Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Two Types of Cells

There is another basic cell structure that is present in many but not all living cells:
the nucleus. The nucleus of a cell is a structure in the cytoplasm that is
surrounded by a membrane (the nuclear membrane) and contains, and protects,
most of the cell's DNA. Based on whether they have a nucleus, there are two basic
types of cells: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells are cells without a nucleus. The DNA in prokaryotic cells is in the
cytoplasm rather than enclosed within a nuclear membrane. Prokaryotic cells are
found in single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, like the one shown in Figure
below. Organisms with prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes. They were the
first type of organisms to evolve and are still the most common organisms today.
Unlike Archaea and eukaryotes, bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan,
comprised of sugars and amino acids, and many have a polysaccharide capsule
(Figure 1). The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain
its shape, and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to attach to
surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae.
Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to exchange genetic material during
a type of reproduction called conjugation. Fimbriae are protein appendages used
by bacteria to attach to other cells.
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus. A typical eukaryotic cell is shown
in Figure below. Eukaryotic cells are usually larger than prokaryotic cells, and they
are found mainly in multicellular organisms. Organisms with eukaryotic cells are
called eukaryotes, and they range from fungi to people.
Eukaryotic cells also contain other organelles besides the nucleus. An organelle is
a structure within the cytoplasm that performs a specific job in the cell.
Organelles called mitochondria, for example, provide energy to the cell, and
organelles called vacuoles store substances in the cell. Organelles allow
eukaryotic cells to carry out more functions than prokaryotic cells can. This allows
eukaryotic cells to have greater cell specificity than prokaryotic cells. Ribosomes,
the organelle where proteins are made, are the only organelles in prokaryotic
cells.
Eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other
membrane-bound compartments or sacs, called organelles, which have
specialized functions. The word eukaryotic means “true kernel” or “true nucleus,”
alluding to the presence of the membrane-bound nucleus in these cells. The word
“organelle” means “little organ,” and, as already mentioned, organelles have
specialized cellular functions, just as the organs of your body have specialized
functions.

Cell Size
At 0.1–5.0 µm in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than
eukaryotic cells, which have diameters ranging from 10–100 µm (Figure 2). The
small size of prokaryotes allows ions and organic molecules that enter them to
quickly spread to other parts of the cell. Similarly, any wastes produced within a
prokaryotic cell can quickly move out. However, larger eukaryotic cells have
evolved different structural adaptations to enhance cellular transport.
 Indeed, the large size of these cells would not be possible without these
adaptations. In general, cell size is limited because volume increases much more
quickly than does cell surface area. As a cell becomes larger, it becomes more and
more difficult for the cell to acquire sufficient materials to support the processes
inside the cell, because the relative size of the surface area through which
materials must be transported declines.

Similarities and Differences of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic single-celled organisms that thrive in diverse
environments. They can live within soil, in the ocean and inside the human gut.
Humans' relationship with bacteria is complex. Sometimes they lend a helping
hand, by curdling milk into yogurt, or helping with our digestion. At other times
they are destructive, causing diseases like pneumonia and MRSA.
Structures
Based on the relative complexity of their cells, all living organisms are broadly
classified as either prokaryotes or eukaryotes. Bacteria are prokaryotes. The
entire organism consists of a single cell with a simple internal structure. Unlike
eukaryotic DNA, which is neatly packed into a cellular compartment called the
nucleus, bacterial DNA floats free, in a twisted thread-like mass called the
nucleoid.
Bacterial cells also contain separate, circular pieces of DNA called plasmids.
Bacteria lack membrane-bound organelles, specialized cellular structures that are
designed to execute a range of cellular functions from energy production to the
transport of proteins. However, both bacterial and eukaryotic cells contain
ribosomes. These spherical units are where proteins are assembled from
individual amino acids, using the information encoded in a strand of messenger
RNA. On the outside, bacterial cells are generally surrounded by two protective
coverings: an outer cell wall and an inner cell membrane. However, certain
bacteria, like the mycoplasmas do not have a cell wall at all.
Some bacteria may even have a third, outermost, protective layer called the
capsule. Lastly, bacterial surfaces can be covered by whip-like extensions: flagella
or pili. According to the authors of "Mims Medical Microbiology, 5th Ed"
(Saunders, 2013), long flagella aid in motility while short pili help bacteria to
attach to host surfaces.
Classification
A few different criteria are used to classify bacteria. They can be distinguished by
the nature of their cell walls, by their shape, or by differences in their genetic
makeup. The Gram stain is a test used to identify bacteria by the composition of
their cell walls. It is named for Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique
in 1884. Bacteria are first stained with a purple dye called crystal violet, which
specifically binds to peptidoglycan, a complex structure of amino acids and sugars
found in the cell wall. This is followed by a series of steps that ultimately remove
any unbound or loosely bound crystal violet. Then the cells are stained with a
second red-colored dye called safranin. Gram-positive bacteria stain purple
because their cell walls are rich in peptidoglycan.
On the other hand, Gram-negative bacteria whose cells walls have two layers take
on a red coloring. The outer layer of lipids does not bind strongly to crystal violet
and the dye is easily washed away during the staining process. For example,
Streptococcus pneumoniae, which causes pneumonia, is a Gram-positive
bacterium, while Escherichia coli (E.coli) and Vibrio cholerae, which causes
cholera, are Gram-negative bacteria.
There are three basic bacterial shapes, according to "Mims Medical
Microbiology." Round bacteria are referred to as cocci (singular: coccus);
cylindrical, capsule-shaped bacteria as bacilli (singular: bacillus); and spiral
bacteria are aptly called spirilla (singular: spirillum). Cocci can also associate with
one another in different configurations: combinations of two or diplococcus; a
linear chain or streptococcus; and a cluster or staphylococcus. The shapes and
configurations of bacteria are often reflected in their names. For example, the
milk-curdling Lactobacillus acidophilus are bacilli, and pneumonia-causing
Streptococcus pneumoniae are a chain of cocci. The classification criteria
mentioned thus far are based on physiological properties and morphology.
However, classification of bacteria based on their evolutionary relationships to
one another, that is to say, drawing a sort of family tree of all bacterial species, is
a relatively new development.

