This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts

for publication in the WCNC 2008 proceedings.

User-Centric Optimum Radio Access Selection in

Heterogeneous Wireless Networks based on Neural
Network Dynamics
Mikio Hasegawa
Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Tokyo University of Science
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-0073, Japan
Ha Nguyen Tran, Goh Miyamoto, Yoshitoshi Murata
Hiroshi Harada, Shuzo Kato Dept. of Software and
National Institute of Information and Information Science,
Communications Technology Iwate Prefectural University
Yokosuka, 239-0847, Japan Takizawa-mura, 020-0193, Japan

Abstract—We propose an autonomous and decentralized
optimization method for heterogeneous wireless networks, in
which a huge number of mobile terminals with multiple dif-
ferent air interfaces autonomously utilize the most appropriate
infrastructure wireless networks, by sensing available wireless
networks, selecting the most appropriate one, and reconfiguring
themselves with seamless handover to the target networks. For
optimum selection of radio resources, we introduce dynamics
of the mutually connected neural network which converges
to an optimal state since its property is to autonomously
decrease its energy function. In this paper, we apply such
neurodynamics to user-centric optimum radio access selection,
which maximizes the total throughput of the entire networks,
and minimizes the power consumption of the user terminal
and the communication cost. We compose a neural network
that solves such a problem, and we show that they can be
optimized by distributed decisions based on autonomous and
simple neuron updates on the terminal side.
I. Introduction
Various wireless systems, such as cellular phone systems
and wireless LANs, have been deployed. Moreover, mobile
broadband wireless access systems such as WiMAX will
be launched in the next few years. Since these wireless
systems have different QoSs, capacity, costs, and so on,
seamless handover technologies among different networks
have been important research topics for always using the
best wireless network, and these technologies include IP
mobility, software defined radio, cognitive radio [1][2] and
common signaling technologies [3][4]. By extending such
adaptive heterogeneous wireless networking and enabling
adaptive seamless handover among any existing wireless
access networks, the combined network becomes scalable,
and this improves availability for the user’s service re-
quirements. Not only media-independent handover among
different wireless systems but also carrier-independent
handover among different network operators greatly in-
creases the number of available wireless systems for each
mobile terminal user. We call such wireless network
environments Cognitive Wireless Clouds [5], and they
are customer-centric and scalable heterogeneous wireless
networks. In the concept of the Cognitive Wireless Clouds,
mobile terminals utilize any wireless systems in their
environment, and switch among different networks by
using handover technologies for macro-mobility. Since such
an open network architecture like the Internet may include
huge number of wireless access networks, it would be a
large scale complex system. To optimize such a complex
network with various constraints and requirements, we
need autonomous and decentralized algorithms to keep
the entire network in an optimal state.
In order to analyze distributed dynamical systems of
the cognitive radio networks, the game theory [6] has been
applied and a recent hot research topic. It was used for
analyzing stability and convergence of dynamical systems
consisting of distributed and autonomous mobile terminal
behaviors. Although it can deal with various rules-based
dynamics, game theory itself is not a tool for globally
optimizing some given objective function.
As more natural optimization method based on an
autonomous and decentralized dynamics, we have applied
the energy function of mutually connected neural network
dynamics for load balancing of the heterogeneous wireless
networks [7], [8]. The dynamics of the mutually connected
networks is based on the always-decreasing property of
its energy function, and it converges to a stable state
corresponding to a minimum of the energy function [9][10].
This property is useful for solving various minimum search
problems and does not change even for large-scale neural
networks. When we want to solve some minimum search
problem, we can construct a neural network autonomously
converges to the minimum of the target objective function
by mapping the objective optimization function to the
energy function. The energy function is defined by fixed
parameters, i.e., the connection weight between neurons
and the threshold of neurons, and variables, i.e., the states
of the neurons. Namely, it is an autonomous dynamical
system, which is based on a simple neuronal update
equation. Since it is based on decentralized updates of
neurons, we consider that such a property is suitable as
part of a mechanism for deciding the optimum access point
selection on the terminal side. A drawback of this approach
is that it is not trivial, and it is sometimes difficult

