Clutches and brakes

Mechanical Design

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Aims
• A clutch is a device that permits the smooth,
gradual connection of two shafts rotating at
different speeds.
• A brake enables the controlled dissipation of
energy to slow down, stop or control the speed
of a system.
• This section describes the basic principles of
frictional clutches and brakes and outlines
design and selection procedures for disc
clutches, disc and drum brakes.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Learning objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to
determine:
• the primary dimensions for a single disc clutch,
• the principal dimensions and number of discs for
a multiple disc clutch,
• torque capacity for short or long, internal or
external brakes,
• the configuration of a brake to be self-
energising.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Introduction
• When a rotating machine is started it must
be accelerated from rest to the desired
speed.
• A clutch is a device used to connect or
disconnect a driven component from a
prime mover such as an engine or motor.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Automotive clutches
• A familiar application is the use of a clutch between a car
engine’s crankshaft and the gearbox.
• The need for the clutch arises from the relatively high
torque requirement to get a vehicle moving and the low
torque output from an internal combustion engine at low
levels of rotational speed.
• The disconnection of the engine from the drive enables
to engine to speed up unloaded to about 1000 rpm
where it is generating sufficient torque to drive the
transmission.
• The clutch can then be engaged, allowing power to be
transmitted to the gearbox, transmission shafts and
wheels.

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 Brakes
• A brake is a device used to reduce or
control the speed of a system or bring it to
rest.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
Typical applications for a clutch
and a brake
MOTOR OR
ENGINE

COUPLING

CLUTCH GEAR BOX

COUPLING
DRIVEN
MACHINE

MOTOR OR
ENGINE BRAKE

CONNECTION
TO DRIVEN
MACHINE

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Classification
• Clutches and brakes are similar devices
providing frictional, magnetic or
mechanical connection between two
components.
• If one component rotates and the other is
fixed to a non-rotating plane of reference
the device will function as a brake and if
both rotate then as a clutch.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Force, torque and energy
• Whenever the speed or direction of motion
of a body is changed there is force exerted
on the body.
• If the body is rotating, a torque must be
applied to the system to speed it up or
slow it down.
• If the speed changes, so does the energy,
either by addition or absorption.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Acceleration
• The acceleration, α, of a rotating machine
is given by
T
α=
I
• where
• T is the torque (N m) and
• I is the mass moment of inertia (kg m2).

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Mass moment of inertia
• The mass moment of inertia can often be
approximated by considering an assembly
to be made up of a series of cylinders and
discs and summing the individual values
for the disc and cylinder mass moments of
inertia.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Mass moments of inertia
• The mass moments of inertia for a cylinder
and a disc are given by
1
Icylinder = ρπL ro − ri
2
4 4
( )
1
Idisc = ρπLro4
2

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Clutch or brake location
• Torque is equal to the ratio of power and angular
velocity.
• In other words torque is inversely proportional to
angular velocity.
• This implies that it is usually advisable to locate
the clutch or brake on the highest speed shaft in
the system so that the required torque is a
minimum.
• Size, cost and response time are lower when the
torque is lower.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Friction clutches
• Friction type clutches and
brakes are the most common.
• Two or more surfaces are
pushed together with a normal FRICTION
force to generate a friction MATERIAL

torque. OUTPUT

• Normally, at least one of the ACTUATOR

surfaces is metal and the other PUSHES DISCS
TOGETHER
a high friction material referred
to as the lining. INPUT DRIVEN
DISC
• The frictional contact can occur DRIVING
radially, as for a cylindrical DISC

arrangement, or axially as in a
disc arrangement.

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 Function
• The function of a frictional clutch or brake
surface material is to develop a substantial
friction force when a normal force is applied.
• Ideally a material with a high coefficient of
friction, constant properties, good resistance to
wear and chemical compatibility is required.
• Clutches and brakes transfer or dissipate
significant quantities of energy and their design
must enable the absorption and transfer of this
heat without damage to the component parts of
the surroundings.
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 Supply
• With the exception of high volume automotive
clutches and brakes, engineers rarely need to
design a clutch or a brake from scratch.
• Clutch and brake assemblies can be purchased
from specialist suppliers and the engineer’s task
is to specify the torque and speed requirements,
the loading characteristics and the system
inertias and to select an appropriately sized
clutch or brake and the lining materials.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Clutches
• The function of a clutch is to permit the
connection and disconnection of two shafts,
either when both are stationary or when there is
a difference in the relative rotational speeds of
the shafts.
• Clutch connection can be achieved by a number
of techniques from direct mechanical friction,
electromagnetic coupling, hydraulic or
pneumatic means or by some combination.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Types of clutch
SQUARE JAW
POSITIVE
CONTACT SPIRAL JAW

TOOTHED

METHOD OF
ACTUATION DISC

FRICTION DRUM
MECHANICAL
CONE

PNEUMATIC
AND HYDRAULIC ROLLER
METHOD OF
OVERRUNNING SPRAG
ENGAGEMENT
ELECTRICAL SPRING WOUND

MAGNETIC MAGNETIC PARTICLE

MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS

EDDY CURRENT

DRY FLUID
FLUID
COUPLING
HYDRAULIC

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 Requirements
Clutches must be designed principally to satisfy
four requirements:
• the necessary actuation force should not be
excessive,
• the coefficient of friction should be constant,
• the energy converted to heat must be dissipated,
• wear must be limited to provide reasonable
clutch life.

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 Positive contact clutches
• Positive contact
clutches have teeth or
serrations, which
provide mechanical
interference between
mating components.

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 Over-running clutches
• Over-running clutches operate automatically based on
the relative velocity of the mating components.
• They allow relative motion in one direction only.
• If the rotation attempts to reverse the constituent
components of the clutch grab the shaft and lock up.
• Applications include backstops, indexing and
freewheeling.
• The range of overrunning clutches the simple ratchet
and pawl, roller, sprag and spring wound clutches.

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Ratchet and pawl clutch

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Roller clutch

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Sprag clutch

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 Centrifugal clutches
• Centrifugal clutches engage automatically when the shaft speed
exceeds some critical value.
• Friction elements are forced radially outwards and engage against
the inner radius of a mating cylindrical drum.
• Common applications of centrifugal clutches include chainsaws,
overload-releases and go-karts.

