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FISH, MEAT AND DAIRY PRODUCTS

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GUIDE
TO FOOD TRANSPORT
FISH, MEAT AND DAIRY PRODUCTS
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© 1990 by Mercantila Publishers as

Lay-out and artwork:

Mercantila Publishers as, Copenhagen

Printed in Denmark by
Jydsk Centraltrykkeri A/S

ISBN 87 89010 97 3

Distribution by
Mercantila Publishers as
18 Upsalagade
DK-2100 Copenhagen
Denmark
Tel: +45 3543 6222
Fax: +45 3543 5151

All rights reserved. No parts of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval sys-
tem or transmitted in any form, or by any means - electronic, mechanical, photocopy-
ing or other wise, without the prior written permission of Mercantila Publishers as

4
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CONTENTS

CONTENTS

Preface 7

CHAPTER 1

General about Foods 11

1. Chilling injury 11
2. Controlled atmospheres 12
3. Relative humidity 12
4. Packaging 16
5. Refrigeration 24
6. Regulations 25
7. Temperature monitoring and temperature measurement 36

CHAPTER 2

Transport conditions 43
1. General information on transport 43
2. Mechanical refrigeration 50
3. ISO intermodal containers 54
4. Primary distribution vehicles (trailers) 62
5. Other types of refrigeration systems 69
6. Other types of transport equipment 70
7. Code of good transporting practices 72

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 3

Practical storage life (PSL) of foods 79

1. Quality influencing processes 79
3. TTT-PPP concept 83
3. Deep frozen foods 88
4. Frozen foods 111
5. Chilled foods 114

CHAPTER 4

1. Liability for carriage of goods 143

2. Insurance 145
3. Instructions for the carrier 146

CHAPTER 5

Definitions and explanations 151

Index 155

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GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 7
PREFACE
The GUIDE TO FOOD TRANSPORT,
Meat, Fish and Dairy products, provides
information and guidelines to help assure
that perishable foodstuffs reach their in-
tended destination in the best condition
possible.
In July 1989 we published GUIDE TO
FOOD TRANSPORT, Fruit and Vegeta-
bles. The main part of this book de-
scribes one hundred of the most impor-
tant products in the fruit and vegetable
category. It was quickly realized that there
was a definite need for a book describing
the other perishable foodstuffs, i.e. chilled
and frozen meat, fish and dairy products.
Previous literature on this subject was
quite technical, aimed at experts who
already possessed some background
knowledge. This new book, and its prede-
cessor, is written so that they can be
easily understood and used by all.
Improper or careless handling of perish-
able foodstuffs during manufacture,
storage and transportation can lead to
damaged cargoes (or even food poi-
soning) and extensive losses. The inad-
vertent destruction is often due to incor-
rect temperatures during manufacture
and transport.
The GUIDE TO FOOD TRANSPORT,
Meat, Fish and Dairy products, provides
suggestions and background information
PREFACE
for avoiding such situations and the pur-
suing cargo loss claims. As such, it will
be invaluable to people in all branches of
the perishable food transportation indus-
try, i.e. shipowners, carriers, shipping
agents, consignors and insurance
agents.
In preparing this new book it was decided
to put all the different perishable food-
stuffs into 16 different product groups.
The description of these deep (quick)-
frozen, frozen or chilled groups is found in
sections 3, 4 and 5 in chapter 3. For each
product information is given on relevant
legislation, minimal requirements for raw
materials, processing and packaging, the
storage life at different temperatures, rec-
ommended or required transport temper-
atures, and sensitivity to temperature and
foreign odours. Section 3 also includes
general information about quality influ-
encing factors, storage life, calculation of
quality loss etc.
Chapter 1 summarizes important aspects
in connection with foods such as packag-
ing, legislation, temperature measure-
ments etc.
Chapter 2 gives a description of transport
equipment, mainly trailers and containers.
This includes refrigeration units, air circu-
lation, temperature control systems, load-
ing and unloading.
Chapter 4 deals with the most important
7
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 8
PREFACE
aspects of insurance, including informa-
tion on the necessary procedures in case
of transport damage.
Chapter 5 gives definitions and explana-
tions on some of the terms used in the
book.
Most of the book was compiled from infor-
mation supplied by Leif Bøgh-Sørensen,
Danish Meat Products Laboratory, Min-
istry of Agriculture, who has experience in
all aspects of food technology. Mike Cow-
ley (Cowley Industrial Consultants Ltd.)
was givin the responsibility of ensuring
the correctness of the text. Information on
legislation was given by food scientist
Linda Jensen, and on fish and fish pro-
ducts by food scientist Helle Emsholm. In-
8
formation and advice on transport equip-
ment was given by several persons,
especially Mogens Eilsø and Hans Chr.
Lindhardt. The chapter on insurance is
based on material, prepared by Theo
Koch & Co, Average agents, Copen-
hagen. A number of the photographs
were supplied by the Danish Meat Re-
search Institute or from Frigoscandia AB.
We would like to express our sincere
thanks to all contributors who have made
the publishing of this book possible.
September 1990
Mercantila Publishers as
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 9

