Building Maintenance Lecture Notes

KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF LANDS AND ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN LAND ECONOMICS
UNIT: LE 312 BUILDING MAINTENANCE
Course outline
1. Introduction to building maintenance
 Definition and types of building maintenance
2. Defects on major building elements
 Roof defects
 Wall defects
 Floor defects etc.
3. Property inspection/surveys
 Processes and equipment required
 Types of building surveys
 Condition surveys
 Dilapidation surveys
 Sanitation surveys
4. Building maintenance problems and solutions
 Defects in wall claddings, brick works, steel works, stone works, timber works
5. Dampness
 Definition, causes of dampness and solutions to dampness
Assessment
1. Examination…………………60%
2. Practical assignment…………25%
3. Test…………………………..15%
Total………………………..100%
Lecturer: Samuel Elong
*MSc. Const. Tech & Mgt, *PgDiTRA, BSc. LE (Honors).
“Wisdom is knowing the right path to take, Integrity is taking it”, M.H McKEE
BUILDING MAINTENANCE
The art of controlling the rate at which infrastructure deteriorates towards a state of
unserviceability and collapse (UNCHS-Habitant 1993). The technical meaning of maintenance
involves functional checks, servicing, repairing or replacing necessary devices, equipment,
building infrastructure and supporting utilities both in industrial, businesses, government and
industrial installations.
Any activity (tests, measurements, replacements, adjustments, repairs…) intended to retain or

restore a functional unit in or to a specified state in which the unit can perform its required
functions.
Refers to all actions taken to retain the building in a serviceable condition or to restore it to
serviceability; it includes inspections, testing, servicing, repair, etc.
Serviceability
According to the Wikipedia, it refers to the condition under which a building is still considered
useful. Should these limit states be exceeded, a structure that may still be structurally sound would
nevertheless be considered unfit. It refers to conditions other than the building strength that renders
the buildings unusable.
Serviceability limit state design of structures includes factors such as durability, overall, stability,
fire assistance, deflection, cracking and excessive vibration
A limit state is a condition of a structure beyond which it no longer fulfills the relevant design
criteria.
The condition may refer to a degree of loading or other actions on the structure, while the criteria
refer to structural integrity, fitness for use, durability or other design requirements.
Building refers to a structure that usually has a roof and wall intended to be permanently affixed
to real property (Pennsylvania code, 1993)
Building cleaning services
The performance of services which include removal of dirt, dust, grease or grime on building and
the keeping of the building and its contents in a clean , neat polished or orderly appearance.
Unsafe structures
According to the International Property committee (IPMC (2003), an Unsafe Structure is one of
that is found to be dangerous to the life, health, property, or safety of the public or the occupants
in the event of fire, or because the structure contains unsafe equipment or is so damaged,
dilapidated, structurally unsafe or of such faulty construction or unstable foundation, that partial
or complete collapse is possible.
Structure unfit for human occupancy
According to the international property maintenance code(IPMC (2003)), a Structure is unfit for
human occupancy whenever the code official finds that such a structure is a disrepair or lacks
maintenance, is insanitary .vermin/rat infested, contains filth and contamination , or lacks
ventilation , illumination , sanitary facilities or because the location of the structure or to the
public.
It’s difficult to identify universal maintenance standards because of the wide variety of buildings.
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
There are many types of maintenance with some common distinction referring to the intent, timing,
or frequency of the maintenance activities:
Preventive/scheduled maintenance
Maintenance which is carried out to prevent an item failing or wearing out by providing systematic
inspection, detection and prevention of incipient failure .it’s usually programmed. Therefore its
pre-scheduled activities that lead to early detection of defect and implements action that avoids
breakdown. It is proactive in the sense that these activities are conducted before defects occur.
Often the cost of many preventive maintenance activities are low compared with corrective
maintenance or rehabilitation (UNCHS-Habitat 1993).
Corrective Maintenance
This is also known as reactive/unplanned/curative maintenance. The actions are performed as a

result to restore an item or asset to its original condition as far as is practicable. May or may not
program.
Identifying defects in a faculty and making good. Usually it is equated with repair of existing
problems. It is inherently reactive in that it is carried out after some defect is discerned.
Predictive maintenance
This is preventive in nature. Recent advancements in sensing technology have given rise to
predictive maintenance. These maintenance strategy uses sensors to monitor the key parameters
within a machine or system and uses this data in conjunction with analyzed historical trends to
continuously evaluate the system health and predict breakdown before it happens e.g. Half-cell
Potential HCP, Electro Magnetic wave (radar). This system allows efficient maintenance to be
carried out since more up to date data can be obtained regarding how close the structure is to
failure.
Periodic maintenance
Refers to preventive maintenance activities carried out less often than once a year such as once
every two or five years. These maintenance tasks are often programmed in predetermined plans or
schedule (UNCHS-Habitat, 1993)
Routine maintenance
Refers to preventive and corrective maintenance activities carried out more often once a year some
of these activities can be defined on the basis of operating hours (UNCHS-Habitat, 1993)
Rehabilitation
Activities are carried to correct major defects to restore a facility to its intended operational status
and capacity without significantly expanding it beyond it originally planned or designed function
or extent (ibid)
Other maintenance work categories include:
Statutory Maintenance
Maintenance done in accordance with legislative requirement. For example, a municipal council
may require that all properties within their mandate be subjected to maintenance to maintain the
aesthetics of the town.
Backlog maintenance
Maintenance that is necessary to prevent the deterioration of an asset or it function but which has
not been carried out.
Deferred maintenance
Maintenance which is due to be carried out in the current financial year but which will not be
carried out of because of a shortage of funds or unavailability of parts.(University of Queensland-
MP, 2003).
The UNCHS (Habitat) has noted with concern the necessary of improving building maintenance
efforts in developing countries in order that the rapid deterioration faced by vast building assets
can be arrested through concerted efforts at both national and international levels (UNCHS) Report
1991). The UNCHS Report further says that there is urgent need to create public awareness.
Face lifting
Old buildings may possess history that new ones do not have while looking their age. Taking an
old building and giving it a face lift is a way to improve the existing property as well as the
neighborhood to which it belongs.
INSPECTION OF PROPERTIES
Appointment to inspect the property
Consent and agreement of the vendor or occupier is required before the surveyor or his specialist
can gain entry to the premises. In making appointment it is important that the surveyor or his
representative should make clear the amount of time that an inspection is likely to take and the
areas to be covered by the inspection.
Use of a standard letter of intent to the vendor/occupier is useful. This letter will have the following
format
1. The name of the vendor

2. Heading. RE: Structural Surveys
3. Introductory notes in the following tune. Further to our telephone/letter.
We confirm that we have been engaged by …………………………….. to carry out a full

inspection of the above property. as discussed , our surveyor will call at your premises on
……………………….and hope this wills not inconvenience you too much. It would be a great
assistance if you could advise the surveyor when he calls, of any matters which relate to the
following:
a. Whether any structural alterations have been carried out to the property. If so, it would be
helpful if copies of the drawings could be made available on the day of inspection.
b. Any major repairs which have been undertaken to your knowledge
c. If you hold any guarantees in respect of timber treatment, dry rot is helpful if these could
be produced for the inspection.
d. Whether the property has ever been flooded to your knowledge
e. Whether the boundaries are disputed with neighbors or adjoining owners
f. Any item such as fixed equipment or light fittings which you would intend to remove from
the house, out buildings or grounds.
4. Request for keys in order to enable through inspection
5. Closing sentences, showing appreciation and request for cooperation
Equipment for property surveys
The RICS suggests the following
A robust torch of a size, weight and design which allows sits use in confined areas and which
produces an even shot bean
Hammer and pollster for lifting and replacing floorboards, manholes cover etc.
Ladder of a minimum length 3m
A pocket probe for superficial testing for mortar joinery fracture depths etc.
Binoculars or telescope with capacity not more than 8 times magnification.
Electrical moisture meter. Most meters usually measure the moisture content of timber between
16%-28% and most standard electric moisture meters give a guide to the presence of moisture in
other materials.
Screw driver
Measuring rod or tapes, tape measure should be able to fit into a pocket and is usual for dimensions
of up to 5m.a 2cm folding rod and /or a 30m tape.
Note book and writing equipment
Plumb line. A plumb line can be used to determine the alignment of walls in a vertical plane
A spirit level
Air brick probe i.e. screw driver
A compass
Additional equipment
Additional Equipment dependent upon the site. Location, problems being encountered and type
of survey might include:
Access plant and hydraulic platform
Hygrometer
Relative humidity probe
Ultra sonic leak detectors
Leak detection spray
Depth meters for location and sizing of sizing reinforced bars in concrete.
Ultra sonic testing equipment for the determination of the quality of concrete
Electrical supply testing
Infra-red thermograph equipment
Infra-red photography equipment
Video cameras
Metal detectors
Endoscopes
Manometers
Sound measurement meters
Light measurement meters
Energy management meters manhole lifting keys
Gap gauges
Drain testing equipment.
Much of this latter equipment is best used by experienced specialists who will have knowledge to
interpret the results obtained.
INSPECTION OF BUILDINGS
A. CONDITION SURVEYS
SITE NOTES
Contents
Site notes should include;
 Confirmation of address
 Confirmation of the vendor or occupants
 A note of the weather condition
 Confirmation of the individual present including any specialist
The surveyor should undertake his/her inspection in as great depth as is practical under the
circumstances found on site. It is his/her responsibility within the limit of his instructions, to see
all of the property that is practicable.
The surveyor should open all unfixed hatches to roof and floor voids, together with the screwed
down access hatches to plumbing. Concealed boilers and tanks, cavities beneath sanitary fittings
etc. where this can be done without causing damage or expenditure of excessive time.
The Final Report
In determining the limit of his/her inspection, the surveyor should have in mind the final report
which should aim to inform his/her client of the following:
 What, if anything is wrong?

