Ampere

Ampere

Demonstration model of a moving iron ammeter. As

the current through the coil increases, the plunger
is drawn further into the coil and the pointer
deflects to the right.

Unit information

Unit system SI base unit

Unit of Electric current

Symbol A

Named after André-Marie Ampère

The ampere (/ˈæmpɪər, æmˈpɪər/;[1] symbol: A),[2] often shortened to "amp",[3] is the base
unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI).[4][5] It is named after André-
Marie Ampère (1775–1836), French mathematician and physicist, considered the father
of electrodynamics.
The International System of Units defines the ampere in terms of other base units by measuring
the electromagnetic force between electrical conductors carrying electric current. The
earlier CGS measurement system had two different definitions of current, one essentially the
same as the SI's and the other using electric charge as the base unit, with the unit of charge
defined by measuring the force between two charged metal plates. The ampere was then
defined as one coulomb of charge per second.[6] In SI, the unit of charge, the coulomb, is
defined as the charge carried by one ampere during one second.

Definition

Illustration of the definition of the ampere unit

SI defines ampere as follows:
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of
infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum,
would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2×10−7newtons per metre of
length.[4][7]
Ampère's force law[8][9] states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel
wires carrying an electric current. This force is used in the formal definition of the ampere.
The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, "is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current
of 1 ampere".[10] Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a
given point per second:

In general, charge Q is determined by steady current I flowing for a time t as Q = It.

Constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes (as in "the charging
current is 1.2 A") and the charge accumulated, or passed through a circuit over a period of
time is expressed in coulombs (as in "the battery charge is 30000 C"). The relation of the
ampere (C/s) to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt (J/s) to the joule.

History[edit]
Main article: International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units
The ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in
the centimetre–gram–second system of units. That unit, now known as the abampere, was
defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of
length between two wires one centimetre apart.[11] The size of the unit was chosen so that
the units derived from it in the MKSA system would be conveniently sized.
The "international ampere" was an early realization of the ampere, defined as the current
that would deposit 0.001118 grams of silver per second from a silver
nitrate solution.[12]Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current
is 0.99985 A.
Since power is defined as the product of current and voltage, the ampere can alternatively
be expressed in terms of the other units using the relationship I=P/V, and thus 1 ampere
equals 1 W/V. Current can be measured by a multimeter, a device that can measure
electrical voltage, current, and resistance.

Realization[edit]
The standard ampere is most accurately realized using a Kibble balance, but is in practice
maintained via Ohm's law from the units of electromotive force and resistance, the volt and
the ohm, since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to
reproduce, the Josephson junction and the quantum Hall effect, respectively.[13]
At present, techniques to establish the realization of an ampere have a relative
uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 107, and involve realizations of the watt, the
ohm and the volt.[13]

Proposed future definition[edit]

Main articles: New SI definitions and CODATA 2018
Rather than a definition in terms of the force between two current-carrying wires, it has
been proposed that the ampere should be defined in terms of the rate of flow of
elementary charges.[9] Since a coulomb is approximately equal
to 6.2415093×1018 elementary charges (such as those carried by protons, or the negative of
those carried by electrons), one ampere is approximately equivalent
to 6.2415093×1018 elementary charges moving past a boundary in one second.
(6.2415093×1018 is the reciprocal of the value of the elementary charge in coulombs.[14])
The proposed change would define 1 A as being the current in the direction of flow of a
particular number of elementary charges per second. In 2005, the International Committee
for Weights and Measures (CIPM) agreed to study the proposed change. The new
definition was discussed at the 25th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM)
in 2014 but for the time being was not adopted.
Andre-Marie Ampere (1775 – 1836) was a French scientist and mathematician who is most
famous for being one of the founders of the field of electromagnetism. Among other things,
Ampere was the first to discover that magnetism could be produced without magnets; wrote
the foundational test of electromagnetism; and formulated the Ampere’s force law. He also
played a key role in the development of the galvanometer; and invented and coined a term
forsolenoid. Apart from his work in physics, Ampere also recognized the existence of the
element fluorine and made an attempt to organize the elements into a periodic table. Know
more about the work of Andre-Marie Ampere by studying his 10 major contributions to science.

