Yajna

22/07/2019 Yajna - Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia
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Yajna
By Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli (/en/User:Shankara_Bharadwaj_Khandavalli)
Yajña (/en/A) is the central concept of Śrauta -- the tradition that follows from the Śruti (Veda
(/en/Veda)).
There are many concepts that are based on and evolved from the concept of yajña (/en/A). The word
yajña comes from the root-"yaj" which means to worship (/en/Worship). Yajña is a broad concept
which is hard to translate into English. The closest single English word for yajña is sacri ce. There
are multiple synonyms of the word yajña that convey di erent aspects of this broad concept. For
instance it is also called “karma (/en/Karma)”, meaning action or the act of
sacri ce/o ering/worshiping. In the general sense it can be understood as any action done with the
sense of sacri ce, like praying, remembering, meditating. In the speci c sense it is the act of
o ering oblations to propitiate a Devata (/en/Devata).
The word karma (/en/Karma) is also used in di erent contexts. Yajña is karma (/en/Karma) in the
general sense. In the more speci c sense, karma (/en/Karma) is the component rite of a yajña. In the
most general sense, karma refers to any action. The path of karma/yajña is called Karma yoga
(/en/Yoga) or Karma mārga.
Contents
1 The Theory of Yajña/Karma Mārga
1.1 Pravṛtti and Nivṛtti
2 Constituents of Yajña
2.1 Karma
2.1.1 Artha Karma
2.1.2 Guṇa Karma
2.2 Bhāvana
2.3 Svadhyaya
2.4 Tyāga
2.5 Devata
2.5.1 Agni
2.6 Phala
3 Prayoga
3.1 Yajña Dravya and Homas
3.2 Participants of a Yāga
3.3 Yāga Sāla
3.4 Classi cation of Agni
3.5 Types of Yajna
3.6 Samskāras
4 The Concepts Involved
www.hindupedia.com/en/Yajna 1/14
4.1 Anna (Food)

4.2 Bali (Sacri ce)
5 Texts
6 Yajña in the four Ashramas
6.1 Yajña in the Daily life of Gṛhastha: The Panca Maha Yajñas
7 Extension of the concept of Yajña
7.1 Karma
7.2 Symbolic Yajña
8 Jnāna and Karma Approaches
9 Notes & References
The Theory of Yajña/Karma Mārga

