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Renal System I TOLO – Week 2
Lecture 8: Tubular Function 2 (Vallon)
1. For the distal nephron, list the fractional reabsorption (FR) of water
and sodium chloride in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and
combined connecting tubule/collecting duct (CNT/CD) during water
loading and during dehydration
DCT – two parts
2. Identify the location (cortex, outer medulla, inner medulla) of the
DCT, CNT, and the three segments of the CD
DCT 1, 2, Connecting tubule,
cortical CD, Outer medullary CD and inner medullary CD
From DCT2 – IMCD, there are principal cells and first part of the intercalated cells
Second half of IMCD there is Principal cells
The DCT2, CNT, and CCD all function to NaCl, K, acidbase
OMCD acid base with intercolated cells
IMCD – Na (ANP), and urea (ADH)
Principal cells are from DCT2 to IMCD ADh regulated water permeability
ENaC resabsorbs 13% filtered Na+
1. Creates a lumen negative transepithelium potential (TEP) which allows for passive absorption of
Cl if Na is absorbed
There is more in the DCT2 / CNT > CCD, and regulated by aldosterone
1. Aldosterone is triggered by low salt intake, Ang II, and High levels of K+
2. Aldosterone will increase ENaC, and ROMK (K+), which will enhance the TEP, which will
increase Cl reabsorption
Cell type Purpose Location Transporters Altered by?
48% Na DCT NCC inhibit by Thiazide
Stimulated by low NaCl, Ang II, sympathetic, high K+
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
3. Correlate each of the following with the correct distal nephron segment(s) (DCT, CNT/CD) and cell type:
a) Sodium reabsorption by a channel, naming the channel – DCT1
NCC (48%) of sodium – Na Cl Cotransporter
Regulated by low NaCl intake, Ang II, sympathetic tone
Inhibited by high NaCl intake, also regulated by K in plasma
TARGET FOR THIAZIDE DIURETICS
b) Sodium reabsorption by a channel regulated by ANP IMCD
Apical Na+ channel – inhibited by ANP, which is released if there is stretch in heart
ANP increases natriuresis and GFR, and inhibits renin
c) Sodium chloride reabsorption by a cotransporter, naming the
cotransporter
d) Potassium reabsorption, naming the apical transporter
Type A luminal HK ATPase
e) Potassium secretion, naming the channel
ROMK, BK
f) Hydrogen ion secretion, naming two apical transporters and
identifying the important ion that is reabsorbed as a consequence of
this secretion
The H+ that is secreted can either bind to ammonia and be NH4+, or it can bind to other HCO3 and cause it to
be transported back in
g) Ammonia secretion, naming the channel – Type A intercalated cells
Rh C glycoprotein (RHCG) – binds to H+ to be NH4+ and secreted as ammonium
h) Bicarbonate secretion, naming the apical transporter and the clinical condition in which this transport process is
important – Type B intercalated cells
Forms bicarb and bicarb is secreted by Cl HCO3 exchanger called pendrin
And H+ ATPase secretes acid into the blood
i) Water reabsorption in the presence of ADH, naming the channel
j) Urea reabsorption, naming the transporter and the hormone that increases its activity, and explaining the importance
of the specific location of this reabsorption within the distal nephron
4. Identify the transporter(s) that is(are):
a) Inhibited by thiazide diuretics
The NCC transporter for 48% of sodium
b) Inhibited by triamterene and amiloride
The principal cells of
DCT2/CNT/CCD, which absorb
13% of the sodium
5. For the hormone aldosterone:
List two factors that stimulate its
secretion
Ang II, low salt intake, K+
Name the aldosterone receptor
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
MLDO
This receptor inhibits Nedd4, which ubiquitinizes ENaC
Briefly explain how aldosterone affects sodium and potassium transport in the CNT/CCD, identifying the
transporter(s) and enzyme(s) that is(are) stimulated by aldosterone
Increases NaCl reabsorption, K+ secretion, H+ secretion
Name a drug that specifically antagonizes the action of aldosterone
Spironolactone, epierenone
6. Describe the regulation of ANP secretion and its effects
Released from heart/atria when there is high volume/distention
Increases natiuresis and GFR, inhibits renin release and inhibits the apical Na+ channels in the IMCD
7. Name two solutes secreted by type A intercalated cells (ICs) and one solute reabsorbed by them, and name the primary
mechanism that matches acid excretion to acid load
Secretes H+ and NH3, reabsorbs H2CO3, and this is good way to produce more
HCO3 to put into the blood to decrease acid load
8. Appreciate that type A ICs can convert to type B ICs and vice versa to facilitate the
regulation of acidbase balance by the kidney
9. Name two apical transporters in nonA, nonB ICs and identify the main function of
these cells
Aldosterone / Ang II stimulated Cl reabsorption
This is the same as the B cell, but you move the H ATPase to the other side
POTASSIUMMMMMM
10. Name two mediators and an abnormal extracellular pH that stimulate the uptake of potassium by cells
Normally, K+ is inside
11. Given a typical dietary intake of 100 mEq of potassium
per day, predict the urinary excretion of potassium; name a
hormone that regulates potassium excretion, and explain
the relationship between chronic kidney disease,
hyperkalemia, and colonic potassium secretion
If you take 100 mEq, you will urinate 92 mEq
In the principal cells, you have ENaC and NaK
ATPase that creates strong TEP and facilitates K
secretion through ROMK and BK channel
Wtf is this .