1 CHAPTER
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 10

10
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 11
GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT FOODS
The information contained in this book
covers frozen foods and chilled foods.
Produce for consumption as fresh fruit
or vegetables is not included, as they are
dealt with in the book GUIDE TO FOOD
TRANSPORT, FRUIT AND VEGETA-
BLES.
Definitions and explanations of some of
the terms used in this book can be found
in chapter 5.
Chapter 1 comprises the following sections:
Section 1 Chilling and freezing injury.
Section 2. Controlled atmosphere.
Section 3.1 Relative humidity (RH), 3.2
water loss
Section 4. Packaging, including
4.1 Inner packaging.
4.2 Outer packaging.
Section 5. Refrigeration
Section 6 Relevant regulations on
transport equipment, includ-
ing 6.1 The ATP Agreement
6.2 Foodstuffs, especially in
the EEC.
6.3 Regulations on packag-
ing materials.
6.4 Irradiation.
6.5 The activities of Codex
Alimentarius are outlined.
Section 7. Temperature monitoring and
temperature measurement
including
7.1 Air temperature mea-
surement.
GENERAL ABOUT FOODS
7.2 Product temperature
measurement.
7.3 Temperature recording
during transport.
7.4 Temperature measuring
instruments.
1. CHILLING INJURY
Chilling injury is a very important quality
factor for fresh fruit and vegetables. For
several commodities, quality and storage
life will be reduced considerably when the
temperature of the food product is low-
ered to, or below, a critical temperature.
This critical temperature is usually the
freezing point of the liquid within the fruit,
usually just above 0°C. However for
some fruits with a high sugar content,
such as citrus fruit, it is above 8°C, for
bananas it is above 12°C.
For the products dealt with in this book,
chilling injury seldom plays a major role.
This means that for practically all chilled
foods the optimum storage and transport
temperature is marginally above the free-
zing point of the food product. For most
raw foods the freezing point is -1.5°C to
-2°C , and the ideal temperature for these
chilled foods would be -1°C with a mini-
mum of fluctuations, i.e. -1°C +/- 0.5°C.
Freezing injury
Freezing injury occurs when the food is
exposed to freezing temperatures for
more than a short time. For most meat,
poultry and fish products, the freezing
process makes very little difference in the
11
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CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERES (CA)
eating quality of the foodstuff. There
would be no loss of quality if the product
temperature was accidentally reduced to
below the initial freezing temperature for
example during transportation. However,
the problem is that freezing during trans-
port will normally be a very slow process,
so slow that severe quality degradation
could occur.
The significance of freezing time and
freezing rate is discussed in chapter 3
section 3.
2. CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERES (CA)
In normal atmospheric air - comprising
approximately 21% oxygen, 0.03% car-
bon dioxide and the rest nitrogen - most
quality influencing processes advance
readily.
In the case of chilled foods most microor-
ganisms demand a certain amount of
oxygen to grow. The growth of micro-
organisms eventually leads to spoilage of
the food product, see chapter 3 section
1.1 Microbiology.
A method used to prevent or reduce the
rate of microbe growth is to alter the com-
position of the atmosphere surrounding
the food. This is normally done by reduc-
ing the oxygen content, or increasing the
carbon dioxide content, often both.
2.1 CA-storage
Storage in controlled atmosphere, usually
referred to as CA-storage is used to a
large extent for fresh fruits and vegeta-
bles, see GUIDE TO FOOD TRANS-
PORT, FRUIT AND VEGETABLES. For
the products dealt with in this book CA-
storage is hardly ever used.
The use of a controlled atmosphere in
packaging of foodstuffs is discussed in
section 4.
2.2 Modified Atmosphere (MA)
Modified atmosphere as defined in
12
GUIDE TO FOOD TRANSPORT, FRUIT
AND VEGETABLES is not relevant to the
foods included in this book, as they do not
respire and cannot change the composi-
tion of the surrounding atmosphere. How-
ever, in vacuum packaging, for example
fresh meat, the concentration of carbon
dioxide will increase considerably, to more
than 50%, due to enzyme activity and/or
microbiological growth.
The term Modified Atmosphere Packag-
ing (MAP) is used , see section 4.1.3
below.
3. RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) - WATER
LOSS
3.1 Relative humidity (RH)
The fact that water is suspended in air is
illustrated in our day to day life by mist,
early morning dew and our breath con-
densing in cold air. It is not important to
understand the physics of water vapour
other than the fact that the relationship
between temperature and the amount of
water air can hold is non-linear.
The psychometric chart, see fig.1.1, is a
way of displaying the conditions relating
to water in air at a specific atmospheric
pressure, usually sea level. The dry bulb
temperature, i.e. the temperature mea-
sured by a normal thermometer, is shown
on the horizontal line, the wet bulb tem-
peratures are those on the lines falling to
the right. The relative humidity ( RH ),
also referred to as humidity percentages
are the lines curved up, and the vertical
axis is the humidity ratio, i.e. the content
of water in 1 kg of dry air.
Relative humidity ( RH ) is a commonly
used term to describe humidity of air, but
without knowing the corresponding tem-
perature (dry bulb temperature). It has no
precise meaning. It is more meaningful to
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 13

RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) - WATER LOSS

025
Psychrometric Chart

Humidity Ratio (kg/kg)

Sea Level 25 28
°C 020
We
t Bu
lb

50
18 100 25
°C 20

RH
80 We 015
Dew Point 14°C 60 t Bu
lb
15 40 B
C 010
10 20
5 10
0 midit
y 005
-5 Hu
Re lative
18
°C
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 We
t Bu
lb
Dry Bulb (°C)

Fig 1.1 Psychrometric chart showing humidity and temperature relationship

talk of humidity ratio, that is the ratio of
the weight of water in suspension in the
air, to the weight of the dry air. This can
best be explained by an example and by
reference to fig.1.1.
The RH can be found at the point of inter-
section between the dry bulb and wet
bulb temperature lines, for example:
tain much more water than cold air with a
similar RH.
For example, air with 90% RH contains 10
g water/kg air at 15°C, and 5 g water/kg
air at 5°C, see figure 1.1. From other dia-
grams or tables it can be found that air at -
20°C and 90% RH contains as little as 0.6
g water/kg air. Therefore, a lower air tem-
perature will reduce dehydration of foods.