 Why, is it wrong?
 What damage has occurred?
 How serious this is?
 What to do to put it right?
 How much is this likely to cost?
 When the remedial work should be carried out?
The extent to which he may move the furniture or empty cupboards will depend upon the
circumstances and whether any suspicion of detects exists in that area
The report should also aim to express how typical defect of properties in that area or properties of
that design or properties of similar construction.
Extent of the inspection
The royal institution of chartered surveyors in their guidance note on structural surveyors of
residential properties published the following which serves as useful guide to the area to be
included in the inspection of the building.
Roofs
 Externally all roof should be inspected as closely as a practicable using the available equipment
and vantage point.
 Similar attention should be paid to the insides of all gutters and the condition of rain water
pipes and other elements affecting the collection and disposal of roof water.
 The interior of accessible roof voids should be inspected in detail.
 All timbers should be checked for damage. It is also important and useful to record the moisture
content of the timbers.
 Size and design of the roof structure and particularly the pitch of the roof which will help in
reporting on the suitability of the covering.
Floors
 The surface of all floor not covered with fixed carpeting should be inspected as far as
practicable.
 In the case of timber floor, sufficient boards should lifted to enable the construction to be
identified and its condition checked for damage due to infestation or dampness.
 Where there is fixed coverings, these should not be lifted but the surveyors should lift
accessible corners sufficiently to identify the nature of the finish beneath.
Environmental factors
 The effectiveness of the property in preventing condensation liable to damage elements of the
structure together with its effectiveness in limiting heat loss and where appropriate the passage
sound should be carefully, considered and recorded.
Walls and brick work
 The exposed elements of all and brickwork should be inspected externally and internally where
not obscured by heavy furniture, fixed linings or rendered finishes.
 Brick work within accessible construction voids should be inspected.
 Wall foundations should only be exposed in cases where structural defects indicate problems
below ground after prior approval of the owner.
 The effectiveness of the damp proof courses should also be tested to confirm protection against
dampness.
 All vulnerable areas of wall should test with a moisture meter.
Structural timbers
 The effectiveness and condition of the structural timbers in floors. Lintels etc. should be
checked where practicable and areas noted where this is not possible.
Joinery and finishes
 All joinery finishes should be inspected visually.

 External joinery such as cills, horizontal boarding and low level timber should receive special
attention.
 Particular attention should be paid to cupboard under staircases, joinery near damp areas, solid
floors or sanitary fittings and timber exposed to severe weathering.
Sanitary fittings ad services
 All sanitary fittings associated taps and traps water waste preventers and valves should be
inspected visually and tested by normal operation of the passage water.
 Hot water installations, boilers, control equipment should be activated to test for physical
operation and tested visually for signs of corrosion or leakage. The presence of lead piping
should be reported and attention drawn to the potential health hazards as should the presence
of asbestos in boilers , casings pipe work insulation the nature of space heating appliances
should be noted and checked as indicated for hot water installation.
 Gas installation should be checked visually where exposed. Gas appliance should be inspected
visually and operated if the service is connected at the time of the survey
 Electrical installations should be checked visually to the extent necessary to advise upon the
apparent age and suitability of the wiring or equipment and likely condition. Tests will not be
carried out by a surveyor but he should be prepared to give an option on the need for such tests.
 In respect of all services the client should be advised that further tests will be required by
appropriate specialists if assurance as to the condition or capability is required.
Drains
 The surveyor should open all accessible manhole covers.

 Record the routes of the drain and subject them to a minimal test by watching the flow of water
through the system.
 The means of foul and surface disposal should be identified and the effectiveness of the
equipment or installations checked.
 Surface water drains should be checked with water to identify severely blocked gullies etc.
 Paths, fences and out buildings the inspection of fences , paths and outbuildings and ground
should be undertaken to the extent necessary to report on the matters required by the agreed
instructions.
Ground
 The general form and shape of the grounds and extents of trees be inspected for comment in
the report.
Adjoining properties
The general condition, construction, design and use of immediately adjoining properties should be
observed in order to identify any special factors which may adversely affect property
Noise from aircraft, rail. Traffic or other sources should be noted if it is significant
B. DILAPIDATION SURVEY
Unlike a condition survey which is undertake on request of the property owner alone to establish
the state of the property prior to letting…, dilapidation surveys are carried out to harmonize the
relationship between the landlord and the tenants especially when there is breach of the tenancy
agreement.
It is therefore the practice of identifying and recording building defects prior to any refurbishment
or maintenance work. It requires an in depth analysis of the building defects probable causes and
the proposed methods and techniques of refurbishment /maintenance.
Dilapidation survey may involve several professionals depending on the complexity of the
building.
Dilapidation surveys are instrumental in the following aspects;
 Understanding of the state of the building defects.

 Determining the causes of the4 building defects.
 Identifying appropriate method and techniques of building maintenance.
 Providing reference materials to clients, consultants and protect contractors.
Defects report
This report concentrates on one particular defect specified by the client(s).
Detailed treatise of dilapidations
In legal aspects dilapidations may be cited as the identification of the state of disrepair in a property
and /or a breach of a lease covenant for which there is a legal liability.
Liability for repair
Liability for repair may fall on the tenant of the landlord. The lease will set out the terms of the
contract between the landlord and tenant but there are other documents such as licenses , deed of
variation or even statues, which may vary the or change the terms of the original contract
Necessary components for a claim to succeed
 A lease
 Property
 Breach of a covenant. For example this could be breach of a repair covenant, for which one
party has accepted a legal liability which has or will cause the other party to suffer a
financial loss.
Information required to determine tenants’ liability
 Lease
The full copy and not just an abstract of the lease is required. A certified copy of the lease with
color applied to match any colored palns within the lease should be available.
 License
A copy of each and every license that may have been granted during the term of lease. The license
may carry consents to change in use or for alterations to the building.
 Plans
Copies of any plans of the building, particularly if they record the layout of the building at the time
of grant of the lease.
 Schedule of dilapidation
Copies of any schedules that may have been prepared or served in the past, together with details
of any agreements in settlement of earlier schedules.
 Schedule of condition
Copies of any schedules that may have been prepared at the beginning of the lease. The schedule
only limits the extent of the work required if referred to within the lease.
 Photographs
Photographs of the building at the beginning of the lease, as they may help in understanding the
quality of for example decorations at the commencement of the lease.
 Past notices
Copy of any notices served in the past upon either the landlord or the tenant.
Level of inspection
The inspection required to enable a surveyor to prepare the schedule of dilapidations differs from
the inspection commonly carried out for condition survey of a building.
The surveyor must advise on all breaches which require a remedy and set out the remedy that is
required.
This will require detailed information about the cause and method of repair required for each and
every defect that is found.
The dilapidation inspection may require detailed test, opening up of the parts of the building to
identify the presence or cause of a problem or the measurements of the building.
Types of dilapidation reports
The landlord (or landlady) may serve as many schedules of dilapidations as he/she requires during
the term of the lease. It is imperative to recognize that the purpose of serving a notice is to advise
the tenant of a breach and give him/her a reasonable time to carry out the repairs. (How long is a
reasonable time?)
1. Repair Notes
This is an advice to the tenant that there are minor repairs required to the building for which he/she
(tenant) is responsible for.
Usage: this notice would only be used for minor faults such as defective guttering or roof failures.
The surveyor should ensure that there are no items for which the tenant could claim relief. This
notice is issued when the lease has a certain period to run. In UK, this period is usually three years
before the lease expiry. This is the only form the surveyor should be involved in serving. Any more
repair, particularly one that may lead to a reduction in the value of the landlord’s property should
be dealt with by a solicitor.
Form: This notice is usually in the form of a letter which must;
Be addressed to the tenant,
 State the property which has to be repaired,

 State the work required to remedy disrepair,
 State the time that the tenant is to be given to undertake the repair,
 State the consequences of failure to comply with the notice.
2. Interim schedule of dilapidation

The term describes a schedule which is prepared within a specified period during the currency of
a lease. In the UK this schedule this period is three or more years before the expiry of the lease
This schedule has been identified as different from other schedules because the tenant will be able
to obtain relief from the contents of the schedule. If there are other requirements to carry out
internal decoration or minor reports
The purpose of an interim schedule of dilapidation is to press the tenant to pair the e building. The
schedule will set out the breaches and required remedy to discharge the breaches that exists.
The schedule will be served usually by a solicitor
3. Terminal of the schedule of depilation

This describes the schedule will differ from the interim schedule, because the tenant is no able to
seek relief from requirement to repair as a result of tenants breach
It is recommend that the terminal schedule should be served at the beginning of the last three years
of a lease term if it is intention of the landlord to re-let the building immediately the current terms
end without any alteration being carried to the property
The remedy that is sought by the landlord in arranging for the service is such a schedule is the
repair of the building as anticipated within the lease.
The schedule will be served by a solicitor upon the tenant in a prescribed form.
4. Final schedule of dilapidation

This term describes the schedule that is served after the end of the lease: however the lease ends
(forfeiture, re-entry of expiry).
The only remedy that is now available to the land lord is money. This money is due as
compensation for the landlord’s loss as a result of the failure of the tenant to repair the property
as required under the lease and other documents.
Read (Riverside Park Limited V NHS Property Services Limited)
Contents
The schedule will record the breach, remedy and cost of carrying out the work.
Inspection and subsequent liability
 In order for the surveyor to accurately assess the cost of repairs, sufficient dimensions must be
taken during the inspection of building
 The surveyor will also have photographed the building at the time tenant leaves the property
and hands it back to the landlord.
 All arguments about the extent of the liability will base on the condition of the property at the
time it is returned to the landlord irrespective of when argument is being conducted.
Serving a schedule
A schedule of dilapidations can be served upon a former tenant at any time up to 12 years after the
end of the lease. The argument or eventual court case will still be based upon the condition of the
property at that time that it was handed back to the landlord.
The final schedule will be served either under cover of solicitors or surveyors letter making a claim
for money as compensation for loss or as a statement of claim attached to a writ for damages
It is assumed that the notice is issued during termination of the lease prior to its end. In the event
that the lease is renewed the schedule can be derived as an interim.
Purpose of dilapidation
The schedule of dilapidation recites those breaches of lease or ancillary document and the remedy
that is required.
Landlord’s reasons
The landlord may have a number of reasons for pressing for the schedule to be served upon tenant.
These may legitimately include;
 To get the repairs carried out.