Karma mārga is based on the concept of Dharma (/en/Dharma). The result of an action performed is
determined by the Dharmic or adharmic nature of the action. Dharma (/en/Dharma) determines the
fruit of karma and karma determines the course of experience of beings. Karma Mīmāmsa the base
text for Karma Mīmāmsa, opens up by saying "athāto dharma (/en/Dharma) jijñāsa", to expound the
nature of Dharma. The text clearly states that karma and its results are based on Dharma - "Dharma
mātre tu karmasyād nivṛtteḥ prayājavat" [1]. In karma mārga, mukti is possible through karma nivṛtti
(/en/Niv%E1%B9%9Btti), through the performance of righteous karma.
The object of central importance in karma mārga is karma or action. Worship (/en/Worship) or
sacri ce too, assumes importance in the path of karma, primarily as the “act of worshiping or
sacri ce” (karma), rather than the “state of worshiping” (which is the object in upāsana
(/en/Up%C4%81sana) mārga). In contrast to the yoga (/en/Yoga)/upāsana mārga where the
worshiper and the process of worship (/en/Worship) dissolve in the object of worship (Īśvara), in
Karma the act of worship assumes importance.
Being action-centric does not make yajña any more outward or super cial compared to Upāsana
(/en/Up%C4%81sana) mārga. For instance, Baudhayana (/en/Baudhayana)'s "nā rudro rudram
(/en/Rudram) arcayet" [2] (one who is not Rudra cannot worship (/en/Worship) Rudra - meaning one
becomes or unites with Rudra in order to worship Him, by invoking Him) is interpreted di erently in
Karma and Upāsana mārgas. Upāsana, the state of union of the seeker and Rudra is primary, while
the act of worship is secondary. In karma, the union is taken to be implicit, and the act of Rudra
worshiping Himself becomes primary.
In the grand scheme, everything involved – the one who is performing sacri ce, the rites, the
material involved, the o erings, the one who receives the o erings, are each a part of the act of
sacri ce. Even sacri ce becomes part of a grander sacri ce (the universe itself is a grand sacri ce,
involving many rites like creation). The Puruṣa (/en/Puru%E1%B9%A3a) sūkta of Rig Veda
(/en/Rig_Veda) for example, explains this grand sacri ce. Sacri ce itself is the purpose in yajña, and
there is no greater purpose. Everything else – desires, transcending desires, liberation -- are only by-
products.
In Karma Yoga (/en/Yoga) sacri ce assumes primary importance and Īśvara assumes secondary
importance. The a rmation of Īśvara in the path of Karma is not unanimous. Īśvara and Nirīśvara
[3]approaches are held by Gīta and Karma Mīmāmsa respectively. In Nirīśvara approach Karma phala
(/en/Karma_phala) or the result of sacri ce follows the rules of Dharma (/en/Dharma). In Īśvara Vāda
(/en/V%C4%81da), Īśvara receives the o erings of a sacri ce, presides over the sacri ce and gives
the Karma phala (/en/Karma_phala).
Pravṛtti and Nivṛtti
There are two directions of movement or phases in life, pravṛtti and nivṛtti (/en/Niv%E1%B9%9Btti).
Pravṛtti is accumulating and indulging. Nivṛtti is clearing debts and transcending. In pravṛtti, yajña
brings material possessions, righteousness and heavenly bliss. This helps man ful ll his aspirations
as well as contribute to social living. Man gradually grows beyond desires and becomes more
impersonal. This is how he enters the nivṛtti phase. During nivṛtti, yajña is done without any desire,
merely as a duty. This helps in clearing past karma, but this greatly helps the well-being of
surroundings (loka (/en/Loka) kalyāṇa). This is the way the realized soul performs yajña. This is the
niṣkāma (/en/K%C4%81ma) karma explained in the Karma Yoga (/en/Yoga) of Bhagavad Gīta. In
nivṛtti, yajña brings eternal bliss. Brahmandavalli of the Taittirīya Upanishad (/en/Upanishad)
expounds the gradation of happiness experienced by men, manes, Devatas, lord of Devatas, teacher
of the Devatas, creator of Devatas and the creator of the universe in the ascending order, increasing
hundred fold for each level[4]. At each level, the bliss is equated to that of a veda (/en/Veda)-wise
person (Śrotriya) who overcame his desire (kāma (/en/K%C4%81ma) hatasya). In pravṛtti one
experiences the bliss of Devatas. In nivṛtti one grows beyond desires and experiences the bliss of
Brahman (/en/Brahman). In nivṛtti, yajña brings liberation.
If this is seen in parallel to the ashrama dharma, brahmacarya (/en/Brahmacarya) and grhastha
ashramas involve pravṛtti. In brahmacarya (/en/Brahmacarya), one increases his debts through his
dependence, for sustenance as well as learning. In grhastha ashrama he attempts to repay these by
o ering the same back to the society, but increases his sources of attachment in that attempt.
Through ful llment of responsibilities and desires, one enters nivṛtti. Vānaprastha
(/en/V%C4%81naprastha) is the phase of containment, where rites are performed without any
personal material desire. However some of the rites like pitru yajña are still performed. Sanyāsa
(/en/Sany%C4%81sa) is the phase of complete renunciation. It is not mandatory for a Sanyāsi to
perform any yajña/karma, for he can renounce karma itself.
Constituents of Yajña
The primary constituents of a Yajña are the inspiration or urge of the doer (bhāvana), learning
(svādhyāya), rites involved (karma), o erings (tyāga (/en/Ty%C4%81ga)), devata (/en/Devata) and
the results (phala).
Karma
There are two types of rites in a sacri ce, principal (artha (/en/Artha) karma) and subsidiary (guṇa
karma). Guṇa karmas are the constituent accessory rites associated with a principal rite.
In artha (/en/Artha) karma, the rite is primary and material is subsidiary to the rite. Material is
treated as accessory. In guṇa karma, material is primary and rite secondary to it.
Artha Karma
Artha (/en/Artha) karmas are three types.
Nitya karma, done regularly. Example of nitya karma is Agni (/en/Agni) hotra (the homa
(/en/Homa) done thrice a day).
Naimittika karma, done occasionally. These are rites involving speci c occasions. Those like pitru
tarpana are naimittika rites. Nitya and naimittika rites are mandatory. There are speci c Vedic
injunctions that make the rites mandatory[5].
Kāmya karma, done optionally. Optional rites are performed when a speci c purpose is
intended to be served through a sacri ce. The sacri ces like soma (/en/Soma) yāga
(/en/Y%C4%81ga) and vājapeya are examples of optional rites. These are in turn three types
based on the results they give. The rites that give results in the present life are called aihika. The
ones whose results are enjoyed after the present life (such as heaven, prosperity in the next life
or breaking the cycle of life itself) are called āmuṣmika. The rites that give both kinds of results
are called aihika-āmuṣmika.
Guṇa Karma
Guṇa karmas, which are subsidiary and form components of artha (/en/Artha) karmas, are intended
for puri cation (samskāra). They are four types:
utpatti (origination – for instance creating re for the sacri ce)

āpti (obtaining/attaining – for instance learning required to perform the rite)
vikṛti (modi cation – for instance husking or cooking rice for sacri ce)
samskṛti (consecration/puri cation – for instance purifying the material by sprinkling water
and/or through mantra (/en/Mantra)).
Subsidiary rites are in general meant for puri cation. This is again of two types, disposal (pratipatti)
and puri cation.
Prāyaścitta (/en/Citta) or expiation rites are also part of the subsidiary rites/guṇa karmas.
Bhāvana
Bhāvana is the urge, inspiration to perform yajña. This is caused by the desire for its result. Thus
from the perspective of yajña, desire is seen as an inspiration to performing karma. Need and desire
are the two inspirations for beings to perform karma that run the activity of phenomenal world.
Bhāvana has three aspects:
what is desired
what is the means
what is the method.
From the injunctions of Śruti, these are learned. For instance, from injunctions such as “one who
desires cattle should perform Citra (/en/Citra)”[6].
In pravṛtti mārga, one performs karma with a desired result. Following the injunctions of the
scriptures and being righteous, one can ful ll these. However in the advanced stages in karma
mārga, sacri ce alone remains the purpose. All that is desired is also desired for the sake of
performing sacri ce, making yajña the ultimate purpose. The Camaka of Sri Rudram
(/en/Sri_Rudram)[7] starts with praying for a variety of material gains, ful llment of desires, grace of
devatas, asking for devatas themselves, the various ingredients involved in sacri ce, the di erent
rites of a sacri ce, and then towards conclusion, makes all these along with the life, mind, speech,
soul and the whole sacri ce, a part of the sacri ce itself. This explains how desire is positively
treated, and then sublimated in karma mārga.
Svadhyaya
Svadhyaya means learning one’s Veda (/en/Veda) (the branch of Veda (/en/Veda) one is ordained to
pursue) along with the Vedangas (/en/Vedangas). It is through learning that one gains the
knowledge of the rites he should perform as his duty, the rites he can perform for various other
desired purposes, how to perform those, and what his conduct should be to gain the desired results
(these could be material or heavenly or liberation).
Svadhyaya is the primary duty during brahmacarya, and forms the basis for performing all the rites
of subsequent ashramas.
Tyāga
Tyāga (/en/Ty%C4%81ga) is associated with o ering. There are three kinds of o erings:
yāga (/en/Y%C4%81ga) (sacri ce)