A dry bulb temperature of 25°C and a wet
bulb temperature of 18°C will give a rela-
tive humidity of 50% (point A). By extend-
ing a line horizontally from point A to the
right hand scale (point B), you will be able
to read off the humidity ratio, 0.010 kg per
kg of dry air, which means that 1 kg dry
air contains 10 g of water vapour.
In a refrigerated storage room or a trans-
port vehicle the RH is used to indicate the
rate of evaporation that the commodities
are subjected to. However this is not an
accurate method as warm air may con-
In cold storage rooms and transport
equipment, the air temperature varies.
The air delivered from the refrigeration
unit will take up heat from the produce
and other sources, so the air returning to
the refrigeration unit will be some de-
grees warmer than the delivery air. The
air closest to the evaporator, i.e. the deliv-
ery air, will normally have an RH close to
100%, while the circulating air will have a
lower RH. This indicates that there may
be considerable differences in RH in dif-
ferent locations in the same room.

13
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RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) - WATER LOSS
If the air at point A was cooled, the hori-
zontal line from point A should be extend-
ed to the left, progressively increasing in
relative humidity until it reaches 100% at
14°C (point C). Any further cooling would
result in water condensing out of the air
(dew would form). The dew-point is 14°C.
To avoid free water forming on foodstuffs,
packagings or inner surfaces of the trans-
port equipment, the air circulating over
cold surfaces must not be warmer or have
a higher RH than the corresponding point
between A and C.
The important point to note here is that
with perishable foods requiring a temper-
ature near 0°C, and a high RH, the circu-
lating air must be cooled to a sub zero
temperature, about -2°C, by means of the
evaporator. Unfortunately this will cause
water condensation at the surface of the
evaporator subsequently lowering the
RH.
One way of keeping the humidity high is
to ventilate the room with warm air from
the outside. For example, air from outside
with a dry bulb temperature of 25°C and
wet bulb temperature of 18°C (point A)
entering the vehicle or storage room
where the internal temperature is 0°C and
RH 95%, will add moisture as the air is
cooled to 14°C (point C) when it will loose
water and will continue to do so until its
temperature reaches 0°C. The moisture
content of the newly introduced air drop-
ping from 10 g to 4 g per kg, will add 6 g
water for each kg of outside air intro-
duced. The limiting factors to using
outside air to raise humidity are power
consumption and having the external air
in the appropriate condition.
1 kg of atmospheric air has a volume of
about 0.8 cubic metres.
3.2 Water loss
Water loss (dehydration, desiccation or
evaporation) can result in quality deterio-
14
ration in chilled and frozen foods. Weight
loss is normally of far greater importance
due to the high monetary value of most
chilled and frozen foods. Therefore, an
ever increasing number of chilled and
frozen foods are protected against de-
hydration by means of appropriate pack-
aging.
Water loss from unwrapped foods can be
reduced by maintaining the correct tem-
perature and humidity in the storage
room. Evaporation of water from food oc-
curs primarily because of the difference in
vapour pressure between the surface of
the food and its surrounding atmosphere.
As mentioned above, most chilled and
frozen foods are packaged for protection
against water loss during storage and
transport.
The air surrounding unwrapped deep
frozen foods is -18°C or less and can
contain very little water. In practice, very
little is done to adjust the RH in un-
wrapped frozen foods, either in freezer
storage rooms, or in transport equipment.
Frost formation inside the packaging.
Even when a package with a low water
vapour permeability is used, dehydration
of the frozen product still occurs if the
package does not fit tightly around the
product. The main reason is that, in prac-
tice, the temperatures will never be con-
stant, but always fluctuate. The water re-
moved from the food itself remains inside
the package as frost. The mechanism of
the interior frost formation in a package
which does not fit tightly around the prod-
uct is as follows:
- The layer of air between product and
packaging is subject to temperature varia-
tions. As the temperature outside the
package decreases, the temperature of
the inner surface of the packaging will
drop below the product surface tempera-
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 15
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) - WATER LOSS
ture and ice from the product will form and
condense on the inside of the package.
- When the outside temperature increases,
the process is reversed and the water va-
pour will condense on the product surface.
- As the cooling-heating cycle recurs, the
ice crystals on the product surface tend
to follow package temperature more
closely than the mass of the product, and
this results in further sublimation of ice
from the product. Frost in packages can
amount to 20% or more of product
weight. Since the desiccation of the sur-
face layers results in an increased sur-
face area and thus greater access to oxy-
gen, the rate of the quality degradation of
the food at the surface may also increase.
For retail packed frozen foods such as
vegetables, meat balls, etc. the problem is
difficult to solve, as it is not possible to
pack them so as to remove the air be-
tween the particles. Such products are
very susceptible to internal frost formation,
especially if they are allowed to spend a
long time in the outer layers of display cab-
inets. By using laminates that include a
layer of aluminium foil, internal frost forma-
tion can be reduced considerably.
Freezer burn.
Unwrapped frozen foods continue to lose