2747
1525-3511/08/$25.00 ©2008 IEEE
This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts for publication in the WCNC 2008 proceedings.
to introduce various objective functions that should be
minimized (or maximized), since they have to be expressed
as quadratic functions of the neuronal states.
In this paper, we apply the dynamics of the mutually
connected neural network to user-centric optimization of
radio access selection. This selection includes not only
load-balancing of the heterogeneous wireless networks but
also the reduction of power consumption on users’ ter-
minals and communication costs, as a typical example of
optimization problems from the users’ point of view. The
neural network dynamics has already been applied to the
dynamic channel assignment problems in the field of radio
resource management [11][12], and its usefulness has been
shown in those cases. In this paper, we apply the dynamics
to optimize a heterogeneous wireless network environment.
First, we show how to construct the neural network as
autonomous optimization dynamics for optimum access
point selection in heterogeneous wireless networks, and
then we discuss simulation results.
II. Optimization by Mutually Connected Neural
Networks
The state of the mutual connection neural networks
converges [9][10] when we use a typical 0-or-1 output
neuron whose update equation is given by,
 n
 
1 for wij xj (t) > θi ,
xi (t + 1) = j=1 (1)


0 otherwise,
where xi (t) is the output of the i th neuron at time t which
takes only 0 or 1, wij is the connection weight between
the i th and j th neurons, θi is the threshold of the i th
neuron, and n is the number of neurons in the network.
A mutual connection neural network composed of such
very simple neurons converges to a state corresponding to
a local minimum of the energy function Enn (t), which is
defined by fixed parameters, connection weights wij and
threshold θi , and variables, the state of the neurons xi (t).
The energy function is described as follow,
n n n
1   Therefore, we use this type of neuron update equation,
Enn (t) = − wij xi (t)xj (t) + θi xi (t).
2 i=1 j=1 i=1
This energy function always decreases after each neuron
update by Eq. (1) [9][10]. This property can be easily
shown by calculating difference in Enn (t) for before and
after a neuron asynchronously updates. This decreasing
property has been applied to various optimization prob-
lems to search for the minimum point in high-dimensional
state spaces, by using distributed and autonomous pro-
cessing of individual neurons.
Hopfield and Tank showed the usefulness of this prop-
erty of the energy function in solving NP-hard combina-
torial optimization problems such as Traveling Salesman
Problems (TSPs) [13]. They devised a scheme of mapping
travel routes into the firing patterns of neurons and an
energy function to minimize the tour length. To satisfy the
constraint of the TSP, that is, visiting each city exactly
once, they also introduced a constraint term in the energy
function. The connection weights and thresholds were
obtained by transforming the objective energy function
into a form whose variables are neuronal states as in
Eq. (2), and then mapping the obtained coefficients
to a neural network energy whose coefficients are the
connection weights and the thresholds. The neural network
can autonomously solve the given problem simply using
these obtained connection weights and threshold.
One issue of this approach is that it sticks at a local
minimum. To overcome this weakness, stochastic noises,
such as Boltzmann machines [14], Gaussian Machines [15],
or simulated annealing [16], have been used to shake the
neural network state out of a local minimum so it would
possibly fall into a better state. Chaotic dynamics has also
been used to shake the state of the neural network, and
various theoretical studies have shown that the solving
performance of chaos is much better than stochastic noise
[17]–[20].
Another drawback of the mutual connection neural
network approach is that the constraint of the problem
should be merged with the energy function as a constraint
term. Therefore, when the neural network converges to a
suboptimal state, it becomes difficult to obtain a feasible
solution. In the case of easier optimization problems
with a one-dimensional constraint such as selection or
classification, it is possible to satisfy the constraint by
modifying the neuron update equation to decide firing by
taking the maximum firing neuron as follows [21],


1 if yi (t + 1) = max[y1 (t + 1),
xi (t + 1) = . . . , yn (t + 1)], (3)