RETAINING SPRING
SHOE
DRIVEN ELEMENT DRIVING ELEMENT

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 Clutch selection criteria (Neale
(1994))
TYPE OF CLUTCH CHARACTERISTICS TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

Sprag One way clutch. Profiled elements jam against the outer One way operation. e.g. backstop
edge to provide drive. High torque capacity. for hoists.

Roller One way clutch. Rollers ride up ramps and drive by One way operation.
wedging into place.
Cone clutch Embodies the mechanical principle of the wedge which Contractor’s plant. Feed drives for
reduces the axial force required to transmit a given machine tools.
torque.
Single disc clutch Used when diameter is not restricted. Simple Automobile drives.
construction
Multiple disc clutch The power transmitted can be increased by using more Machine tool head stocks.
plates allowing a reduction in diameter. Motorcycles.

Centrifugal clutch Automatic engagement at a critical speed. Electric motor drives. Industrial
diesel drives.
Magnetic Compact. Low wear. Machine tool gearboxes. Numerical
control machine tools.

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 Clutch design
• Clutches are rarely designed from scratch.
• Either an existing design is available and is
being modified for a new application or a clutch
can be bought in from a specialist manufacturer.
• In the latter case the type, size and the materials
for the clutch lining must be specified.
• This requires determination of the system
characteristics such as speed, torque, loading
characteristic and operating temperatures.
• Many of these factors have been lumped into a
multiplier called a service factor.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Service factor
• A lining material is typically tested under
steady conditions using an electric motor
drive.
• The torque capacity obtained from this test
is then de-rated by the service factor
according to the particular application to
take account of vibrations and loading
conditions.

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 Disc clutch
PRESSURE
PLATE

FLYWHEEL COVER
PRESSING
CASTING
OR CASTING

HELICAL
FRICTION SPRINGS
PLATE

THRUST
BEARING

MOVE AXIALLY
TO DISENGAGE
CRANKSHAFT OR
MOTOR SHAFT SPLINE OR
KEYED DRIVE

CLUTCH DRIVEN OR
SPIGOT
PLATE DRIVE GEARBOX END
BEARING

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 Disc clutch
Engaged Disengaged

PRESSURE PRESSURE
PLATE PLATE

FLYWHEEL COVER
PRESSING
CASTING
OR CASTING

HELICAL
FRICTION SPRINGS
PLATE

THRUST
BEARING

MOVE AXIALLY MOVE AXIALLY

TO DISENGAGE TO ENGAGE
CRANKSHAFT OR CRANKSHAFT OR
MOTOR SHAFT SPLINE OR MOTOR SHAFT SPLINE OR
KEYED DRIVE KEYED DRIVE

CLUTCH DRIVEN OR DRIVEN OR

SPIGOT CLUTCH
PLATE DRIVE GEARBOX END GEARBOX END
BEARING PLATE DRIVE

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 Multiple disc clutch
DRIVEN
DISCS

HYDRAULIC CYLINDER.
PRESSURISE TO
BUSH ENGAGE CLUTCH
BEARING
DRIVEN
END
OIL SUPPLY FOR
HYDRAULIC CYLINDER

DRIVING
END

SPLINED
SHAFT

SEALS

DRIVING
DISCS

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 Disc clutches
• Disc clutches can consist of single or
multiple discs.
• Generally multiple disc clutches enable
greater torque capacity but are harder to
cool.
• Frictional clutches can be run dry or wet
using oil.
• Typical coefficients of friction are 0.07 for
a wet clutch and 0.45 for a dry clutch.
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 Running a clutch wet
• While running a clutch wet in oil reduces
the coefficient of friction it enhances heat
transfer and the potential for cooling of the
components.
• The expedient solution to the reduction of
the friction coefficient is to use more discs
and hence the use of multiple disc
clutches.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Assumptions
• Two basic assumptions are used in the
development of procedures for disc clutch
design based upon a uniform rate of wear
at the mating surfaces or a uniform
pressure distribution between the mating
surfaces.
• The equations for both of these methods
are outlined in this section.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Elemental annular ring
• The area of an
elemental annular
ring on a disc clutch is
δA=2πrδr.
• Now F=pA, where p is r δr
the assumed uniform
interface pressure, so
δF=2πrpδr.

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 Normal force
• For the disc the normal force acting on the
entire face is
ro
2
ro r
F = 2πrpdr = 2πp
ri 2 r
i

F = πp r − ri( 2
o
2
)
• Note that F is also the necessary force
required to clamp the clutch discs
together.
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 Friction torque
• The friction torque δT that can be
developed on an elemental ring is the
product of the elemental normal force,
given by µδF and the radius:
δT=rµδF=2µπr2pδr
• where µ is the coefficient of friction which
models the less than ideal frictional
contact which occurs between two
surfaces.
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 Total torque
• The total torque is given by integration
between the limits of the annular ring, ri
and ro:
ro

( )
3
ro r 2
T= 2µπr pdr = 2πpµ
2
= πpµ ro3 − ri3
ri 3 ri
3
• This equation represents the torque
capacity of a clutch with a single frictional
interface. In practice clutches use an even
number of frictional surfaces.
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 Torque capacity with N faces
• For a clutch with N faces the torque
capacity is given by:
2
T = πpµN ro3 − ri3
3
( )

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 Torque capacity
• Substituting for the pressure, p, gives an
equation for the torque capacity as a
function of the axial clamping force.
2 ro3 − ri3
T = µFN 2 2
3 ro − ri

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 Uniform wear
• The equations assuming uniform wear are
developed below.
• The wear rate is assumed to be
proportional to the product of the pressure
and velocity. So
prω = constant

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 Maximum pressure
• For a constant angular velocity the
maximum pressure will occur at the
smallest radius.
pmaxriω = constant
• Eliminating the angular velocity and
constant gives a relationship for the
pressure as a function of the radius:
ri
p = p max
r
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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Dynamic friction coefficients, permissible
contact pressures and temperature limits
MATERIAL µdry µoil pmax (MN/m) T (oC)