 To obtain possession of a building
 To obtain compensation for the work he will have to do
Forfeiture (as a remedy)
The courts will grant forfeiture when it is believed to be appropriate remedy. A court is unlikely
to grant forfeiture if it might result in a financial windfall for the landlord. Such a windfall could
for insistence occur where tenant of a leasehold property with say 99 years remaining failed to
respond to a served schedule of dilapidations as he was out of the country for six months . In such
cases forfeiture of the remaining years of lease would be unfair and much to the landlord’s
advantage since he could renew the lease to another tenant.
Incorrect assumption
The following is a list of common assumptions of a landlord, which are incorrect. The schedule of
cannot achieve the following;
 Put the property into good repair

 Improve the property so that it can be re-let
 Obtain compensation for work that has been carried out
 Obtain compensation for emergency repairs that were not carried out under a notice, by law
or court by the landlord
 Harass the tenants so that they will leave or not renew the lease at the end of the term.
The purpose of the notice is to give the tenant the opportunity to remedy the breach that exist in a
reasonable period of time.
THE LEASE
The surveyor must examine the complete lease to locate all clauses which impose a duty upon the
tenant, or control the way he has to conduct himself.
The clauses that will be carefully checked in each lease will include the following;
Repairing covenants
They usually contain a large number of requirements and contain much description. The essential
words in a repairing clause remain as:
 Put
 Keep
 Leave
A: put
This requires the tenant to put the building into-repair at the beginning of the lease and gives a
period of time for the tenant to carry out the work.
No schedule can be served during the period that has been allowed for the repairs to be carried out,
as there is no breach until the period elapses, unless the disrepair relates to an item not in a schedule
relating to the work that has to be put into repair.
B: keep
The phrase “keep” in a repairing shall also have the meaning put
This means that a tenant taking on a lease with repairing covenant to keep property into repair shall
also have the obligation to put it into repair. There is no relief for the tenant taking on a property
in disrepair. He/she must put and keep it in repair at all times during the term of the lease.
C: leave
The tenant has to leave the property in a repair at an end of the lease. There is no obligation for the
property to be kept in disrepair during the currency of the term
The absence of liability to keep in a repair will not absolve the tenant from the need to protect
landlord’s property from uncontrolled/wanton destruction
There will be little purpose in serving schedule dilapidations upon the tenant who has a repairing
covenant that requires him to leave the property in repair during the currency of the lease.
Decorating covenants
These set out standard of work required in internal and external redecoration, the number of coats
of paint, the type of paints and the maximum period between each redecoration or the years when
the property is to be repainted
A: tenants Relief
The tenant will be able to seek relief from the liability to redecorate the interior of the property
during the lease except, within the last three years.
B: Older leases
The painting specification may have to be amended in older leases where specified materials are
no longer available or where the use of specified materials impose a health risk.
The use
The surveyor needs to check that the use of the property is permitted under the lease. Alteration to
the use will have to be agreed by license, and all previous licenses issued in connection with this
property will have to be obtained.
If the use, the surveyor needs to check that planning consent was obtained for the change of use;
if it was required at the time the change took place.
The demise
The clause setting out the extent of the demised premises will identify responsibility for boundary
walls, boundaries and indicate if any part of the property has a share responsibility for
maintenance.
If there is lease plan which uses color as an aid to identification attached to the lease then the colors
on the surveyor copy must match those on the original.
Comply with statue

Many leases contain a clause that requires the tenant to comply with notice served under the town
and country acts orders and rules or bylaws. The wording will differ, but this clause ca added to
the tenant’s liability by making him responsible for improvements.
Fees
Some leases contain clauses making the tenant responsible for the cost of the landlord employing
a surveyor to check obtains for dilapidations and for the preparation of the schedule.
Landlord is always responsible for the fees of the surveyor, if he has appointed him to carry out
the survey but the lease may give him the opportunity to be reimbursed by the tenant.
Term of the lease
The date when the lease was granted will be the date when the standard of repair which can be
expected throughout the lease term will have been set.
The standard of a repair is that repair which was expected by a reasonable –minded tenant at the
commencement of the lease.
Consent for alterations
The lease clause will set out the consent required for alterations that the tenant may wish to carry
out. The surveyor will have to contrast the lease requirements with the changes that have taken
place and note whether reinstatement is required at the end of the term.
Rent passing
The rent passing being paid at the time of the surveyor and the date of the next review of the rent
will be information that will be required to calculate the value of the reversion of the property.
THE SCHEDULE
Contents
The schedule which the surveyor produces should contain the following information
The location of the defects,
The breach that is alleged,
The remedy that is required,
If the schedule is served at the end of the lease. It will also have to list the costs that are claimed
to remedy the breaches referred to.
Appearance of schedule
The acceptable appearance of the schedule is in at least two columns, but it is clearer of an extra
column setting out the location of the defects is included.
A small sketch of the floor layout of the building with arrows locating the portion of the defects
scheduled is helpful in advising the tenants of the location of the breach
The typical schedule of dilapidations for a particular building should have the following
A: Preamble to schedule
1. Date of inspection (this schedule is based upon the state of the building on 1st May, 2006).
2. Costs used: all prices that are shown in the schedule are an assessment of the net builders
cost (excluding preliminaries, profit and overhead).
3. The schedule should be based upon and it has to provide that schedule is based upon
documents made available at all the time of preparing the report and these documents
should be mentioned.
3.1 The lease between……………………………… (The lessee) and

………………………………. (The lessor).
3.2 The license of alteration between parties (if any).
3.3 Letter of consent (with dates) in case the tenant had sought for any relief.
3.4 Quotation of builder and contactor for remedial works (mention date and amount).
Example of a lease covenant
Lease covenants relied upon on preparation of the schedule of dilapidation should be clearly stated
by the surveyor. Examples are;
1. Demise all those premises as shown enclosed (state the color) line on the drawing attached
to the lease.
11.1 Liability to keep the premise in repair.
11.2 Paint the outside for 6 months.
11.3 Paint the interior for 6 months.
17.0 Comply with statutes.
18.0 Pay the reasonable fees of a landlord’s surveyor for inspection and preparation of a
schedule of dilapidations.
Summary of claim
1. The actions of the tenant have caused loss to their immediate landlord through their breach
of several covenants in both under the lease and license relating to their occupation of the
premise.
2. The heads of claim based upon the cost of remedying the breaches is set out below.
Name of firm:…………….. Property address:………… Date…………. Ref. pg. No…..
Item No. Lease Clause Defect Nature of Repair Cost (UGX.)
location breach
1 11.2 Parapet wall Brick header Take off appr. 250,000
fronting the course is 4 meters linear
main lifted from of bricks
entrance. damp course coping and
and is at risk remove loose
of falling brickwork and
rebuild
2 11.1 and 11.3 Main roof Solar Prepare all 350,000
surface reflective surfaces and
paint prepare solar
damaged and reflective paint
eroded.
Surface not
repainted in
accordance
with lease
TOTAL 600,000
Heads of claim (by landlord)

Cost of works UGX. UGX.
Total cost from the schedule………………………600,000
Contractor’s overheads and profits at 20%.............120,000
Sub-Total of building costs…………………………………………………………720,000
Fees
Professional fees for remedial works design
and monitoring at 20% of cost of works………….144,000
Survey fees (prep schedule of dilapidation)……...100,000
Professional fees for negotiation
Advisors to resolve dispute………………………20,000
Solicitors’ fees…………………………………....100,000
Sub-Total fees……………………………………………………………………..364,000
VAT
VAT at 18% of cost of works……………………………………………………..129,600
Consequential losses
Loss of rent for 1 month at 100,000/month………100,000
Loss of service charge at 10% of rent passing...…..10,000
Insurance premiums…………………...….……….20,000
Sub-Total consequential losses…………………………………………………..130,000
Total claim……………………………………………………………………..1,343,600
C. SANITATION SURVEYS
For easy understanding of this topic, students should have prior tuition in the provision of utility
service in buildings. Utility services include the following appliances and systems.
1. Sanitary Fitments
2. Above Ground Drainage System: Soil And Water Systems
3. Drainage below Ground
4. Sewage Treatment and Disposal Facilities
What is sanitation?
Sanitation is quality of living expressed in the clean house, the clean farm clean school and clean
business and industry. The clean neighborhood, the clean community. It is a way of life. It is from
within the people, nourished by knowledge and grows as an obligation and an ideal in human
relations (Extracts from National Sanitation Foundation USA).
Sanitation= the formulation and application of public health measures, the disposal of sewage and
garbage.
Sources of Dirty and Unhygienic conditions within a House
1) Inside the house