weight through desiccation during stor-
age, but lower storage temperatures re-
sult in less weight loss. For packaged
frozen foods, damage to the packaging
material will cause an increased rate of
dehydration.
Light (white) spots on the surface of frozen
foods are caused by local dehydration and
can result in an unacceptable appearance.
Light spots normally disappear on thawing
and cooking and have no influence on
taste or texture.
Severe dehydration leads to “freezer
burn”, i.e. formation of greyish zones at
the surface due to cavities forming in the
superficial layer. Freezer burn causes the
lean surfaces of meat to become rancid,
discoloured and physically changed.
Freezer burn is irreversible, does not dis-
appear on thawing and cooking, and sig-
nals undesirable changes in taste and
texture.
Meat, poultry, fish, game in particular can
be severely affected by freezer burn.
Temperature fluctuations. The effects of
temperature fluctuations depend on the
average storage temperature. The higher
the storage temperatures the more effect
the temperature fluctuations will have on
ice sublimation pressure and the growth
of ice. Minimum desiccation is achieved
at colder storage temperatures, i.e. -18°C
or colder, with a minimum of fluctuations.
As mentioned above, evaporation of
water from the food surface depends on
the difference in water vapour pressure.
The water vapour pressure, as well as the
water content in the air decreases with
temperature, see fig. 1.1.
Therefore, rapid cooling of food products,
especially unwrapped food products, to
their required storage temperature is very
important. The colder the food surface,
the smaller the evaporation effect, hence
a smaller weight loss.
When cooling either in the chilling pro-
cess or the freezing process the food sur-
face temperature will drop faster than the
internal temperature. This is an advan-
tage when it comes to weight loss, as
evaporation depends on the product sur-
face temperature. An ultra rapid chilling
process results in minimal weight loss,
and is an advantage in relation to micro-
biology. The faster the temperature is
15
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 16
PACKAGING
lowered, the faster the growth of micro-
organisms is retarded. As discussed in
chapter 3 section 5.0, a very rapid chilling
process may result in problems in quality
such as toughening of meat due to cold
shortening.
4. PACKAGING
Packaging for foodstuffs is divided into
two categories, inner and outer pack-
aging.
The inner packaging is in direct contact
with the food product. It can be a package
intended for the final consumer; common
terms are consumer pack, sales pack-
aging, retail packaging, or primary pack-
aging. This includes packaging intended
for catering and larger consumers such
as canteens, hospitals,etc. Inner pack-
aging is also used for packaging of food
intended for further processing.
Outer packaging normally contains a
number of inner packagings. Common
terms are outer cases, transport pack-
aging, transport carton, shipping contain-
er, secondary packaging, etc.
4.1 Inner packaging
Packing of products in consumer packs
has disadvantages as well as advan-
tages.
Advantages: Protects against contamina-
tion - Reduces or prevents dehydration -
Facilitates sales distribution - Necessary
for hygiene purposes for foods to be sold
in self-service shops, such as supermar-
kets - Necessary to attach information
prescribed in labelling directives etc. and
convenient to attach consumer informa-
tion and instructions
Disadvantages: Cost - May slow down
the chilling process if the food has not
achieved the correct temperature prior to
the packing process.
16
Choice of packaging should be based pri-
marily on the requirements of the individ-
ual product. The nature of the food, prod-
uct composition, the temperatures it is
likely to experience, the expected storage
life should be taken into consideration.
Some important aspects of packaging
such as sales appeal, colour and “market-
ing” issues are not considered in this
book.
A wide range of materials and packaging
forms are available.
The most predominant form of consumer
packs are plastic bags or “foodtainers” a
tray made of wood-pulp or plastic, over-
wrapped with a plastic film.
4.1.1 Important properties of pack-
aging materials.
The most important properties of pack-
aging materials to be used for food pro-
ducts are:
Water Vapour Permeability
- Permeability to water vapour, called
Water Vapour Transmission Rate
(WVTR). For almost all the products dealt
with here, WVTR of the packaging mate-
rial, and of the packaging itself, should be
low or very low. Plastic laminates con-
taining an aluminium foil layer have such
a low WVTR that there is hardly any
water vapour penetration.
Gas Permeability
-Permeability to gases, especially oxygen
and carbon dioxide. For a number of
frozen or deep frozen products it is
necessary to use a packaging material
with low oxygen permeability in order to
prevent or reduce the development of
rancidity. Rancidity is an oxidative pro-
cess, hence there must be oxygen pre-
sent to allow it to start, see chapter 3 sec-
tion 1.2.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 17
When vacuum-packaging is used, it is
necessary to use a packaging material
with an oxygen permeability less than 70-
90 ml/m2/day x bar, measured at room
temperature. For foods requiring extra
protection against oxygen, packaging
materials with an oxygen permeability of
10 ml/m2/day x bar or lower are used.
For packaging materials to be used for
MAP,the permeability to oxygen and car-
bon dioxide must be equal to or lower
than the permeability of plastic materials
used for vacuum packaging.
Physical properties
These comprise several different charac-
teristics such as burst strength, tensile
strength, elongation, elasticity, etc. The
packaging material used must be able to
withstand the conditions it experiences in