dāna (/en/D%C4%81na) (giving)
homa (/en/Homa) (o ering)
Of these, the word yāga refers to principal rite and the other two are associated with subsidiary
rites.
Dāna (/en/D%C4%81na) is transferring one’s right over what is given, to the one who is taking. This
does not involve any expectation of result (though it has an invisible result, and it ensues only when
the result is not desired for).
Homa is o ering of havis (/en/Havis) in Agni (/en/Agni). This involves tyāga of what is being o ered,
with the mention “na mama”, meaning what is being o ered is no more mine, it belongs to the
Devata (/en/Devata) (or the pitri as the case may be) to whom the o ering is being made[8]. There is
no expectation of result in the homa itself, but its result will become part of the result of the entire
sacri ce.
Homa is central to any agni (/en/Agni) karya or sacri ce performed in Agni. It has become almost
synonymous to the word yajña itself. However it should be understood that homa is a component of
yajña. In some kinds of yajña which do not involve Agni karya, oblations are o ered as dana
(/en/Dana) instead of homa.
Devata
Devata (/en/Devata) is a constituent of sacri ce as well as its result. Devatas consume the havis
(/en/Havis) o ered in a sacri ce and give the result of sacri ce performed. As a result of sacri ce,
along with the desired result, the grace of devata remains. When sacri ce is performed without
desiring a result, devata’s grace remains the result of sacri ce. Devata is mantra (/en/Mantra)-
baddha, meaning He is bound to give the result of a sacri ce/mantra when invoked[9]. Thus the
result of any form of worship is bound to come.
Havis o ered in a sacri ce is the food for Devatas. Devatas grow on havis and bring the well-being
of men (through rains and so on). Thus Devatas grow on man’s o erings and man’s elevation is
brought by the Devatas. Thus through mutual nourishment, men and Devatas bring about the well
being of all.
This is explained in the Karma Yoga of Bhagavad Gīta:
devān bhāvayatānena
te devā bhāvayantu vaḥ
- parasparam bhāvayantaḥ[10]
sreyah param avapsyatha[11]
All life is said to be a yajña. Every action, when made as an o ering to the Īśvara, is a yajña.
Worshipping, eating food, ghting war, creating wealth, contributing to human knowledge,
running family, each of these is a yajña. Doing these as o erings to derive something greater,
makes these actions yajñas. When these actions are not done for material gain but with a sel ess
motive, that is the highest form of yajña. Sacri ce brings transcendence. Transcendence through
sacri ce is the meaning of life in the Vedic religion.
Agni
Agni[12] is called Deva (/en/Deva) Mukha[13] and is the central deity for yajña. Oblations (havis) are
o ered in the re and Agni is said to carry those to the Devatas.
O ering and the carrier of o erings are inseparable and the former is stated to be the consort of
the latter (Agni). There are two contexts of o ering, the para (pertaining to Devatas) and apara
(pertaining to Pitris). The presiding deities (/en/Deities) of these two kinds of o erings are Svāha
and Swatha respectively. These are the two consorts of Agni. The o erings to Devatas and Pitris are
made through these two.
Phala
The result of a sacri ce ensues from the results of each of the subsidiary rites, combined with the
result of the main rite.
Each rite creates a unique result, in terms of visible or invisible e ect. This is called apurva[14]. The
total of unique results of all the rites of a sacri ce cause the grand unique nal result of the
sacri ce, called Mahāpurva.
Di erent schools hold di erent opinions on the results of nitya karmas. According to Prabhākara
School it is said that there is no additional bene t or fruit of performing nitya karmas but there is a
loss of merit or righteousness in not performing those. According to Kumārila Bhaṭṭa, there will be
an additional merit even in the performance of nitya karmas. In case of kāmya rites, since they are
optional, there is only an additional result in performing those.
There are two kinds of results of a sacri ce – visible (pratyakṣa) and invisible (ālaukika). Pratyakṣa is
the visible gain that results from performing the sacri ce, material or otherwise. Alaukika result can
be like begetting heaven in pravṛtti and mukti in nivṛtti (through karma nivṛtti).
Prayoga
Literally prayoga means performance. It is the performance of sacri ce, the application of text to
perform yajña. The injunctions to perform the sacri ce or vidhi are found in Brahmana portion of
Veda. Kalpa (/en/Kalpa) Sūtrās explain the prayoga part further.
There are di erent stages in performing a sacri ce. It begins with cleaning the place and building
the altar. Then the dravya is acquired. Then the priest is invited to o ciate. Following that the altar
is decorated and Agni invoked. Then the puri cation of each of the dravya is done. Then the homas
(in the re) and danas (alms etc) are done. The sacri ce concludes with cleaning up the place and
taking the fruit of sacri ce.
Yajña Dravya (/en/Dravya) and Homas

