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MATERIALS AND HARDWARE

MODULE 06
Introduction to Materials

• How are Engineering materials classified?


– Metals
– Polymers
– Ceramics
– Glass
– Composite
– Wood
Metals

• Pure Metals
– Elements which come from a particular area of the
periodic table.

• Alloys
– Contain more than one element
– Their properties can be changed by changing the
elements present in the alloy
– Ex: Steel (Fe+C), Stainless Steel (Fe+C+Cr+Ni), Gold
Jewellery (Au+Cu)
Contd..
Metals

• Have good electrical and thermal conductivity.


• Many metals have high strength, stiffness and have good
ductility.
• Some metals are magnetic (Fe, Co, Ni etc)
• At extremely low temperatures, some metals and
intermetallic compounds become superconductors.
• Some metals alloys such as those based on Al have low
densities and are used in Aerospace applications.
• Many metal alloys have high fracture toughness.
Polymers

• Polymer has a repeating structure, usually based on a


Carbon backbone.
• Useful because they are light weight, corrosion resistant,
easy to process at low temperatures, generally cheap.
• Low strength and high toughness.
• Stregth is often improved using reinforced composites.
• Poor conductors of electricity and heat/ good insulators.
Ceramics

• Often broadly defined as any inorganic nonmetallic


material.
• They have high melting temperature, low density, high
strength, stiffness, hardness, wear & corrosion resistance
• Good electrical and thermal insulators.
• Superconductors at very low temperatures.
• Ceramic and glasses have one major drawback
(Brittleness)
Glass

• Amorphous, inorganic, non metallic materials.

• High range of applications (from bottles to fibre optics).

• Very brittle
Composites

• Formed from two or more types of materials (concrete,


GFRP, Plywood, MDF).

• Qualities are superior to those of individuals.

• High tensile strength and Young’s modulus.


Structure of Atoms, Atomic Theories,
Atomic Bonding in Materials
Atomic Structure

All the materials are composed of very small particles


called atoms. An atom consists of a center nucleus
of positive charge around which small negatively
charged particles called electrons revolve in
different paths or orbits.
Atomic Structures
Atomic Structure (Fundamental Concepts)
• Atom consists of a very small nucleus (Protons and
neutrons and is encircled by moving electrons).
• Both electrons and protons are electrically charged; (-)
for electrons and (+) for protons; neutrons are neutral.
• Each chemical element is characterized by the number of
protons in the nucleus, or the atomic number (Z).
• The atomic mass (A) is the sum of masses of protons and
neutrons within the nucleus.
• Some elements have two or more different atomic
masses, which are called isotopes.
Types of Bonding

Bonding

Primary Secondary
Types of Bonds

Dominant Bond (Who


S/No Material Other Bonds
Controls Material)
1 Metals Metalic Covalent
2 Ceramics Covalent/ Ionic Ionic/ Covalent
3 Polymers Van Der Walls/ Hydrogen Covalent
Ionic Bonding
• Found in compounds that composed of both metallic
and nonmetallic elements; elements that are situated at
the horizontal extremities of the periodic table.

• Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence


electrons to the nonmetallic atoms.

• In the process all the atoms acquire stable or inert gas


configurations and, an electrical charge.

• Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the classic ionic material.


Periodic Table
Ionic Bonds
Covalent Bonds
The Structure of Crystalline Solids
Fundamental Concepts

• A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are


situated in a repeating or periodic array over large
atomic distances.
• Each atom is bonded to its nearest-neighbor atoms.
• All metals, many ceramic materials, certain polymers
form crystalline structures under normal solidification
conditions.
• Some of the properties of crystalline solids depend on
the crystal structure of the material.
FCC Structure
BCC Structure
Unit Cells

• The small groups of atoms of crystalline structures which


form a repetitive pattern.

• The crystal structures are often subdivided into small


repeat entities called unit cells.
Crystal Defects

• Point defects

• Line defects or dislocations

• Planar defects

• Bulk defects
Point Defects
• Defects related to a single atom

• Specific for crystalline materials


Line Defects or Dislocations

• Related to line of atoms.

• Specific for crystalline materials.

• There are two types of dislocations.