0 otherwise,
n

where, yi (t + 1) = wij xj (t) − θi . The radio access
j=1
technology selection problem at each mobile terminal can
be included in the group of such selection problems.
(2) since it can satisfy the constraint without any additional
constraint term to the energy function.
III. Design of Neural Network for User-Centric Radio
Access Selection in Heterogeneous Wireless Networks
A. Optimization problem of user-centric selection and
objective function
As an example of optimization problems in large-scale
heterogeneous wireless networks, we have constructed a
neural network that optimizes load balancing [7], [8]. The
objective function was defined as maximization of the
average throughput over all the mobile terminals. In this
paper, we additionally introduce objective functions for
minimization of power consumption and communication
cost, from the user’s point of view. For simplicity, we
2748
This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts for publication in the WCNC 2008 proceedings.
assume that all mobile terminals are trying to use the
maximum throughput by best-effort connection and by
fairly sharing the radio resources. We also assume that
each mobile station can establish a wireless link with an
access point only when it is located in the coverage area of
the access point whose size depends on the wireless system.
Therefore, we can omit calculations corresponding to the
links between mobile stations and access points whose
distances are longer than the possible transmission range
of the wireless system. We also assume that a single mobile
station is connected to only one access point. Although
link aggregation can also be optimized in this framework
by loosening the constraint, this paper focuses on an
analysis of the autonomous optimization dynamics under
very simple assumptions. Hence, the available throughput
for terminal i is approximately defined by the following
simple equation,
Chlink (i)
Ti (t) = , (4)
NhAP (t)
link (i)
where, Cj is the total throughput of the access point j,
NjAP (t) is the number of mobile terminals having the
network connection over the access point j at time t,
and hlink (i) is the access point which mobile terminal i
is using. The objective function F1 (t) for load balancing,
the average throughput of all the mobile terminals which
should be maximized, can be expressed as follows,
Nm
1 
F1 (t) = Ti (t),
Nm i=1
where Nm is the number of mobile terminals.
In this paper, we also take into account the poser
consumption and communication cost for optimization.
The objective function F2 (t) for the power consumption
can be expressed as follows,
Nm

F2 (t) = Phlink (i) ,
i=1
where Pj is the power consumption of the wireless system
corresponding to the access point j. F2 is minimized to
extending battery life for each terminal.
The objective function F3 (t) for the communication cost
is defined as follows,
Nm
 th and (k, l) th neuron, and θij is the threshold of the
F3 (t) = Qhlink (i) ,
i=1
where Qj is the communication cost for the access point
j. F3 is also minimized to reduce the cost for each user.
B. Mapping the problem into the energy function of the
neural network
In order to apply the mutual connection neural network
to optimization problems, we have to map its firing pattern
to a state of the given problem. First, we have to express
the state of the objective problem using neurons that
Fig. 1. Relation between firing pattern of neural network and access
selection by mobile terminals.
have only two states, 0 or 1. Second, we have to define
an objective energy function EOBJ (t) whose minimization
corresponds to minimization of the objective function.
When the objective is maximization of G(t), minimization
of the opposite sign, −G(t), or of the inverse, 1/G(t)
for G(t) > 0, may be possible ways to map such a
problem into the energy function. Third, we calculate
the connection weights and threshold by transforming the
objective energy function EOBJ (t) into the functional form
of the neuron states and mapping the coefficients into
the neural network energy function ENN (t). We can find
the minimum of the EOBJ (t) from the calculated weights
and thresholds by making simple updates of the neural
network, which naturally optimizes the entire network.
To express the state of the wireless access point selection
on each terminal by the firing pattern of the neural
network, we use NAP neurons for each terminal i, where
NAP is the number of access points, and associate a firing
(5) of the j th neuron in terminal i with the event that the
terminal i connects to the access point j. Namely, firing
of the (i, j) th neuron on the Nm × NAP grid means that
the terminal i establishes a wireless link with the access
point j or hands over to the access point j. In Fig. 1, we
show an example of the firing pattern and corresponding
access point selection of each terminal.
Since the neurons are on a two-dimensional grid, their
(6) update equation can be redefined by the following equa-
tion,
 Nm N
  AP
1 for Wijkl xkl (t) > θij ,
xij (t + 1) = (8)