Agni karya forms the core of a sacri ce. It includes puri cation rites and the homas. The ingredients
used in a yajña are called dravya. There are six ingradients involved in performing an Agni Karya. [15]
They are:
Sruk and Sruva (ladles used for making o ering in re)

Idhma (wooden pieces/sticks used as fuel in the sacri ce –
also called samidhas)
Pātras (bowls)
There are three kinds of pātras used:
the prokṣiṇi (used for puri cation)

ājya (to hold the clari ed butter)
(/en/File:Homa-image.jpg)
pūrṇa pātra (literally “complete”, the one used for
completion of the rite) Homa
Based on the dravya used and rites performed, there are two major classes of prayoga – Catuṣpātra
(using four ingredients) and Ṣaṭpātra (using six ingredients). Ṣaṭpātra involves the usage all the six
dravyas mentioned above. Catuṣpātra does not involve idhma and pūrṇa pātra. However, the regular
rite that a brahmacari performs, does not mandatorily involve any pātra (though usage is not
prohibited). Most of the prayogas nitya or otherwise, involve Ṣaṭpātra prayoga.
Some of the sacri ces are referred to variously as involving more than six primary ingredients. For
instance marriage ritual in Āpastamba sāmpradāya is called dasa pātra (involving 10 ingredients).
Major yāgas like Vajapeya use many more. However all of them come under Ṣaṭpātra only and the
additional dravya is classi ed as one of the six - idhma or ajya for instance.
In general, Catuṣpātra is su cient for the regular homas to prajāpati, Indra Agni etc. In order to
propitiate a speci c deity, one has to perform Ṣaṭpātra. This involves additional dravya and homas.
Dravya depends on the nature of rite. It could be rice, corn, speci c samidhas, blades of grass, milk,
curd etc. Fifty eight homas (to Prajāpati, Dikpālakas and Grahas Lokapālakas etc) inclusive of Cakṣur-
homas (literally the homas of eyes - two homas with clari ed butter poured in the re circularly, as if
they are the eyes of Agni) and done in the beginning of the sacri ce. Then oblations to the main
deity of the sacri ce are o ered. Jayādi homas (additional homas to propitiate various Devatas
representative of faculties of consciousness (/en/Consciousness), prāyaścitta (/en/Citta) homas etc)
follow that, and it is concluded with Pūrṇāhuti (literally the “completion” oblation or the conclusive
one).
These homas also include the prāyaścitta rites (expiation rites), as applicable. However prāyaścitta
rites are common to Catuṣpātra and Ṣaṭpātra.
Participants of a Yāga
The primary participant of a sacri ce is the one who performs it – the owner or the yajamāni. A dvija
(/en/Dvija) performs regular rites himself. However any major yāga requires the yajamāni to be
accompanied by his consort, she should o er the re (Āpastamba Sūtras). In case of a kāmya
prayoga, a ṛtvija (priest) is involved.
In major yāgas, there are at least four rtviks involved. [16] They are hota, adhvaryu (/en/Adhvaryu),
brahma and udgāta. Hota should be learned in Rig Veda (/en/Rig_Veda), and chants the Ṛks.
Ādhvaryu is the one who performs the sacri ce (makes the yajamāni do it with instructions). He
should be learned in Yajurveda (/en/Yajurveda). Udgāta sings the Sāma Veda. Brahma supervises the
sacri ce.
Yāga Sāla
The regular rites are conducted in a designated place in the house. Major yāgas are performed in
premises meant for them, called yāga śālās.
Yāga sāla follows a speci c architecture/layout. It has four entrances, representing the four Vedas
(/en/Vedas). The four entrances have four gates, decorated with the leaves of four kinds of trees, or
rather named after the four trees. They are Nyagrodha, Aswattha, Audumbara and Plaksha. In the
four directions altars are built in shapes speci ed against those positions (they could be circular,
square or following any other geometry according to the Śrauta Śūtras). The eight Dikpālakas
preside over the eight (four directions and four corners) positions of the yāga sāla. Homas are
performed in those designated places to the corresponding devatas, according to the rites of the
respective Vedas.
There are positions designated for the yajamāni, each of the ṛtvijas, dravya and the audience.
Besides there is a bali (/en/Bali) sthana, where the bali (sacri cial o ering) is made.
Classi cation of Agni

There are three types of Agni, grouped as
"tretāgni"s[17].
Gārhapatya (literally belonging to the gṛha

pati or the owner of the house)
Dakṣiṇa
Āhavanīyā
Gārhapatya is the origin of the other two, and all
the three are worshiped regularly. Besides,
Aupāsana[18] is performed by gṛhasthas.
Agnis are also classi ed into two types:
Viharaṇīyā (those that can be moved)

Upastheya (those that are xed/deposited at
a place).
Each of these two have eight sub-categories and
are positioned in di erent places in the premises
where sacri ce is performed.
(/en/File:Agni-image.jpg)
The Viharaṇīyā Agnis are:
1. Vibhūrasi Pravāhā, positioned near the