Moulded compounds 0.25 - 0.45 0.06 - 0.10 1.035 - 2.07 200 - 260

Woven materials 0.25 - 0.45 0.08 - 0.10 0.345 - 0.69 200 - 260

Sintered metal 0.15 - 0.45 0.05 - 0.08 1.035 -2.07 230 - 680

Cork 0.30 - 0.50 0.15 - 0.25 0.055 - 0.1 80

Wood 0.20 - 0.45 0.12 - 0.16 0.345 - 0.62 90

Cast iron 0.15 - 0.25 0.03 - 0.06 0.69- 1.725 260

Paper based - 0.10 - 0.17

Graphite/resin - 0.10 - 0.14

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 Axial force
• The elemental axial force on an elemental
annular ring is given by
δF = 2πprδr
• Integrating to give the total axial force:
ri
rdr = 2πp max ri (ro − ri )
ro ro
F= 2πprdr = 2πp max
ri ri r

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 Torque
• The elemental torque is given by
δT = µrδF

T=
ro

ri
2µπp max rirdr = p max µπri ro2 − ri2 ( )
• Rearranging gives
F
p max =
2πri (ro − ri )

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 Torque
• Substituting gives
µF r − ri2
µF 2
T= o
= (ro + ri )
2 ro − ri 2
• For N frictional surfaces
T=
ro

ri
2µπNp max rirdr = p max µπNri r − ri ( 2
o
2
)
µNF
T= (ro + ri )
2
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 maximum torque for any outer
radius
• By differentiating with respect to ri and
equating the result to zero, the maximum
torque for any outer radius ro is found to
occur when
ri = 1/3ro
• This useful formula can be used to set the
inner radius if the outer radius is
constrained to a particular value.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Design
• Clutches are usually designed based on uniform
wear.
• The uniform wear assumption gives a lower
torque capacity clutch than the uniform pressure
assumption.
• The preliminary design procedure for disc clutch
design requires the determination of the torque
and speed, specification of space limitations,
selection of materials, and the selection of
principal radii, ro and ri.
• Common practice is to set the value of ri
between 0.45ro and 0.8ro.
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 Procedure
The procedure for determining the initial
geometry is itemised below.
1) Determine the service factor.
2) Determine the required torque capacity,
T=power/ω.
3) Determine the coefficient of friction µ.
4) Determine the outer radius ro.
5) Find the inner radius ri.
6) Find the axial actuation force required.
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 Materials
• The material used for clutch plates is
typically grey cast iron or steel.
• The friction surface will consist of a lined
material which may be moulded, woven,
sintered or solid.
• Moulded linings consist of a polymeric
resin used to bind powdered fibrous
material and brass and zinc chips.

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 Example
• A clutch is required for transmission of
power between a four cylinder internal
combustion engine and a small machine.
• Determine the radial dimensions for a
single face dry disc clutch with a moulded
lining which should transmit 5 kW at 1800
rpm.
• Base the design on the uniform wear
assumption.
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 Example

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 Solution
TYPE OF

• A service factor of two

DRIVER

DESCRIPTION OF TYPICAL SMALL IC IC SINGLE

GENERAL DRIVEN ELECTRIC ENGINES ENGINES CYLINDER

should be used.
SYSTEM SYSTEM MOTORS, (4 TO 6 (2 OR 3 ENGINE
TURBINE CYLINDER CYLINDER
S). S)
MEDIUM
TO LARGE
ELECTRIC

• The design will

MOTORS

Steady power Belt drive, small 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2

source, steady generators,

therefore be
load, no shock or centrifugal
overload pumps, fans,
machine tools

Steady power Light machinery 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.7

undertaken using a
source for wood, metal
and textiles,
conveyor belts

with some Larger conveyor 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7

power of 2×5 kW=10

irregularity of load belts, larger
up to 1.5 times machines,
nominal power reciprocating
pumps

kW. Frequent start-

stops,
Presses,
Punches, piston
pumps, Cranes,
hoists
2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2

overloads, cycling, Stone crushers, 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.7

high inertia starts, roll mills, heavy
high power, mixers, single
pulsating power cylinder
source compressors

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 Solution cont.
• The torque is given by
Power 10000
T= = = 53 N m
ω 1800 × (2π / 60 )
• From Table 10.3 taking mid range values
for the coefficient friction and the
maximum permissible pressure for
moulded linings gives µ=0.35 and
pmax=1.55 MN/m2.
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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
MATERIAL µdry µoil pmax (MN/m) T (oC)

Moulded compounds 0.25 - 0.45 0.06 - 0.10 1.035 - 2.07 200 - 260

Woven materials 0.25 - 0.45 0.08 - 0.10 0.345 - 0.69 200 - 260

Sintered metal 0.15 - 0.45 0.05 - 0.08 1.035 -2.07 230 - 680

Cork 0.30 - 0.50 0.15 - 0.25 0.055 - 0.1 80

Wood 0.20 - 0.45 0.12 - 0.16 0.345 - 0.62 90

Cast iron 0.15 - 0.25 0.03 - 0.06 0.69- 1.725 260

Paper based - 0.10 - 0.17

Graphite/resin - 0.10 - 0.14

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 Solution cont.
• Taking ri = 1/ 3 ro

T= 1/3ropmax r − 2
o ( 1/3r )o
2
=

1 3
1/3pmax r − ro =
3
o 4/27pmaxro3
3

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 Solution cont.
1/3
T
ro = =
pmax 4/27
1/3
53.05
= 0.04324 m
0.35 × 1.55 × 10 4/27
6

ri = 1/ 3 ro = 0.02497 m

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 Solution cont.
F = 2 ri pmax (ro − ri ) =
2 × 0.02497 × 1.55 × 106 (0.04324 − 0.02497) =
4443 N
• So the clutch consists of a disc of inner and
outer radius 25 mm and 43 mm respectively,
with a moulded lining having a coefficient of
friction value of 0.35 and a maximum
permissible contact pressure of 1.55 MPa and
an actuating force of 4.4 kN.
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 Example
• A disc clutch, running in oil, is required for
a vehicle with a four-cylinder engine. The
design power for initial estimation of the
clutch specification is 90 kW at 4500 rpm.
Determine the radial dimensions and
actuating force required. Base the design
on the uniform wear assumption.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution
TYPE OF