If you kidney have problem, then colon will take over and K+ secrete
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
12. On a normal potassium diet, a low potassium diet, and a high potassium diet:
a) For the PT and the thick AL, list the approximate FRK and describe the major transport route
Not dietary dependent, proximal reabsorption (70%), loop (25% reabsoprtion
b) Describe overall potassium transport in the distal nephron, naming the major cell type(s) and tubular segment(s)
that are most responsible for this potassium transport
Dietary dependent!!! Can reabsorb 5% or secrete up to 150%
13. List the important factors or conditions that increase potassium secretion in the distal nephron and briefly explain the reason
for each, including the role of NCC where appropriate
High Plasma K+ and aldosterone , High amounts of Na delivery ENaC increase K+ secretion
Low luminal Na+ delivery, ENaC inhibitor, ALDO antagonist, low plasma and aldo dec K+ secretion
14. Predict and briefly explain the effect of the diuretic drugs on potassium secretion (also discussed in the Diuretics and
Antidiuretics lecture)
URINE DILUTION AND CONCENTRATION
15. Briefly explain why the processes of urinary concentration and urinary dilution are so important
Brain cells cannot swell that much so Posm needs to stay constant
16. For a young healthy adult, list the normal range for Uosm and predict whether he/she will excrete a hyperosmotic, isoosmotic,
or hypoosmotic urine if: a) Posm = 300 mOsm/kg H2O; b) Posm = 280 mOsm/kg H2O
17. Name the concentrating segment(s) in the nephron and briefly describe how urinary concentration occurs
In the loop of henle – creates the countercurrent multiplication
18. Describe how the osmotic gradient is generated in the medullary interstitium, including the role of countercurrent flow, active
and passive solute reabsorption, and water reabsorption in the loop of Henle
19. Describe the role of countercurrent flow through the vasa recta in maintaining the medullary gradient
In cortical region, solute are absorbed and put into systemic system and in medulla, they are absorbed for gradient
Loop of Henle – generates gradient through the NKCC2 and the countercurrent multiplication
vasa recta (blood flow to medulla – 10% of RBF)– maintains the gradient and there is O2 deprivation
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
Medullary hypoxia and vulnerable are the price for urine concentration
It is permeable to NaCl, urea, and water (AQP1) so water goes out and salts come in At the bottom, the salts
are trapped but the water bypasses the medulla and goes through up the vasa recta
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
20. Name the hormone that regulates Uosm and:
a) Describe the regulation of its secretion by Posm and blood volume, indicating the magnitude of the change in these
regulators that is necessary to change secretion
ADH binds onto PKA, which brings AQP2 to the membrane
Also can upregulate the expression of this transporter
b) List additional regulators of the secretion of this hormone
ADH Can block it through V2 receptor antagonists – which is an aquaretic
c) Name the nephron segment(s), cell type, receptor, and channel that this hormone regulates to regulate U osm
d) Describe the regulation of urea reabsorption by this hormone, explaining the relationship between the regulation
of urea reabsorption and the regulation of Uosm
More urea is brought through vasa recta through UTA2 transporter
Collecting duct with ADH is water permeable, so urea concentration increases as it goes down to the medulla
There are Urea transporters (ADH activated) in the IMCD, so then the urea is reabsorbed in the interstitum near
the bottom
21. Name the diluting segment(s) in the nephron and briefly describe how urinary dilution occurs
Extract solute in thick ascending limb (NKCC2)
and DCT (NCC) – normally diluting segments
As well as CNT and CD
22. On an osmolality scale of 0 to 1200 mOsm/kg H 2O (y
axis), plot TFosm along the proximal tubule (PT), loop
of Henle (LH), CNT/cortical CD, and medullary CD in
the presence of maximum ADH, briefly explaining the
reasons for the changes in TFosm
23. On an osmolality scale of 0 to 1200 mOsm/kg H2O (y
axis), plot TFosm along the PT, LH, CNT/cortical CD, and medullary CD in the absence of ADH, briefly explaining the reasons
for the changes in TFosm
Without ADH , there is less urea that can come out so the medullary gradient decreases
24. Name the disease that causes an individual to produce dilute urine even when dehydrated, list three mutations or deficiencies
that cause the disease, and identify a drug that can cause this condition (also discussed in the Diuretics and Antidiuretics
lecture)
ADH is suppressed by ethanol and diabetes causes impaired ADH responsiveness
Intact urine concentration needs ADH, V2 receptor (for ADH), and Aquaporin 2
Central diabetes insipidus – due to impaired ADH generation because brain problem
Nephrogenic diabetics insipidus – mutations in V2 90%, mutation in AQP2 10%
Can be because of lithium, or lack response to exogenous ADH
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
Lecture 9: ACE Inhibitors and ARBs (Laiken)
1. Describe the (a) synthesis of angiotensin II (Ang II) and its regulation; (b) two classes of Ang II
receptors; (c) major effects of Ang II (review from Cardiovascular System I)
A) synthesis of Ang II from Ang I is done by renin, which is produced by the granular cells
of the kidney
o Renin is regulated by sympathetic division, renal BRs, Macula densa, and hormones
(Ang II, and ANP)
o Decrease stretch on arterial BR, inc sympathetic tone to kidney by b1, inc renin secretion
Major effects of Ang II
o CV system – hypertrophy, remodeling, rapid pressor effects (vasoconstriction) inc BP
o Adrenal cortex produce aldosterone which inc salt and H20 retention
2. Appreciate that (a) Ang II can be synthesized by alternative pathways; (b) additional Ang peptides can be generated
from angiotensinogen; (c) the enzymes involved in (a) and (b) and the receptors for the additional Ang peptides
represent potential therapeutic targets
CHYM in the heart can do what ACE does. There is also secondary ACE that can create more ANG II, which
acts on Mas receptors
3. Describe the direct and indirect
mechanisms for Ang IImediated sodium
retention and volume expansion
4.