– Edge dislocation

– Screw dislocation
Edge Dislocation
Screw Dislocation
Edge Dislocation Vs Screw Dislocation
Planar Defects

• Two dimensional defects.


• Plane of atoms is moved.
• Grain boundary defects.
Bulk Defects
• Three dimensional/ volumetric defects.
• Common for all material types.
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Application of Forces and Deformations of Materials
Tensile Test

• Mechanical properties of a material are


studied by performing a tensile test.

• Tensile test speciman


The speciman will be subjected to a progressively
increasing tensile force until it fractures.
Tensile Test

• There are four important stages in the testing.


– Original speciman
– Deformed speciman
– Necked speciman
– Fractured speciman
• From the test, Force-Extension curve is obtained.

e
• Force-Extension curve is then converted to a Stress-
Strain curve.

ε
Stress – Strain Curve
Typical Engineering Stress – Strain Curve
Stress-Strain Diagram of Steel
Stress-Strain Diagram for Brittle Materials
Elasticity
• All materials show temporary deformation to a certain
extent – Elastic deformation.

• This property of the material is known as Elasticity.

• Elasticity of most of the materials gives a straight line in


the stress-strain diagram known as Linear Elastic
Materials.
Elasticity Contd...
• Elasticity of some other materials does not give a
straight line in the σ-ε diagram.
• They are known as non linear elastic materials
(ex: rubber)

• Elasticity of materials is accounted to the stretching of


atomic bonds.
Elastic Modulus

• For linear elastic materials


   ;   E

• E is known as Elastic Modulus or Young’s Modulus.

• E of steel is 2x1011 Pa
Plasticity

• The deformation becomes permanent beyond a


certain stress levels in metals.

• It is known as plastic deformation and the


property is known as plasticity.

• Plastic deformation begins at the yield stress.


Plastic Deformation
• Plastic deformation in metals occurs due to a
phenomenon known as slip (relative displacement
of atomic planes).
Yield Drop in Steel
• Question 1:
– Why do you observe a yield drop in the stress-strain
curve of steel? Relate your answer with the theory of
“Cottrell Atmosphere”.
Ductile and Brittle Materials

• Ductile Materials
– Materials that exhibit plastic deformation (Most
metals are ductile)

• Brittle Materials
– Materials that do not have plasticity (glass, cast iron)
Ductility

• Ability of a metal to undergo plastic


deformation is defined as ductility.

• Plastic strain at fracture ε pf  is a measure of


ductility.

• Ductility of Cu is greater than that of steel.


Ductility Contd...

• Ductility can be measured by:

– Percentage elongation  L f  Lo 
  x 100%
 Lo 

– Percentage reduction in area  A f  Ao  x 100%


 
 Ao 
Malleability

• Ability of a material to undergo plastic


deformation in compression.

• All ductile materials are malleable but malleable


materials are not necessary to be ductile always.

• A malleable material is preferred in process such


as forging, rolling & rivets heading (hammering).
Strength

• Ability of a material to withstand the applied


stresses without failure is defined as strength
(maximum stress that can be applied on a material).

• Strength of a brittle material is given by it’s fracture


stress.

• Yield strength is taken as the strength for a ductile


material.
Tensile Test for Brittle Materials

• It is almost impossible to do a tensile test on


brittle materials, as they tend to break in the grips.

• Tensile strength of a brittle material is therefore


calculated from its MOR (Modulus Of Rupture).

• Tensile strength x 1.3 = MOR

• MOR is determined by perfoming bending test.


Bending Test

L b

 3PL 
MOR   2
 2bd 
Compression Test
Proof Stress

• Stress-Strain diagram of most metals does not


give a clear cut yield point.

?
Proof Stress Contd...

• In such cases yield stress could not be found.

• As such, proof stress is found and used in place of


the yield stress.

• Hence, 0.1% proof stress is found.

• 0.1% proof stress is the stress that is required to


cause a plastic strain of 0.1% (ε=0.001).
Proof Stress Contd...

ε=0.002
Work Hardening

• Strength (and hardness) of a metal increases as a


result of plastic deformation.

• This is known as work hardening or strain


hardening.