• From Table 10.2 a

DRIVER

DESCRIPTION OF TYPICAL SMALL IC IC SINGLE

GENERAL DRIVEN ELECTRIC ENGINES ENGINES CYLINDER

service factor of 2.7

SYSTEM SYSTEM MOTORS, (4 TO 6 (2 OR 3 ENGINE
TURBINE CYLINDER CYLINDER
S). S)
MEDIUM

should be used to
TO LARGE
ELECTRIC
MOTORS

account for starts and Steady power

source, steady
load, no shock or
overload
Belt drive, small
generators,
centrifugal
pumps, fans,
1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2

stops and the four Steady power

machine tools

Light machinery 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.7

cylinder engine. The

source for wood, metal
and textiles,
conveyor belts

design will therefore

with some Larger conveyor 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7
irregularity of load belts, larger
up to 1.5 times machines,
nominal power reciprocating

be undertaken using
pumps

Frequent start- Presses, 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.2

stops, Punches, piston

a power of 2.7×90 =
pumps, Cranes,
hoists

243 kW.
overloads, cycling, Stone crushers, 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.7
high inertia starts, roll mills, heavy
high power, mixers, single
pulsating power cylinder
source compressors

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 Solution cont.
• The torque is given by
Power 243000
T= = = 515.7 N m
ω 4500 × (2π / 60 )
• From Table 10.3 taking mid range values
for the coefficient friction and the
maximum permissible pressure for
moulded linings gives µ=0.35 and
pmax=1.55 MN/m2.
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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• Taking ri = 1/ 3 ro
1/3
T
ro = =
Npmax 4/27
1/3
515.7
= 0.07325 m
0.35 × 2 × 1.55 × 106 4/27
ri = 1/ 3 ro = 0.04229 m

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
F = 2 Nri pmax (ro − ri ) = 2 × 2 × 0.04229 ×
1.55 × 10 (0.07325 − 0.04229) = 25500 N
6

• So the clutch consists of a disc of inner and

outer radius 42.3 mm and 73.3 mm respectively,
with a moulded lining having a coefficient of
friction value of 0.35 and a maximum
permissible contact pressure of 1.55 MPa and
an actuating force of 25.5 kN.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Example
• A multiple disc clutch, running in oil, is
required for a motorcycle with a three-
cylinder engine.
• The power demand is 75 kW at 8500 rpm.
• The preliminary design layout indicates
that the maximum diameter of the clutch
discs should not exceed 100 mm.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Example cont.
• In addition previous designs have
indicated that a moulded lining with a
coefficient of friction of 0.068 in oil and a
maximum permissible pressure of 1.2 MPa
is reliable.
• Within these specifications determine the
radii for the discs, the number of discs
required and the clamping force.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution
• The torque is given by
Service factor × Power
T= =

3.4 × 75000
= 286.5 N m
8500 × (2 /60)

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 Solution cont.
• Select the outer radius to be the largest
possible, i.e. ro=50 mm.
• Using ri = 1/ 3 ro
• ri=28.87 mm.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The number of frictional surfaces, N
T
N= =
pmax ri (r − ri
2
o
2
)
286.5
= 23.23
1.2 × 10 × 0.02887 × 0.068(0.05 − 0.02887 )
6 2 2

• This must be an even number, so the

number of frictional surfaces is taken as
N=24. This requires thirteen driving discs
and twelve driven discs to implement.
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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The clamping force can be calculated:
2T 2 × 286.5
F= = = 4452 N
µN(ro + ri ) 0.068 × 24(0.05 + 0.02887 )

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 Brakes
• The basic function of a brake is to absorb
kinetic energy and dissipate it in the form
of heat.

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 Example
• An idea of the magnitude of energy that
must be dissipated can be obtained from
considering the familiar example of a car
undergoing an emergency stop in seven
seconds from 60 mph (96 km/h).

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution
• If the car’s mass is 1400 kg and assuming
that 65% of the car’s weight is loaded onto
the front axles during rapid braking then
the load on the front axle is
1400 × 9.81× 0.65 = 8927 N

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 Solution cont.
• This will be shared between two brakes so
the energy that must be absorbed by one
brake is
1
E = m Vi − Vf
2
2 2
( )
2
1 8927 96 × 10 3
E= × × 0.5 × −0 2
= 161.8 kJ
2 9.81 3600

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• If the car brakes uniformly in seven
seconds then the heat that must be
dissipated is 161.8×103/7=23.1 kW.
• From your experience of heat transfer
from say 1 kW domestic heaters you will
recognise that this is a significant quantity
of heat to transfer away from the relatively
compact components that make up brake
assemblies.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Heat transfer
• Convective heat transfer can be modelled by Fourier’s
equation:
Q = hA∆T = hA (Ts − Tf )
• This equation indicates that the ability of a brake to
dissipate the heat generated increases as the surface
area increases or as the heat transfer coefficient rises.
• For air, the heat transfer coefficient is usually dependent
on the local flow velocity and on the geometry.
• A method often used for disc brakes to increase both the
surface area and the local flow is to machine multiple
axial or radials holes in the disc.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Types of brake

METHOD OF SHORT SHOE

ACTUATION
DRUM LONG SHOE
MECHANICAL
BAND
FRICTION
PNEUMATIC
AND HYDRAULIC
CALIPER DISC
METHOD OF
DISC
ENGAGEMENT
FULL DISC
ELECTRICAL

AUTOMATIC
ELECTRICALLY ON
MAGNETIC
ELECTRICALLY OFF

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Comparative table of brake
performance
TYPE OF BRAKE MAXIMUM BRAKE STABILITY DRYNESS DUST AND TYPICAL
OPERAT FACTOR DIRT APPLICATIO
ING NS
TEMPER
ATURE

Differential band Low High Low Unstable but still Good Winches, hoist,
brake effective excavators,
tractors

External drum Low Medium Medium Unstable if humid, Good Mills, elevators,
brake poor if wet winders
(leading
trailing
edge)
Internal drum Higher than Medium Medium Unstable if humid, Good if sealed Vehicles (rear axles
brake external ineffective if on passenger
(leading brake wet cars)
trailing
edge)
Internal drum Higher than High Low Unstable if humid, Good if sealed Vehicles (rear axles
brake (two external ineffective if on passenger
leading brake wet cars)
shoes)

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Self-energising brakes
• Brakes can be designed so that, once
engaged the actuating force applied is
assisted by the braking torque.
• This kind of brake is called a self-
energising brake and is useful for braking
large loads.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Self-locking
• Great care must be exercised in brake
design.
• It is possible and sometimes desirable to
design a brake, which once engaged, will
grab and lock up (called self-locking
action).

