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HIGHWAY
TYPES OF FAILURES IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
The different types of failures in flexible pavements are described below:
1. Subgrade failure.
2. Base failure or base course failure.
3. Surface failure or wearing course failure.
1. SUBGRADE FAILURE:
Excessive deformation in subgrade soil of a flexible failure is called subgrade failure.
This is one of the main causes of failure of flexible pavements. This type of failure
causes undulations (ups and downs) and corrugations in the pavement surface.
Causes Of Subgrade Failure:
1. Inadequate stability.
2. Inadequate road drainage.
3. Excessive stress application.
3. SURFACE FAILURE:
Excessive deformation in the wearing course of a flexible pavement is called surface
failure or wearing course failure.
This type of failure causes ruts, potholes, cracks etc in the pavement structure.
Causes Of Surface Failure:
1. lack of proper mix design
2. Use of the inferior type of binder.
3. Inadequate quality control.
4. Volatization and oxidation of binder.
2. POT HOLES:
The isolated depressions, more or less circular in shape formed in flexible pavements
are called pot holes or patches. These are usually formed in all types of flexible
pavements due to disintegration of road metal or lack of binding surface course with the
underlying base.
3. FROST HEAVING:
A localized heaving up of pavement portion is known as frost heaving.
The water which may find access to pavement structure freezes in cold climates. The
expansion accompanying this frost action causes upheaval which in turn may crack the
pavement surface.
5. LONGITUDINAL CRACKING:
The formation of cracks in the longitudinal direction of a road pavement is called
longitudinal cracking.
This failure is caused due to frost action, different volume changes in subgrade,
settlement of filling material or due to sliding of side slopes.
6. MAP CRACKING:
The development of irregular cracks, usually formed on bituminous surfacing is called
map cracking.
This type of flexible road failure is due to excessive wear of the road surface or due to
localized weakness in the underlying base course.
These roads are types of rigid pavements and remain in serviceable condition under all
weather conditions. Thus concrete roads are also considered as all weather roads. Due
to their excellent riding surface, pleasing appearance and long life under most severe
traffic conditions, cement concrete roads are much preferred.
Cement concrete roads are superior to most other types of roads including bituminous
roads. These roads are very popular as high cost pavements in developed countries like
America, Russia, Japan etc.
1. SUBGRADE:
The finished and compacted surface of earthwork on which a road pavement rests is
called subgrade or formation.
The subgrade of a road may be provided on an embankment, in cutting or existing
ground level depending upon the topography and the finalized formation level. It
consists of well compacted natural soil brought to the required camber and gradient.
The thickness and type of pavement structure depend upon the supporting power of the
subgrade because the entire load of the pavement, including the load of traffic
transmitted through the pavement, is ultimately taken up by the subgrade.
2. SUB-BASE:
A layer of granular material provided in between the subgrade and the base course in a
road pavement is known as sub-base.
It is provided as an additional layer when subgrade is of poor quality. It consists of a
layer comparatively cheaper material like burnt clinker, natural gravel or slag.
3. BASE COURSE:
A layer of boulders or bricks provided over the subbase or immediately over the
subgrade in the absence of sub-base in a road pavement is called base course or soling
or foundation course.
This course is considered as the most important and major component of road structure
because this course is to bear the impact of traffic transferred through the wearing
course. It consists of a stable material like boulders, gravel, one or two layers of well-
burnt bricks etc. In case of rocky subgrade, this course is not provided.
It may consist of one or more number of layers in case of flexible pavements. A good
wearing course should be impervious and weather resisting. it should be able to resist
abrasive action of the traffic.
SUPERELEVATION OF ROAD:
The inward transverse inclination provided to the cross-section of the carriageway at
horizontally curved portion of a road is called superelevation, cant or banking.
ADVANTAGES OF SUPERELEVATION:
1. It allows running of vehicle at high speed on a curved path as on a straight path
without any danger of overturning and thus results into increased volume of traffic.
2. It provides more or less even distribution of load on wheels and hence uniform stress
is offered on the foundation which results into less wear on wheel tyres and springs as
well as economy in maintenance cost of the road.
3. It also helps to keep the vehicles to their proper side on the pavement and thus
prevents collision of vehicles moving in opposite directions on a curved portion of the
road.
4. It provides drainage of the whole width of road towards the inner side. Thus, there is
no necessity of providing side drain on the outer side of the road.
DESIGN OF SUPERELEVATION:
To design superelevation for mixed type of traffic is a complex problem. The Indian
Roads Congress has recommended to provide superelevation to counteract the
centrifugal force fully due to 75% of the design speed and limiting the maximum
superelevation to 1 in 15 or 7%.
Following are the steps adopted to design the superelevation of a road:
Step 1:
Calculate the superelevation for 75% of design speed neglecting the friction i.e f = 0
V = 75%(V) = 0.75 V
We know that, e+f = V²/127R
e + 0 = (0.75 V)²/127R
Step 2:
If the calculated value ‘e’ is less than 7% or 0.07, then provide the obtained value. If it
exceeds 0.07 then provide the limiting value of superelevation emax = 0.07 and proceed to
the next step.
Step 3:
Check the coefficient of friction developed for the maximum value of e = 0.07 at the full
value of design speed,
If the value of ‘f’ thus calculated is less than 0.15, the superelevation of 0.07 is safe for
the design speed. If not, calculate the restricted speed as given in step 4.