#1 HE RECOGNIZED THE EXISTENCE OF THE ELEMENT FLUORINE AND COINED THE TERM FOR

IT

In 1810, Andre-Marie Ampere proposed that hydrofluoric acid was a compound of hydrogen
and an unknown element, whose properties, he said, were similar to chlorine. He coined the
term fluorine for this element and suggested that it could be isolated by electrolysis. It was 76
years later that French chemist Henri Moissan finally isolated fluorine. He did so by electrolysis
as had been suggested by Ampere.
Electrolysis equations for the extraction of fluorine from hydrofluoric acid

#2 HE CORRECTLY IDENTIFIED THAT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS SHOULD BE ORGANIZED

ACCORDING TO THEIR PROPERTIES

In 1816, Ampere proposed that chemical elements should be listed according to their
properties. Only 48 elements were known at that time and Ampere tried to fit them in 15
groups. Though his attempt to form a reasonably accurate periodic table fell far short, he did
successfully group the alkali metals, the alkali earth metals and the halogens. It was 53 years
after Ampere’s attempt that Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published his renowned
periodic table.
 Portrait of Andre Marie Ampere

#3 HE DEVISED A POPULAR RULE IN ELECTROMAGNETISM KNOWN AS THE RIGHT-HAND GRIP

RULE

In April 1820, Danish scientist Hans Christian Oersted discovered that a flow of electric current
in a wire deflected a nearby magnetic needle. When Andre-Marie Ampere found this, he
became engrossed in this new line of research. He worked out a rule, known as Ampere’s right-
hand grip rule, to find the direction of deflection of a compass needle in relation to the direction
in which the electric current flowed along the wire. In this rule, if the observer’s right hand is
imagined gripping the wire through which the current flows, with the thumb pointing along the
wire in the direction of the current. Then the fingers, curling around the wire, indicate the
direction in which the compass needle will be deflected. Ampere’s rule is still used by students
to calculate the direction of magnetic lines of force.
 Diagram of Ampere’s
right-hand grip rule

#4 AMPERE WAS THE FIRST TO DISCOVER THAT MAGNETISM COULD BE PRODUCED WITHOUT

MAGNETS

Oersted found the first connection between electricity and magnetism in April 1820. In
September of the same year, only a week after witnessing a demonstration of Oersted’s
experiment, Andre-Marie Ampere discovered that two parallel wires carrying electric currents
repel or attract each other, depending on whether the currents flow in the same or opposite
directions, respectively. Ampere thus showed, for the first time ever, that magnetic attraction
and repulsion could be produced without the use of magnets.
Diagram depicting attraction and repulsion between current carrying wires due to
electromagnetism

#5 HE FORMULATED THE AMPERE’S FORCE LAW IN 1823

Andre-Marie Ampere applied mathematics to his experiments with electromagnetism to

formulate physical laws. The most important of these is called Ampere’s force law which he
formulated in 1823. It states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two wires
carrying currents is proportional to their lengths and the intensities of current passing through
them. The physical origin of this force is that each wire generates a magnetic field. A few
decades later, Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell extended Ampere’s law to
formulate Ampere’s circuital law. Ampere’s circuital law is one of the famous Maxwell’s
equations, which form the foundation of classical electromagnetism, quantum field theory,
classical optics, and electric circuits.
 Diagram explaining
Ampere’s force law

#6 HE PROPOSED AN ADVANCED THEORY EXPLAINING THE EARTH’S MAGNETISM

His research on electromagnetism led Ampere to propose that magnetism was produced
byelectricity in motion. Thus for the earth to act like a magnet, there must be currents
circulating in it. Today we know that earth’s magnetic field is similar to that produced by a
slightly angled magnetized bar. Scientists believe that macroscopic currents are at the origin of
the magnetic field. The “dynamo” effect that generates these currents within the Earth, is
currently an important subject of study.
 Computer simulation of the
Earth’s magnetic field

#7 ANDRE-MARIE AMPERE WROTE THE FOUNDATIONAL TEST OF ELECTRODYNAMICS

 Ampere’s greatest work – Memoir on the
Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena

In 1826, Ampere’s work Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena,

Uniquely Deduced from Experience was published. Among other things, it contained a
mathematical derivation of the electrodynamic force law and described four experiments.
Ampere thus coined the name electrodynamics for the new science. Today the term is used
interchangeably with electromagnetism. Ampere’s memoir on electrodynamics is regarded
as the foundational text in the field. It was hugely influential; and studied and discussed by
physicists from Weber to Maxwell and beyond.

#8 HE THEORIZED THE EXISTENCE OF A PARTICLE SIMILAR TO AN ELECTRON

To explain the relationship between electricity and magnetism, Andre-Marie Ampere theorized
the existence of a new particle he called an“electrodynamic molecule”. This may be thought
as a forerunner to the idea of the electron. Ampere rightly believed that huge numbers of these
microscopic charged particles were moving in electric conductors, causing electric and magnetic
phenomena.