i. Garbage from vegetables peels, tinned foods and drink papers.
ii. Plumbing works. On site pit latrines, septic tank system and sewage treatment facilities
such as conventional works (activated – sludge trickling filters and accreted lagoons etc)
and non-conventional works such as waste stabilization ponds.
2) Compound surrounding the house, stagnant water and vegetation overgrowth.
Sanitation facilities
We distinguish;
 Public facilities
 Commercial facilities
 Industrial facilities
 Residential facilities.
a) Public facilities
Roads: sanitation facilities required include storm water drainage (open or closed conduits) and
culverts or bridges.
Schools, Hospitals and Market place: Requirements – solid waste containment structures
plumbing works on/off site waste treatment facilities (incinerators, filters etc) storm water drainage
works.
b) Commercial facilities
Restaurants- requirements include internal plumbing works, storm water drainage works, and
solid waste containment structures
Slaughter house (abattoirs): requirement – solid waste containment structures. Internal plumbing
on/off site waste (for excreta treatment). Abattoir treatment facilities, storm water drainage works.
Shops as for slaughter houses except for abattoir treatment facilities
Garages- as for slaughter houses but also trade wastes collections and treatment works
c) Industrial facilities
Sanitation facilities required and their extent will depend on the type of waste produced but
generally would include the following;
Collection works (internal plumbing),
On/off site waste treatment facilities (trickling filter for examples),
Solid waste containment facilities,
Storm waste drainage works,
Industrial liquid waste treatment facilities (depend on the nature of waste).
d) Residential facilities
Similar to those provided under commercial facilities above.
Purpose of sanitary surveys
A surveyor is called upon to survey a property for given reasons. Usually acting between parties
with conflicting interests, each eager to influence his/her judgment. This is however not always
the case. In some instances such as where a condition survey of a property is required for purpose
of preparing maintenance programs. The surveyor will probably be acting for one party
The purpose of carrying out sanitary surveys are similar to those that we considered under
structural surveys in lecture one or two indeed sanitary survey is part of the structural survey and
is seldom required in its own right.
Important points to consider when carrying out sanitary surveys (SS)
It is important that the following points are seriously considered when contemplating and carrying
out sanitary surveys.
 Condition and arrangement of the underground drainage system, external waste and soil
pipe system.
 Condition of sanitary fitments.
 What tests to be required and what equipment is available for carrying out the tests to the
sanitary facilities.
 Check that inspections are sufficiently comprehensive.
 The reports made convey to an individual possessing no technical and who has not visited
the property accurate and complete picture of its condition character and immediate
surroundings
Survey procedures
There are no hard fast rules on mode of procedure. Inspection should proceed step by step in an
orderly and methodical manner.
Please note that test and examination of drainage system is an important task in SS but which takes
long. It is prudent therefore to set up the test well in advance of the inspection.
Normally a surveyor would proceed as follows;
1. Receipt of instructions (please remember what we said about confirming receipt of
instructions whether in writing or oral).
2. Preliminary examination of the exterior of house, site and surroundings.
3. Systematic search for defects. It is advisable to use checklist.
4. Sketch drawing for house showing essential features and dimensions , direction of all
drains , position of gullies , waste pipes , soil pipes , drain ventilators, manholes etc.
Please remember that observations of leakages of the drainage lines may be proceeding in the
interim. You need to take note of size, materials, gradient etc. of the drainage system. Provision of
grease traps and petrol interceptors should be given special treatment in your report
5. Exterior inspection: the surveyor will need to take notes on what type of chimney stacks.
Roofs, gutters, rain water, discharge pipes wall any signs of dampness sufficiency or
otherwise of vertical /horizontal damp roof course(s) (dpc), adequacy of under floor
ventilation, and any external signs of settlement. The surveyor will also need to comment
on paved areas as to their construction and whether their level is above the horizontal dpc
at any point
All grounds works must be thoroughly inspected to determine whether or not they are subjected to
stresses that could have an effect on the property. Any unusual wetness of grounds must be
carefully examined and cause of wetness determined
6. Interior inspection: Again the surveyor may opt a top –down or down-top procedure and
stick to it. Whether the approach preferred is top-down or not. The surveyor’s interest is to
examine any signs of defect whether they exist or not. Dampness, settlement and
inadequacy of concrete over-site within the building etc.
It is crucial that the surveyor takes note of all sanitary fitments vis-a vis size materials method of
jointing and treatment of upper and lower ends. He/she should check with local authority on
provision and maintenance of utilities such as electricity, water, gas installation and planning
requirements.
Testing and examination of drains
It is important for the surveyor to realize that a defective and leaky drain may give rise to serious
public health nuisance and harmful effects upon the occupants. This will have negative impact on
dealing in the property.
Drainage testing is the most important item in sanitary survey prior to testing the drains; the
surveyor should form an opinion of the condition, character and approximate age of the drainage
system through visual observation and local enquiries.
There are at least seven methods of drain testing in common use of worldwide.
 Chemical or olfactory test
Olfactory test entails within a drain a sufficiently penetrating odour so that should there be a defect,
the odour can be smelt either inside the building or in its vicinity
For several decades, a small quantity of chemicals with a pungent odour such as crude oil of
peppermint was placed unto a bucket of hot water which was then discharged through the trap of
highest WC fitment or down the vent pipe at the end of the drainage system. This technique was
proved unreliable.
Today, patent chemical testers are used. These are drain grenades or drain ferrets that are held by
a string down through the drain and unwinding the string. The ferrets (containers) open realizing
their contents. The contents are strong smelling chemicals. It is important that before running down
the ferrets all drain ventilators and soil pipes are plugged.
Chemical test is highly unreliable as it largely relies on the human sense of smell olfactory organs
easily acclimatize to new smell on one hand but on the other they are very subjective.
The test is however very suitable in situations where there are no inspection chambers within the
drainage system.
 Smoke test
A smoke rocket or special drain – testing machine applies smoke to the drain. Both ends of the
drain to be tested must be plugged. Smoke is then filled into the drain through one of the plugs. If
the drain is defective, smoke will escape through faults in the pipes through leaky points. To
argument the eye in detecting and locating leakages nose can be used as smoke has a pungent
smell.
 Pneumatic or air test
Air is pumped into the drain by means of a pump or other suitable mechanism such as the eclipse
smoke machine. All drain openings must be plugged and stoppers used should be water sealed so
that any air leakage may be readily detected, if the drain is sound the copper float raises and
remains in its elevated position, otherwise it sinks.
Pneumatic test is useful for detecting minute leaks in new work both for aboveground and
belowground drainage systems. It is however not normally suitable for general testing of
underground drains. It is widely used for establishing the soundness of soil pipes and main waste
stacks.
 Hydraulic or water test
In this system, the lower end of the drain is plugged by means of an expanding plug or stopper.
Water is then filled into the drain until say 0.6m stands in the top manhole. Water level should
then carefully record and watched for subsidence.
At least half of an hour should be allowed to elapse before observations and another 15 minutes
before to allow absorption by cement rendering of the manhole; back branch drain is to be tested
separately as for the main drain. It is important that sectional testing is done. This will result in
savings in terms of labor and water used and will help detect leaks which are normally localized.
 Mirror test
Mirror test is used to ascertain condition of a straight length of drain and also for easy bend between
two inspection chambers. The aim of the test is to find out any existence of dropped or sagged
pipes or badly made joints within the drains
The set is such that a mirror or stainless reflector is placed in the channel of each of the chambers
so that light is reflected along the drain. The reflectors on metal stand should be adjustable.
 Ball test
Ball test is suitable for testing new drain works aimed at finding out whether the pipes have been
well and truly laid.
A ball either a hardwood or plastic of slightly small diameter than the drain is allowed to roll
through the highest to the lowest point. If the drain is sound the ball will roll through unobstructed.
 Colored water test (CWT)
This is a particularly useful in test in 4 different situations:
1. Tracing discharge from branch drain and differentiating between soil and surface water
connections where a system is in use.
2. In the case of older properties where little is known of the original design plans and
especially those properties that nay have undergone a number of alterations and additions.
3. In ascertaining a defect where a particular concern over dampness has been expressed as
arising from defective drains.
4. To establish adequacy of fall on a new length of drain which is useful in determining the
time taken to travel a given distance and the amount of sewage retained where obstruction
is present.
The CWT entails:
 Use of water with whitening but for better results, fluorescent dyes (which is a soluble dye)
may be used. It is important that a distinct is color painted at. When brick red powder is
used for example by mixing it with water, one gets a vivid green color
 Removal of inspection chambers.
 Pouring of the colored water into various branches drains in turn via gullies or sanitary
fitments.
Reliability of the Test largely depends on how perfect the test has been carried away. The following
precautions must be headed to
 All evidence of color originating from one branch drain must be flushed away before
testing the next branch drain.
 In complicated drainage systems different colors must be used.
 In drainage system where no inspection chambers have been provided the cwt may suffer
problems.
Conclusions:
Drain testing may not guarantee that the drains are satisfactory for the following reasons;
 The drain may be found to be water tight (not leaking) but in effect when their sizes are
too great that they are unable to clean themselves.
 Bends may be too sharp.
It is therefore important that the surveyor applies combination of tests and visual observations to
form an opinion of the soundness of the drain. In several cases it will be seen that the major cause
of the drain problem is as a result of insufficient fall, badly laid pipes, sagging of the pipes on
account of settlement of the buildings or misaligned pipe work resulting from changes in the
ground conditions such as soil movement.
BULDING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTION
DEFECTS IN WALL CLADDINGS
The building regulation prescribe that materials used in building work shall be of a suitable nature
and quality, be adequately mixed or prepared and applied, used or fixed so as adequately to perform
the functions for which they are designed . Unfortunately, some modern buildings produce greater
maintenance problems than many centuries –old buildings, even though the climatic conditions
have undergone little change. Entwhistle has described how there has been a failure to learn from
experience and to make full use of known science and technology. When using large building
units, sufficient allowance has not always create under load. The effect of the rapid drying out of
new building by central heating does not always seem to be appreciated. Insufficient attention to
detailing and the failure to select suitable materials for use in exposed situations can have
unfortunate effects.
Wall claddings suffer particularly from the following defects;
1) inability to support imposed loads, resulting in distortion or cracking

2) inability to keep out the weather
3) inability to insulate from cold with resultant condensation
4) deterioration of cladding materials
The external face of a building has to resist the passage of rain and wind, since moisture generating
to the inside can result in the mildew or mold growth or produce conditions conducive to corrosion
of metals, fungal attack on timber, damage to decoration and even detrimental effects on contents
and the occupiers themselves. We are concerned not only with the wetting and drying of walling
materials but also the chemical and physical change I structure caused by the complex of moisture,
frost, temperature changes, ultraviolet light, and formation and transference of salts.
Crackling of wall cladding usually indicates failure or defective .it is almost invariably unsightly
and unacceptable to the occupants .cracking often results in air infiltration, heat loss and reduced
sound insulation. All of which cause a reduction in the efficiency of the building. It occurs when
the tensile stress in a material exceeds its terrible strength through externally applied loads or
internal movement produced by moisture changes subject to external realistic.
Water penetration can be exceptionally critical in cold weather, particularly around vulnerable
areas such as cornices and sills. Water expands by about one tenth on freezing and can exert very
great pressures within the fabric, causing it to lift the and eventually break away, if the finds its
way into fabric through cracks or bed pointing, it will cause damage to freezing
Carbon accumulates to form soot deposits on the fabric which are both unsightly and harbor
dangerous corrosive elements. Regular cleaning will remove these deposits and prevent their build-
up, in addition to permitting a check of the condition of the fabric and enabling the necessary
repairs undertaken
BRICKWORK
Clay bricks
The majority of bricks in general use are made of clay .these are classified in BS 3921 according
to variety – common , facing or engineering, quality – internal, ordinary or special and type and
quality of brick for a particular situation. For example internal quality bricks laid in the week
mortar are suitable for internal walls where is no early frost hazard,, whereas ordinary brick in the
medium strength mortar are required for the outer leaf of cavity walls unrendered brick –working
parapet walls contain special bricks laid in strong mix of mortar such as 1 parapet memory cement
2 ½ -3 1/3 parts sand.
BS 3921 specifies a minimum strength of 5.2 m /m for bricks and this is sufficient for the loadings
in the –rise housing and similar buildings. Higher strength bricks should be specified only when
they are required to meet structural needs. As strength is not necessary an index of durability
similarly water absorption doesn’t always indicate the behavior of a brick in weathering.
Low-absorption – less than 7 per cent by weight –often indicates a high resistance to damage by
freezing although some types of bricks of much higher absorption may also frost resistant
Other bricks
Calcium silicate bricks of a sand lime or flint lime and concrete bricks can be used successfully in
a wide range of situations subject to the selector of the appropriate class of brick or mortar. To
avoid shrinkage cracks, bricks should be kept dry prior to laying and a weak to medium mortar.
Should be used kept prior .long lengths of brickwork should be subdivided by dry movement joints
at intervals of more than 7.50 mm, permit movement. A rigid joint filler, polythene or bituminous
felt should be inserted for the full thickness of the brickwork but kept back about 12mm from the
outside face. The joints must be sealed to ensure moisture exclusion.
Shrink cracking in brickwork may take two forms-running straight through the brick and joint in
alternate courses following a zigzag path along the joints. The latter type of crack is more easily
made good and it is accordingly advisable to make mortar joint there is a greater chance of the
bricks, shrinking individually, without stressing the wall as whole, with minute hair cracks forming
around each brick rather than wider cracks at a greater intervals
Mortars
The principal requirement of mortars for brickwork and block work are good workability and
plasticity but stiffening within a reasonable period. Early attainment of strength with a final
strength adequate but not greater than bricks and adequate durability. An excessively strong mortar
concentrates the efforts of differential movement by producing fewer and wider cracks and is liable
to lead to increased efflorescence.
Stronger mixes are preferable in cold weather to develop strength more quickly and so resist the
effects of frost. The selection of mortars is influenced by the type of construction and condition of
exposure as shown in table3:1.
Table 3:1 selection of Mortars for brickwork and Block work
Mortar type and mix uses