 k=1 l=1
0 otherwise,
where Wijkl is the connection weight between the (i, j)
(7) (i, j) th neuron. Based on this update equation, the
energy function ENN (t) of the neural network in a two-
dimensional form can be defined as,
N N N N
1 m AP m 
AP
ENN (t) = − Wijkl xij (t)xkl (t)
2 i=1 j=1
k=1 l=1
Nm N
 AP
+ θij xij (t). (9)
i=1 j=1
ENN (t) always decreases through autonomous and dis-
tributed updates of neurons according to Eq. (8). There-
2749
This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts for publication in the WCNC 2008 proceedings.

fore, if we could define the objective energy function equation.

to be a quadratic function of xij (t), we can obtain the Nm Nm
1
 1  NhAP
link (i)
(t)
connection weights and thresholds for constructing the EOBJ (t) = = (11)
neural network model that solves the target problem. i=1
Ti (t) i=1
Chlink (i)
In Eq. (8), each mobile terminal updates NAP neurons We use this objective function to get the quadratic func-
autonomously, but it is not necessary to update all of tion of xij (t). This means the average available throughput
the assigned NAP neurons at each terminal. We can omit over the mobile terminals is directly optimized, but the
neurons corresponding to the access points that are farther states of the solutions are approximately the same in both
than the transmission range of the wireless system. We cases, in the sense of maximization of throughput per user.
only need to update the neurons corresponding to the NhAP (i) (t)
access points that are detectable at each terminal. Using the neuron states xij (t), link
Chlink (i) can be expressed
Here, we assume that a single mobile station can as follows,
N
establish a wireless link with only one access point at the NhAP
link (i)
(t) AP
NjAP (t)
same time. For such a problem that one is selected from = xij (t) (12)
Chlink (i) j=1
Cj
a number of candidates, the maximum firing detection
as described in Eq. (3) is suitable, since it always makes By using the following equation for NjAP (t) expressed with
the neural network algorithm provide feasible solutions. neurons state xij (t),
Therefore, for the access point selection neural network,
Nm

we use the following neuronal update function,
 NjAP (t) = xkj (t), (13)

1 if yij (t + 1) = max[yi1 (t + 1), k=1

xij (t + 1) = . . . , yiNAP (t + 1)], (10) 1

we can obtain the energy function of EOBJ (t) as a


0 otherwise, quadratic function of the neuron states xij (t) as follow,
Nm N
 
Nm N
  AP 1
AP
NjAP (t)
EOBJ (t) = xij (t)
where, yij (t + 1) = Wijkl xkl (t) − θij . Cj
i=1 j=1
k=1 l=1
Nm N
  Nm
AP 
On the other hand, if we use Eq. (8) as the update 1
equation and permits firing of multiple neurons corre- = xij (t)xkj (t) (14)
i=1 j=1
Cj
sponding to the access points in mobile terminals, the k=1

link aggregation can be taken into account. As the second objective function for F2 (t) corresponding
to the power consumption, the energy function can be
C. Obtaining the connection weights in the neural net- defined as follows, with a variable xij (t) which is the state
work of the (i, j)th neuron,
The mutual connection neural network for optimization Nm N
 AP
2
can be realized by calculating the connection weights EOBJ (t) = Pj xij (t). (15)
Wijkl from the objective functions in Eqs. (5)–(7) and i=1 j=1
the energy function in Eq. (9). Since we decided to use For the third objective function for the communication
the maximum detection for determining firing (Eq. (10)), costs, the energy function can be obtained as follows from
we do not need to obtain the threshold for each neuron. the Eq. (7),
By transforming the objective function F1 (t) in Eq. (5)
1 Nm N
 