the cold chain, such as drops, shocks, vi-
brations, etc. At present, internationally
recognized and standardized methods
are not available, therefore it is normally
necessary, and always advisable, to carry
out transport tests in order to ensure that
the inner packaging has sufficient
strength.
For deep frozen goods the material must
be able to withstand temperatures as cold
as -40°C without becoming brittle. In
some cases, liquid nitrogen or solid car-
bon dioxide is used as a refrigerant, and
the packaging material must withstand
temperatures as low as -50°C or even
lower.
The trend towards ready-to-eat dishes
means that an increasing amount of
packaging material as well as withstand-
ing extremely cold temperatures must
also be able to tolerate high tempera-
tures, e.g. 100°C for “Boil-in-the-bag”
pouches, 200°C or even higher for oven
cooked consumer packs.
Hot fillings are used for some foods. This
PACKAGING
means that the food (usually liquid or
semi-liquid ) is put into the package while
still hot, often over 90°C. Obviously, the
packaging material must be able to with-
stand this process.
Machinability
The term “machinability” is difficult to
define, but as packaging machinery is
often very expensive, it is an important
factor in the choice of a potential new
plastic that it can run on the existing
packaging machinery at least the same
speed and with lesser failures than the
material it is to replace.
Migration.
As stated in section 6.3, several countries
have legislation on packaging, including
maximum permissible limits for migration
of additives from the packaging material
into the foodstuff.
4.1.2 Packaging materials.
For chilled and frozen foods the most
commonly used plastic materials are:
Polyethylene(PE)
The low density form (LDPE) has a rela-
tively low WVTR, but a high permeability
to oxygen. The heat sealability is ex-
cellent, and PE is comparatively inexpen-
sive. It is frequently used in laminates as
the inner layer in contact with the food-
stuff.
Polyamide(PA) or Nylon
This plastic material has good strength
and moulding properties, and relatively
low permeability. It is used in many lami-
nates, e.g. for use in vacuum-packaging
or deep-drawn articles.
Polyester(PET)
This film withstands high temperatures,
some types up to about 240°C. PET may
be used for double cooked consumer
17
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 18
PACKAGING
packs. It has very good mechanical prop-
erties, but is rather expensive.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
This film has good mechanical properties,
good optical properties,and is rather inex-
pensive. Soft PVC, i.e. PVC where a cer-
tain amount of plasticiser are incorpo-
rated, has high permeability. Plasticised
PVC is used for retail packaging of seve-
ral foods, e.g. meat, poultry, fruits. Other
types of plasticized PVC are used for
rigid or semi-rigid containers, often
thermoformed.
Aluminium foil.
The use in laminates is mentioned above,
but aluminium foil, in the form of trays, is
used for a range of foods, for example for
ready-to-eat meals to be heated in a con-
ventional oven and for meat products
such as pate.
Paper.
Paper Is used as a layer in some lami-
nates, for example in composite cans,
used for frozen concentrated juice etc. As
greaseproof paper is it used for dairy
products such as butter and margarine,
and for animal fats such as lard.
Barrier-layers.
The two best known barrier materials are
PVDC and EVOH. Both plastic materials
have very low oxygen-permeability and
are used as barrier-layers in laminates in-
tended for products where the oxygen dif-
fusion must be minimal, for example in
plastic materials intended for use in va-
cuum-packagings of oxygen sensitive
foods, or for use in MAP.
Laminates.
A laminate comprises several layers, nor-
mally of different materials. In most cases
all layers will be plastic materials, but alu-
minium foil (or a metallizing sheet) could
18
well be one of the layers. Paper is also
used as a layer in some laminates.
The different layers may be held together
by means of adhesives, or they can be
produced as a co-extrusion. By using
laminates it is possible to combine the de-
sirable characteristics of different plastic
materials at a reasonable cost. Today it is
possible to manufacture packaging mate-
rials with the desired permeability proper-
ties.
Beside these plastic materials, there are
some other packaging materials used for
chilled and frozen foods.
Cartons.
Consumer packed frozen foods and ice
cream, milk etc. are often packed in car-
tons which are coated with plastic (nor-
mally PE). The paperboard used is de-
scribed in section 4.2.3 below.
Metal cans.
Metal cans are used for some perishable
products that should be kept at 5°C or
below, for example “keep refrigerated”
cured meat products which have been
pasteurized (a centre temperature of
about 72°C), resulting in a practical stor-
age life (PSL) of 6 months or more at 5°C
or below. Plastic packaging has replaced
cans for many of these products.
4.1.3 Packaging forms
Consumer packs of frozen and chilled
foods are found in various forms. Basic
package forms may be grouped in three
major categories: rigid, semirigid, and
flexible.
Rigid packages are formed into a definite
shape from sufficiently strong materials,
so that they retain their shape when filled.
The materials normally used are metal
and glass.
Semirigid packages are formed into a def-
inite shape but are made from weaker
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 19
materials, so they can be distorted by the
application of moderate force. Semirigid
packages are made of metal, such as
aluminium foil, plastics and paperboard.
Flexible packages are made from flexible
materials such as plastic, paper, thin
metal sheet etc., and generally their
shape conforms to the shape of the prod-
uct. They may be distorted with ease.
Rigid materials become more and more
flexible when fabricated to thinner and