For each of the following isolated interventions, predict the effect (increased, decreased, cannot be predicted) on renal
plasma flow (RPF), glomerular filtration rate (GFR), and glomerular capillary hydraulic pressure (P GC): (a)
constriction of the afferent arteriole; (b) constriction of the efferent arteriole; (c) dilation of the afferent arteriole; (d)
dilation of the efferent arteriole (review from the Regulation of RBF and GFR lecture)
A) constrict AA will cause decrease in RPF, decrease in GFR,
decrease in Pgc
B) Constrict EA will cause decrease in RPF, decrease in GFR,
increase in Pgc
C) dilate AA will increase RPF, increase GFR, increase Pgc
D) dilate EA will increase RPF, increase GFR, decrease Pgc
5. Describe the effects of Ang II on RPF, GFR, filtration fraction (FF), and P GC
With Ang II, PgcPbs rises because increased Pgc
However, Oncotic pressure rises faster because decrease RBF
The area under the curve is ambigious if it is greater or not
You also get increased reabsorption
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
6. Appreciate that the renovascular effects of Ang II are modulated in integrated responses
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
7. List five categories of drugs that can inhibit the RAAS
1. Inhibitors of renin secretion (b antagonist, metaprolol)
2. Renin inhibitors (aliskiren = almost never use)
3. Aldosterone antagonists (K+ sparing diuretics)
4. ACE inhibitors (ACEIs ) – lisinopril
5. AT 1 receptor blockers (ARBs ) – losartan
8. For the ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), list the generic names of representative examples,
primary indications, primary adverse effects (especially predictable adverse effects), and predictable interactions with
other drugs; be able to look up brand names, secondary indications, secondary adverse effects, site and mechanism of
metabolism and excretion, and nonpredictable interactions with
other drugs
ACEs and ARBs are used for hypertension, Post MI, and
HFrEF
For kidney disease – they decrease amount of proteinuria
o Proteinuria is related to the glomeruli capillary
hydraulic pressure –ARB and ACEi decreases it!!
Adverse effects: ARBs are rare, ACEi is cough (520%,) and
angioedema due to increased bradykinin
o Hypotension – esp with patients with increased renin
o Hyperkalemia because Ang II typically increases aldosterone, which increases secretion of K+
Contraindications: pregnancy, any condition that decreases GFR because increased Ang II keeps the GFR from
dropping by increases the Pgc
o If you give ACEi or ARB, then you get decreased GFR
9. Explain why plasma creatinine can increase in patients taking an ACE inhibitor or ARB
If they have HTN, then its possible that the GFR is already low because of atherosclerotic lesions and the
RAAS system is the only thing that is keeping the GFR up. Therefore, you cannot give these drugs to these
patients
10. Describe the “double whammy” and “triple whammy”, identifying the patients who are especially at risk of having an
adverse outcome from these drug combinations
Avoid combo of diuretic and ACEi or ARB with patients with poor renal perfusion – DOUBLE WHAMMY
TRIPLE WHAMMY – diuretic, ACEi or Arb, and NSAID (which PG mediated AA dilation, which decreases
Pgc, which decreases GFR)
11. Explain the rationale for ACE inhibitorARB combination therapy and why such combination therapy generally is not
recommended
Can give ACEi and ARB together because Ang II is sometimes made from other ACE pathways, such as
CHYM
12. Describe the most significant differences between the ACE inhibitors and the ARBs
ACEi can block metabolism of bradykinis
1. Kinis can causes NO mediated vasodilation – which help with antihypertension
2. Kinins cause cardiovascular protective effects – so can help with bad morphological changes by
ACEi
ACEi has better outcome data for some CV diseases, probably because of the Kinins cause CV morphology
changes
ARBS block AT1 receptor and not AT2, so all AT2 receptors will be activated
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
1. Will cause NOmediated vasodilation, and helpful effects on cardio morphology
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
Lecture 10: Regulation of Calcium, Magnesium, and Phosphate Excretion (Ix)
1. Appreciate that in contrast to sodium and potassium, calcium and phosphate balance involves the regulation of GI
absorption and bone storage in addition to the regulation of urinary excretion
Mostly in bone, muscle, and then ECF
2. Appreciate that the vast majority of the body’s calcium and phosphate is located in bone
3. Explain why the calcium concentration in Bowman’s space is different from its plasma concentration
In plasma, it is 2.5 mmol/L, and the free ionized calcium is 1.01.2 mmol/L, the rest is bound to albumin
4. For calcium, describe the effects of PTH and calcitriol (1, 25(OH) 2 vitamin D) on GI absorption and renal excretion
(effects on bone will be discussed in more detail in later courses)
Inactive Calcitirol is absorbed by GI, which is then
brought to the kidney to be activated
Calcitiriol increases more absorption by GI and release
of calcium by bone
PTH increases calcitiriol, and increases release from
bone – most important feedback for
Both Calcitiriol and PTH increase serum calcium
1. PTH made from thyroid gland, and is Bone
turned off by high levels of calcitiriol
Calcitonin (made by thyroid) decreases bone release of calcium
5. For calcium, list the fractional reabsorption in each nephron segment and the fractional
excretion, describing the reabsorption mechanism in each segment and important
regulators
PCT (6070%) – passive via paracellular route through Cl generated TEP
Loop of henle / TAL (20%) – NKCC, ROMK paracellularly
K+ keeps going out, which makes the outside positive TEP so Ca is driven
paracellularly
There is a Calcium sensor that can inhibit ROMK
Fuosemide blocks NKCC, so less release of K+ so no TEP so less Ca
resabsorption
DCT (10%) – transcellularly
PTH comes and activates the cAMP, so PKA, which Phosphorylates TRPV5 receptor for Calcium
Inside, there is calbindin, which binds the calbindin and brings it across, and this keeps going until PTH
goes down
Thiazide will INCREASE Ca reabsoprtion