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Disc brakes
• Disc brakes are familiar
from automotive
applications where they
are used extensively for
vehicle wheels.
STUB-AXLE

CALIPER

• These typically consist of

a cast iron disc, bolted to
the wheel hub.
PADS
DISC

• This is sandwiched SEAL

between two pads

SEAL

HYDRAULIC

actuated by pistons WHEEL

HUB
CYLINDER

supported in a calliper
mounted on the stub
shaft.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Torque capacity
• With reference to the figure, the torque capacity
per pad is given by
T = µFre
• where re is an effective radius.

R
F F
re
θ ro r
ri

ANNULAR PAD CIRCULAR PAD

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Actuating force
• The actuating force assuming constant
pressure is given by
ro2 − ri2
F = p av θ
2
• or assuming uniform wear by
F = p max θri (ro − ri )

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
• The relationship between the average and
the maximum pressure for the uniform
wear assumption is given by
p av 2ri / ro
=
p max 1 + ri / ro

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Effective radius
• For an annular disc brake the effective
radius is given, assuming constant
pressure, by

re =
(
2 ro3 − ri3 )
(
3 ro2 − ri2 )
• and assuming uniform wear by
ri + ro
re =
2
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Circular pad disk brake design
values (Fazekas, (1972))
• For circular pads the R/r δ=re/r pmax/pav
effective radius is 0 1.000 1.000
given by re=rδ, where
values for δ are given 0.1 0.983 1.093
in the table as a
0.2 0.969 1.212
function of the ratio of
the pad radius and 0.3 0.957 1.367
the radial location, R/r
0.4 0.947 1.578

0.5 0.938 1.875

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Actuating force
• The actuating force for circular pads can
be calculated using:
F = πR p av 2

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Example
• A calliper brake is required for the front wheels
of a sport’s car with a braking capacity of 820 N
m for each brake.
• Preliminary design estimates have set the brake
geometry as ri=100 mm, ro=160 mm and θ=45o.
• A pad with a coefficient of friction of 0.35 has
been selected.
• Determine the required actuating force and the
average and maximum contact pressures.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution
• The torque capacity per pad =
820/2 = 410 N m.
• The effective radius is
0.1 + 0.16
re = = 0.13 m
2

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The actuating force is given by
T 410
F= = = 9.011 kN
µre 0.35 × 0.13
• The maximum contact pressure is
F
pmax = =
ri (ro − ri )
9.011× 103
= 1.912 MN/m2
45 × (2 /36) × 0.1× (0.16 − 0.1)
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The average pressure is given by
2ri / ro
p av = p max = 1.471 MN / m 2
1 + ri / ro

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Drum brakes
• Drum brakes apply friction to the external or internal
circumference of a cylinder.
• A drum brake consists of the brake shoe, which has the
friction material bonded to it, and the brake drum.
• For braking, the shoe is forced against the drum
developing the friction torque.
• Drum brakes can be divided into two groups depending
on whether the brake shoe is external or internal to the
drum.
• A further classification can be made in terms of the
length of the brake shoe: short, long or complete band.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Short and long shoe internal drum
brakes
• Short shoe internal brakes are used for
centrifugal brakes that engage at a particular
critical speed.
• Long shoe internal drum brakes are used
principally in automotive applications.
• Drum brakes can be designed to be self-
energising.
• Once engaged the friction force increases the
normal force non-linearly, increasing the friction
torque as in a positive feedback loop.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Stability
• One problem associated some drum brakes is stability.
• If the brake has been designed so that the braking
torque is not sensitive to small changes in the coefficient
of friction, which would occur if the brake is worn or wet,
then the brake is said to be stable.
• If a small change in the coefficient of friction causes a
significant change to the braking torque the brake is
unstable and will tend to grab if the friction coefficient
rises or the braking torque will drop noticeably if the
friction coefficient reduces.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
Short shoe external drum brakes
BRAKE
Fa
LEVER

y Ff
SHOE
c
Fn
PIVOT x
θ
b r

ω
DRUM
a

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Short shoe external drum brakes
• If the included angle of contact between
the brake shoe and the brake drum is less
than 45o, the force between the shoe and
the drum is relatively uniform and can be
modelled by a single concentrated load Fn
at the centre of the contact area.
• If the maximum permissible pressure is
pmax the force Fn can be estimated by
Fn = pmaxrθw
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Short shoe external drum brakes
• The frictional force, Ff, is given by
Ff = µFn
• where µ is the coefficient of friction.
• The torque on the brake drum is
T = Ffr = µFnr

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Short shoe external drum brakes
• Summing moments, for the shoe arm,
about the pivot gives:
Mpivot = aFa − bFn + cFf = 0

bFn − cFf b − µc
Fa = = Fn
a a

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Short shoe external drum brakes
• Resolving forces
gives the reactions at
the pivot: BRAKE
LEVER
Fa

Rx=-Ff y
c
Ff
SHOE
Fn
x
Ry=Fa-Fn
PIVOT
θ
b r

ω
DRUM
a

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Short shoe external drum brakes
• Note that for the configuration and
direction of rotation shown, the friction
moment µFnc adds or combines with the
actuating moment aFa.
• Once the actuating force is applied the
friction generated at the shoe acts to
increase the braking torque.
• This kind of braking action is called self-
energising.
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Short shoe external drum brakes
• If the brake direction is reversed the
friction moment term µFnc becomes
negative and the applied load Fa must be
maintained to generate braking torque.
• This combination is called self de-
energising.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Short shoe external drum brakes
bFn − cFf b − µc
• From Fa = = Fn
a a
• note that if the brake is self-energising and if
µc>b then the force required to actuate the
brake is zero or negative and the brake action is
called self-locking.
• If the shoe touches the drum it will grab and
lock.
• This is usually undesirable with exceptions being
hoist stops or over-running clutch type
applications.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
Long shoe external drum brakes
• If the included angle of contact between
the brake shoe and the drum is greater
than 45o then the pressure between the
shoe and the brake lining cannot be
regarded as uniform and the
approximations made for the short shoe
brake analysis are inadequate.
• Most drum brakes use contact angles
greater than 90o.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
Long shoe external drum brakes
• For a single block brake
Fa
LEVER

the force exerted on the Ff

Fn
SHOE
θ2
drum by the brake shoe PIVOT
θ1
θ
r
must be supported by the b
ω
bearings. DRUM