to the energy function EOBJ whose variables are only the 3
AP

EOBJ (t) = Qj xij (t). (16)

neuron states xij (t), we can obtain Wijkl by comparing
1 i=1 j=1
EOBJ (t) and ENN (t) in Eq. (9). Here, it should be noted
that the neuron state xij (t) should be in the numerator of
1
the objective energy function EOBJ (t), because Wijkl are
coefficients of the products of xij (t) in ENN (t) and these
coefficients have to be extracted from them.
Since the energy function ENN (t) always decreases,
the maximization problem must be transformed into a
minimization problem by using the inverse number or
the opposite sign. Hence for the objective energy function
1
EOBJ (t), we replace the average available throughput over
all mobile terminals, which should be maximized (Eq. (5)),
with a minimization problem of the summation of the
inverse of the available throughput as in the following
1 2 3
From EOBJ (t), EOBJ (t) and EOBJ (t), we define a total
objective function as follows,
1 2 3
EOBJ (t) = V1 EOBJ (t) + V2 EOBJ (t) + V3 EOBJ (t) (17)
where V1 , V2 and V3 are the weights for each objective
function. For normalization of objective energy functions,
Cj , Pj and Qj are divided by the maximum for each.
When we use the original neuronal update equation as
in Eq. (8), we also have to introduce a constraint term
as in Ref. [13] to make firing of exactly one neuron in
the neurons corresponding to one terminal, to select one
access point for each. In this paper, we use maximum firing

2750
This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts for publication in the WCNC 2008 proceedings.

neuron and omit such a constraint term from the energy
function of the neural network.
By comparing EOBJ (t) in Eq. (17) and ENN (t) in Eq.
(9), the connection weight Wijkl and the threshold θij can
be obtained as follows,
 could be increased, and the power consumption and the
−V1 C1j for j = l
Wijkl = (18)
0 otherwise
θij = −V2 Pj − V3 Qj
The state of the neural network defined by Eqs. (18) and
(10) converges to an optimal one for the load balancing
problem through autonomous and distributed neuron
updates on the terminal side. Since this is a simple model,
it is applicable to large-scale problems in heterogeneous
Figure 3 shows the rate of the changes by the neural net-
work optimization, which is (the results of the neural op-
timization)/(the results without the neural optimization),
for throughput, power consumption and the communica-
tion cost, respectively. It shows that the total throughput
communication cost could be decreased. Improvement for
the power consumption was small, because the parameters
for the power consumption Pj of wireless LAN type
(19) systems were set equal for all. From these results, it is
clarified that the designed neural network works correctly,
only by autonomous neuron updates in Eq. (10) with Wijkl
in Eq. (18) and θij in Eq. (19).
2.5e+07
Highest capacity AP selection

Average throughput per user [bps]

wireless networks. Neural AP selection
IV. Simulation Results 2e+07
We applied the neurodynamical access point selection
to optimization in a heterogeneous wireless network en-
1.5e+07
vironment with four packet-based wireless systems and
one cellular type system. The first packet based wireless
system has 11 Mbps throughput in a 2.4 GHz band 1e+07
and a 100 m coverage radius. The second has 54 Mbps
throughput in the same band. The third has 54 Mbps
5e+06
throughput in a 5.2 GHz band and a 30 m coverage 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
radius. The fourth is broadband wireless access system Average available APs at each location
that has 1 Mbps throughput and a 1 km coverage radius.
The power consumption Pj of the first, second and third Fig. 2. Average throughput of mobile terminals versus access point
wireless systems are assumed to be 1500 mW and fourth to density in heterogeneous wireless network environment. These results
are for the cases with one cellular type and four types of wireless
be 2000mW. The communication cost is determined with LAN.
uniform distribution between 0 and 0.1 dollar per minute
in the first to the third wireless systems, and between 0.25
and 0.5 in the fourth wireless system. The number of each 1.6
Rate of change by neural optimization