6. Compare and explain the effects of loop diuretics and thiazide diuretics on calcium excretion
Diuretics act on NKCC in the TAL, so K+ cannot leak out so no TEP to transport Ca in
Thiazide acts on NCC in DCT, and blocking of this leads to dehydration and greater Na reabsorption in PT,
which carries more Ca as well
PTH is the main hormone stimulus to drive calcium reabsorption
7. Appreciate that in contrast to calcium, no specific hormone regulates serum magnesium levels
8. For magnesium, list the fractional reabsorption in each nephron segment and the fractional excretion, identifying the
reabsorption mechanism in the thick ascending limb and distal convoluted tubule and the important regulators of
magnesium reabsorption
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
Bone is the major storage site
PCT (1020%)
Passive reabsorption, goes along with Na
Loop of Henle (TAL) – 70% TEP will passively pushes it across
If you have hypercalcemia, the calcium sensor will turn ROMK off so you don’t have the TEP anymore
DCT (10%)
TRPM6 – transporter for Mg
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
9. Explain the effects of loop diuretics and thiazide diuretics on magnesium excretion
Thiazide diuretics enhance Mg excretion by suppressing TRPM6
EGF inhibits inhibit TRPM6
10. For phosphate, describe the effects of PTH, calcitriol, and fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) on GI absorption and
renal excretion (effects on bone will be discussed in more detail in later courses)
Phosphate is in muscles a lot because of ATP, but also in bone and ECF
Excretion is around 520%, less is absorbed than is excreted
Reabsorption from kidney is inhibited by PTH (opposite of calcium) and FGF23
Calcitriol will increase the intestinal absorption of phosphate (through NPT2b)
11. For phosphate, list the fractional reabsorption in each nephron segment and the fractional excretion, describing the
reabsorption mechanism in each segment and important regulators
PCT (85%) – actively regulated here and transcellular
NPT2a and NPT2c cotransporter for phosphate and sodium
PTH will take the transporter off the apical side
PTH increased will cause less reabsorption of phosphate
Calcitirol mainly acts on intestine bowl to increase intestinal increase
12. Appreciate that PTH, calcitriol, and FGF23 can each regulate the
secretion of the other hormones, describing important examples of this
regulation
13. Explain how the integrated regulation of calcium and phosphate allows the body to appropriately modulate their
plasma concentrations
Low calcium will stimulate both PTH and
calcitiriol but you do not want phosphate to change
14. Appreciate that PTH and FGF23 are important for attenuating the increase in plasma phosphate concentration that
occurs in patients with kidney disease
FGF23 is made by bone, and it is released if there is more phosphate
It will increase phosphate excretion, and inhibit production of calcitriol
Net effect will lower serum phosphate
Take off phosphate receptors in the PCT
FGF23 gets elevated very early in CKD so it is keeping phosphate very stable
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
Lecture 11: Renal Regulation of AcidBase Balance (Laiken)
1. Define acidbase balance
Acid injested/produced = acid eliminated, need to keep pH around 7.4 (arterial pH), 7.38 in mixed venous
2. List approximate normal pH ranges for arterial blood, mixed venous blood, intracellular fluid (ICF), and urine
7.4 (arterial pH), 7.38 in mixed venous
ICF = 7.07.3
Urine = 4.5 – 8.0
3. Define acid, base, buffer, pKa, and the HendersonHasselbalch equation
Acid = molecule that can release H+
Base = molecule that can accept H+
4. Describe the acid inputs and outputs, explaining why the kidney cannot eliminate fixed metabolic acids by excreting
H+ as free H+ ion
Inputs = CO2 H2CO3 (volatile acid formed during metabolic)
Fixed acids –from metabolism, sulfur, nucleic acids (HCl, H2PO4, H2SO4) (70100 mmol)
Outputs = Volatile acid – secreted from alveolar ventilation – (PaCO2 = VCO2 / Va)
Fixed acids – secrete through renal acid through NH4 and TA
5. Appreciate that the kidney can eliminate fixed metabolic acids by excreting H+ as titratable acid (TA) or ammonium
(NH4+), with the simultaneous production of new bicarbonate
Titratable acid = filtered urinary buffer
If you use buffer, then you lose lots of HCO3 per day, which is around 1/3 of the total amount
When TA or NH4 is secreted, there is production of new HCO3 to replace old ones
6. Identify the major buffer systems in blood and urine, writing the acidbase equilibrium reaction for each
7. Explain why the bicarbonate buffer system is so important
8. Compare the time course of chemical buffers, the lung, and the kidney in responding to a pH change
9. Identify the kidney’s two important tasks in the regulation of acidbase balance, describing (quantitatively) their
relative importance
1. HCO3 reabsorb (4,000 mmol/day)
2. Acid excretion – remove fixed acids (70100 mmol/day)
KIDNEY’S FIRST TASK – BICARB REABSOPRTION!
10. List the approximate percent of the filtered bicarbonate that is reabsorbed in the (a) proximal tubule (PT); (b) thick
ascending limb; (c) connecting tubule/collecting duct (CNT/CD)
11. Describe the (a) general mechanism for bicarbonate reabsorption; (b) mechanism for bicarbonate reabsorption in the
PT; (c) mechanism for bicarbonate reabsorption in the CNT/CD, identifying the epithelial cell type
PT (8090%) – Use NHE to get proton out,
Carbonic anhydrase in brush border helps the H2CO3
outside into H20 to CO2
Basolateral – NBC (HCO3, Na+)
TAL (510%)
CNT/CD (57%) – type A intercalacted cells in CNT/CD
H+ ATPase, or HK+ ATPase
Basolateral – AE1 (HCO3, Cl exchanger)
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
12. Describe the mechanism for bicarbonate secretion in the CNT/CD, identifying the epithelial cell type and indicating
when secretion is important – active only in metabolic alkalosis
The exact opposite as Type A, on basolateral side (HATPase)
apical side (pendrin) – HCO3 and Cl exchanger
13. Appreciate that the carbonic anhydrases represent a family of enzymes, with
important functions in different organ systems.
CA inhibitor – Acetazolamide!
KIDNEY’S SECOND TASK – ACID SECRETION!