• Effect of work hardening on strength is


demonstrated by a tensile test.
YS2 B
F
YS1
A

O
P
Necking

• At the UTS a localized deformation begins in


the speciman.
Engineering Diagram Vs True Diagram
Ferrous and Non Ferrous Alloys
Types of Metal Alloys

• Metal alloys are often grouped into two classes.


– Ferrous
– Nonferrous.

• Ferrous alloys, those in which iron is the principal


constituent, include steels and cast irons.

• Non-ferrous alloys - all alloys that are not iron based.


Ferrous Alloys

• Those of which iron is the prime constituent.

• Produced in larger quantities than any other metal


type.

• Especially important as engineering construction


materials.
Ferrous Alloys

• Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors:


– Iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities
within the earth’s crust.
– Metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using
relatively economical extraction, refining, alloying, and
fabrication techniques.
– Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be
tailored to have a wide range of mechanical and physical
properties.

• The principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their


susceptibility to corrosion.
Classification Scheme for Various Ferrous Alloys
Fe – C Phase Diagram

75
Steels
• Iron-Carbon alloys that may contain appreciable
concentrations of other alloying elements.
• The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content
of carbon, which is normally less than 2.0 wt%.
• More common steels are classified according to carbon
concentration (low, medium, and high carbon types).
• Subclasses also exist within each group according to the
concentration of other alloying elements.
• Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentrations
of impurities other than carbon and a little manganese.
• For alloy steels, more alloying elements are intentionally
added in specific concentrations.
Stainless Steels

• Highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of


environments, especially the ambient atmosphere.
• Predominant alloying element is Cr (at least 11 wt% Cr).
• Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by Ni and
Mo additions.
• A wide range of mechanical properties combined with
excellent corrosion resistance make stainless steels very
versatile in their applicability.
Cast Irons

• C contents above 2.14 wt% (in practice most cast irons


contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C).
• Alloys within this composition range become completely
liquid at temperatures between approximately 11500C
and (21000F and ), which is lower than for steels.
• Thus, they are easily melted and amenable to casting.
• Some cast irons are very brittle, and casting is the most
convenient fabrication technique.
• The most common cast iron types are gray, nodular,
white, malleable, and compacted graphite.
Fe – C Phase Diagram

82
Gray Cast Iron

• C and Si contents vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0
and 3.0 wt%, respectively.
• For most of these cast irons, the graphite exists in the
form of flakes (similar to corn flakes)
• Because of these graphite flakes, a fractured surface
takes on a gray appearance, hence its name.
• Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak and brittle
in tension.
Gray Cast Iron

• The tips of the graphite flakes are sharp and pointed,


and may serve as points of stress concentration when an
external tensile stress is applied.
• Strength and ductility are much higher under
compressive loads.
• Used for base structures for machines and heavy
equipment that are exposed to vibrations.
• In addition, gray irons exhibit a high resistance to wear.
Gray Cast Iron
Ductile (or Nodular) Iron
• Adding a small amount of Mg and/or cerium to the gray
iron before casting.
• Graphite still forms, but as nodules or sphere-like
particles instead of flakes.
• Castings are stronger and much more ductile than gray
iron.
• Ductile iron has mechanical characteristics approaching
those of steel.
• Applications include valves, pump bodies, crankshafts,
gears, and other automotive and machine components.
Ductile (or Nodular) Iron
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
Properties of Aluminium

• Light in mass
• Soft and ductile
• High resistance to corrosion
• No coloured salts are formed to stain surfaces.
• Good electrical and thermal conductivities
• Nontoxic (used for cooking utensils)
• Lose part of their strength at elevated temperatures.
Aluminium Alloys

Classify into two categories


• Non heat treatable
– Stength depends on the hardening effect of
elements such as Mn, Si, Fe and Mg.
– Not subjected to heat treatment

• Heat treatable
– Treatments include solution heat treatment,
quenching and precipitation or age hardening.
Wrought Aluminium and Aluminium Alloy
Designation System

Aluminium 99% and greater 1xxx

Aluminium alloys grouped by major alloying elements

Copper 2xxx
Manganese 3xxx
Silicon 4xxx
Magnesium 5xxx
Magnesium and Silicon 6xxx
Zinc 7xxx
Other elements 8xxx
• 2nd digit is usually zero.
Non zero numbers are used to indicate some
modification to the original alloy.
– If 2nd digit is zero – Indicate original alloy
– If 2nd digit is 1-9 – intentionally introduced impurities.