thinner sections, and the distinction be-
tween rigid and semirigid and between
semirigid and flexible packaging forms is
often hard to determine. There is some
overlap in the naming of certain pack-
aging.
Wrappers
The simplest type of flexible package is
the wrap, where a sheet material is used
to enclose a quantity of product. Grease-
proof paper is very useful as a wrap for
butter and margarine. When meat, fish
and many other foods must be transport-
ed in bulk over long distances, wrappers
are seldom used.
Overwrapped trays
In supermarkets, fresh meat and poultry
is traditionally displayed in trays made of
wood pulp or a rigid plastic, some times
called a “foodtainer”. The foodtainer and
the meat is then overwrapped with a plas-
tic film with high permeability to oxygen.
Fresh fruit and vegetables are also mar-
keted in this way.
In some countries it is a legal require-
ment that foodtainers used for fresh meat
shall be transparent. In these places
foodtainers are made of a transparent
plastic.
Bags, pouches.
Plastic bags and pouches are the most
widely used consumer pack. They may
be manufactured from a single plastic
PACKAGING
material, but combinations are being
used in an increasing amounts.
A number of chilled and frozen foods re-
quire protection against dehydration but
do not need a special barrier against oxy-
gen. For such foods a pouch made of PE,
for example, would be sufficient to secure
the expected storage life. Several frozen
as well as chilled products belong to this
category.
Plastic bags and pouches are often heat
sealed. The package is closed by means
of heat and pressure in such a way that it
is completly sealed so micro-organisms
cannot penetrate the package. A heat
seal of this type is sometimes referred to
as hermetically sealed.
Vacuum-packaging
When the package has been filled with
foodstuff, the air is drawn out, and the
package is sealed (usually heat sealed).
With a flexible package, the plastic mate-
rial will be pulled against the foodstuff. As
mentioned above, a packaging material
with a low oxygen permeability must be
used. In this way, the food is protected
against oxygen in the atmosphere, and
the quality degrading processes should
proceed at a reduced rate, resulting in an
increased storage life.
It is recommended that at least 95% of
the air should be removed from the pack-
age during the vacuum process. The
small amount of air remaining inside the
package will have it’s oxygen consumed
by enzymes and micro-organisms with a
byproduct of carbon dioxide. For foods
such as fresh meat the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the small amount of air
remaining in the package is often well
above 50%. This contributes to the long
storage life of vacuum-packed beef.
Plastic bags and pouches are often evac-
uated in this way as are most other pack-
aging forms.
19
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 20
PACKAGING
VSP (Vacuum Skin Packaging)
A special type of vacuum-packaging is
used for some foods. A barrier plastic ma-
terial with a low melting point is softened
by heating before applying a vacuum and
sealing the package. During this opera-
tion, the soft film moulds itself to the shape
of the foodstuff to give a skin-tight pack-
age. This can give the food product an at-
tractive appearance and better protection
as no oxygen remains inside the package.
VSP is used for some meat products and
for fresh fish in some countries.
MAP
After having evacuated the air from the
package, a modified atmosphere can be
introduced before heat sealing the con-
tainer. Thus, the packaged food will be
surrounded by a gas mixture differing
from the normal atmosphere. This is
some times called gas flushing.
The usual modified atmosphere is one
without oxygen, simply because oxygen is
involved in many quality degrading pro-
cesses, see chapter 3 section 1. A num-
ber of combinations of nitrogen and car-
bon dioxide are used, for example 50%
nitrogen and 50% carbon dioxide; the
oxygen content must always be low, for
some foods the oxygen content should be
maintained below 0.5%.
As plastic materials are not impermeable
to gases, the composition of the gas mix-
ture inside the package will change, albeit
very slowly provided the packaging mate-
rial has a very low permeability to oxygen
and carbon dioxide, and the foods are
stored at low temperatures. Therefore,
this type of package should more cor-
rectly be called MAP (Modified Atmo-
sphere Packaging) and not CAP (Con-
trolled Atmosphere Packaging) as it is
sometimes erroneously called .
As mentioned in chapter 3 section 5.1
MAP with a rather higher oxygen content
is sometimes used.
20
It is comparatively easy to determine
“leakers” in vacuum-packages (leakers
are packages with a puncture or holes, so
they can not maintain the “vacuum”) be-
cause the packaging material will no
longer fit tightly around or be pressed
against the foodstuff. When using MAP, it
is much more difficult to detect “leakers”
as the package will usually look the same
whether it is intact or not. The only way to
check is to analyze the composition of the
atmosphere inside the package. This can
be done by using a comparatively cheap
and simple instrument. From records of
the initial composition of the gas mixture,
it can be calculated or judged whether the
package in question has a sufficient de-
gree of tightness.
Masterpacks
A special system, called Masterpack, is
sometimes used, especially in the meat
industry. The basic idea is that several
consumer packs in conventional pack-
ages, such as overwrapped foodtainers,
are placed in a large bag, which may be
vacuumized or filled with a modified at-
mosphere. The bag is not opened until the
retailer wants to display the consumer
packs. If there is no oxygen in the master
pack the meat inside the masterpack will
change colour, but the normal bright red
colour will reappear some minutes after
exposure to normal atmosphere.