• To balance this load and

a

provide a compact SHOE Fa

braking arrangement two θ1 θ2
θ
opposing brake shoes are r
usually used in a calliper
ω
arrangement. DRUM
Fa

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
Long shoe external drum brakes
• The braking torque T is given by
p max
T = µwr 2
(cos θ1 − cos θ 2 )
(sin θ)max
• This is based on the assumption that the
local pressure p at an angular location θ is
related to the maximum pressure, pmax, by
p max sin θ
p=
(sin θ)max
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
Long shoe external drum brakes
• With the direction of
rotation shown (i.e.
the brake is self- LEVER
Fa

energising), the Ff SHOE

magnitude of the
Fn
θ1 θ2
θ
actuation force is PIVOT
b
r

given by ω
DRUM

Mn − Mf a

Fa =
a

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Long shoe external drum brakes
• The normal and frictional moments can be
determined using
wrbp max 1 1
Mn = (θ 2 − θ1 ) − (sin 2θ 2 − sin 2θ1 )
(sin θ)max 2 4

µwrp max b
Mf = r (cos θ1 − cos θ 2 ) + (cos 2θ 2 − cos 2θ1 )
(sin θ)max 4

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
Long shoe external drum brakes
• If the direction of
rotation for the drum
shown is reversed, LEVER
Fa

the brake becomes Ff SHOE

self de-energising and

Fn
θ1 θ2
θ
the actuation force is PIVOT
b
r

given by ω
DRUM

Mn + M f a

Fa =
a

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Example
• Design a long shoe drum brake to produce
a friction torque of 75 N m to stop a drum
rotating at 140 rpm.
• Initial design calculations have indicated
that a shoe lining with µ=0.25 and using a
value of pmax=0.5×106 N/m2 in the design
will give suitable life.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution
• First propose trial values for the brake
geometry, say r=0.1 m, b=0.2 m, a=0.3 m,
θ1=30o, θ2=150o.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• Solving for the width of the shoe,
T (sin )max
w= 2 =
r pmax (cos 1 − cos 2 )
75sin90
= 0.0346 m
0.25 × 0.1 × 0.5 × 10 (cos30 − cos150 )
2 6

• Select the width to be 35 mm as this is a

standard size.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The actual maximum pressure
experienced, will be:
6 0.0346
p max = 0.5 × 10 = 494900 N / m 2

0.035

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The moment of the normal force with
respect to the shoe pivot is:
0.035 × 0.1× 0.2 × 0.4949 × 10 6
Mn = ×
sin90
1 2 1
120 × − (sin300 − sin60) = 512.8 N m
2 360 4

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The moment of the frictional forces with
respect to the shoe pivot is:
0.25 × 0.035 × 0.1× 0.4949 × 106
Mf = ×
sin90
0.2
0.1(cos30 − cos150 ) + (cos300 − cos60)
4

=75 N m

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The actuation force is
Mn − M f 512.8 − 75
Fa = = = 1459 N
a 0 .3

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Double long shoe external drum
brake
• For the double long shoe
external drum brake illustrated,
the left hand shoe is self-
energising and the frictional
moment reduces the actuation SHOE Fa
load.
θ1 θ2
• The right hand shoe, however, θ
is self de-energising and its r
frictional moment acts to
reduce the maximum pressure ω
which occurs on the right hand DRUM
Fa
brake shoe.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Normal and frictional moments
• The normal and frictional moments for a
self-energising and self de-energising
brake are related by
'
Mnp max
Mn '=
p max
'
Mf p max
Mf '=
p max

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Example
• For the double long shoe
external drum brake 79.37 200

illustrated in following F
a

50
figure determine the
limiting force on the lever

115
such that the maximum

R1
00
pressure on the brake 130
o

lining does not exceed

120
1.4 MPa and determine
o
20

the torque capacity of the

brake.
20

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Example cont.
• The face width of the shoes is 30 mm and
the coefficient of friction between the
shoes and the drum can be taken as 0.28.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution
• First it is necessary to calculate values for
θ1 and θ2 as these are not indicated
directly on the diagram.
−1 20
θ1 = 20 − tan
o
= 10.54 o

120

−1 20
θ 2 = 20 + 130 − tan
o o
= 140.5 o
120

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The maximum value of sinθ would be
sin90=1.
• The distance between the pivot and the
drum centre,
b = 0.02 + 0.12 = 0.1217 m
2 2

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The normal moment is given by
wrbp max 1 1
Mn = (θ 2 − θ1 ) − (sin 2θ 2 − sin 2θ1 )
(sin θ)max 2 4
0.03 × 0.1× 0.1217 × 1.4 × 106
= ×
sin90
1 2 1
(140.5 − 10.54) × − (sin281 − sin21.08) =
2 360 4
751.1 N m

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
µwrp max b
Mf = r (cos θ1 − cos θ 2 ) + (cos 2θ 2 − cos 2θ1 )
(sin θ)max 4
0.28 × 0.03 × 0.1× 1.4 × 106
= ×
sin90
0.1217
0.1(cos10.54 − cos140.5) + (cos281− cos21.08) =
4
179.8 N m

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The orthogonal distance between the
actuation force and the pivot,
a=0.12+0.115+0.05=0.285 m.
• The actuation load on the left hand shoe is
given by
Mn − M f 751 .1 − 179 .8
Fa left shoe = = = 2004 N
a 0.285

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The torque contribution from the left hand
shoe is given by
p max
Tleft shoe = µwr 2
(cos θ1 − cos θ 2 )
(sin θ)max
= 0.28 × 0.03 × 0.12 × 1.4 × 10 6 (cos 10.54 − cos 140.5 )