14. Describe the mechanisms for the excretion of H+ as TA (TA excretion
mechanism) and ammonium (ammonium excretion mechanism), appreciating that
each mechanism leads to the production of new bicarbonate
Occurs after Bicarb is already absorbed, around CNT/CD
14. Describe two limitations of the TA excretion mechanism, explaining why the
ammonium excretion mechanism doesn’t suffer from these limitations
1. Amount of Buffers (HPO4) is limited – can only do 2030
mmol/day
PT has lots of GLN to make NH4 and HCO3
2. Limited ability to increase the UtaV in response to increased acid
Ammonium can increase 510x in response to acid load
Can produce ammonium in PT by GLN to bind with H+ later on
Adventures: in TAL, pretends its K+ and goes through
NKCC into blood
Type A – Has ammonia channels to get it back into the
lumen
15. Write an equation for the total acid excretion
16. Write an equation for the net acid excretion (NAE), explaining why NAE more accurately describes the ability of the
kidney to excrete acid than the equation from LO 16
Some bicarb is lost and not absorbed
17. For an individual with normal kidney function on a normal Western diet, give the approximate value of the NAE
(mmol/day) and its component terms
Acid load can increase after exercise from lactic acid, after eating lots of protein (inc sulfuric acid), or loss of
bicarb due to GI illness and diarrhea
Base load – after eating lots of fluid and vegetables, or vomiting, or eating antacids
Fluit juice paradox – fruits and veggie have lots of weak acid but digestion releases bicarb in the blood
18. Describe the acute and chronic responses of the kidney to an (a) acid load; (b) alkali load
Acid load, increase NAE, by increasing acid excretion or decrease HCO3 excretion
Acute response Can increase the amount of transporters and insert them.
Chronic response = synthesis more proteins and enzymes (35 days)
Can increase acid excretion by increasing PTH, which decreasing reabsorption of HPO4 in PT so there is
more TA, but can also make more ammonium from glutamine
Alkali load, decrease NAE
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
Decrease bicarb absoprtion
19. Explain why changes in sodium reabsorption can cause changes in NAE
Sodium absorption is needed for NHE in PT, (affects H+ secretion)
ENaC in CNT/CD – (increased Na+ reabsorption makes lumen negative so increased H+ secretion)
Ang II, sympathetic NHE
Ang II, aldosterone ENaC
Aldosterone H+ ATPase
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
20. List the four primary (“simple”) acidbase disorders
Respiratory acidosis – abnormal pulmonary function, changes in PCO2
Respiratory alkalosis
Metabolic acidosis – increased acid or alkali load that kidney cannot excrete, or kidney broken
Metabolic alkalosis
21. Define the “osis” and “emia” suffixes, appreciating that using the appropriate suffix is particularly important when
considering mixed acidbase disorders
osis = referring to process – what function has gone wrong
emia = describes the blood pH
These clarifications if there is more than one disturbance to describe the largest disturbance
22. Describe the compensatory responses to the primary acidbase disorders, noting differences in the time course of these
responses
Kidney compensates for respiratory disturbances
Lung adjusts for PCO2 changes in HCO3
23. Given the arterial pH, arterial Pco2, and plasma HCO3 concentration, determine the acidbase disorder
Arterial chemoreceptor in aortic bodies and carotid bodies detect changes in pH
Central chemoreceptors are for changes in PCO2
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
Lecture 12: Regulation of Effective Circulating Volume and Hormonal Control of Renal Function (Singh)
1. Integrating with the content of Lecture 1, define homeostasis, negative feedback, positive feedback, and balance
Homeostasis = balance balance = input – output
2. Appreciate that the principle of perfect longterm balance can be regarded as the fundamental theorem of physiology
3. List the components of sodium regulation
Direct relationship between TB Na+ and urinary Na+ excretion
Inverse relationship between urinary Na+ excretion and Tb Excretion..
TB Na+ is driving force for urinary Na+ excretion (in sweat, stool, urine)
4. Define effective circulating volume (ECV; arterial filling), explaining how ECV differs from ECF
ECV = part of the ECF that is in the arterial system that is actively perfusing the body
Not a measurable volume, and relates to the fullness and adequacy of tissue perfusion
Amount of volume that is sensed by regulators of urinary Na+ excretion
Correlates with the pressure of the stretch
5. Appreciate that although total body sodium is the major driving force for sodium
excretion, the variable that is sensed by the regulatory mechanisms involved in sodium
homeostasis is ECV
Changes in ECF changes in ECV, which is sensed by sensors/ detectors
6. Identify two diseases in which ECF and ECV are dissociated, explaining why total
body sodium is increased (at any given sodium intake) in these diseases
Heart failure, nephrotic syndrome, and severe liver disease
If you have a nephrotic syndrome (hypoalbuminemia), or low CO, then you have less fluid, which decreases your
ECV. Then, this activates RAAS, sympathetic, vasopressin to increase Na
and H20 so you get volume expansion
This volume expansion is increased ECF, but the ECV still stays the same
7.
Identify
the detectors that monitor ECV,
describing their effects on sodium excretion
Arterial BR – carotid sinus and aortic arch
Cardiopulmonary BR in atria and pulmonary vasculature – hypothalamus
These two affect the release of ADH
Increased activation leads to decreased sympathetic nerve traffic to kidney, so less Na, less renin, inc GFR
Intrarenal BR – afferent arteriole that affects renin secretion from granular cells
Local effect – suppress renin, inhibit RAAS
8. Define pressure natriuresis, briefly describing the proposed mechanisms for this effect
Main default sodium response
9. Increased sodium intake Inc ECV Inc BP Inc Renal perfusion pression dec Na+ reabsorption and inc GFR
increased Na excretion
10. Integrating with the content of Lectures 1, 4, 6, and 8, describe the innervation of the kidney and the effects of increased
nerve traffic on kidney function, with particular emphasis on the effects of increased nerve traffic on sodium excretion
They act on BP and Na reabsorption that will speed up the saltbalance and decrease impact of diet salt to TB Na+
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
Affects afferent arteriole, granular cells, and tubular epithelium (a1, A2, B1)
Low levels of stimulation act on a2 receptors in PT inc NHE in PT, and inc Na reabsorption in PT
Intermediate levels B1 receptors on granular cell increased renin RAAS tubular Na+ reabsorption
and renal vasoconstriction
High levels Activate A1 on afferent arteriole vasoconstriction Dec RBF and GFR
11. Integrating with the content of Lectures 1, 4, 6, and 8, identify the hormones and other mediators that are involved in
the regulation of sodium balance and ECV, describing the regulation of their secretion and their effects on kidney
function, with particular emphasis on their effects on sodium excretion
Vasoconstriction = Ang II, Aldosterone, ADH
Vasodilators = ANP, Prostaglandins, NO
ANG II
Systemic Vasoconstriction Inc BP
Glomeruli inc EA more than AA so increased Pgc and dec RPF
Tubules PT increased Na reabsorption in NH3 and activate adolsterone which inc Na in CNT
Overall response:
Counterregulatory of Ang II – prostaglandins act on AA so PGc increases so RPF is SUSTAINED
Vasodilation:
Prostaglandins: made by COX in glomeruli and tubules, counteract neural vasoconstriction
Systemic – lowers BP
Glomeuli – vasodilation inc RPF, and GFR inc renin secretion
Tubules ?