#9 HE PLAYED A KEY ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GALVANOMETER

At the time of Ampere, there was no instrument to detect the presence and intensity of current
in a battery. He used the deflection of the magnetic needle due to a current carrying wire to
measure the flow of electricity. He thus played an important role in the development of
galvanometer, an instrument for detecting and measuring electric current. Ampere was also
the one to name the instrument after Italian physicist Luigi Galvani. Other contributions of
Andre-Marie Ampere to physics include inventing and coining a term for solenoid, a coil wound
into a tightly packed helix that acts like a magnet when a current passes through it.

An
illustration of a solenoid

#10 AMPERE IS REGARDED AS ONE OF THE FOUNDERS OF THE FIELD OF ELECTROMAGNETISM

Ampere produced a theory of electromagnetism that set the subject on a mathematical

foundation. In recognition of his contribution to the creation of modern electrical science, an
international convention in 1881 named the standard unit of measurement of electric current,
the ampere, after him. For his immense contribution to the field, Andre-Marie Ampere is
considered one of the founders of the science of electromagnetism. He was one of the most
influential scientists of early 19th century.
Michael Faraday (1791 – 1867) was an English scientist who made an immense contribution to
physics and chemistry especially in the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. Among
his inventions are the first electric motor and the first electromagnetic generator. His
discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction,
diamagnetism and electrolysis. He also discovered the principle of electrostatic shielding to
invent the Faraday Cage and found the first experimental evidence that linked
electromagnetism and light through a phenomenon known as Faraday Effect. Michael Faraday
is considered one of the most influential scientists in history. Here are his 10 major
contributions to science including his inventions, discoveries and monumental work in
electromagnetism.

#1 MICHAEL FARADAY INVENTED THE FIRST ELECTRIC MOTOR

In 1820, Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Orsted discovered that flow of electric
current through a wire produced a magnetic field. His discovery of electromagnetism initiated
intensive research in the field. Michael Faraday was the first to understand that this discovery
meant that if a magnetic pole could be isolated, it ought to move constantly in a circle around a
current-carrying wire. In 1822, Faraday invented the first electric motor, a simple device that
could convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Known as a homopolar motor, his
invention was useful only for demonstrative purposes. However, it was the first step in the
evolution of the immensely useful electric motor.
 Diagram of Faraday’s Electric
Motor

#2 HE DISCOVERED BENZENE

Michael Faraday achieved his early renown as a chemist. He made many important
contributions to chemistry. In 1820, Faraday produced the first known compounds made from
carbon and chlorine, hexachloroethane (C2Cl6) and tetrachloroethene (C2Cl4). In 1825, he
isolated and identified benzene from the oily residue derived from the production of
illuminating gas. Faraday’s discovery of benzene was significant as benzene is one of the most
important substances in chemistry. It is immensely useful for both practical purposes, like
making new materials; and theoretical purposes, like understanding chemical bonding.
Various representations of Benzene

#3 HE WAS THE FIRST TO LIQUEFY CHLORINE AND AMMONIA

John Dalton had theorized that all gases could be liquefied. Michael Faraday provided evidence
for this fact by applying pressure to liquefy chlorine gas and ammonia gas for the first time.
These were till then believed to be “permanent gases”, or gases incapable of liquefaction.
During ammonia liquefaction, Faraday also noted that when he allowed the ammonia to
evaporate again, it caused cooling. This discovery showed that mechanical pumps could
transform a gas at room temperature into a liquid; this liquid could be evaporated to produce
cooling and the resulting gas could be compressed into that liquid again. This cycleis the basis of
how modern refrigerators and freezers work.

#4 MICHAEL FARADAY DISCOVERED THE PHENOMENON OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

In 1831, Faraday conducted his most famous experiment. He wrapped two wires around the
opposite ends of an iron ring. He plugged one wire into a galvanometer, and watched it as he
connected the other wire to a battery. When he connected and disconnected the wire to the
battery, a transient current was produced which could be seen in the galvanometer. This
induction was due to the change in magnetic flux that occurred when the battery was
connected and disconnected. It was thus a manifestation of electromagnetic induction. The
phenomenon responsible for Faraday’s experiment is now known as mutual induction. It occurs
when change in current in one inductor induces a voltage in another nearby inductor. It is
important for being the mechanism by which transformers work.