Hydraulic lime sand: 1:3 Internal walls and partitions of day calcium
Portland cement: lime :sand 1:3:10-12 silicate and concrete bricks, and concrete
Masonry cement : sand 1:6 attrition blocks subject to high drying
Portland cement :and with plasticizer 1:8 shrinkage
Hydraulic lime sand: 1:2 Clay, calcium silicate and concrete bricks or
Portland cement: lime :sand 1:2:8-9 blocks in sheltered positions between caves
Masonry cement : sand 1:6 and damp –proof course. Also for internal
Portland cement :and with plasticizer 1:7-8 walls of calcium silicate and concrete bricks or
blocks where frost is possible
Portland cement: lime :sand 1:1:5-6 Clay bricks, calcium silicate or concrete class
Masonry cement : sand 1:4:1.5 A(i) in exposed conditions below damp-proof
Portland cement :and with plasticizer 1:5-6 course, free standing walls, parapets and
similar locations, or between caves and damp-
proof course in conditions of severe exposure
Portland cement: lime: sand 1 :1.5:4-41.5 Clay bricks in condition of severe exposure
Portland cement: lime :sand 1:0 -1.2:3 Retaining walls and heavy engineering work
using appropriate bricks.
Note: where a range of sand contents is given such as 10-12: the higher figure applies to well
paraded sand and the lower to course or uniformly fine sand.
Cement mortar sets quickly and develops great strength, often more than is required and is liable
to craze where the mortar is extremely workable but is weak and slow hardening, hence these
mortars have been widely superseded by drying shrinkage, a plasticizer may be added to cement
mortar to produce a flexible mix, increasing workability and permitting the use of weaker mortars
in place of lime. Masonry cements mortar usually consists of a mixture of Portland cement with a
very fine mineral and an air –entraining agent. It has good working properties. Special mortars are
used in certain cases, as where soil has high sulphate content, or high early strength or resistance
to heat chemicals is required.
It is important to use an appropriate to use an appropriate mortar, properly batched and adequately
mixed using the same mix throughout and taking adequate precautions against frost.
DEFECTS IN BRICKWORK
Brickwork defects arise in a variety of ways which the common are efflorescence , stains , sulphate
attack , frost action , settlement, use of unsound materials of poor workmanship, corrosion of iron
and steel , drying shrinkage, growth of lichens and molds, and need for repointing(fill in or repair
joints).
 Efflorescence
This consists of deposits of soluble salts formed on the surface of new brickwork and it usually
appears as loose white powder or as feathery crystals or more occasionally as a hard glossy deposit
penetrating the brick faces. It can occur on internal as well as external surfaces causing damage to
decorations where applied before the walls have dried out. Efflorescence is generally a temporary
string time occurrence appearing as new brick work dries out for the first time. It sometime
reappears in the second spring of a building life but on reduced scale. It is unsightly but usually
harmless and short-lived unless water is able to percolate into the brickwork, or soluble salts such
as magnesium sulphate crystallize just inside the surface pores.
The salts may come from the brick work as most clay bricks contain water soluble salts, from soil
in contact from soil in contact with the brickwork particularly in the absence of an effective damp-
proof or by contamination with sea – water or spray as with unwashed sea sand. Bricks can be
tested for efflorescence in the manner described in BS 3921.
Efflorescence can be minimized by effective damp proofing , avoiding the use of facing bricks with
a high soluble salts content in very exposed positions , using the suitable manner , keeping bricks
dry and covering new brickwork at the end of each day’s work.
Fortunately the surface efflorescence is normally washed away by rain and no special treatment is
needed. To accelerate removal, the brickwork can be dry brushed periodically until the soluble
salts cease to crystalline. In sheltered situations, it may be necessary to remove the efflorescence
by periodic washings with a hose with deposits of salt brushed off between washes.
Where efflorescence persists there is likely to be abnormal; penetration of the brickwork and
constructional faults such as leaking rainwater pipes and defective damp-proof courses must be
repaired individual disintegrated bricks should be cut of replaced with bricks having low sulphate
content. Where disintegration occurs over a wider area, the best remedy is probably to render the
face of brickwork, after raking out joints to a depth of 10mm. the rendering should be weaker than
the brickwork ;m for example 1:1:6 mix of cement: lime :sand for strong bricks and 12:9 for weak
bricks.
Efflorescence on internal plaster should be lightly brushed off before decorations. In rare cases
where spilling of the plaster occurs, the source of dampness must be remedied, the plaster removed
from and is advisable to provide a capillary breakdown and the plaster suitable method is to nail
corrugated pitch or bitumen lathing to the inside face of the wall ; an alternative is to use
impregnated timber battens and a lining.
 Stains
There may be white, like efflorescence, but do not disappear when the brickwork is washed by
rain. White stains under concrete and limestone components, such as sting courses and coping;
generally result from lime being deposited on the brickwork by rainwater.
The normal remedy is as follows;
 Thoroughly wet brickwork with clean water,