access point is 300, 300, 300 and 100, respectively. All the Throughput
1.5 Power consumption
access points are available for all users. We also assumed Cost
that the radio resources are shared equally among users. 1.4
The field sizes for the simulations are 1 km × 1 km to 50 1.3
km × 50 km, the number of wireless LAN access points is 1.2
1000, and the number of mobile terminals varies between
1000 to 50000. The wireless LAN access points and mobile 1.1
terminals are distributed in the test field with uniform 1
random numbers. The access points of the cellular system 0.9
are also distributed randomly but with a constraint that
0.8
the distances between them have to be longer than 800m. 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
We evaluated average available throughput per user with Average available APs at each location
and without a neural network based optimization scheme,
with changing the size of the test field. Fig. 3. Rate of the change of throughput, power consumption
and communication cost, by the proposed neural-network-based
Figure 2 shows the average throughput versus average optimization.
number of available access points at each location. The
number of channel for wireless LAN type networks was
limited to 4 for the results. The weights of the objective V. Conclusions
functions, V1 , V2 and V3 are all 1 in this simulation. In the We proposed a neurodynamical approach to optimize a
evaluation of the total throughput, the neural-network- large-scale heterogeneous wireless network environment.
based search utilizes the radio resources more efficiently To optimize scalable wireless networks, we need au-
and improves average throughput per user. tonomous and decentralized network selection on the