• In 1xxx last 2 digits indicate the purity of Al


– If last 2 digits are zero – Al 99%
– If last 2 digits are 12 – Al 99.12%

• For other types, last 2 digits indicate the particular


alloy within the family.
– Ex: 2024 means alloy number 24 within the Al-Cu system
or 2xxx
Effect of Alloying Elements
• 1xxx Series (Al)
– Excellent corrosion resistance
– High thermal and electrical conductivity
– Excellent workability

• 2xxx Series (Al+Cu)


– Require solution heat treatment to obtain optimum
properties.
– Artificial aging to further increase the mechanical
properties, yield strength.

• 3xxx Series (Al+Mn)


– Non heat treatable
Effect of Alloying Elements (Contd..)
• 4xxx Series (Al+Si)
– Lowering of the melting point without producing
brittleness.

• 5xxx Series (Al+Mg)


– High strength non heat treatable alloy
– Good welding characteristics
– Good resistance to corrosion in marine atmosphere.

• 6xxx Series (Al+Si+Mg)


– Good formability and corrosion resistance with medium
strength.
Effect of Alloying Elements (Contd...)

• 7xxx Series (Al+Zn)


– When coupled with Mg and Cu results in heat
treatable alloys of very high strength.
– 7075, 7050 and 7049 are the highest strength alloys
used in airframe structures and for highly stressed
parts.
Age Hardening

• Strengthening a metal by introducing small particles of


another phase which barriers dislocation motion.

• Maximum hardness is achieved if the properties can


resist cutting by dislocations and are too close to permit
by-passing of dislocations.
Cutting Through and By Passing of Dislocations
Cutting through:
When precipitates are
too small.

Bowing and by pass:


When precipitates are
too strong to be cut
and inter particle space
become large.
Age Hardening Process
Al-Li Alloys

• Developed recently for the aircraft, aerospace industries.


• Have relatively low densities (2.5 - 2.6 g/cm3)
• High specific moduli (elastic modulus/ specific gravity
ratios)
• Excellent fatigue, low-temperature toughness properties.
• May be precipitation hardened.
• More costly to manufacture than conventional Al alloys as
a result of Lithium’s chemical reactivity.
Duralumin (Al-4%Cu)
• 2017-T4 Alloy which is called as duralumin.
• Hardened by natural aging.
• Widely used in aircraft industry.
Mg and Mg Alloys

• Main properties
– High strength to weight ratio

– Excellent machinability

– Relatively low cost


Other Properties and Applications
• Produced in various forms including casting, sheet,
plate, forgings, bar and rod.
• Both standard structural shapes and sections of special
design are made by the extrusion process.
• Can be machined at higher speeds and at lower costs.
• Cast Mg alloys
• Tensile strength upto about 280 Mpa
• Yield strength upto about 160 Mpa

• Wrought Mg alloys
• Tensile strenghts upto about 360 Mpa
• Yield strengths upto about 300 Mpa
• The Yield strength, tensile strength and hardness of Mg
alloys decrease with Rising temperature.
Titanium Alloys
• High strength to weight ratio.
– Capable of operating at temperatures from sub zero to 600°C.
• For aero-engines
– Blades, shafts and casings from the front fan to the last stage
of the high pressure compressor.
• Airframes
– Ti Alloys with strength up to 1200MPa
– Landing gears and large wing beams.
Corrosion on Aircraft Materials
Corrosion on Aircraft Materials

• Materials are primarily used for their strength


and tenacity.
• They may readily suffer serious damage from
corrosion unless effectively protected.
• Rate of corrosion attack can be extremely rapid
in certain environments.
• Control and prevention of corrosion is
important in the design of aircraft structure.
Why the Corrosion prevention on Aircraft is
Important?
• Corrosion may extend over an entire metal
surface.
• Corrosion may penetrate locally to form deep
pits.
• Corrosion may follow the grain boundaries
within the metal.
• The weakening effect of corrosive attack may
be aggravated by stresses in the metal and
result in premature failure of the component.
Anti Corrosive Protection
• During manufacture and assembly, a range of
surface treatments are applied.
• Heat treatment to refine grain structure.
• Sacrificial coatings in the form of plating and
cladding to retard the onset of corrosion.
• Epoxy primers, special paint finishes and the
use of barrier sealants to prevent the ingress of
dirt and moisture between component parts.
Methods of Surface Protection
There are many different types of surface
protection added to the basic structural materials
and hardware.