 Carefully brush on diluted hydrochloride acid (the salt is neutralized by the acid),
 When stains have dissolved, thoroughly wash wall with clean water,
 After removal of stains, flashing should be provided to prevent further percolation and
staining.
 Sulphate attack
Sulphate attack, characterized by an initial horizontal cracking on the motor is the result tricalcium
aluminate present in all ordinary Portland cements with sulphate in solution (Excess of sulphates).
Its effect is an overall expansion of the brickwork due to the expansion of the brickwork due to
expansion of the mortar joints. Except for earth retaining walls, where the attacking sulphate could
emanate from groundwater, the source of sulphate is usually the clay bricks, with the sulphates
transferred from bricks to mortar joins percolating water, usually rainwater.
Sulphate attack first become evident through horizontal cracking on the inner face of the wall,
which with cavity walls may be concentrated near the roof, in long stretches of brickwork some
over sailing o the damp –proof course is likely .subsequently mortar joins become white and
narrow crack may occur in the middle of the joints. Later still, the surface of the mortar joint spalls
off and the mortar reduces in strength; while advanced stages f attack are accompanied by spalling
of facing bricks. The expansion due to sulphate attack can be distinguished from drying shrinkage
as it normally takes it least two years to develop
In the past sulphate attack on unlined stacks serving slow- burning appliances resulting from
condensation from flue gases were quite common but the provision of flue liners in new chimney
stacks will prevent this. Failure to link damp-proof courses in walls and floor led to severe sulphate
attack on brick walls in a Scottish bungalow. Sulphate attack on external renderings to brick walls
usually results in a high proportion of horizontal cracks.
Ideally bricks of low sulphate content should be used but those rarely practicable. Alternatively
steps should be taken either to increase the resistance to sulphate attack or to limit the extent to
which the brickwork comes and remains wet. The sulphate resistance of mortars can be increase
by using either richer mixes (1>5-6) cement: sand with plactiser is excellent) or sulphate resisting
or super sulphate cements. Excessive wetting of the brickwork can be avoided by improving
designs and ensuring generous overhang at leaves and verges adequate fishing and dump – proof
courses and precautions at parapets and free standing wall (low sulphate bricks, good copings,
damp –proof courses u7nder coping and at the base of walls, expansion joints not more than 12m
apart and suitable mortar mixer). Brick earth retaining walls should only built of special quality
bricks laid in sulphate resisting mortar
Affected brickwork should be dried out and moistures excluded as far as practicable as well as
remedying poor design features such as correcting the detailing on parapets and forming one or
two expansion joints .where attack is rather more severe but without visible damage to mortar,
surface water proofer may be applied when the brickwork is reasonably dry and if successful
repeated at interval of a few years. In case of advanced attack with brickwork expansion and
boarding or tile hanging both form suitable treatments which are equally applicable to failed
renderings. When rebuilding parts of the structure it is essential to use materials suited to the
conditions
 Frost action
In great Britain , frost features are usually confined to partly –built unprotected brickwork or to
brickwork subject to conditions of severe exposure such as free-standing walls, parapets and
retaining walls and occasionally good frost resistance and the work should be adequately protected
from frost during construction by using the method described in DoE advisory leaflet 8.and
particularly laying loose bricks on top of the cover of the wall overhanging 50mm on each side
and covering the wall with polythene sheeting or other covering.
Frost can cause spalling of the face of bricks and disintegration of mortar. On occasions bricks
may become detached from the mortar: brick-on-edge copings often split if they are not resistant
and require replacing by engineering bricks laid in cement mortar (1:3) stronger mixes are needed
when there is a danger of frost.
 Settlement
The normal slight of overall settlement of a building should not disturb brickwork but differential
settlement often resulting in cracked walls may occur where there are abrupt changes in ground
conditions over the site where there is inadequately consolidated fill under foundations.
 Stability of brick walls
CP 11 recommends permissible stresses for load bearing walls and from the stress the slickness of
wall scan is determined in relation to the loads to be carried. To utilize the full capacity of high –
strength bricks (69MN/m2 or more) cement mortar (1:3) is needed. For lower strength breaks
mortars with a portion of lime can be used without any great loss in brickwork strength. Walls of
a given thickness and material strength tend to fail at a lower load as the height increases. In design-
the slenderness ratio should not exceed 18, except for dwellings of not more than two stores when
it should not exceed 24. The strength of a 255 mm cavity wall with both leaves and loaded is
approximately 20 per cent than that of a 215 mm solid wall.
Cracked walls may not always be unstable. Tests at the building research establishment showed
that the capacity of a 215 mm brick wall to carry vertical reduced by no more than 30 per cent by
a stepped or slanting crack up to 25mm wide provided it was not accompanied by considerable
transverse movement. On the other hand the resistance to side loading of a half brick wall with
sound joints but with visible bulge could be impaired considerably. With cavity walls the effects
of leaning or bulging and of eccentricity of loading are more serious than with solid walls, and
wall ties play in securing stability.
The significance of a defect must be judged in relation to the whole building –loading, transverse
support, opening and piers– all are important, one must also keep a sense of proportion – a wall
which is out of plumb not more than 25mm or bulges not more than 12mm. in a normal storey
height would not usually require repairing on structural grounds.
The following remedies could be applied to unstable walls;
 Insert tie rods though the buildings in the thickness of a floor or at roof level, anchoring
the suspect wall to another or structural member that is sound. This is generally the cheapest
and most effective method.
 Build a buttress or buttresses keyed into and thrusting against the unstable and carried to a
firm base.
 Demolish walling that bulged or out of plumb and replace by new brickwork, preferably
built in cement: lime sand mortar, 1:1:6.
 Cracks
Cracks should do not impair structural stability may appear in brick wall. A distinction may be
made between cracks that run more or less diagonally, following horizontal and vertical mortar
joints alternately, and those that pass straight down through vertical joints and the intervening
bricks and mortar beds. The latter form of cracking may involve cutting out bricks. Pine cracks
(up to 1.5m wide) in joints between absorbent bricks are usually best left unfilled as they are
unlikely to harm. With non-absorbent bricks, it may be available to rake out the defective joints
and reappoint with 1:1:6 cement: lime: and mortar.
Wider cracks (1:5 to 3.5 mm wide) will need to be repaired with the method varying according to
the type of mortar in the existing wall. With weak mortar joints, the joints are raked out deeply on
both sides of wall, and filled strong mortar joints it is customary to cut out the bricks adjoining the
crack and rebound using a 1:1:6, cement lime: limes and mortar. The same procedure would be
adopted where which is likely to shrink. Where cracks may continue to widen with further
improvement, the cracks are best sealed with oil-based mastic.
When examining cracks, care should be taken to record precisely the direction of the cracks,
whether or not they extend through the wall and whether they taper off in any direction. Horizontal
cracks require very careful consideration particularly to determine whether the part of the building
above the cracks has risen or whether the part below has fallen. Cracks of similar appearance can
be due to different causes and this occurs particularly in the case of parapet walls, where cracking
may be the result of expansion due to frost, thermal movement sulphate attack or movement of the
adjoin roof slab.
 Unsound materials
Occasionally defective brickwork results from unsound bricks or mortar bricks with a high
absorption rate used in parapet or freestanding walls is below lamp proof course are liable to
spalling through periodic saturation and frost action entailing replacement with more durable
bricks. Mortar may be much a stronger than the bricks with the like hood of bricks cracking rather
than mortar joints in the event of movement. Imperfectly slaked lime in a mortar can mortar joints
in a mortar can produce effects ranging from minor pitting of the mortar to general expansion with
deformation and cracking of the brick work. Reappointing of brickwork may be required after a
period of 25 to 40 years depending on exposure and of the mortar. The old mortar should be raked
out to a depth of at least 20 mm and the mortar used for mortar should not be appreciable stronger
than the original bedding mortar
 Corrosion of iron and steel
Iron and steel embedded in brick work may corrode causer opening of brick joints of cracking of
brick work and also rust staining. Ferrous metals embedded in brick work should be protected
from rusting by coating with bitumen anti corrosion paint or metallic zinc paint or other suitable
method. remedial action consists of removing brickwork to expose metal ,clean metal prime with
rust inhibitive primer and paint with bitumen paint , and when rebuilding take steps to reduce
moisture penetration
 Drying shrinkage and expansion on wetting
Concrete or calcium silicate brickwork may crack, especially at window and door openings due to
excessive drying shrinkage. The risk is minimized by using a well matured, dry bricks and lying
in a weak mortar. Conversely, some clay b ricks undergo slight expansion when first wetted and
this can cause movement and cracking of brickwork. Both of these defects occur early in the life
of the building and are unlikely to be progressive.
 Lichens, molds and other growths
These organisms are rarely destructive but they do produce disgusting stains on brickwork and
other wall surfaces. Such growths can be prevented or destroyed by applying one of the toxic
washes such as sodium ortho-pentachloropenate described in BRB digest 139. During a dry spell
after partially removing any thick surface growths. The effective life of the treatment depends on
the porosity of the surface to the extent to which it is washed by rain periods of one to three years
are common.
Climbing and other plants growing on walls can cause damage to walls, but much depends on the
conditions of the wall and extent to which the growth of the plant is controlled. Each case has to
be decided on its merits, balancing the effects on the appearance of the building against possible
damage. Ivy with its serial roots, can penetrate cracks or open joints and cause damage. Virginia
creeper will not harm a sound wall but plants like climbing roses, jasmine and honeysuckle are
usually supported on wires or trellis and the fixing may cause damage. All plants should be
trimmed to below caves levels and be kept clear of window or door flames.
STONEWORK DEFECTS
Limestone is generally one of the least durable of stones and offers the least resistance to weather.
Sand stones are harder and more durable than limestone and are more difficult to work and clean.
In polluted atmosphere they tend to blacken more readily. Granite weathers extremely well and is
extremely durable. Carved work is often of relatively soft stone.
Strength; Building stones are normally of adequate strength to carry imposed loads and rarely
need special condensation except for lintels and civil engineering work. On the other hand fixing
of stone claddings have not always proved satisfactory, particularly where reliance have been put
on mortar pats.
Moisture resistance; Slates and granite absorb very little water limestone and sandstones may
absorb up to 20 per cent. In addition some sans stones are subject to appreciable moisture
movement. Penetration of damp through stone is unlikely, except in situations such window
mullions or jambs, or from the catchment surfaces of sills copings cornices or a string courses ,
penetration through joints is more likely to e a problem , particularly with impervious stones such
as granite . There is a need for cavities and adequate damp – proof courses.
Compatibility: damage can result from the use of different types of stones in direct contact with
one another. An acid atmosphere can attack limestone forming soluble salts which if washed on to
the surface sandstones can cause decay.
Durability. The durability of a stone is influenced by its chemicals composition and structure and
the performance of stones in a particular locality give a good guide for example a calcareous stone
is liable in a particular locality give a god containing sulphur dioxide. The principal form of decay
is the formation of skin soluble salts often accompanied by blisters. The salts can result from
decomposition of stone by atmospheric pollutants, materials in contact with stone or form
groundwater. Most mortars contain silica salts and need care in selection. Brickwork containing
soluble salts is a possible hazard where natural stone is backed by brickwork and it should separate
by a suitable water membrane. Stone may occasionally be damaged by frost action in exposed
situations, such as Coney’s string and copings.
Repairs to stonework
In some cases, a soft stone in decayed condition can be cut back to expose a new, sound face. This
method cannot easily be adopted where there are elaborate moldings and difficulty is experienced
in dealing with door and window openings and slender columns. With plain wall surfaces in soft
stone it does however provide a relatively simple method of restoring a stone deface at reasonable
construction of plastic.
The choice between of the damaged blocks with new stone and the execution of plastic repairs
depend on the extent of the damage and the character of the building. Plastic repairs depend on the
extent of the damage and the character of the building. Plastic repairs skillfully undertaken may
perm the original appearance of the stonework to be secured quickly and completely and this
method avoids the disturbance o surrounding stonework. Stone used for replacement purposes
should be similar in cooler, type and texture to the original. Where only a limited of the original
stone is sound it will probably be advisable to replace all the old stone from old buildings that are
being demolished
Plastic repairs are usually less costly than replacement with new stone, but workmanship and
supervision needs to be of the highest standard. The principal materials used for this purpose are;
1. Mortars based on Portland cement, line and sand possibly 1:2:9 and often containing
pigments or 1:8 cement: sand with a resin plasticizer.
2. Mortars based on zinc or magnesium oxychloride cement with sand or crushed stone
aggregate
3. Crushed stone or sand with an organic binder, often based on cellulose.
Various precautions need to take such as cutting the stone back to a sound surface, using an
adequate thickness of plastic material, obtaining sufficient key and…………………..up large
gradually
Colorless treatment for stonework
These treatments are for two categories – water repellents and preservative treatments.
Colorless water –repellent liquids are intended to improve the resistance to rain penetration of
stone work without markedly changing its appearance. They line the pores and inhibit capillary
absorption, but may in the process increase the degree of penetration through cracks or defective
points. Hence, pointing should be examined and cracks made good prior to treatment. Soluble salts
in a stone wall could be trapped and cause spalling of the treated surface. Most water repellents
are silicone based in accordance with BS 3826 and there are various classes of different types of
stones. They should be applied dry surface by brush or spray during the dry spells and they require
renewal from time to time.
The indiscriminate application of colorless stone-preservations often results in disappointment.