Āgnīdhra’s (one of the ṛutviks) place
2. Vahnirasi Havyavāhana, positioned near the Hota’s abode
3. Śvātrosi Praceta, at the place of Maitra Varuṇa (the place where these Devatas are invoked)
4. Tuthosi Viswaveda, invoked at the place of the ṛutvik designated as Brāhma
(/en/Br%C4%81hma)ṇāccha
5. Uśi Gasi Kavi, positioned near ṛutvik designed Potru
6. Anghāri rasi jambhārī, near the ṛutvik designated Neṣṭṛu
7. Avasyurasi Duvasvān, near the ṛutvik called Acchāvāk
8. Śundhyūrasi Mārjālīya, near the ṛutvik called Mārjāla (the one who does mārjana or puri cation
and consecration)
The Upastheyas are:
1. Samrādasi Kṛuśānū, positioned at the secondary altar in the north. This is the Āhavanīyā Agni.
2. Pariṣadyosi Pavamāna, positioned at Dhruva (/en/Dhruva) sthali
3. Pratakvāsi nabhasvān, positioned at the Cātvāla sthāna
4. Asamṛṣtosi Havyasūda, positioned at śamitra (the place of paśu)
5. Ṛtadhāmāsi Suvarjyoti, positioned at Audumbara (the ṛtvija who chants the Sāma Veda).
6. Brahmajyotirasi suvardhāma, positioned with the Brahma (chief ṛutvik) of the sacri ce
7. Ajosyekapāt, positioned at the sukhaśāla. This is the Gārhapatya.
8. Ahirasi budhniya, positioned with the Yajamāni.
Types of Yajna
Yajñas can be classi ed in di erent ways. One of them is periodicity. Apart from the Panca Maha
Yajñas, Aupāsana and Agnihotra are performed every day. Any other yajña is occasional – performed
fortnightly, monthly, yearly or even once in a life time. Agnihotra is the homa done thrice a day.
Darśa (/en/Dar%C5%9Ba) and Pūrṇamasa are done on new moon and full moon days. Parvani
sraddha (/en/Sraddha) is done once a month. Most of the other Yajñas can be done once a year or
even in a lifetime.
Another classi cation is the scale of the rite. The ones like Agnihotra are done in the house while
the sacri ces like soma yāga or vājapeya need to be undertaken at a much bigger scale involving
priests. The rites undertaken at a household level are called gṛhya rites. The ones performed at a
collective level are called śrauta rites[19].
Samskāras
Samskāra is a rite that involves mantra. There are forty samskāras or rites performed in one’s
lifetime:
Seven are paka Yajñas (aṣtaka, sthālipāka, parvana, srāvaṇi, āgrahayani, caitri and āsvīyuji). They
involve consecrating cooked items.
Seven are Soma Yajñas (agnistoma, atyagnistoma, uktya, shodasi, vājapeya, atirātra and
aptoryama). The yāgā that involves the extraction, utility and consumption of Soma (in the
general sense nectar, but extract of a particular tree speci cally) is called a Soma Yajña. Others
are usually referred to as haviryañnas.
Seven are Havir Yajñas (agniyādhāna, agni hotra, Darśa (/en/Dar%C5%9Ba)-Pūrṇamāsa,
āgrayana, cāturmāsya, niruudha paśu bandha, sautrāmaṇi). They involve o ering havis.
Five are the panca mahā Yajñās.
Four are Vedavratas, which are done during Vedic education.
Remaining ten are one-time samskāras that are done at di erent stages in life. They are
garbhādhānā, pumsavana, sīmanta, jātakarma, nāmakaraṇa, annaprāśana, caula, upanayana,
snātaka and vivāha. These are speci ed by the gṛhya sūtrās.
The Concepts Involved

Anna (/en/Anna) (Food)
Anna or food is the basis of life. Life is sustained by the consumption of life, and this is the inherent
principle of nature. And sustenance of life is the highest principle. At the same time, consumption of
life defeats the same principle (for other creatures). Harming any living being is against that
principle. Thus there arises the need for reconciliation between the principle of consumption and
the principle of sustenance. This is explained by the concept of sacri ce.
Body is called anna-maya kosha or the sheath of food. It is the upādhi, the basis for every rite,
through performance of which the purpose of life is ful lled. The rite undertaken for sustaining the
upādhi, namely consumption, is one of the most sacred and important ones. However, this means
that only the consumption done with the sense of sacri ce, or with the sense of sustaining the
upādhi, is considered sacred. Super uous consumption of life, is against the principle of sustenance.
Most of the o erings in a Sacri ce are edible o erings. Havis o ered in a sacri ce is the food for
Devatas. In turn, they bring prosperity to man. O ering and consuming are the two sides of a
sacri ce. However, each participant o ers as well as consumes.
Thus while explaining violence/consumption to be inherent in nature, it is sought to be minimized by

the same principle that makes it inevitable.
When eating is performed as a rite, there are two aspects in food - consecration and consumption.
Consumption of life involves consuming the karma samskāra of the creature being consumed.
Therefore the food is rst consecrated, o ered to Īśvara who is the ultimate absolver of every
samskāra. Anna is called sāda. With consecration, the food becomes prasāda, a remain/fruit of
sacri cial o ering. In fact consumption is also done with the sense that Īśvara the essence of each
being is consuming the food in the form of the oneself.
The Smritis (/en/Smritis) give guidelines for the preparation consecration and consumption of food,
along with what kind of food is to be taken. This depends on many factors. Some of them are
Varṇa of the person - practicing brahmins should be vegetarians in general and consuming
speci c vegetables in particular. However this has exceptions.
The kind of Dīkṣa undertaken - one should be particular about diet during speci c Dīkṣās like
Manḍala Dīkṣa or Cāturmāsya.
The Devata being worshiped - each Devata is propitiated with a speci c kind of food, cooked
with speci c ingredients to the like of the Devata. The same is consecrated and consumed.
Bali (/en/Bali) (Sacri ce)