Drawing of
Michael Faraday’s famous 1831 experiment showing electromagnetic induction between coils
of wire

#5 HIS WORK LAID THE BASIS FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Following his famous experiment, Faraday found other manifestations of electromagnetic
induction. He discovered that if a permanent magnet was quickly moved in and out of a coil of
wire, a current was induced in the coil. The current also flowed if the loop was moved over a
stationary magnet. Faraday’s experiments established that a changing magnetic field produces
an electric field. This relation was modeled mathematically by Scottish scientist James Clerk
Maxwell as the Maxwell–Faraday equation, one of the four Maxwell equations. Maxwell–
Faraday equation plays a fundamental role in classical electromagnetism. It is a generalization
ofFaraday’s law of induction which predicts how a magnetic field will interact with an electric
circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF). Faraday’s law is the basic operating principle of
transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors.

Diagram
explaining Faraday’s law of induction

#6 MICHAEL FARADAY INVENTED THE FIRST ELECTROMAGNETIC GENERATOR

Michael Faraday explained electromagnetism through a concept he called lines of force. He

discovered that the magnitude of current produced by magnets was proportional to thenumber
of lines of force cut by the conductor in unit time. He invented a device which could produce a
steady (DC) current by rotating a copper disc between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. The
outside of the disk would cut more lines than the inside, and thus there would be a continuous
current produced in the circuit linking the rim to the center. Known as theFaraday disc, this was
the first electromagnetic generator, a device which converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy. It was also the starting point for modern dynamos, the first electrical generators
capable of delivering power for industry.

Model of
Faraday’s disk, the first electric generator

#7 HE FORMULATED THE FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS

In 1832, while conducting investigations into the nature of electricity, Faraday formulated
histwo laws of electrolysis. The first law states that the amount of a substance deposited on
each electrode of an electrolytic cell is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed
through the cell. The second law states that the quantities of different elements deposited by a
given amount of electricity are in the ratio of their chemical equivalent weights. These laws
arevital to our understanding of electrode reactions. Michael Faraday was thus one of the key
figures in the development of the science of electrochemistry.
 Diagrammatic explanation of Faraday’s
first law of electrolysis

#8 HE DISCOVERED THE PRINCIPLE OF ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING TO INVENT THE FARADAY

CAGE

In 1836, Faraday observed that the excess charge on a charged conductor resides only on its
exterior and had no influence on anything enclosed within it. This happens as an external
electrical field causes the electric charges within the cage’s conducting material to be
distributed such that they cancel the field’s effect in the cage’s interior. Faraday applied this
principle to invent the Faraday Cage, which is an enclosure used to block electric fields. Faraday
cages are still used for various purposes like to protect people and equipment against lightning
strikes and to create dead zones for mobile communications. In 1843, Michael Faraday
conducted his famous ice pail experiment to demonstrate this shielding effect. This experiment
was the first precise quantitative experiment on electrostatic charge and is still widely used in
physics lectures to teach the principles of electrostatics.

A Faraday
cage in operation, the children inside are protected from the electric arc by the cage

#9 HE PROVIDED FIRST EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE THAT LINKED ELECTROMAGNETISM AND

LIGHT
 Michael Faraday

In 1845, Michael Faraday discovered that the plane of polarization of light was rotated due to a
magnetic fieldand the angle of rotation was proportional to the strength of the magnetic force.
This phenomenon is known as the Faraday Effect or Faraday rotation. It occurs in most optically
transparent dielectric materials (including liquids) under the influence of magnetic fields. The
Faraday Effect is a magneto-optical phenomenon and it provided the first experimental
evidence that electromagnetism and light are related. Later, in 1864, James Maxwell
established that light is an electromagnetic wave.

#10 FARADAY DEMONSTRATED DIAMAGNETISM AS A PROPERTY OF ALL MATTER

Diamagnetic materials are those which create an induced magnetic field in a direction opposite
to an externally applied magnetic field, and are repelled by the applied magnetic
field. Paramagnetic materials behave oppositely and are attracted by an externally applied
magnetic field. Diamagnetic behaviour was first observed in certain materials in 1778. Michael
Faraday demonstrated that Diamagnetism was a property exhibited by all substances (in either
a diamagnetic or paramagnetic way). Diamagnetism in materials, induced by very strong
modern magnets, can be used to produce levitation.

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (German: [hɛɐʦ]; 22 February 1857 – 1 January 1894) was a German
physicist who first conclusively proved the existence of the electromagnetic waves theorized by
James Clerk Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light.

