Nicolaus Copernicus Biography

Astronomer, Mathematician (1473–1543)

Astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was instrumental in establishing the concept of a heliocentric solar system, in which the sun,
rather than the earth, is the center of the solar system.

Who Was Copernicus?

Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 in Torun, Poland. Circa 1508, Copernicus developed his own celestial model
of a heliocentric planetary system. Around 1514, he shared his findings in the Commentariolus. His second book on the
topic, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, was banned by the Roman Catholic Church decades after his May 24, 1543 death in
Frombork.

Contribution to science technology-Nicolaus Copernicus is not famous for his contributions to reproductive science, but rather
for his contributions to ASTRONOMY. (Although he did work as a physician for a time, studying medicine, as well as many other
things such as economics, classical history, linguistics, and politics.)

His famous theory was that it was the sun at the center of the universe, rather than the earth. Although there were limitations
to the Copernican model, it was an absolute breakthrough idea. One such limitation was the fact that he still used a universe-
based model, rather than a solar system based one. In fact, our sun is at the center of our solar system, and definitely not the
universe, or even the galaxy.

His theory was heliocentric (sun-centered) rather than geocentric (earth-centered). The geocentric model is also called the
Ptolemaic model, after the Greek philosopher Ptolemy. Decades after he first came up with the heliocentric theory, Copernicus
published his ideas in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (In English: On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres). It
summarized the theory. Besides the idea that everything orbited the sun rather than the earth, the significant parts included
the idea that retrograde and direct motion could be explained by the rotation of the earth, the idea that there is no one center
of all the celestial circles and spheres, and the idea that the earth has more than one motion (orbiting the sun, as well as
rotating around). Most of these ended up being true, as they were later proven by other great scientists.

Copernicus's heliocentric theory began what became known as the Copernican Revolution, sparking the ideas and experiments
of later scientists like Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler. Most significantly, Kepler modified Copernicus's theory from perfect
circles to ellipses, and thus solved many issues with the original model--especially the ones having to do with retrograde
motion.

Charles Darwin is best known for his work as a naturalist, developing a theory of evolution to explain biological change.

Who Was Charles Darwin?

Charles Robert Darwin (February 12, 1809 to April 19, 1882) was a naturalist and biologist known for his theory of evolution and
the process of natural selection. Born in Shrewsbury, England, in 1831 he embarked on a five-year survey voyage around the
world on the HMS Beagle; his studies of specimens led him to formulate his theories. In 1859, he published his landmark
book, On the Origin of Species.

Contribution to science technology-The theory of evolution was one of the biggest advances ever in the biological sciences.
Whilst Darwin takes front row in history, it is true that the naturalist Alfred Wallace had come up with the idea of natural
selection quite independently.In fact, Darwin’s papers do reveal a fair bit of information exchange with Wallace and the latter
subsequently became a great defender of natural selection. Darwin’s astute observations combined with Wallace’s own
extensive analysis of the geographical distributions of species in Borneo provided compelling evidence in favour of speciation
by natural selection.How momentous was this? Spectacularly so and even more amazing when you consider that the theory
had been based largely upon observations of natural species. The theory confounded religious establishment atvthe time, an
aspect that regrettably continues to this day in the United States with adherents of creation science - a dogma which flies in the
face of all known scientific evidence to date.Opposition to the theory was strong but little of it could stand up to the rigorous
analysis and data that Darwin and Wallace had accumulated. If you think about it, natural selection is not intuitive and in that
sense, it was most certainly a monumental advance.It is made even more astounding by the fact that Darwin & Wallace’s
exposition occurred only a few decades after the discovery of gene-based inheritance by Gregor Mendel - which at the time
was thought to be mediated by proteins.It was not till the 1940s that Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty and Colin MacLeod, at
Rockefeller Institute identified DNA as the unit of inheritance and a further decade before Crick and Watson deduced the actual
structure of DNA, fostering the golden age of molecular biology.Every subsequent scientific study using DNA sequencing
analysis has confirmed Darwin & Wallace’s evolutionary theory showing excellent convergence between it and the levels of
DNA sequence relatedness between close species. It ranks for me as one of the singular most important scientific discoveries of
all time and on a level just below Einstein’s groundbreaking theory of relativity which was even more counter-intuitive
(subsequently quantum physics create a spectacular new level of weirdness well beyond any Earthly intuition but you could
argue that physics, as always, is aided by mathematics).Of course, Darwin’s elegant exposition of the Origin of the Species
directly challenged the prevailing orthodoxy like the others above but, like Galileo, its effects upon the religious groups resound
to this very day.