CAPTECH
This system was developed in New
Zealand to help in transporting meat over
long distances. The meat is packed in an
“alufoil” laminate with a permeability to
oxygen and carbon dioxide approaching
zero. The air in the package is replaced
by carbon dioxide, and the oxygen con-
tent in the package must be nil, or very
low, throughout the life of the package.
When the temperature in storage and
transport is maintained at about -1.5°C
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 21
with a minimum of fluctuations, the sto-
rage life of lamb could be 20 weeks or
more. The package can contain whole
animals, wholesale cuts, or consumer
packs.
The system has been developed for con-
tainer transport of chilled lamb from New
Zealand to Europe, but could presumably
be used for other types of meat.
Thermoforming-Deep drawing
Plastic materials become plastic when
heated, and this is utilized in the manu-
facture of plastic packages.
Thermoforming. Thick thermoplastic
sheets or films can be formed into
shaped containers by thermoforming. PS
(Polystyrene), PVC and PA (nylon) are
particularly amenable to this process.
The plastic material is brought to pla-
sticizing temperature by heating and the
material is vacuum drawn or blown into the
cavities of a mould. The sheet is
thinned by this process and its permeabili-
ty (barrier properties) may be reduced in
inverse proportion to the square of the
area increase. Thermoforming is used to
produce semi rigid packages, e.g. trays for
MAP meat.
Deep drawing.
Deep drawing is in principle the same as
thermoforming, but deep drawing is car-
ried out at the food producers packhouse.
The packaging material is normally deliv-
ered in rolls. The food product is placed
into the package immediately after the
deep drawing process. The formed con-
tainers (trays) are lidded with a layer of
packaging material from a second roll.
The vacuum or MAP treatment can be
performed at the same time as the heat
sealing process.
Deep drawing is used for many chilled
and frozen products, especially in the
meat industry.
Many plastic materials used for deep
PACKAGING
drawing will contain PA, as this material
has good elasticity properties. PE will
very often form the inner layer.
Form-Fill-and-Seal
Plastic pouches are often formed simulta-
neously with packaging the product. Pre-
formed pouches are used, but most
pouches are formed from plastic materi-
als in rolls on two types of equipment:
vertical and horizontal form, fill and seal
machines.
The packaging material may be a single
layer of plastic, but often has a more
complex structure, i.e. a laminate.
Injection moulding
Many rigid and semi rigid plastic pack-
ages (trays,boxes,etc.) are made by in-
jection moulding.
Blow moulding
Plastic bottles and jars are normally
made by blow moulding.
4.2 Outer packaging
For most chilled and frozen food wrapped
in inner packaging, an outer package is
also used. As mentioned above, outer
packaging is also called outer case,
transport carton, transport packaging,
etc.
Proper transport packaging is essential to
maintain product quality and to minimiz-
ing product losses during transportation
and marketing. In addition, outer pack-
aging serves to enclose the product and
provides a means of handling. Poor quali-
ty packaging will lead to damage, lower-
ing prices, or outright rejection of the
often high value food products.
The transport packaging must withstand:
• Rough handling during loading and un-
loading.
21
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 22
PACKAGING
Rough handling may occur in all parts of
the chill/freezer chain, at the producing
plant, in different storage rooms, during
transport, and at its destination. The outer
packaging must have sufficient strength
to withstand these influences.
• Compression from the overhead weight of
other cartons
Compression from outer packages
stacked above can be severe in storage
rooms, where stacking heights of up to 8-
9 meters are sometimes used. However,
outer packagings are normally not
stacked so high, as racks etc. are used.
During transport the maximum stacking
height is about 2 meters.
• Impact and vibration during transporta-
tion
Impact and vibration during transport de-
pends on the mode of transportation, for
example road, rail or sea transport.
• High humidity
High humidity may be found in cooling
down rooms, in most storage rooms, in
transport equipment or during loading
and unloading (if carried out unprotected
from the weather). Many outer pack-
agings are made of untreated paper-
board, and the compression strength of
such packagings can be reduced to less
than half in conditions of 90% RH.
Outer packagings used include:
• Paperboard cartons,boxes ( glued, inter-
locking, stapled ).
• Plastic trays, boxes, film wraps, etc.
• Foam boxes, trays
• Wood bins, trays, crates,etc.
4.2.1 Paperboard
Paperboard is the most widely used ma-
terial for outer packagings. As mentioned
above, the compression strength of un-
22
treated paperboard is reduced very much
when water is taken up. Water take-up
can be caused by condensation, for
example when cartons containing deep
frozen foods are placed in warm and
humid surroundings for more than a short
time.
For outer cases where exposure to high
humidity and/or water may occur, the pa-
perboard must be wax-impregnated or
coated with water resistant material, for
example plastic. Glued cartons should be
made using a water resistant adhesive.
Paperboard is divided into several cate-
gories:
• Containerboard.
Containerboard is a general term used
to include a variety of paperboards.
Generally, it refers to solid fibreboard or
corrugated board used in the manu-
facture of outer packaging and related
products and their component materials,
e.g. linerboard and corrugating medium
(fluting).
• Fibreboard.
The term describes a material made pri-
marily from wood fibres. It may be solid or
corrugated and is used to make cartons