Some powdering often takes place on the surface of the stone treatment requires periodical
renewal. The most common application is silicone- based masonry water repellents. It is advisable
to investigate the performance of preservatives on similar stones exposed under similar conditions
before arranging treatment. Stone decay usually takes place very slowly, so even after some years
an untreated. Stone decay usually takes place very slowly, so even after some years an untreated
building may look no worse than a treated building.
Cleaning of stone work
Deposits of dirt spoil the appearance of stonework, retain harmful chemicals and hide decay. The
choice of cleaning method is important as unsuitable one can result in damage. Consideration
should be given to the type and condition of surface to be cleaned, the cost, speed and convenience
of the cleaning method.
Water spraying soften deposits of dirt, beginning at the top of the building so that the surplus water
runs down and pre-softens dirt below. It is often necessary to assist the removal of dirt with brushes
of bristle and non-ferrous or stainless wire. Abrasive stones may be needed to clean projecting
features. It is one of the cheaper, least harmful but slower methods, well suited for cleaning
limestone and marble. Poultices of wet powdered clay are sometimes applied.
Dry-grit blasting uses abrasive non-siliceous grit blown under high pressure to scour away dirt.
Protection must be provided against dust and rebounding grit by close sheeting. Suitable for
sandstone, granites, slates and harder stones generally. It is a fast method but high in cost and there
is risk of damage to the surface being cleaned.
Wet-grit blasting is similar to above method except that water is introduced into the air/grit stream
thereby reducing the visible dust. Uses, merits and demerits are similar to dry rig method.
Mechanical cleaning makes use of conical-shaped carborundum heads of various size and
textures, grinding and buffing disks and rotary brushes all used with power tools. They spin off
dirt and weathered face in one operation. Operatives need to take special precautions and exercise
great skill to avoid causing damage .it is a fast method, useful with hard stones, but the cost is also
high
Chemical cleaning generally makes the use hydrofluoric and leaves of soluble salts irr the
stonework. But it is dangerous in inexperienced hands and every precaution must be taken to
prevent contamination. Any proprietary chemical cleaner should desirably be supported by an
appropriate agreement certificate. It is a moderately first method at relative4ly low cost for use
with harder stones
Steam cleaning uses mains water pumped to flash boiler and the steam generated is fed to a lance
and played on to the stone surface assisted by brushes and abrasive stones. It has however little to
commend it compare with other methods apart from moderate cost.
LIGHT CLADDINGS
Light claddings have been used extensively. In the last two decades to form continuous envelopes
or curtain suspended from load bearing structure or as panel infillings in the spaces between
members of structural flame. These components save weight, space and building time, extend the
range of architectural expression and exploit new materials. A danger with new materials is the
absence of adequate experience o which to accurately assess performance
A light cladding does not require high compressive strength, but must be able to resist wind loads.
Provision must be made for diverting heavy rain water run-off from the joints windows and doors.
Thermal movement can be extensive and there may be differential movement between panels and
flames. It is desirable to separate external waterproof skin from inner insulting layers and
intervening ventilated air space helps lower the temperature of the external skin in summer to
exclude water and reduce condensation. Joints between panel need to be flexible as well as
watertight they may be formed of plastic compounds or mastics, mechanical joints or those
combining a mechanical outer barrier with an internal airtight seal
Concrete panels
Precast concrete cladding may be a subject to cracking and crazing which besides being unsightly
may permit water to penetrate to the reinforcement and cause corrosion. Fixings must be of
adequate strength and durability as a number of failures have been reported. Since rectification of
defective joints is expensive improved jointing techniques are being developed of which of the
most successful the open is drained joint which reduces the risk of water penetration. Problems
arise from variations in dimensions of panels and the need to obtain jointing which will
successfully withstand varying conditions of temperature and wetness. There is also a need for
adequate water shedding drips and projections to prevent unsightly surface staining
Aluminum sheeting
The appearance of aluminum as manufactured is satisfactory for many situations although dulling
of the surface is likely to occur. The original condition can be preserved by regular washing or
abrasive cleaning. The frequency of this treatment varies from one every few months to once in
the year, depending on the composition of the alloy and local atmospheric conditions. Surfaces
sheltered from rain need more frequent cleaning than rain –washed areas to maintain the same
appearance. Various treatments can be adopted for decorative purposes or to giver protection
against aggressive condition including conversation coatings, painting and lacquering, stove
enameling vitreous enameling and anodizing
Plastics
A variety of plastics are used for wall cladding and their main disadvantage is that combustibility.
Phenolic resin laminates are used extensively for curtain walling and can be expected to remain
structurally sound under normal weathering conditions for upwards of twenty years. The natural
surface gloss on disappears but they can be painted. Others have a decorative melamine
formaldehdrade face with good weathering qualities
With glass fiber reinforced plastics cladding panels, even slight distortion of a nominally flat
surface is noticeable. A textured surface will help to mask it but at the cost of increased dirt
retention. Bright colors are less stable, dark colors such as greys, brown and near black fade less
but have higher surface temperatures. Damaged portions can be patched on site but they stand out
and it is better to replace a complete panel. Badly exposed glass fire must be scrubbed of before
any new surface treatment is applied. Acrylic and polyurethane paints can be applied to surfaces
that have deteriorated
Timber
The most satisfactory form of weatherboarding is rebated shiplap preferably treated with
preservative and backed with waterproof paper or felt. Cedar boarding even where heartwood
tends to weather very badly if felt untreated, resulting in a streaky appearance. It is advisable to
apply a suitable preservative treatment annually; a linseed/oil paraffin wax mixture containing a
fungicide is satisfactory. Timber weatherboarding fixed vertically is most vulnerable to rot in the
end grain of its lower edge and water should be allowed to drain freely from them BRE digit 184
gives guidance on natural finishes for exterior timber.
Structural frames
All large buildings are subject to movement due to compression of foundations, shrinkage of
concrete, thermal movement, variable loadings and wind pressure.
Cracking of reinforced concrete columns or beams can take the form of surface cracks which are
influenced by the effective concrete cover to the steel reinforcement and internal l cracking where
the member is subject to bending. The latter case is more serious and may result in a breakdown
of the adhesion bond around reinforcing bars
The roof to assembly hall of Camden girls’ school collapsed in June 1973. It consisted of
prestressed concrete roof beams with insufficient bearing. Insufficient structural cross– tying of
the building, inadequacy in pestering wires, conversion of high alumni cement and corrosion of
continuity reinforcement this incident has highlighted the need for greater care in design and
execution of the structural work, periodic inspection of existing structure sand the strengthening
of weak points.
All buildings incorporating high alumina cement in their structures must now be regarded as a
suspect following building failures, reports of the building research establishment and circulars
issued by the department of the environment which required local authorities to check on the
every roof or floor member over 5m in length containing this cement. Conversation or degradation
of the current hydrate can occur due to the penetration of heat and water, /cement ratio unsuitable
aggregate or high setting temperature
Steel frames can have defects resulting from a variety of factor such as faulty material, faulty
design overloading of the structure, based workmanship or erection and corrosion faults resulting
from poor workmanship or creation of structure. Typical examples are (a) stanchions that are
erected slightly out of the position on her first floor level and (b) grouting under stanchion basses.
Periodic inspections and the carrying out of the remedial works are important.
DAMPNESS PENETRATION
Damp penetration is one of the most serious defects in buildings. Apart from causing deterioration
of the structure, it can also result in damage to furnishings and contents and can in severe cases
adversely affect the health of occupants. Dampness may enter a building by a number of different
routes and these are now examined.
1. Water introduction during construction
In building a traditional house several tones of water are introduced into walls during a bricklaying
and plastering. The walls often remain damp until a summer season has passed. As the moisture
dries out from inner and outer surfaces it is liable to leave a deposit of soluble salts or translucent
crystals. A porous wall with an impervious coating on the surface will cause drying out on the
other surface. Typical moisture content of some of the more common building materials are
plaster: 0.2 to 1.0 per cent, lightweight concrete: up to 5 per cent and timber: 10 to 20 per cent.
2. Penetration through roofs, parapets and chimneys
Tiled roofs may admit fine blown snow and fine rain, particularly in exposed situations. Both tiles
and slates must be laid to an adequate pitch and securely fixed. It is wise to provide a generous
overhang at caves. Parapets and chimneys can collect and deliver water to parts of the building
below roof level unless they have adequate of proof courses and flashings. Leakage through flat
roofs is more difficult to trace and needs to be distinguished from condensation
3. Penetration through walls
Penetration occurs most commonly through exposed to the prevailing wet or wind or where
evaporations retarded as in light wells. On occasions the fault stems from excessive wetting from
a leaking gutter or downpipe. There must be a limit to the amount of rain that a solid wall can
exclude. In the wetter parts of the country (for example south –west Scotland) and exposed on
sites, one- brick thick solid walls may permit penetration of water. In this connection lacy has
devised indices of exposure to driving rain. The greatest is likely to occur more impervious the
mortar and the denser the bricks or blocks, the more serious more effectively than preventing its
entry and this tendency is accentuated cracked renderings with moisture penetrating the cracks by
capillary action becoming trapped behind the rendering and subsequently drying out on the inner
face of the wall.
Cavity walls when properly detailed and soundly constructed will not permit penetration of rain.
Penetration when it occurs is usually the direct result of faulty detailing at openings or mortar
droppings on wall ties. Finally disintegration of brickwork may be caused by the action of
sulphates or frost when the bricks are saturated.
4. Rising damp
In older buildings may rise up walls due to the lack of damp-proof courses
In newer building rising damp may occur through a defensive damp proof course, the bridging of
the damp-proof course by floor screed internality or by an external rendering, path or earth outside
the building of mortar droppings in the cavity. Damp may also penetrate a solid floor in the absence
of a damp proof membrane; these sources are well illustrated in BRE digest 27.
Other causes
Dampness may result leaks in plumbing system, although this must not be confused with
condensation on cold pipes.
Curing rising damp penetration
Some causes of rising damp can be dealt with cheaply and easily. It may be possible, for instance,
to lower earth, rockeries or paying which extend above the damp-proof course or to remove
rendering or pointing which bridges the damp-proof course. Where there is no damp proof course
or where it is defective, more expensive measures will need to adopted and these are now
described.
Where the wall is stable and not more than 450mm thick the method is to saw a slot in a mortar
bed joint, normally just above the floor slab and at least 150mm above outside ground level, and
to insert a damp proof membrane in the slot, wedging with slate wedges and varying the mortar
according to the strength of wall the wall. The membrane is normally inserted in 600 mm lengths
and both copper and zinc sheet are used, zinc being suitable where a life not excessing ten to fifteen
years will surface. Suitable saws are described in BRE digest 107. The ground floor will need to
be damp-proofed, and replastering should be delayed for as long as possible after the damp course
is inserted so that soluble suits can move from the a brick work into the old plaster.
An alternative process is called electro-osmotic damp-proofing. Damp rises in walls from soils by
capillarity osmotic diffusion within the porous substance of the wall and by evaporation from its
surface. Damp wall are negatively charged in relation to the underlying soil. The wall acts as an
accumulator which as long as evaporation issues are replenished from the soil, is virtually on
permanent trickle charge. The electro-osmotic installation consist of 25mm holes drilled from the
outside with strip electrodes of high conductivity copper mortar into the drillings and looped into
copper strip set into bed joints at damp course level along the wall face. Earth electrodes driven
from depths of 4 to 6 m at intervals of 10 to 13 m. the object is to provide a bridge between the
wall at damp course level and the soil thus destroying the surface tension and preventing rising
moisture.
Another process is to inject a siliconate/rubber latex fluid into the lowest accessible mortar bed
joint through drill holes 10mm in diameter at 50 mm intervals. The siliconate acts as a carrier
stabilizing the rubber within the wall and allowing the area to harden off, and so to form an
effective damp-proof membrane. This method cold is useful for thick or unstable wall where damp-
proof course insertion might not prove possible. Another approach would be to reduce the amount
of moisture in the wall by diverting ground water through drains of French drains and possibly to
increase evaporation from the wall such as by removing dense external rendering and defective
plaster. These measures would not however remedy a severe case of rising damp.
Where a building subjects to rising damp as only a limited life, a relative cheap remedial method
is to conceal rising damp in the walls by battening out or lining the inside face of the wall to prevent
dampness and slats affecting decorations. The lining may consist of wallboard on pressure
impregnated battens or more likely pitch-impregnated fiber base corrugated to form dovetail keys
for plaster (Newtonite), extending above the present damp level.
Damp proofing solid floors and dry rot in suspended timber floors
Dampness may pen rate ground a floors and the various remedial measures are;
Treatment of Damp walls due to rainwater penetration
The treatment of cavity walls may entail clearing droppings from wall ties or above the damp-
proof course by cutting out bricks in the outer leaf. After natively it may be necessary to rectify
defective damp proof courses around window or door openings
 A one-brick thick solid wall is unlikely to withstand severe weather conditions satisfactorily
and it may therefore be necessary to apply a suitable external finish. The main disadvantage is
that the attractive color and texture of good brick work will be lost.
 The most common external finish is rendering or roughcast. Rendering may consist of two
costs of Portland cement and (1:3 or 1:4), possibly incorporating a water proofing compound,
finished with a float to a smooth finish and often painted with two costs of emulsion or stone
paint. This produces a rather dense coat which is liable to develop hair cracks. Moisture enters
the cracks becomes trapped behind the rendering and evaporation from the inner surface.
Hence it is advisable to use a rendering of cement: limestone and in the proportions of 1:1:6 or
1:2:9. These produce porous finishes which absorb water in wet weather and permit free
evaporation when the weather improves. It will be necessary to rake out the brick points to
form a key for the rendering.
 With roughcast or pebble-dashing there is less risk of the external coat cracking or breaking
away from the wall. In roughest the coarse aggregate, usually gravel, is mixed into the second
coat which is applied to the wall, where as in pebble-dashing, the chippings are thrown on to
the second cost whilst it is still green. In both cases the appearance s rather unattractive but the
need for periodic decoration is eliminated.
 Common brick surfaces can be decorated in a variety of different ways to make them water
light. Cement paint has good water shedding properties and is available in a wide range of
colors. In more recent times, both emulsion and chlorinated rubber paints have been applied to
external brick and block walls with satisfactory results. Bituminous paints give almost
impervious surface coating but their use restricts future treatment owing to the bitumen
bleeding through other applications colorless water proofers can make wall surface water
repellant and less porous without much change in the appearance. The permanence of this
protection is variable, depending on the type of water proofer and the condition of the wall and
the degree of exposure.
 Vertical tile hanging on the external elevations of building can be very attractive if skillfully
fixed, but it is expensive. It is extremely durable provided the fixing if skillfully fixed, but it is
expensive. It is extremely durable provided the fixing battens are pressure impregnated with
preservation. With plain tilling all tiles must be nailed but a 40mm lap is sufficient. Angles
may be formed with purpose made tiles or be close cut and mitered with soakers, whilst vertical
stepped flashings are usually introduced abutments to form a watertight joint.
 Weatherboarding provides a most attractive finish and may be either of pointed softwood, or
cedar boarding is used extensively but probably the best results ate obtained with ship-lap
boarding. The boarding is usually nailed through a felt backing to vertical impregnated battens.
A variety of sheet claddings are also available in steel, aluminum, asbestos cement and plastics.
CONDENSATION
Nature of condensation
In years past the major cause of dampness in building was rain penetration and rising ground
moisture, but condensation has become an even greater in post-war dwellings. Arm air can hold
more water vapor than cold air and when warm moisture air meets a cold surface it is cooled and
give up some of its moisture as condensation. Air containing a large amount of water vapor has a
higher vapor pressure than drier air and hence moisture from the water air disperses towards drier
air. This has special significance since (a) a condensation of moist air as in a kitchen or bathroom
readily disperse throughout a dwelling; (b) moist air at higher pressure inside building tries to
escape by all available routes to outside, not only by normal ventilation exists but also through the
structure when it may condense within it.
Condensation takes two forms (a) surface condensation arising when the inner surface of the
structure is cooler than room air; (b) interstitial condensation where vapor pressure drives water
through slightly porous materials and then condenses when it reaches colder conditions. The term
relative humidity (rh) expresses as a percentage the ratio between the actual vapor pressure of an
air sample and the total vapor pressure it could sustain at the same temperature (percent rh at oc),
Air is described as saturated when it contains as much water vapor as it can hold. It is then at 100
percent rh if moist air is cooled, a temperature will be reached at which it will become saturated
and below which it can n longer hold air of its moisture. This temperature is the dew point.
The occurrence of condensation depends on a number of factors
1. The moisture content of incoming air