Sigmund Freud (May 6, 1856 to Sept. 23, 1939) founded psychoanalysis, a treatment technique that involves the patient talking
to a psychoanalyst.
Credit: Everett - Art / Shutterstock.com

Though his ideas were controversial, Sigmund Freud was one of the most influential scientists in the fields of psychology and
psychiatry. It has been over 100 years since Freud published his theories, yet he still influences what we think about personality
and the mind.

Life Freud was born to a wool merchant and his second wife, Jakob and Amalie, in Freiberg, Moravia, in the Austro-Hungarian
Empire, on May 6, 1856. This town is now known as Příbor and is located in the Czech Republic.

For most of his life, he was raised in Vienna, and he was married there in 1886 to Martha Bernays. They had six children. His
daughter, Anna Freud, also became a distinguished psychoanalyst.In 1909, Freud came to the United States and made a
presentation of his theories at Clark University in Massachusetts. This was his first presentation outside of Vienna. By this point,
he was very famous, even with laymen.

In 1923, at age 67, Freud was diagnosed with cancer of the jaw after many years of smoking cigars. His treatment included 30
operations over the next 16 years, according to the PBS program, "A Science Odyssey."

Freud lived his adult life in Vienna until it was occupied by Germany in 1938. Though Jewish, Freud's fame saved him, for the
most part. The Nazi party burned his books throughout Germany, but they let him leave Austria after briefly confiscating his
passport. He and his wife fled to England, where he died in September 1939.