=206.4 N m.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The actuation force
on the right hand B

shoe can be
V
C C B B
H H 79.37 H
V
B
C C

determined by
H
V V
50

considering each
A
H 200
A F
V

member of the lever F

a left shoe
=2004 N

mechanism as a free 200

50

body. 14.04
o

F=501 N
F =2065 N
a right shoe

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
F-AV+BV=0.
AH=BH. B
V
C C B B

BH=CH
H H 79.37 H
V
B
C C H
V V
50

AH=CH. A
H 200
A F

0.2F=0.05BH,
V

F =2004 N
a left shoe

F=BH/4. 200

50

BH=2004 N.
o
14.04
F=501 N
F =2065 N
a right shoe

F=2004/4=501 N.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• So the limiting lever force is F=501 N.
CV=0, BV=0.
• The actuating force for the right hand lever
is the resultant of F and BH.
• The resultant angle is given by
tan-1(0.05/0.2)=14.04o.
2004
Fa right shoe = = 2065 N
cos14.04
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
19.69
• The orthogonal
distance between the 14.04
o

actuation force vector

and the pivot, is given
by
• a=(0.235-

235
223.2
0.01969tan14.04)cos
14.04 = 0.2232 m

o
14.04

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The normal and frictional moments for the
right hand shoe can be determined using
' '
Mnp max 751.1p max
Mn '= =
p max 1.4 × 10 6
' '
M f p max 179.8p max
M f '= =
p max 1.4 × 10 6

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• For the right hand shoe the maximum
pressure can be determined from
Mn '+Mf '
Farightshoe = = 2065 =
a
751.1pmax '
− 179.8pmax
'

1.4 × 10 × 0.2232
6

'
p max = 1.130 × 10 6 N / m 2

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The torque contribution from the right hand
shoe is
'
p
Tright shoe = µwr 2 max
(cos θ1 − cos θ 2 )
(sin θ)max
= 0.28 × 0.03 × 01 . × 10 (cos10.54 − cos140.5)
. × 113
2 6

=166.6 N m

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The total torque is given by
Ttotal=Tleft shoe+Tright shoe=
206.4+166.6=373 N m

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Long Shoe Internal Drum Brakes
• Most drum brakes use internal shoes that
expand against the inner radius of the drum.
Long shoe internal drum brakes are principally
used in automotive applications.
• An automotive drum brake typically comprises
two brake shoes and linings supported on a
back plate bolted to the axle casing.
• The shoes are pivoted at one end on anchor
pins or abutments fixed onto the back plate.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
Long Shoe Internal Drum Brakes
SHOE
TOE HYDRAULIC
CYLINDER RETRACTION
SPRING
ROTATION

LEADING
SHOE TRAILING
SHOE
r
DRUM θ2 c

rp θ1
BRAKE
LINING

ANCHOR
PINS OR SHOE
ABUTMENTS HEEL

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Long Shoe Internal Drum Brakes
• The brake can be actuated by a double
hydraulic piston expander, which forces
the free ends of the brake apart so that the
non-rotating shoes come into frictional
contact with the rotating brake drum.
• A leading and trailing shoe layout consists
of a pair of shoes pivoted at a common
anchor point.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Leading shoe
• The leading shoe is
identified as the shoe
whose expander piston SHOE
TOE HYDRAULIC
moves in the direction of CYLINDER RETRACTION
SPRING
rotation of the drum. ROTATION

• The frictional drag LEADING

SHOE TRAILING
between the shoe and the r
SHOE

drum will tend to assist DRUM θ2 c

the expander piston in rp θ1

forcing the shoe against BRAKE
the drum and this action LINING

is referred to as self- ANCHOR

PINS OR SHOE
energising or the self- ABUTMENTS HEEL

servo action of the shoe.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Trailing shoe
• The trailing shoe is the
one whose expander
piston moves in the
SHOE
TOE HYDRAULIC
CYLINDER RETRACTION
direction opposed the ROTATION
SPRING

rotation of the drum. LEADING

TRAILING
• The frictional force
SHOE
SHOE
r
opposes the expander DRUM θ2 c

and hence a trailing brake rp θ1

shoe provides less BRAKE
LINING
braking torque than an
equivalent leading shoe
ANCHOR
PINS OR SHOE
ABUTMENTS HEEL
actuated by the same
force.
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Long Shoe Internal Drum Brakes
• The equations developed for external long
shoe drum brakes are also valid for
internal long shoe drum brakes.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Example
• Determine the actuating
force and the braking
capacity for the double
internal long shoe brake DRUM
Fa Fa

illustrated. 16

R68
48

• The lining is sintered

metal with a coefficient of
friction of 0.32 and the
o
120

LINING

maximum lining pressure

55

is 1.2 MPa. SHOE

• The drum radius is 68

mm and the shoe width is
o
15 20

25 mm.
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution
b = 0.015 2 + 0.055 2 = 0.05701 m
• As the brake lining angles relative to the
pivot, brake axis line, are not explicitly
shown on the diagram, they must be
calculated.
θ1 = 4.745 o
θ 2 = 124 . 7 o

• As θ2>90o, the maximum value of sinθ is

sin90=1=(sinθ)max.
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• For this brake with the
direction of rotation as
shown the right hand DRUM
Fa Fa

shoe is self- 16

R68
48

energising.
o
120

LINING 55

SHOE

o
15 20

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• For the right hand shoe:
0.025 × 0.068 × 0.05701× 1.2 × 106
Mn = ×
1
1 2 1
(124.7 − 4.745) × − (sin249.4 − sin9.49)
2 360 4

= 153.8 N m

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.