2751
This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts for publication in the WCNC 2008 proceedings.
terminal side. Game theory has in the past been used to
analyze the stability of distributed rule-based dynamics.
We proposed an optimization scheme for large-scale wire-
less networks that has natural optimization dynamics of
the mutual connection neural network. Since this approach
is based on clear properties defined by a mathematical
model that decreases the energy function with autonomous
and distributed dynamics, it can be applied to various
optimization problems.
We can apply this optimization approach to general
problems involving cognitive wireless networks. It is pos-
sible to introduce various parameters and more practical
objective functions, including the application’s require-
ments, fairness, and so on, by modifying the objective
energy function and calculating the connection weights in
a similar way as shown in this paper. We can also deal
with multi-link access selection for link aggregation, by
changing the constraints and neuron update equations. It
is also possible to adapt to wireless environment changes
as the mobile terminals’ move. Even if some parameters or
available wireless access points change we do not have to
change the autonomous neural network dynamics acting
as the global optimization tool.
The neurodynamical approach has been applied to
dynamic channel assignment [11][12], which is a technique
on the network side that dynamically assigns channels
according to the traffic load. Load balancing, which we
dealt with in this paper, is also categorized as radio
resource management, but is on the terminal side and
its objective is to share the available radio resources
among the terminals, by utilizing any usable candidate
wireless network to improve the average throughput per
user. We considered the heterogeneous wireless network
environment, and applied neurodynamics to it, which is
something that wasn’t dealt with in the previous research.
In the field of optimization using the neural networks,
various modification methods have been proposed to
improve the performance. Heterogeneous wireless network
optimization could be also further improved by intro-
ducing such improvements. Since the mutual connection
neural network is basically suitable for scalable network
optimization, the neural network can be an effective tool
for solving various optimization problems in heterogeneous
wireless network.
References
[1] H. Harada, Software defined radio prototype toward Cognitive
Radio Communication Systems, IEEE Dyspan 2005, Vol. 1, pp.
539-547, 2005.
[2] ed. B. Fette, Cognitive Radio Technology, Newnes, 2006.
[3] G. Wu, P. Havinga and M. Mizuno, MIRAI Architecture for
Heterogeneous Networks, IEEE Comm. Mag., pp. 126-134, 2002.
[4] M. Inoue, M. Khaled, H. Murakami, M. Hasegawa and H.
Morikawa, Novel Out-Of-Band Signaling for Seamless Inter-
working between Heterogeneous Networks, IEEE Wireless Com-
mun., Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 56-63, 2004.
[5] H. Harada, H. Murakami, K. Ishizu, S. Filin, Y. Saito, H.
Tran, G. Miyamoto, M. Hasegawa, Y. Murata, S. Kato, A
Software Defined Cognitive Radio System –Cognitive Wireless
2752
Clouds–, Proc. of IEEE Global Communications Conference
(GLOBECOM), Nov. 2007.
[6] J. Neel, J. Reed and R. Gilles, Game models for Cognitive
Radio Algorithm Analysis,SDR Forum Technical Conference,
November 2004.
[7] M. Hasegawa, H. Tran, G. Miyamoto, Y. Murata, S. Kato,
DISTRIBUTED OPTIMIZATION BASED ON NEURODY-
NAMICS FOR COGNITIVE WIRELESS CLOUDS, Proc. of
International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio
Communications (PIMRC), 2007.
[8] M. Hasegawa, H. Tran, G. Miyamoto, Y. Murata, H. Harada, S.
Kato, Autonomous and Decentralized Optimization of Large-
Scale Heterogeneous Wireless Networks by Neural Network
Dynamics, IEICE Trans. of Communications, Vol. 91-B, No.
1, pp. 110-118, 2008.
[9] J. J. Hopfield, Neural Networks and Physical Systems with
Emergent Collective Computational Abilities, Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA, Vol. 79, pp. 2554-2558, 1982.
[10] J. J. Hopfield, Neurons with Graded Response Have Collective
Computational Properties like Those of Two-State Neurons,
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, Vol. 81, pp. 3088-3092, 1984.
[11] A. Smith and M. Palaniswami, Static and Dynamic Channel
Assignment Using Neural Networks, IEEE Journal on Selected
Areas in Communications, 15,2,238-249, 1997.
[12] Z. He et al., A Multistage Self-Organizing Algorithm Combined
Transiently Chaotic Neural Network for Cellular Channel As-
signment, IEEE Trans. Vehicular Technology, 51, 6, 1386-1396,
2002.
[13] J. J. Hopfield and D. W. Tank, Neural Computation of Decisions
in Optimization Problems, Biological Cybernetics., Vol. 52, No.
3, pp. 141-152, 1985.
[14] E. H. L. Aarts and J. H. M. Korst, Boltzmann Machines for
Traveling Salesman Problems, European Journal of Operational
Research, Vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 79-95, 1989.
[15] Y. Akiyama, A. Yamashita, M. Kajiura and H. Aiso, Combi-
natorial Optimization with Gaussian Machines, Proc, of IEEE
International Joint Conference on Neural Networks, pp. 533-
540, 1989.
[16] D. E. Van den Bout and T. K. Miller, Improving the Perfor-
mance of the Hopfield-Tank Neural Network through Normal-
ization and Annealing, Biological Cybernetics, Vol. 62, No. 2,
pp. 129-139, 1989.
[17] H. Nozawa, Solution of the Optimization Problem using the
Neural Network Model as a Globally Coupled Map, Physica D,
Vol. 75, pp. 179-189, 1994.
[18] M. Hasegawa et al., An Analysis on Additive Effects of Non-
linear Dynamics for Combinatorial Optimization, IEICE Trans.
Fundamentals, Vol. E80-A, No. 1, pp. 206-213, 1997.
[19] M. Hasegawa, T. Ikeguchi and K. Aihara, Combination of
Chaotic Neurodynamics with the 2-opt Algorithm to Solve
Traveling Salesman Problems, Physical Review Letters, Vol. 79,
pp. 2344-2347, 1997.
[20] M. Hasegawa et. al., A Novel Chaotic Search for Quadratic As-
signment Problems, European Journal of Operational Research,
Vol. 139, No. 3, pp. 543-556, 2002; M. Hasegawa, T. Ikeguchi and
K. Aihara, Solving Large Scale Traveling Salesman Problems by
Chaotic Neurodynamics, Neural Networks, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp.
111-123, 2002.
[21] Y. Takefuji, K. Lee and H. Aiso, An Artificial Maximum Neural
Network: A Winner-Take-All Neuron Model Forcing the State
of the System in a Solution Domain, Biological Cybernetics,
Vol. 67, No. 3, 1992.