Step 4:
If the calculated value of ‘f’ exceeds 0.15, then the speed of the vehicles is restricted to
the value Vr m/sec or Vr km/hr as calculated after allowing the limiting values of e and f
in the following equation:
In case of an important highway, it is always desirable to design the road without speed
restriction at curves. Hence, the curve should be realigned, if possible with a longer
radius of curvature so that the design speed can be maintained without any restriction.
RIGID PAVEMENTS:
Rigid pavements are those which contain great amount of flexural strength or flexural
rigidity.
In rigid pavements, the stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to the lower
layers as in the ease of flexible pavement layers.
FORMS OF BITUMEN:
The general forms of bitumen are as following
1. BITUMEN EMULSION:
It is a liquid compound which contains a large amount of bitumen in aqueous medium. It
is suspended by some appropriate stabilizing agents in the aqueous medium.
2 CUT-BACK BITUMEN:
This form of bitumen is produced by fluxing asphaltic bitumen in presence of some
liquid distillates of petroleum or coal tar. Cut-back bitumen can be used as bitumen
paint in cold.
3 BLOWN BITUMEN:
It is a special form of bitumen produced by passing air under pressure at a higher
temperature. This type of bitumen can be used as heat insulating material, roofing and
damp-proofing felts, producing asphalt pipe and joint fillers etc.
4 PLASTIC BITUMEN:
It comprises of bitumen thinner and appropriate inert filler (40%-45%). Plastic bitumen
can be used for filling cracks in masonry structures, stopping leakages etc.
APPLICATION OF BITUMEN:
Road Construction.
Hydraulics & erosion control Catchment areas, basins.
Dam groutings,
Dam linings,
Embankment protection
Dam linings,
Embankment protection
Ditch linings, Reservoir linings
Reservoir linings
Jetties, Dyke protection
Dyke protection
Swimming pools
Waste ponds
Water barriers
Mattresses for levee & bank protection
Membrane linings,
Waterproofing
Revetments
PROCEDURE OF TEST:
1. First, take the weight of the empty sand cone and then fill it with dry sand and then
weight again.
2. Collect the excavated soil from the hole and measure the weight.
3. After weighting, collect the specimen of soil to determine the water content in it.
4. Now place the sand cone on the test hole with the help of the base plate and allow
the sand to run by opening the control valve.
5. When the sand stops running, close the valve and weight the cone with the existing
sand. Finally, calculate the dry density of the soil by given below formula. If the test fails,
compact and perform the test again.
CALCULATION:
The volume of the hole = Mass of sand in hole/Density of used sand.
Wet density = Mass of wet excavated soil/Volume of hole
Dry density = Wet density × 100%/ Moisture content of soil + 100
Degree of compaction = Dry density × 100%/Maximun dry density.
WHAT IS CAMBER?
Camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off
the rainwater from the road surface. It is also known as cross slope of road.
3. To remove the rainwater from the pavement surface as quickly as possible and to
allow the pavement to get dry soon after the rain.
TYPES OF CAMBER:
1. COMPOSITE CAMBER:
It consists of two straight slopes from the edges with a parabolic or circular crown in the
center of camber. This type of camber can be easily constructed and maintained.
This type of camber is difficult to construct and maintain. The barrel camber has more
steeper edges which are inconvenient to use. Moreover, the steeper edges are errored
quickly and hence additional kerbs are to be provided.
ADVANTAGES OF CAMBER:
1. Camber provides quick drainage of rainwater and thus saves the foundation course
of the road structure from weakening by percolation of rainwater to it through the road
surface.
2. This prevents rainwater to accumulate in local shrinkages or depressions and forming
water pool on the road surface, which are disagreeable to the public as well as to the
road structure.
1. HAIR-PIN CURVES:
‘The curve in a hill road which changes its direction through an angle of 180 or so, down
the hill on the same side is known as hair-pin curve.
This curve is so called because it conforms to the shape of a hair-pin. The bend so
formed at the hair-pin curve in a hill road is known as pin bend. This type of curve
should be located on hill side having the minimum slope and maximum stability. It must
also be safe from the view point of land slides and ground water. Hair-pin bends
with long arms and farther spacing are always preferred. They reduce construction
problems and expensive protective works. Hair-pin curves or bends of serpentine nature
are difficult to negotiate and should, therefore,e be avoided as far as possible.
2. SALIENT CURVES:
The curves having their convexity on the outer edges of a hill road are called salient
curves.
The center of curvature of a salient curve lies toward the hill side. This type of curve
occurs in the road length constructed on the ridge of a hill. The bend so formed at the
salient curve in hill road is known as corner bend.
Salient curves are very dangerous for fast-moving traffic. At such a curve or at corner
bend, the portion of projecting hill side is usually cut down to improve the visibility. The
outer edge of the road at such a curve is essentially provided with a parapet wall for
protection of the vehicles from falling down the hill slope.
3. RE-ENTRANT CURVES:
The curves having their convexity on the inner edge of a hill road are called re-entrant
curve.
The center of curvature of a re-entrant curve lies away from the hill side. This type of
curve occurs in the road length constructed in the valley of a hill.
These curves are less dangerous as they provided adequate visibility to the fast-moving
traffic. At such curves, the parapet wall is provided only for safety of fast-moving traffic.