2. The temperature and moisture content of internal air resulting from how the dwelling is
used.
3. The rate of ventilation
4. The temperature of room surfaces
5. The permeability of the structure
6. The temperature within the structure
Causes of condensation
There are two main reason for the increase in the frequency and severity of condensation (1)
changes in living habits; (2) changes in building techniques. More housewives now go out to work,
resulting in dwellings often being left unoccupied, unventilated and unheated for much of the day.
Moisture producing activities such as cooking and clothes washing and drying are often carried
out within the main dwelling area instead of in a spate washhouse or fairly isolated scullery.
Flueless paraffin heaters are used quite extensively for back-ground heating and they emit 114 liters
of water vapor for each liter of paraffin burnt. Furthermore occupants have become more standard
of decoration, so that local deterioration assumes greater importance.
Structurally, probably the most significant change is the disappearance of open fires and air vents
which provided valuable ventilation routes. Modern windows reduce ventilation rates and this may
be further accentuated by draught proofing by occupants. Solid floors without an insulating floor
finish or screed are slows to warm of wall construction also need careful design if they are not to
lead to increased condensation
Surface condensation can lead to unsightly and unpleasant grey green back or brown mold growth
which produces many complaints from occupants. On paint it may show a pink or purple stain.
Condensation within the fabric is slower to show but may be much more serious in the long term.
Diagnosis
Rising damp on be distinguished from condensation by the pattern and positioning of staining,
while moisture penetration through cavity brickwork across wall ties also shows pattern staining.
Gutters and downpipes must be checked for cracks, defective joint, blockages and the resultant
water penetration and over flowing. Roofs can also be checked for detects and here again the type
and positive of staining is often a useful guide. Less obvious causes of dampness are alight weeping
at pipe joint and wastes, and pinhole leaks in pipes which are not run on the surface.
Drying out of construction moisture can lead to defects similar to those resulting from
condensation and it is desirable to allow drying out to finish before carrying out condensation and
it is desirable to allow drying out to finish before carrying out remedial measure moistures. As this
can take up to three years, occupants are only likely to accept this advice with reluctance.
Condensation frequently occurs as occasional damp patches in cold weather although a sudden
change from cold to warm humid weather may also cause condensation. Apart from investigating
the damp condition, attention should also.
References
 H.M.S.O. (1973).Transport and road research laboratory, Report 512: The Design and
Construction of points in concrete pavements
 D. B. James (January 1972), 'the maintenance manager-and design', building
maintenance.
 C. K. _Austin, (28 November 1975), 'Using dead shores and calculating Loads,’ Bldg.
Trades.
 H.M.S.O. (1975).Building Research, Establishment- Digest 176: Failure pattern and
Implications
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KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF LANDS AND ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN LAND ECONOMICS

UNIT: LE 312 BUILDING MAINTENANCE

Any activity (tests, measurements, replacements, adjustments, repairs…) intended to retain or

Building cleaning services

Structure unfit for human occupancy

This is also known as reactive/unplanned/curative maintenance. The actions are performed as a

Other maintenance work categories include:

Appointment to inspect the property

1. The name of the vendor

We confirm that we have been engaged by …………………………….. to carry out a full

4. Request for keys in order to enable through inspection

5. Closing sentences, showing appreciation and request for cooperation

The RICS suggests the following

Ladder of a minimum length 3m

Binoculars or telescope with capacity not more than 8 times magnification.

Note book and writing equipment

Air brick probe i.e. screw driver

Access plant and hydraulic platform

Ultra sonic leak detectors

Leak detection spray

Electrical supply testing

Infra-red thermograph equipment

Infra-red photography equipment

Sound measurement meters

Light measurement meters

Energy management meters manhole lifting keys

Drain testing equipment.

Site notes should include;

The Final Report

 What, if anything is wrong?

Extent of the inspection

Walls and brick work

Joinery and finishes

 All joinery finishes should be inspected visually.

Sanitary fittings ad services

 The surveyor should open all accessible manhole covers.

Dilapidation surveys are instrumental in the following aspects;

 Understanding of the state of the building defects.

This report concentrates on one particular defect specified by the client(s).

Detailed treatise of dilapidations

Liability for repair

Information required to determine tenants’ liability

Types of dilapidation reports

Form: This notice is usually in the form of a letter which must;

Be addressed to the tenant,

 State the property which has to be repaired,

2. Interim schedule of dilapidation

The schedule will be served usually by a solicitor

3. Terminal of the schedule of depilation

4. Final schedule of dilapidation

Inspection and subsequent liability

 To get the repairs carried out.

 Put the property into good repair

Comply with statue

Term of the lease

Consent for alterations

The location of the defects,

The breach that is alleged,

The remedy that is required,

3.1 The lease between……………………………… (The lessee) and

3.2 The license of alteration between parties (if any).

Example of a lease covenant