Bali or sacri ce is the most controversial topic in yajña, because of its implications. Broadly, there
are two ways to look at it: the literal sacri ce and symbolic sacri ce. Literal sacri ce involves
sacri cing an animal. In symbolic sacri ce, a piṣṭa paśu is o ered. This could be kūṣmānda (ash
gourd) or any other consumable. Yajñas mostly involve symbolic sacri ce (piṣṭa paśu) and seldom
involve a literal sacri ce.
Bali in a sacri ce is part of the optional rites, one of the o erings involved in kāmya rites. The Bali
sthana of the yāga śala is designated for this, where there is a Yupa (pillar) positioned.
Vedic injunctions regarding sacri ces, such as “saptadasa prājāpatyān paśūn ālabhet” [20] are explicit
in their message. However, such injunctions are interpreted in di erent ways. One of them is the
symbolic interpretation of “paśu” as the one that is bound by pāśa (binding), and making sacri ce
symbolic. The other is the literal interpretation, where a symbolic bali (piṣṭa paśu) is o ered.
The history of yajña shows that Yajñas rarely involved animal sacri ces and that they were always a
matter of inconvenience to the Vedic seers. There is a story in the Purāṇa [21]that tells how animal
sacri ce is made redundant in yajñas. The ṛṣis had an argument with the Devatas that they would
o er only symbolic sacri ce and not animals. The Devatas did not like it. Ṛṣis mandated that animals
will not be o ered in yajña, and king Vasu conducted a sacri ce by inviting the ṛṣis as ṛtviks for the
sacri ce, in which he made only symbolic sacri ces, and mandated that Devatas should not make it
obligatory for yajñas to involve animal sacri ces. Appreciative of this, the ṛṣis mandated that in
every sacri ce the havis after pūrṇāhuti should go to Vasu. To this day major sacri ces involve havis
to Vasu starting with the mantra “Vasordhāra juhoti”.
The fact that Vasordhāra is performed, makes it clear that the sacri ce is not intended to be literal,
from the ṛṣis’s perspective. Seers like Sankara (/en/Sankara) have taken the path of advocating
symbolic bali in temples (/en/Temples) and interpreting ritual itself in a symbolic way in case of
personal worship.
Texts
The samhita portion of the Veda contains the mantras used for yajña. The Brahmana portion of the
Veda deals with Karma kānda. Speci cally, out of the four Vedas (/en/Vedas), Yajurveda is the
primary Veda concerned with yajña. It is called Yajurveda because it is composed of Yajus or the
mantras used for yajña.
Kalpa (/en/Kalpa) Sūtrās deal with the rules, regulations and austerities of yajña, the geometry of
altars, and the rites to be undertaken at each stage of life.
Pūrva Mīmāmsa deals extensively with the philosophy of yajña, how to understand the mantra and
brahmana portions, and their application in sacri ce. This is also called Karma Mīmāmsa. The text
expounding Karma Mīmāmsa is Jaimini's Mīmāmsa Sūtras. This is divided into 12 chapters, called
lakṣaṇās. It is primarily an inquiry into the Brahmana portion of the Veda and deals with various
sacri ces, their purposes and methods. The authentic commentary on Pūrva Mīmāmsa is Śābara
Bhāshya. In turn, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa's Tantra (/en/Tantra) Vārtika is a commentary of Śābara Bhāṣya.
Jaimini also wrote a four-chapter supplement to Mīmāmsa, called Sankarsha Kānda. It is also called
Madhyama (/en/Madhyama) Mīmāmsa, Madhyama Kānda, Devata Kānda and Upāsana Kānda. It
deals with the purpose of mantras, the nature and essence of devatas, and the purpose of
worshiping devatas.
Yajña in the four Ashramas

In all the four ashramas, nitya and naimittika rites should be performed. However the prescribed
rites are di erent in each ashrama.
In brahmacarya, the principal rite to be performed is svadhyaya - Vedic learning. This is apart from
other rites like daily oblations to Agni and service of Guru.
In grhastha ashrama, one should perform the panca maha yajñas (or nitya karma astaka as the
school may be). Along with these, his family and social responsibility as the smriti (/en/Smriti)
prescribes, form part of his main rites in grhastha ashrama.
In vānaprastha, many of the rites of grhastha ashrama become optional and even unnecessary. Nitya
and naimittika karmas should be performed. Raising children as an injunction is no longer relevant
here. However pitru tarpana is still done during vānaprastha. Teaching should be done.
In sanyāsa, there is no compulsion on karma, though minimal nitya karma is performed. A sanyāsi
also undertakes naimittika rites such as Caturmasya (four-month austerity undertaken in a year).
Even teaching is optional for him.
Yajña in the Daily life of Gṛhastha