Work In 1873, Freud entered the University of Vienna medical school. In 1882, he became a clinical assistant at the General
Hospital in Vienna and trained with psychiatrist Theodor Meynert and Hermann Nothnagel, a professor of internal medicine. By
1885, Freud had completed important research on the brain's medulla and was appointed lecturer in neuropathology,
according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. Freud's friend, Josef Breuer, a physician and physiologist, had a large impact on the
course of Freud's career. Breuer told his friend about using hypnosis to cure a patient, Bertha Pappenheim (referred to as Anna
O.), of what was then called hysteria. Breuer would hypnotize her, and she was able to talk about things she could not
remember in a conscious state. Her symptoms were relieved afterwards. This became known as the "talking cure." Freud then
traveled to Paris to study further under Jean-Martin Charcot, a neurologist famous for using hypnosis to treat hysteria. After
this new line of study, Freud returned to his hometown in 1886 and opened a practice that specialized in nervous and brain
disorders. He found that hypnosis didn't work as well as he had hoped. He instead developed a new way to get people to talk
freely. He would have patients lie back on a couch so that they were comfortable and then he would tell them to talk about
whatever popped into their head. Freud would write down whatever the person would say, and analyze what they had said.
This method of treatment is called free association. He published his findings with Breuer in 1895, in a paper called Studien über
Hysterie (Studies in Hysteria). In 1896, Freud coined the term psychoanalysis. This is the treatment of mental disorders,
emphasizing on the unconscious mental processes. It is also called "depth psychology." Freud also developed what he thought
of as the three agencies of the human personality, called the id, ego and superego. The id is the primitive instincts, such as sex
and aggression. The ego is the "self" part of the personality that interacts with the world in which the person lives. The
superego is the part of the personality that is ethical and creates the moral standards for the ego. In 1900, Freud broke ground
in psychology by publishing his book "The Interpretation of Dreams." In his book, Freud named the mind's energy libido and
said that the libido needed to be discharged to ensure pleasure and prevent pain. If it wasn't released physically, the mind's
energy would be discharged through dreams. The book explained Freud's belief that dreams were simply wish fulfillment and
that the analysis of dreams could lead to treatment for neurosis. He concluded that there were two parts to a dream. The
"manifest content" was the obvious sight and sounds in the dream and the "latent content" was the dream's hidden
meaning. "The Interpretation of Dreams" took two years to write. He only made $209 from the book, and it took eight years to
sell 600 copies, according to PBS. In 1901, he published "The Psychopathology of Everyday Life," which gave life to the saying
"Freudian slip." Freud theorized that forgetfulness or slips of the tongue are not accidental. They are caused by the "dynamic
unconscious" and reveal something meaningful about the person. In 1902, Freud became a professor at the University of
Vienna. Soon, he gained followers and formed what was called the Psychoanalytic Society. Groups like this one formed in other
cities, as well. Other famous psychologists, such as Alfred Adler and Carl Jung, were early followers of Freud. In 1905, one of
Feud's most controversial theories, those about sexual drive, was published as "Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie (Three
Contributions to the Sexual Theory)." He theorized that sexual drive is a large factor in determining a person's psychology, even
in infants, an idea he had touched upon in earlier works. He also developed the theory of the "Oedipus complex." This theory
states that boys have sexual attractions toward their mothers that can create jealousy toward the father. Another of Freud's
controversial sexual theories was talked about in his 1933 lecture titled "Femininity." The theory, which he called "penis envy,"
stated that females become envious of penises as children, and this envy manifests as a daughter's love for her father and the
desire to give birth to a son, because those are as close as she would ever get to having a penis of her own. Freud is often joked
about for his propensity to assign everything with sexual meaning. A likely apocryphal story is that, when someone suggested
that the cigars he smoked were phallic symbols, Freud reportedly said, "Sometimes a cigar is just a cigar." Some have called this
"Freud’s ultimate anti-Freudian joke." However, there is no written record that this quote actually came from Freud, according
to Alan C. Elms in a paper published in 2001 in the Annual of Psychoanalysis. There has been much arguing in psychology and
psychiatry circles about Freud's theories during his life and since his death, which may just prove his ideas, according to some.
"Freud discovered and taught about the unconscious mind and psychological defenses, including denial and repression," said
Dr. Carole Lieberman, a Beverly Hills psychiatrist who studied under Anna Freud at her London clinic and practices Freudian
psychoanalytic therapy. "So, in fact, in trying to deny Freud's insights, people are actually affirming them."
Panitikan.
mga panitikan ay ang mainam na pagsulat na may anyo, pananaw,at diwang nakasasanhi ng matagal na pagkawili at gana.
Samakatuwid, may hugis, maypunto de bista at nakapagpapahaba ng interes ng mambabasa ang isang sulatingpampanitikan.
Nagsasalaysay ng buhay, pamumuhay, lipunan, pamahalaan, pananampalataya at mga karanasang kaugnay ng iba't ibang uri ng
damdaming tulad ngpag-ibig, kaligayahan, kalungkutan, pag-asa, pagkapoot, paghihiganti, pagkasuklam,sindak at pangamba.Ito
ang isang dahilan kung bakit pinag-aaralan ang larangan ngliteratura sa mga paaralan.
May dalawang pangunahing anyo ang panitikan:
1. tuluyan o prosa
(Ingles: prose) - maluwang na pagsasama-sama ng mga salita sa loob
ng pangungusap. Ito ay nasusulat sa karaniwang takbo ng pangungusap o pagpapahayag.
2. patula o panulaan (Ingles: poetry) - pagbubuo ng pangungusap sa pamamagitan ngsalitang binibilang na pantig sa taludtod na
pinagtugma-tugma, at nagpapahayag din ngmga salitang binibilang ang mga pantig at pagtutugma-tugma ng mga dulo ng
mgataludtod sa isang saknong.
.Anyo at Uri ng Panitikan
1. tuluyan o prosa (Ingles: prose) - maluwang na pagsasama-sama ng mga salita sa loobng pangungusap. Ito ay nasusulat
sa karaniwang takbo ng pangungusap o pagpapahayag
2. .a. Alamat - isang uri ng panitikan na nagkukuwento tungkol sa mga pinagmulan ng mgabagay-bagay sa daigdig.
Karaniwang nagsasalaysay ang mga ito ng mga pangyayarihinggil sa tunay na mga tao at pook, at mayroong
pinagbatayan sa kasaysayan. Kaugnayang alamat ng mga mito at kuwentong-bayan.
3. b. Anekdota - isang uri ng akdang tuluyan na tumatalakay sa kakaiba o kakatwangpangyayaring naganap sa buhay
ng isang kilala, sikat o tanyag na tao. Ito ay maydalawang uri: kata-kata at hango sa totoong buhay. Ito rin ang mga
ginagawa ng mgapagpapaliwanag sa mga ginagawa ng mga tao.
4. c. Nobela o kathambuhay- isang mahabang kuwentong piksyon na binubuo ng iba't ibangkabanata. Mayroon itong
60,000-200,000 salita o 300-1,300 pahina. Noong ika-18 siglo,naging istilo nito ang lumang pag-ibig at naging bahagi
ng mga pangunahing literarygenre. Ngayon, ito ay kadalasan may istilong artistiko at isang tiyak na istilo o
maramingtiyak na istilo.
5. d. Pabula - isang uri ng kathang-isip na panitikan kung saan mga hayop o kaya mgabagay na walang-buhay ang
gumaganap na mga tauhan, katulad ng leon at daga, pagongat matsing, at lobo at kambing. May natatanging kaisipang
mahahango mula sa mgapabula, sapagkat nagbibigay ng mga moral na aral para sa mga batang mambabasa.Tinatawag
din itong kathang kuwentong nagbibigay-aral.
6. e. Parabula ay maikling salaysay na maaaring nasa anyong patula o prosa na malimitnangangaral o nagpapayo hinggil
sa isang pangyayari, na kadalasang isinasalarawan angisang moral o relihiyosong aral. Taliwas sa pabula, ang parabula
ay walang inilalahok natauhang hayop, halaman, bagay, at puwersa sa kalikasan na pawang kumikilos atnagsasalita
gaya ng tao.