Basal levels do not do no much, but when there is neural hormonal, and you are on NSAIDS, then
you get reduced renal perfusion and GFR
a. Heart failure + using NSAID renal failure
b. Overall, you would get afferent and efferent vasoconstriction, dec Pgc, dec RPF
c. Question: why does it cause decreased Pgc, if there is more EA constriction,
shouldn’t it go up? – bc there is decreased renal perfusion pressure since there is
volume depletion
ADH – free water reabsorption in CD, and is primary regulator of Posm and ECV
Secretion is affected by Posm (inc Posm inc ADH) and ECV (dec ECV inc ADH)
High levels of ADH, you get vasoconstriction and increased BP
All levels of ADH will bind to V2 receptor on principal cells insert AQP inc water resorption
Posm small changes will affect ADH. You have to change 810% ECF/ECV to stimulate ADH
This makes sense because with smaller levels of ADH, you get water absorption which will fix the Posm.
However, if you get lots of volume loss, the high levels of ADH will also cause vasoconstriction. The non
osmotic stimulus is more potent! So the body, once the ECF needs help, even though the water absorbs will
decrease Posm, the ADH response will keep going because it is stronger!. So you get hyponatriema
Nonosmotic stimuli = severe vomiting, pain, and major stress (post‐operative), and significant decrease in
ECF/ECV
ANPBNP
ANP (released from atria when stretch), BNP (released from atria and ventricle) when larger muscle mass
Systemic vasodilate dec cardiac afterload
Glomeruli – dilate EA and AA increase Pgc and RPF inc GFR decrease renin
Tubules opposes aldosterone so decrease Na absorption
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
NO – released locally by blood vessels, role in kidney only studied in animals
Causes vasodilation and increased GFR
Increase Na excretion but inhibit Na reabsorption everywhere
12. Appreciate that disorders in plasma osmolality result from disturbances in water balance, not disturbances in total
body sodium
13. Compare and contrast the sensors and effectors for
. volume regulation
osmoregulation vs
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
14. Describe the circumstances in which it is dangerous to administer a NSAID
This inhibits COX which is important for Prostaglandins and dilating the AA
Bad if you give this along with diuretic and ACEi
15. Integrating with the content of Lectures 1 and 4, describe tubuloglomerular feedback (TGF) and the proposed
mechanisms for TGF
Negative feedback
If there is increased rate of tubular fluid flow or NaCl delivery to macula densa decrease GFR in same
nephron
Flow and the NaCl entry via NKCC2 are important sensor
Release vasodilators or vasoconstrictors to change the GFR within the single nephron
Goal: stabilize GFr and Na+ delivery to the distal nephron
16. Explain why TGF stabilizes the function of the nephron but does not stabilize total body sodium
17. Integrating with the content of Lecture 6, describe glomerulotubular balance (GTB) and the proposed mechanisms for
GTB
Positive relationship between tubular flow rate and the tubular reabsorption
If there is increase in GFR, you will get increased reabsorption in the PT so that the fraction of solute reabsorbed
is constant
Most important for SODIUMMM Most likely done by sensing in microvilli to get increased reabsorption
GOAL: this lessens the impact of changes in GFR on Na+ excretion
18. Explain why GTB can help to stabilize sodium excretion
If your SINGFR increases, the PT reabsorbed goes up so that its always 65% reabsorbed of Na
This increases the total amount of Na being delivered to the PT
19. Explain why TGF and GTB can impair the efficiency of sodium homeostasis
If you get more salt, then the TGF will notice and will increase the GFR. So
then with the increased GFR, GTB will absorb more Salt at the same ratio
Slow down efficiency of Salt homeostasis, if you intake more, you absorb
more so getting into balance takes longer
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
Lecture 13: Diuretics and Antidiuretics (Laiken)
1. Define diuresis and natriuresis
Diuretics increase urine flow
Natriuresis increase urine excretion of sodium
2. For each of the following classes of diuretic drugs, list the important examples, describe the mechanisms for
natriuresis and diuresis, and indicate the maximum acute decrease in Na + reabsorption that can occur following their
administration: carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, loop diuretics, thiazide diuretics, K +sparing diuretics
The last three drugs all go to APICAL Na+ transporters and enter mainly via tubular secretion via OAT because
they are protein bound and not freely filtered
CA inhibitors (CAIs) – PT hydrogen secretion acetazolamide
o Inhibit H+ secretion in PT by inhibit CA
o This also affects Na reabsorption by NHE which increases sodium excretion
This also decreases HCO3 resorption because it follows Na
Decreases Na by 5% and the decreased bicarb resorption, means theres less of a chloride gradient so
then this would allow for less passive Na to be transferred over in the PT
Loop diuretics (LD) – inhibit NKCC2 in TAL – Furosemide, bumetanide
o Decreases Na resorption in the TAL so decrease resorption by 25%
Thiazide diuretics inhibit NCC in DCT – “thiazide”, chlothalidone, metolazone, indapamide
o Decrease Sodium resorption by 58%
K+ sparring diuretics – inhibit ENaC in CNT/CD – triamterene, amiloride, spironolactone
o Decrease sodium resorption by 12%
o triamterene, amiloride – directly block the ENaC
o spironolactone – inhibit the binding of aldosterone so this decreases the stimulation of ENaC
3. Explain the importance of longterm Na +
balance and the diuretic braking phenomenon
Braking = compensation through the sympathetic division and RAAS
4. Starting with the acute increase in Na+ excretion that follows the administration of a diuretic, draw a figure that
