splines)

Shear stress distribution in solid & hollow shafts
On what basis, we have
to design a machine
component?
Introduction to
Design Process

Image courtesy: NIOT website

 Necking

Ductile fracture of Al-Mg-Si alloy Brittle fracture of Cast Iron

Why ductile materials fail in 45° plane? Why brittle materials fail in 0° plane?
 Stress in an Inclined Plane

 The plane perpendicular to the line of action of the load is a principal

plane. [Because, It is having the maximum stress value and shear stress in
this plane is zero.]
 The plane which is at an angle of 90° will have no normal and tangential
stress.
Max. shear stress = ½ Normal stress
Uniaxial loading Biaxial loading Triaxial loading
Types of Loading
 Pure shear

Normal stress σn = τ sin 2θ  At θ = 45° σn = σmax = τ

Shear stress τ = τ cos 2θ  At θ = 0°, τ max = τ

 Under pure shear, ductile materials will fail in 0° plane and brittle materials will fail
in 45° plane. Because, at 0° plane shear stress is maximum and at 45° plane normal
stress is maximum.
 Principal Stresses

When a combination of axial, bending and shear loading acts in a machine

member , then identifying the plane of maximum normal stress is difficult
. Such a plane is known as principal plane and the stresses induced in a
principal plane is known as principal stresses. Principal stress is an
equivalent of all stresses acting in a member.

Combined loading
Biaxial and shear
loading

Max principal
normal stresses

Max principal
shear stresses
 Eccentric loading
Eccentric load on bolts Eccentric load on crane hook

Eccentric load on column

Eccentric load on hydraulic punching
press
 Eccentric Loading
If the line of action of a load is not passing through the Centroid of
the machine component, then that is knows as eccentric load.

There are different kinds of stresses will be induced during

eccentric loading

For eccentric axial load,

 Direct stress and bending stress

 To find out the magnitude of resultant stress, these combination of

stresses have to be super imposed.
For eccentric plane load,

 Direct shear and torsional shear stress

 Theories of Failure

 Predicting failure in the members subjected to uniaxial stress is very

simple and straightforward. Because all failure criterions are reaching
the critical limit at an instant.

 But, in multi axial loading the prediction of failure is much

complicated. Because, predicting the cause of failure i.e. which
quantity of failure criterion is causing failure is difficult to find.

Thus, theories were formulated to predict this issue, which are known
as failure theories.
 Real life examples for Combined loading

Torsion and bending

Crank Shaft
Side thrust from cylinder
wall, force due to piston

Thrust and torsional shear

Connecting rod
Lifting Jack

Axial, bending and Torsion

Coupling

Propeller shaft
Tensile and direct shear
Why failure theories?

Principal stress < Yield stress [safe]

but, Shear stress exceeds its limit.
Ductile fracture Brittle fracture

Shear plane Normal plane

 Purpose of Tensile test

1 2

3 4
 Simple Tension Test
 In simple tension test, all six quantities reaches its critical
values simultaneously (at a single instant).

Any one of the following will cause failure.

• Principal normal stress yield stress σmax = σy or σu

• Principal shear stress yield shear stress τmax = σy /2

• Principal strain energy strain energy at yield point Utotal = ½ [σy εy]

• Principal strain strain at yield point εmax = σy /E (or) σu /E

• Distortion energy distortion energy at yield point

Udistortion = [σy2]
 Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory
(Rankine’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a

member when the maximum principal or normal stress in a bi-axial
stress system reaches the limiting strength of the material in a simple
tension test.

This theory is based on failure in tension or compression and ignores

the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, therefore it is not used
for ductile materials.

For Brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in
tension or compression, this theory is generally used.