(/en/G%E1%B9%9Bhastha): The Panca Maha Yajñas
(/en/Yaj%C3%B1as)
A Gṛhastha is supposed to do ve yajñas every day. These are called panca maha yajñas. These are
o erings to Devatas, Ṛṣis, Pitris (departed fathers), creatures and men. They are called deva
(/en/Deva) yajña, ṛishi yajña, pitṛ yajña, bhūta (/en/Bh%C5%ABta) yajña and manuṣya yajña
respectively[22].
Man has four debts, to Devatas, pitris, ṛishis and fellow-men. These are called deva ṛna, ṛṣi ṛna, pitṛ
ṛna and manuṣya ṛna. By doing the above yajñas, man repays those debts and ful lls his purposes in
life.
By praying to Devatas and o ering oblations to them, and through sacri ces one clears his debts to
Devatas. This is called deva yajña.
By gaining Vedic knowledge, by teaching, sharing and passing it on to subsequent generations one
clears his debts towards the seers. This is called ṛṣi yajña.
By o ering oblations to pitris, and by continuing the race by begetting progeny, raising them
properly, by getting good name for the lineage, one clears his debts towards the pitris. This is called
pitṛ yajña.
By showing compassion towards fellow men, by treating the guests well, by helping those in need,
by excusing those by which one has been wronged, by doing actions that are bene cial to men, one
clears his debts towards his fellow men. This is called manuṣya yajña.
Bhūta yajña is showing compassion towards living beings in general. This includes abstaining from
in icting violence and killing, living as a part of nature without harming it.
Extension of the concept of Yajña

Yajnic life is an ancient school, and over time, it became impractical to lead such life because of the
rigorous discipline it requires. There are still people who perform regular sacri ce. But the concept
of yajña has been extended in di erent ways, without losing its spirit.
Karma
The widest application has been the karma concept in life. Many of the ideals seen today in learned
men, such as being righteous, maintaining a moral code, doing actions without being particular
about results, not harming anyone unnecessarily, being content and not greedy, ful lling desires in
a righteous way, keeping righteousness above desires, and doing every action as a sacri ce, follow
directly from yajnic principles. Leading a life with these ideals is treated as equal to living a yaajnic
life, and causing liberation through karma nivṛtti. The karma yoga that many of the men live (though
they are not into the path of worship) is a re ection of the yajnic ideal in their lives.
The yajnic ideal thus has wide impact, and positively in uences a moral social order. Smārta which
developed after Śrauta, has also based its ideal on the same ideal of dharma.
Symbolic Yajña
The other extension of the concept of yajña is found in its yogic interpretation, as being performed
in the subtle body. Śrī Sūkta of Rig Veda khila portion is used in sacri ces and also in Sri Vidya
(/en/Sri_Vidya). Saubhagya Lakshmi Upanishad explains the yogic import of Śrī Sūkta. Yāga becomes
antaryāga (the inner sacri ce) – performing homa in the svādhiṣṭhāna agni.
In Mantra Vidyas (/en/Mantra_Vidyas) mantra sadhana is likened to yajña. In fact this is supported
explicitly by smriti (/en/Smriti), for instance Manusmriti says that a dvija (/en/Dvija) becomes dvija by
mantra japa (/en/Japa) alone, even if he cannot perform the panca maha yajñas. Smārta, the religion
of smritis (/en/Smritis), follows the Smārta Sūtras (Dharma Sūtras and Gṛhya Sūtras), part Vedanga
(/en/Vedanga) Kalpa. Smārta and Śrauta are so closely associated that they are usually referred to
as the combination Smārta-Śrauta. Smārta prescribes japa (/en/Japa), homa, tarpana and
sandhyavandana as part of nitya karma, the eight daily rituals to be performed. These are from
Brahmana as well as Aranyaka portion. For instance the Sandhya Vandana prakarana itself is found
in Taittirīya Aranyaka (Maha Narayana Upanishad). Dharma Sūtrās add one more category to the
three classical kinds of karma (nitya, naimittika and kāmya) – the prāyaścitta or expiation rites.
Thus in the general sense mantra japa, kundalini yoga etc are sacri ces, but the sacri cial approach
to the same aim di ers from the yogic approach. For instance, mantra japa itself is the sacri ce to
be done, and devata is a result of the sacri ce. In yogic terms this is described di erently: mantra is
the means to achieving yoga with the devata.
Temple, the institution that made religion reachable to common man, is a replica of yajña śāla (the
place where yajña is conducted) – in its major components as well as concept. The rites of a temple
as prescribed by Āgamās are four-fold, (nitya, naimittika, kāmya and prāyaścitta) the same as that in
Śrauta/Smārta.
Jnāna and Karma Approaches
Jnāna Mārga is expounded in Vedānta and thus, Vedānta treats yajña/karma to be a means of
puri cation, a preparation for acquiring jnāna. Beyond that, in jnāna mārga, spiritual knowledge is
the means of liberation, and not worship. The di erent categories of yajña, such as vedic ritual, the
subtle body yogas such as mantra yoga and kundalini yoga are acknowledged in jnāna mārga as
means to attain the necessary state for pursuing the path of knowledge.
This is in contrast with all the karmic and yogic paths, where performing each of those rites at their
highest level is the means for liberation. For instance, in karma yoga, karma nivṛtti begets liberation.
In mantra yoga realizing para vak is the nal realization. In laya yoga dissolving the individual
consciousness (/en/Consciousness) in the cosmic consciousness is liberation. In kundalini yoga the
gross and the subtle unite with the causal being through the movement of kundalini[23]. All these
involve di erent upādhis of the subtle body – mind, prāna and nādis.
Detachment and consecration, the two approaches of jnāna and karma respectively, re ect in the
rituals prescribed in these paths. For instance, while anger is sought to be overcome in the
former[24], it is praised as a divine inspiration in the latter[25].
Jnāna mārga involves nididhyasana, which is the intellectual’s approach – the path of discrimination.
Through contemplation (on the import of mahavakyas) one learns to discriminate between ātma
and non-ātma (ātma-anātma vivecana). And realizing one’s identity as ātma, as di erent from
anātma, is liberation – because ātma is always liberated. Jīva is bound because he does not identify
himself as ātma but identi es himself with various upādhis. Jnāna mārga is about discriminating
these upādhis from self.
Adi Sankara (/en/Adi_Sankara) reconciles karma with jnāna approach by categorizing karma as the
preparatory stage for acquiring jnāna. In jnāna mārga, liberation is possible only through jnāna. In
fact the self is always liberated, and the state of liberation for a being is the knowledge of
di erence between self and non-self (ātma-anātma vivecana). Karma puri es and prepares the
being for the state of knowledge/discrimination.
As the means to acquire the necessary purity and wisdom for pursuing this path, jnāna mārga
acknowledges the performance of nitya karma. Beyond that, worship or ritual has no greater
importance in jnāna mārga. Thus most of the yajnic procedures are redundant from the viewpoint of
jnāna mārga.
However this only di erentiates between the Karma and Jnāna approaches, and does not
necessarily make one of them superior. Vedantic approach is prescribed for a person who is
technically out of the social fold, whose righteousness does not depend much on ful llment of
responsibilities. Ful lling one’s responsibilities is the primary criterion for detachment, and without
that one is not deemed t for the path of knowledge. In the path of karma, such ful llment with
dissociation brings about the necessary change for salvation.
Notes & References