schematically illustrates the mechanisms for the diuretic braking
phenomenon
This is good because the total Na decreases for a brief
decreased ECF decreases ECV
ECV (key) decreased would activate sympathetic and RAAS
This reduces sodium excretion to balance the sodium intake
Despite the fact that the diuretic effect is
acute effects, each time you take a dose, you
will get the diuresis effect
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
5. Describe the effects of the major classes of diuretics on K + excretion, HCO3 excretion, acidbase balance, and Ca2+
excretion, explaining how these effects can be predicted from the effects of the diuretics on tubular function and an
understanding of kidney physiology
K+ excretion – mostly absorbed in PT and TAL (95%) and regulation of K+ excretion is in the CNT/CD
o Increased Na+ reabsorption in CNT/CD increased K+ secretion by TEP
o The CAIs, LDs, TZs, all increase Na+ delivery to the CNT/CD so more Na absorption in CNT will increase
This is the load dependence (which is the GTB of the CNT)
This will increase the TEP for K+ secretion so more secretion
YOU GET HYPOKALEMIA
o K+ sparring diuretics – This inhibits ENaC which decreases TEP so less K+ secretion
You get HYPERKALEMIA – at risk if you have kidney disease
Other drugs that spare K+ which should not also be used include ACEi (which decreases aldosterone)
Another antibiotic, called Trimetoprim also decrease K= excretion and is related to triamterene
H+ excretion and HCO3 excretion –
o PT reabsorbs 85% of bicarb through the CA
CNT/CD reabsorbs the rest with type A intercalated cell in CNT/CD
o If you increase Na+ reabsorption in CNT/CD via ENaC principal cell, you increase H+ secretion
because of the TEP
o CAIs – decrease H+ secretion in PT, so theres decreased HCO3 reabsorption in PT which increases bicarb
secretion
This leads to metabolic acidosis. Once this acidosis happens, it becomes easy to secrete H+ again
o LDs, TZs
Increases Na+ delivery to CNT/CD by inhibiting Na reabsorption proximal to CNT/CD
Increases Na+ reabsorption, increased TEP, increased H+ secretion, which increases HCO3
reabsorption (which already happens so we no excited)
This leads to metabolic alkalosis
o K+ Sparing diuretics. Decrease Na absorption by ENaC so there is less TEP so less H+ secretion, decreased
HCO3 absorption, increased bicarb excretion so you maybe get METABOLIC ACIDOSIS
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
6. Describe the most important effects of the diuretics on the concentrating and diluting mechanisms, explaining how
these effects can be predicted from the effects of the diuretics on tubular function and an understanding of kidney
physiology
Concentrating mechanism – need ADH and medullary gradient
Formation of gradient, you need NKCC to work for Na and Cl absorption
Loop diuretic kills NKCC
Diluting mechanism – no ADH, need hypoosmotic TF to CNT/CD by getting Na Cl resabsoprtion in TAL by
NKC22 and NaCl reabsorption in NCC, and both of these are destroyed by TZs and LDs so NO DILUTING
MECHANISM ANYMORE YAY
6. Describe the osmotic diuretics and aquaretics, comparing their mechanisms of action to the mechanisms of the major
classes of diuretics
Osmotic diuretics – Mannitol – produces diuresis and natriuresis in the PT
So water follows absorbed solutes in solutes in PT, and this drug is freely filtered, but not reabsorbed
This decreases the H20 reabsorption in PT, which decreases the Na reabsorption – decreases 20% Na
Aquaretics – ADH Antagonists (“Vaptans and demeclocyline)
Vaptan Produceses diuresis only – block the V2 receptor of ADH which are for antidiuretics and urea
permeability
Deneclocyline – goes inside the cell and prevents the good binding of ADh with V2
7. Describe the major therapeutic uses of the diuretics
Edematous states – HF, cirrhosis, kidney disease
Nonedematous states – hypertension
TZs, ACEi, ARB, and CCB are first line drugs for HTN
Mechanism for decreased BP is uncertain at very low doses
Chlorthalidone – might be better long term effect at night and potent than HCTZ but HCTZ most
prescribed
Nonedematous states – nephrolithiasis – kidney stone
2/3 of kidney stone have Ca salts, and a lot of these patients have elevated calcium excretion
treat with TZ because decreased volume depletion, more absorption of Na in PT, more Ca absorbed in
PT so less calcium excretion
Nonedematous states – hypercalcemia
Usually caused by elevated PTH, and you use LD
If you inhibit NKCC2 so less TEP so less paracellular Ca reabsorption
Nonedematous states – diabetes insipidus – excrete large volumes of dilute urine
Central DI: ADH deficiency – brain problems
Treatment: Give an ADH congener – use ANTIdiuretic
Nephrogenic DI – Nephrons do not response to ADH
Genetics – mutation in V2 receptors or AQP channels
Treatment: TZ – cause mild volume depletion so more H20 reabsorbed in PT
Acquired – drug induced by lithium (messes up the ADH receptor within the cell)
Treatment: TZ or amiloride ( Prevents Li from entering the cells via ENaC)
Acquired – hypercalcemiainduced – Ca can antagonize ADH
Treatment : correct Pca
Diuretic combinations
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
For patient with severe edema due to HF:
1. Start on LD because it is high ceiling
2. Add TZ to LD to increase natiuresis
3. Add K+ Sparing diuretics to LD or TZ for increased natiuresis (prevent load attenutation)
this prevents the adverse effects: hypokalemia and metabolic alkalosis, which
blocks Na reabsorption by ENaC so no TEP is made
K+ sparing diuretics are typically always used in combo with other diuretics because you get less
hypokelamie and metabolic alkalosis
However, it is used alone in patients with increased aldosterone
Also good for decreasing remodeling (spironolactone) and symptoms for HF patients