0.32 × 0.025 × 0.068 × 1.2 × 106

Mf = ×
1
0.05701
0.068(cos4.745 − cos124.7 ) + (cos249.4 − cos9.49 )
4

= 57.1 N m

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
a = 0.055 + 0.048 = 0.103 m
Mn − M f 153 .8 − 57.1
Fa = = = 938 .9 N
a 0.103
• The actuating force is 938.9 N.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The torque applied by the right hand shoe
is given by
µwr p max2
Tright shoe = (cos θ1 − cos θ 2 )
(sin θ)max
0.32 × 0.025 × 0.0682 × 1.2 × 106
= ×
1
(cos4.745 − cos124.7) = 69.54 N m
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The torque applied by the left hand shoe
cannot be determined until the maximum
operating pressure pmax’ for the left hand
shoe has been calculated.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• As the left hand shoe is self de-energising
the normal and frictional moments can be
determined.
' '
M p 153 . 8p
Mn' = n max = max

p max 1.2 × 10 6

' '
Mf p 57.1p
M =
'
f
max
= max

p max 1.2 × 10 6

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The left hand shoe is self de-energising,
so, Mn + Mf
Fa =
a
• Fa=938.9 N as calculated earlier.
153.8p '
+ 57.1p '
938.9 = max max

1.2 × 10 6 × 0.103
'
p max = 0.5502 × 10 6 N / m 2
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The torque applied by the left hand shoe is
given by
µwr p max
2 '
Tleft shoe = (cos θ1 − cos θ 2 )
(sin θ)max
0.32 × 0.025 × 0.0682 × 0.5502 × 106
= ×
1
(cos4.745 − cos124.7) = 31.89 N m
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The total torque applied by both shoes is:
Ttotal = Tright shoe + Tleft shoe =
69.54 + 31.89 = 101.4 N m

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Comment
• From this example the
advantage in torque
capacity of using self- Fa Fa

energising brakes is DRUM

16

apparent.

R68
48

• Both the left hand and the

right hand shoes could be 120
o

LINING
made self-energising by 55

inverting the left hand SHOE

shoe, having the pivot at

the top.
o
15 20

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Comment cont.
• This would be advantageous if rotation
occurred in just one direction.
• If, however, drum rotation is possible in
either direction, it may be more suitable to
have one brake self-energising for forward
motion and one self-energising for reverse
motion.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Band brakes
• One of the simplest types
of braking device is the
band brake.
θ
• This consists of a flexible
metal band lined with a
frictional material r
wrapped partly around a F2 Fa
drum. F1

• The brake is actuated by a

pulling the band against c
the drum

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Band brakes
• For the clockwise
rotation shown the
friction forces θ
increase F1 relative to
F2. r

F2 Fa
F1
a
c

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Band brakes
• The relationship between the tight and slack
sides of the band is given by
F1
= e µθ
F2
• F1 = tension in the tight side of the band (N),
• F2 = tension in the slack side of the band (N),
• µ = coefficient of friction,
• θ = angle of wrap (rad).

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
Point of maximum contact pressure
• The point of maximum contact pressure
for the friction material occurs at the tight
end and is given by:
F1
p max =
rw
• where w is the width of the band (m).

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Torque braking capacity
• The torque braking capacity is given by
T = (F1 − F2 )r

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Moments
• The relationship, for
the band brake shown
between the applied θ
lever force Fa and F2
can be found by r
taking moments.
F2 Fa
F1
Fa c − F2 a = 0
a
a
Fa = F2 c
c
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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Self-energising band brakes
• The brake configuration θ
shown in the top figure
opposite is self- r
energising for clockwise F2 Fa
F1
rotation.
a
• The level of self- c

energisation can be
enhanced by using the θ
differential band brake
configuration shown in
the bottom figure F1
F2 Fa
opposite. b a
c

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Summation of the moments
• Summation of the
moments about the
pivot gives θ

Fa c − F2 a + F1b = 0
F2 Fa
F1
b a
c

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Force relationship
• So the relationship between the applied
load Fa and the band brake tensions is
given by: F a −Fb
Fa = 2 1

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Value of b
• Note that the value of b must be less than
a so that applying the lever tightens F2
more than it loosens F1.
• Substituting:

Fa =
F2 a − be( µθ
)
c

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Self-locking
• The brake can be made self-locking if
a<beµθ and the slightest touch on the lever
would cause the brake to grab or lock
abruptly.
• This principle can be used to permit
rotation in one direction only as in hoist
and conveyor applications.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Example
• Design a band brake to exert a braking
torque of 85 N m.
• Assume the coefficient of friction for the
lining material is 0.25 and the maximum
permissible pressure is 0.345 MPa.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution
• Propose a trial geometry, say r=150 mm,
θ=225o and w=50 mm.
F1 = p max rw = 0.345 × 10 6 × 0.15 × 0.05 = 2587 N

F1 2587 .5
F2 = µθ = 0.25 (225×2 π / 360 ) = 969 N
e e

T = (F1 − F2 )r = (2587 .5 − 969 )0.15 = 242 .7 N m

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• This torque is much greater than the 80 N
m desired, so try a different combination of
r, θ and w until a satisfactory design is
achieved.

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PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• Try r=0.1 m, θ=225o and w=50 mm.
F1 = p max rw = 0.345 × 10 6 × 0.1× 0.05 = 1725 N

F1 1725
F2 = µθ = 0.25 (225×2 π / 360 ) = 646.3 N
e e
T = (F1 − F2 )r = (1725 − 646 .3 )0.1 = 107 .9 N m

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• Try r=0.09 m, θ=225o and w=50 mm.
F1 = p max rw = 0.345 × 10 6 × 0.09 × 0.05 = 1552.5 N
F1 1552 .5
F2 = µθ = 0.25 (225×2 π / 360 ) = 581.7 N
e e
T = (F1 − F2 )r = (1552 .5 − 581 .7 )0.09 = 87.4 N m

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Solution cont.
• The actuating force is given by Fa=F2a/c.
• If a=0.08 m and c=0.15 m then,
0.08
Fa = 581.7 × = 310.2 N
0.15

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Conclusions
• Clutches are designed to permit the smooth,
gradual engagement or disengagement of a
prime mover from a driven load.
• Brakes are designed to decelerate a system.
• Clutches and brakes are similar devices
providing frictional, magnetic or direct positive
connection between two components.
• This section has concentrated on rotating
clutches and brakes and specifically on the
design of friction based devices.

Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex
 Conclusions cont.
• The detailed design of a clutch or braking
system involves integration of a wide range of
skills such as bearings, shafts, splines, teeth,
flywheels, casings, frictional surfaces,
hydraulics, sensors and control algorithms.
• Both brakes and clutches can be purchased
from specialist suppliers or alternatively key
components such as brake pads or clutch discs
can be specified and bought in from specialist
suppliers and integrated into a fit for purpose
machine design.
Mechanical Design
PRN Childs, University of Sussex