Max principal stress [σ1] ≥ [σy] yield stress

(In a multi axial loading) (In a simple tension test)
σ2

σ1
Maximum Shear Stress Theory
σ2

σ1
 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky
and Von Mises Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when
the distortion strain energy (shear strain energy) per unit volume in a biaxial stress
system reaches the limiting distortion energy (distortion energy per unit volume) as
determined from a simple tension test.
 Total strain energy U = Uv + Ud Ud = U - Uv

For triaxial loading, the distortion energy

Ud = (1+µ) / 6E [(σ1 - σ2) 2 + (σ2 - σ3)2 + (σ3 – σ1)2]

For uniaxial tension test

Ud = (1+µ) / 6E [(σ1 2 + σ1)2] Ud = (1+µ) / 3E [σy2]

[When σ1 reaches σy]

 =

Thus, the left side of the Equation is a single, equivalent, or effective

stress for the entire general state of stress given by σ1, σ2, and σ3.
This effective stress is usually called the von Mises stress, σ′, named
after Dr. R. von Mises, who contributed to the theory.
The load on a bolt consists of an axial pull of 10 kN together with a

transverse shear force of 5 kN. Find the diameter of bolt required

according to

1. Max shear stress theory (Ans: d = 13.42 mm)

2. Max distortion energy theory (Ans: d = 13.4 mm)

Take permissible tensile stress at elastic limit = 100 MPa.

Question: Give the justification for the variation in diameter using

two different theories.

 What is VonMises Stress?

= + +

Where ε1, ε2, ε3 are strain three principal directions

∈ = [ − + ]

∈ = [ − + ]

∈ = [ − + ]

Substituting the above equations,

= [( + + ) – 2μ ( + + )]
 Total strain energy U = Uv + Ud
Therefore, the corresponding stresses are resolved into three
components

= + ; = + ; = +
∈ +∈ +∈ =

∈ = [ − + ]

∈ = [ − + ]

∈ = [ − + ]

− ( + + )=0 − ≠

Therefore, ( + + )=0

+ + =
Strain energy for volume change Uv = 3

Volumetric Strain ∈ = [ − [ + ]

( )
∈ =

( )
Uv =

Uv =

Ud = U - Uv

( )
Ud = [ − + − + − ]
 Distortion strain energy in triaxial loading

( )
Ud = [ − + − + − ]

In simple tension test, when yielding starts = = =

Distortion strain energy in uniaxial loading

( )
Ud =
Therefore, Failure criterion is,
( ) ( )
= [ − + − + − ]

= [ − + − + − ]
VonMises stress in FEA analysis
 Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint
Venant’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member

when the maximum principal strain in a multi axial stress system reaches the
limiting value of strain (strain at yield point) as determined from a simple
tension test.

The strain in the direction of σ1 [ε1] =

 According to this theory of failure, σ1 could be increased to a value
somewhat higher than σy without causing yielding if the second normal stress
σ2 is a tensile stress. But if σ2 is a compressive stress the maximum value of σ1
that could be applied without causing yielding would be somewhat smaller
than σy.

 This theory is not applicable if the failure in elastic behavior is by yielding. It

is applicable when the conditions are such that failure occurs by brittle
fracture.

Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh’s

Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member

when the strain energy per unit volume in a biaxial stress system reaches the
limiting strain energy (strain energy at yield point) per unit volume as
determined from the simple tension test.
 Stress Tensor

 To define a stress at any point in a member subjected to multi axial

loading, an infinitesimally small cube around a point is assumed to
indicate the stress components in three mutually perpendicular
planes.
Plane Stress - Examples
 Planar Assumptions

 All real world structures are three dimensional.

 For planar to be valid both the geometry and the loads must be constant across the thickness.

When using plane strain, we assume that the depth is infinite. Thus the effects from
end conditions may be ignored.
 Plane Stress

 All stresses act on the one plane – normally the XY

plane.

 Due to Poisson effect there will be strain in the Z

direction. But We assume that there is no stress in
the Z – direction.

 σx, τxz, τyz will all be zero.

Plane Strain

 All strains act on the one plane – normally the XY

plane. And hence there is no strain in the z-direction.

 σz will not equal to zero. Stress induced to prevent

displacement in z – direction.

 εx, εxz, εyz will all be zero.

 A thin planar structure with constant thickness and loading within the plane of the
structure (xy plane).

 A long structure with uniform cross section and transverse loading along its length (z –
direction).