CAIs – seldom used as diuretics because just small decrease in Na reabsorption
The increased solute delivery usually activates TGF so there is decreased GFR
LDs do not have this problem because Macula densa cells are special TAL that can sense NaCl using
NKCC, which is blocked
Can be used to treat mountain sickness from respiratory alkalosis
Osmotic diuretics – rapid induction of natriuresis and diuresis – used to shift fluid from IC to EC
Cannot enter cells – good if there is cerebral edema (intracellular edema)
Acts as effective osmole
Aquaretics – good for inappropriate ADH secretion
Can cause hyponatremia
Hypervolemic hyponatremia – inapprorpriate fluid retention due to decreased ECV ( which does not
equal ECF) – caused by HF,
cirrhoisis
8. Integrating with TOLOs 56, explain how the
most important adverse effects of the diuretics
can be predicted from the effects of the diuretics
on tubular function and an understanding of
kidney physiology
K+ abnormalities
Hypokalemia: CAIs, LDs, TZs
Hyperkalemia – H+ sparing
diuretics
Acid base disorders
Metabolic alkalosis: LDs, TZs,
Metabolic acidosis: CAIs, K+
sparing diuretics
CA abnormalities
Hypercalcemia: TZs – increase bone mineral density
Hypocalcemia: LDs – increased risk of fractures
Other
Hyponatremia – TZs, LDs, patient loses Na and H2o volume so gets thirst so drinks water
LD less likely to cause hyponatremia because they abolish the medullary gradient
Hypomagnesium: LDs, TZs
Inhibit NKCC2 in TAL, no TEP, so less paracellular Mg absorption
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
TZ – downregulate TRPM6 in DCT so decreased transcellular Mg absorption
Hyperuircemia: LDs, TZs – LDs, TZs,
Can get gout because LDs and TZs lead to volume depletion, so more resorption of stuff in PT, including
uric acid by stimulating the sympathetic tone and ang II from decreased ECV
LDs, TZs – hypovolvemia, postural hypotension
Spironolactone – impotenence, can act as androgen receptor antagonist
CAIs – kidney stone – alkaline urine promotes formation of Ca phosphate kidney stones
Mannitol – pulmonary edema if decreased LV function – get expansion of ECF
9. List the most important nonpredictable adverse
effects of the diuretics
TZs, LDs : hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia
LDs: ototoxicity – inner ear has NKCC1
10. Demonstrate how an understanding of the diuretic
drugs can be used to predict the important clinical
manifestations of the major inherited disorders of
tubular transport
11. Describe the antidiuretics and their major
therapeutic uses
ADH, ADH congeners
ADH will use V1A in addition to V2 to cause
vasoconstriction
So Desmopressin (ADH congener) targets mainly V2 so used for central DI, nocturnal enuresis (bed wetting),
nocturia
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
Lecture 14: TBL: AcidBase Disorders, Free Water and ElectrolyteFree Water (Laiken)
1. List the four primary (“simple”) acidbase disorders
Metabolic acidosis and alkalosis
Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis
2. Define the “osis” and “emia” suffixes, appreciating that using the
appropriate suffix is particularly important when considering mixed
acidbase disorders
emia is the blood pH, osis is the process by which it happened
3. Describe the compensatory responses to the primary acidbase
disorders, noting differences in the time course of these responses
Respiratory compensation to metabolic problems occur
immediately whereas metabolic compensation is longer
4. Given the arterial pH, arterial Pco2, and plasma HCO3 concentration, determine the acidbase disorder
5. Describe the commonly used compensation rules for distinguishing between acute and chronic respiratory acidbase
disorders
6. Identify the most important causes of the four
primary acidbase disorders
7. Define the freewater clearance (CH2O) and electrolytefreewater clearance (C EFW)
CH2O = How much volume of pure water that the kidney is saving or excreting over time
8. Given appropriate data, calculate CH2O and CEFW
9. Identify the concentrating and diluting segments of the nephron
Diluting = TAL, DCT, CNT without ADH
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
Concentration = Thin DL, CNT/CD with ADH because
of medullary gradient
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Renal System I Task-Oriented Learning Objectives – Week 2 Winter 2018
10. Describe the effects of the loop diuretics on the concentrating and diluting mechanisms
11. Explain why CEFW can be more helpful in managing plasma sodium (PNa) in critically ill patients than CH2O
Because just because there is negative free water clearance, it doesn’t mean that enough water is being
reabsorbed. Therefore, looking at EFW clearance is better
12. Describe how the CEFW concept can be used to predict whether P Na is increasing, decreasing, or stable even if the urine
flow rate (V• ) is not known
Typically, when are you not ill, then if your Cefw goes up, then you get
increasing Pna, so you drink more water and its better
13. Describe the role of ADH in the development of hypervolemic hyponatremia
If Uosm is greater than Posm, that means there was ADH secretion because
Posm increase or decreased streth of arterial BR will lead to increased ADH
first but any decrease in ECV will override the Posm and increase ADH
Aquaretics are prescribed for this – The ECV drop is so large that it outweighs the Posm
Decreased ECV will activate the sympathetic system, which will increase Na reabsorption in PT, there will be
less water in TF in the TAL so therefore, in this case, they cannot do dilution
14. Appreciate the importance of delivering an adequate volume of tubular fluid to the thick ascending limb for the
generation of electrolytefree water
Collection of urine is annoying so look at the ratio of U/P to see if there is
positive or negative efw clearance
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