• Cladding
• Anodising
• Chromating
• Exterior Cleaning
• Surface Cleaning
Cladding
• Cu and Zn commonly alloyed with Al for high
strength skin and component parts.

• These suffer extensively from corrosion.

• ‘Alclad’ (soft, highly corrosion-resistant, pure Al


skin) rolled onto the face of each base alloy
sheet, effectively sandwitching the alloy.
Galvanic series
Anodising

• Protects Al based alloys from corrosion (when


cladding is impractical).
• An electrolytic treatment which coats the host
metal with a film of oxide.
• This film is hard, waterproof, air-tight.
• Permanently accept a coloured dye for
identification of some parts.
Bonding the Anodized surfaces

The film acts as an insulator.


When bonding leads are to be attached to an
anodised part, the surface treatment must be
carefully removed before the bonding lead is
attached.
Chromating

• Chromate coatings are used to protect


Magnesium-based alloys, zinc and its alloys.

• Components are immersed in a bath


containing potassium bichromate and results
in a yellowish coating on magnesium alloys.
Exterior Cleaning
• Special points are to be protected from cleaning
materials and high pressure water sprays.

• Wheels, tyres & brake assemblies need to be


covered to keep free of cleaning agents.

• Use only the cleaning agents & chemicals


recommended by the manufacturer.
Surface Cleaning

• Most aircraft will be cleaned before starting


the large inspections.

• To keep clean the aircraft always.

• Dirt, trapped moisture, solvents can cover up


cracked or damaged components.
Structural Assembly Techniques

• The A/C integrity depends on the way the parts


are attached together.

• The most common attachment is by the use of


rivets or fasteners.

• Nuts and bolts, adhesive bonding techniques


are also used.
Riveting

Rivets

Special Fasteners Solid Shank

Special Fasteners Blind Fasteners


Solid Shank Rivets

The vast majority of structure is held together


with solid rivets.
Solid Shank Rivet Head Shapes

• Flat Head

• Round Head

• Universal Head

• Flush Rivets
Flat Head (AN442)

This is used in internal locations where it can


be driven more easily than either a round or
universal head rivet.
Flat Head Rivet
Round Head (AN430)

This is used on internal structure where the


thicker head is more suitable for automatic
riveting equipment.
Round Head Rivet
Universal Head (AN470 or MS20470)

• Most popular and may be used to replace any


protruding-head rivet.

• It is streamlined on top but thick enough to


provide strength without protruding too much
into the airflow.
Universal Head Rivets
Flush Rivets (AN426 or MS20426)

• Used in where a smooth skin is important.

• Rivets with a different countersink angle, such


as 90, 100 and 120 degrees can be found.
Flush Rivets
Rivet Head Types
Types of Alloy used for Solid Shank Rivets

• The marks are used to identify the rivet alloy.

• Head markings are necessary to identify the


type of rivets removed from an aircraft.

• Marks are made on rivet heads.


Solid Rivet Identification
'A' Rivets

• Used for non-structural applications.

• Made from pure Al.


Solid Rivet Identification
Type “AD” Rivet

• A very popular type of a rivet.

• Has Cu and Mg added to the Al base metal.

• Heat treated during manufacture to make it


strong, whilst still being soft enough to be
formed easily.
Solid Rivet Identification
'D' and 'DD‘ Rivets

• Used when more strength than 'AD' rivets is


required.

• They must be heat treated to make them softer


before they can be formed.

• After forming they may be put into a


refrigerator to maintain the softening effect.
Solid Rivet Identification
'B' rivet

• When riveting Mg alloy sheets, there must be


no Cu in the rivet alloy.

• 'B' rivet, manufactured from 5056 alloy.

• This contains a large amount of Mg with a little


Mn and Cr but no Cu.

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