1. Pūrva Mīmāmsa Sūtrās 2.1.9
2. Mahanyasa
3. Nirīśvara Vāda (/en/V%C4%81da) is one that does not a rm Īśvara or the supreme existential principle.
However, this does not amount to negation of Devatas or Ātma. Thus it is both Āstika (/en/%C4%80stika)
(acknowledging the Śabda Pramāṇa) as well as theistic.
4. Brahmandavalli of the Taittirīya Upanishad (/en/Upanishad) (chapter 8)
5. Taittirīya Brāhma (/en/Br%C4%81hma)ṇa 2.1.9.2
6. Taittirīya Samhita 2.4.6.1
7. Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda (/en/Yajurveda) 4.7
8. Agni (/en/Agni) carries these o erings to the Devatas
9. Please refer the article on Mantra Marga (/en/Mantra_Marga) for more details on this
10. Here the meaning of the word “bhāvana” follows its technical de nition according to Karma mārga: the
objective urge, inspiration or desire
11. Bhagavad Gīta 3.11
12. Agni is the God of Fire
13. Deva Mukha literally meaning face of the Devatas
14. Apurva literally means “never before” because it did not exist before the rite was done, and came into
existence as a consequence of the rite
15. Āpastamba Dharma Sūtrās chapter 1.1 and 1.2 are dedicated to the injunctions for Ṣaṭpātra procedure, as
part of which the dravya is also enumerated.
16. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (/en/Upanishad) Ch 3
17. The di erent classes of Agni worshiped are enumerated in Śrauta Śūtras - Āpastamba Śrauta Śūtras for
instance. Chapter 51 of Matsya Purāṇa, and Brahmānda (/en/Brahm%C4%81nda) Purāṇa also explain the
di erent Agnis, including the Viharaṇīyās and Upastheyās.
18. literally the one meant for “upāsana”
19. Note that śrauta is a general term and does not necessarily classify a rite.
20. Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 1.3.4.3
21. Reference required for this
22. Āpastamba Dharma Sūtras 1.13
23. See article on Yoga Sastra (/en/Yoga_Sastra) for more details
24. manyuh-akārṣī namo namah – Sandhya Vandana, Aranyaka portion of Krishna (/en/Krishna) Yajurveda
25. Manyu sūkta, Rig Veda
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Aghora (/en/Aghora) Dūrgeśa
(/en/D%C5%ABrge%C5%9Ba) Cand arudrika
(/en/Cand%EF%80%ACarudrika) Agni
(/en/Agni) Hanumath Sthuthi I (/en/Hanumath_Sthuthi_I)
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22/07/2019 Yajna - Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia

4.1 Anna (Food)

The Theory of Yajña/Karma Mārga

Pravṛtti and Nivṛtti

utpatti (origination – for instance creating re for the sacri ce)

Bhāvana has three aspects:

yāga (/en/Y%C4%81ga) (sacri ce)

This is explained in the Karma Yoga of Bhagavad Gīta:

Yajña Dravya (/en/Dravya) and Homas

Sruk and Sruva (ladles used for making o ering in re)

the prokṣiṇi (used for puri cation)

Classi cation of Agni

Gārhapatya (literally belonging to the gṛha

Agnis are also classi ed into two types:

Viharaṇīyā (those that can be moved)

1. Vibhūrasi Pravāhā, positioned near the

The Concepts Involved

Thus while explaining violence/consumption to be inherent in nature, it is sought to be minimized by

Bali (/en/Bali) (Sacri ce)

Yajña in the four Ashramas

Yajña in the Daily life of Gṛhastha

Extension of the concept of Yajña

Jnāna and Karma Approaches

Notes & References

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