This type of phylogenetic classification became possible with the advent of

nucleotide sequencing technology (the ability to read the order of nucleotides in
DNA or RNA). Since ribosomes are present in all living organisms, one can look at
similarities and differences in the RNA sequences that encode certain ribosomal
proteins and determine the degree of relatedness of different organisms.
In his essay, "How We Do, Don't and Should Look at Bacteria and Bacteriology,"
included in "The Prokaryotes, 3rd Ed, Vol. 1" (Springer, 2006) Carl Woese notes
that sequencing ribosomal RNA (rRNA) allowed for the development of a "clear
concept of a bacterium" by establishing phylogenetic relationships between
bacterial species. Using early sequencing technology developed by Frederick
Sanger in the mid-1960s, Woese began to characterize bacterial rRNA and
discovered a second group of prokaryotic organisms called archaea. Until then,
the only known members of this group, the methanogens, had been mistakenly
identified as bacteria. In their 1977 paper published in PNAS, authors Woese and
George Fox state that methanogens bore "no phylogenetic resemblance" to
bacteria.
Reproduction
Most bacteria multiply by a process called binary fission. A single bacterial cell,
the "parent," makes a copy of its DNA and grows large in size by doubling its
cellular content. The doubled contents are pushed out to either end of the cell.
Then a small fissure emerges at the center of the parent, eventually splitting it
into two identical "daughter" cells. Some bacterial species such as cyanobacteria
and firmicutes reproduce via budding. During budding, the daughter cell grows as
an offshoot of the parent. It starts off as a small nub, grows until it is the same
size as its parent, and splits off. The DNA found in parents and offspring after
binary fission or budding is exactly the same. Therefore bacterial cells try to
introduce some variation into their genetic material by integrating additional DNA
into their genome. This is known as horizontal gene transfer, and the resulting
genetic variation ensures that bacteria can adapt and survive as their
environment changes. There are three ways by which this occurs: transformation,
transduction and conjugation.
During transformation, bacterial cells integrate short fragments of DNA from their
surrounding environment. According to the authors of "Mims Medical
Microbiology," these fragments may be released by nearby bacteria that have
ruptured. On the other hand, transduction occurs when bacteria are infected by
special viruses known as bacteriophages that can carry bacterial DNA.
Conjugation requires physical contact between two bacteria. Genetic material,
usually a duplicated plasmid, will transfer from a donor to a recipient. This
plasmid copy travels out through a physical extension called the pilus and enters
the recipient bacterial cell. Donor bacteria contain a sequence of DNA called the
F-factor that enables pilus formation. Conjugation can aid in the spread of
antibiotic resistance
Discovery of Bacteria
Antony van Leeuwenhoek is regarded as the father of microbiology. He is known
for the discovery of bacteria.
Van Leeuwenhoek discovered "protozoa" - the single-celled organisms and he
called them "animalcules". He also improved the microscope and laid foundation
for microbiology. He is often cited as the first microbiologist to study muscle
fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa and blood flow in capillaries.
Although, he did not have much education or a scientific background, yet he
defied all odds to be reckoned as a great scientist through his skillful observations,
insight and unmatched curiosity. He revolutionized biological science by exposing
microscopic life to the world.
Antony Leeuwenhoek was the first person to see bacteria. Through the late
1670s, he sent comprehensive data and detailed drawings of his sightings of
bacteria and algae to the Royal Society in London. Throughout his lifetime
Leeuwenhoek remained devoted to the scientific research and made several vital
discoveries.
A brief account of his chief discoveries is presented below.
1674 The Infusoria - (Protist class in modern Zoology)
1676 The Bacteria (Genus Selenomonas - crescent shaped bacteria from human
mouth)
1677 The Spermatozoa
1682 The banded pattern of muscular fibers
1687 Research on the coffee beans
Career Ground over 500 lenses
Career Created over 400 different types of microscopes
He died at the age of 90 on August 26, 1723 in his birth city of Delft.

Resources:

https://explorable.com/discovery-of-bacteria

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-microbiology/chapter/overview-of-prokaryotic-and-
eukaryotic-cells/

https://www.livescience.com/51641-bacteria.html

https://www.ck12.org/biology/prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/lesson/Prokaryotic-and-Eukaryotic-
Cells-BIO/