As a background on Hertz (whose complete name is Heinrich Rudolf Hertz), he is a German

physicist and an experimentalist who showed that the electromagnetic waves that were
previously predicted by James Clerk Maxwell really do exist. He proved the Theory of
Electromagnetism.
One of Heinrich Hertz’ inventions showed that light and heat are electromagnetic radiations. He
proved that the speed and length of electromagnetic waves can be identified and measured.
Moreover, Heinrich Hertz’ experiment proved that electromagnetic waves can transport
electricity, and these waves contain light properties, especially that they travel at the speed of
light.

One Heinrich Hertz’ facts is that the “Hertzian waves” are electromagnetic waves, and these
waves were named after him. These waves are also now known as radio waves.

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz also discovered the photoelectric effect.

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz’ peers had honored him by associating his last name to the unit of
frequency wherein a cycle per second is called one hertz

Maxwell is best known for his research in electromagnetic radiation, which unites the
sciences of electricity, magnetism and optics.
Electricity flows through many metals because of the movement of electrons amongst the
atoms of the metal. Moving electrons also produce a magnetic field, the strength of which
depends on the number of moving electrons.

Electromagnets combine electricity and magnetism within one device, and fluctuating electron
movements create electromagnetic waves.

Maxwell saw analogies between the speeds of travel of electromagnetic waves and of light, and
devised four important mathematical equations which formulated these and other
relationships between electricity and magnetism.

Some of Maxwell's results prompted Albert Einstein's research in relativity. Einstein is quoted
as saying: 'One scientific epoch ended and another began with James Clerk Maxwell
Maxwell, one of the greatest physicists of the nineteenth century, was the founder of a
consistent theory of electromagnetism. However, it must be noted that significant discoveries
and intelligent efforts of Coulomb, Volta, Ampére, Oersted, Faraday, Gauss, Poisson,
Helmholtz and others preceded the work of Maxwell, enhancing a partial understanding of
the connection between electricity and magnetism. Maxwell, by sheer logic and physical
understanding of the earlier discoveries completed the unification of electricity and
magnetism. The aim of this article is to describe Maxwell's contribution to electricity and
magnetism

Maxwell, one of the greatest physicists of the nineteenth century, was the founder of a
consistent theory of electromagnetism. However, it must be noted that significant discoveries
and intelligent efforts of Coulomb, Volta, Ampére, Oersted, Faraday, Gauss, Poisson,
Helmholtz and others preceded the work of Maxwell, enhancing a partial understanding of
the connection between electricity and magnetism. Maxwell, by sheer logic and physical
understanding of the earlier discoveries completed the unification of electricity and
magnetism. The aim of this article is to describe Maxwell's contribution to electricity and
magnetism

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS FORM THE BASIS OF CLASSICAL ELECTROMAGNETISM

Maxwell’s equations accurately and completely describe electromagnetism. They form

thefoundation of classical electromagnetism, classical optics and electric circuits. Maxwell’s
equations describe how electric charges and electric currents create electric and magnetic
fields. Further, they describe how an electric field can generate a magnetic field, and vice versa.
Individually, the four equations are: Gauss’s law, which allows you to calculate the electric field
created by a charge; Gauss’s law for magnetism, which can be used to calculate the magnetic
field; Faraday’s law, which describes how a time varying magnetic field creates an electric field;
and Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s addition, which states that magnetic fields can be generated
in two ways: by electric current (Ampere’s law) and by changing electric fields (Maxwell’s
addition). There are innumerable applications of Maxwell’s equations. Any device that uses
electricity or magnets is on a fundamental level built upon the them.

HE ACCURATELY DESCRIBED THE REASON FOR THE STABILITY OF RINGS OF SATURN

Rings of Saturn are the most extensive ring system of any planet in the Solar System. In
1610,Galileo Galilei became the first person to observe Saturn’s rings. During the time of
Maxwell, it was not known how they could remain stable without breaking up, drifting away or
crashing into Saturn. While still in his twenties, Maxwell devoted two years to study this
problem, which had eluded scientists for 200 years. He proposed that a regular solid ring could
not be stable, while a fluid ring would be forced by wave action to break up into blobs. Maxwell
thus concluded that the rings must be composed of numerous small particles he called “brick-
bats”, each independently orbiting Saturn. In 1859, he won the prestigious Adams Prize,
awarded by the University of Cambridge, for his essay “On the stability of the motion of Saturn’s
rings”. In 1980, more than a century later, Maxwell’s prediction was confirmed by images sent
back by spacecraft Voyager 2. We now know that Saturn’s rings consist of countless small
particles, ranging from a micrometer to a meter in size.

Voyager 2 image of Saturn, its rings and

four of its moons