and drums.
In most countries, solid fibreboard should
have a minimum density of 1000 g/m2,
while the board is between 250 and 1000
g/m2, and paper is up to 250 g/m2.
4.2.2 Corrugated board.
Corrugated fibreboard, generally referred
to as simply corrugated board, consists of
a corrugated sheet of paper called the
corrugating or fluting medium, faced on
both sides with flat paper, called the liner-
board or liner, see fig. 1.2.
-Linerboard is a general term, often pre-
fixed by a “quality” or grade description,
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 23
such as kraft liner (short for kraft liner-
board), jute liner, test liner.
Types of flutes.
Several types of flutes have become
standard:
• A-flute is the thickest (4.6 mm), with the
least number of flutes ( 110-120 per m ),
and the greatest cushioning and shock
absorbing properties.
• B-flute is 2.6 mm thick and has 160-170
flutes per m.
• C-flute falls between A- and B-flute.
• E-flute is 1.15-1.50 thick and has 250-
300 flutes per m. It has the highest flat
crush and the least shock absorbing
Fig. 1.2 The two forms of corrugated board most commonly used for transport cartons.
In double-wall or triple-wall boards the
flutes can be found in any combinations
of the four flutes mentioned above.
4.2.3 Boxboard
Boxboard is a general term for grades of
paperboard used for fabricating boxes.
A measure and definition of grade is the
PACKAGING
properties. It offers greater stiffness,
rigidity and crush resistance in the
direction of its fibres, and an improved
print reception surface for graphic
design and point-of-sale impact.
E-flute is widely used for liquor cartons,
and for fragile foods that require both pro-
tection in transit and display/presentation
provision.
Normally, outer packaging is made with
the flutes running vertically. In this di-
rection they provide the greatest top-to-
bottom stacking strength.
Corrugated board construction.
There are several forms of corrugated
board. The name given to them varies
from country to country and sometimes
from region to region.
Some important types are:
double-faced corrugated board;
double lined;
single wall;
single flute corrugated board.
Double-double faced corrugated board;
treble-lined;
double wall;
twin flute corrugated board....
weight per unit area. The weight of the
most used material for packaging of foods
is 250-400 g/m2
Folding boxboard is a paperboard made
from a large variety of raw materials,
suitable for the manufacture of folding
cartons. The board must possess
23
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 24
REFRIGERATION
strength qualities that allow creasing, fold-
ing, etc., and surface characteristics suit-
able for printing, etc.
Special food boards are also a type of
folding boxboards. This group generally
comprises solid bleached cellulose
boards. Food boards are frequently coat-
ed, with PE for example and after printing
may be waxed. Examples are: frozen
foods, ice cream and milk cartons.
Frozen foods are sometimes wrapped in
thin plastic before being placed in a car-
ton. However, some frozen foods are mar-
keted in a folding carton with no extra pro-
tection, but in these cases the foodstuff
should not be susceptible to dehydration
or oxidation. Some breaded products are
packed in this way.
4.2.4 Types of cartons
There are a number of different types of
paperboard cartons, for example one-
piece cartons, two-piece cartons with
cover, two-piece carton with a full tele-
scoping cover, self-locking trays, etc.
Outer packaging for fresh fruit and veg-
etables should allow adequate air flow so
that the commodities inside will maintain
the desired temperature, see GUIDE TO
FOOD TRANSPORT, FRUIT AND VEG-
ETABLES.
This is not necessary for the foods dealt
with in this book, as these foods are
“dead”, and therefore do not respire so do
not produce heat as do fresh fruits and
vegetables. However, for a few products
the type of outer packaging with holes in
the walls is used because the cooling
takes place after the inner packages are
placed in the outer package. The normal
procedure for most perishable foods is
that only products having the correct tem-
perature are placed in outer cartons.
In the retail trade, outer packaging will
often be used for display purposes. Here,
24
a paperboard carton (perhaps after being
opened to for a better display) or a paper-
board flat with consumer packs over-
wrapped with plastic film is placed directly
in the self-service shop.
5. REFRIGERATION
During transportation, chilled and frozen
foods preserve their quality if their opti-
mum temperatures are maintained. This
implies that the foodstuffs must be cooled
to this temperature before being loaded
into the transport vehicle, as refrigeration
systems usually only have the capacity to
cope with minor chilling tasks and to
maintain product temperature.
As mentioned later, this does not mean
that the product temperature must be uni-
form throughout each piece of food.
When the average (or equilibrium) tem-
perature of the foods has been brought to
the desired level, the transport can begin
without quality problems, as the tempera-
ture will equalize without any need of fur-
ther refrigeration.
If the commodities are highly perishable
and, for some reason, have too high a tem-
perature at the time of loading, they should
be cooled as quickly as possible to avoid
deterioration. When it is necessary to cool
the food products during transport, the
cargo must be stowed to allow the pas-
sage of air to all parts of the cargo. In all
cases cooling by means of the refrigeration
system in the transport vehicle will be a
rather slow process which will reduce the
quality and remaining storage life of the
foodstuffs involved.
The significance of refrigeration to a num-
ber of food groups is depicted in the rele-
vant PSL diagram, see chapter 3 section
3,4 and 5. Here, the ideal and prescribed
temperatures for each group of foodstuffs
are also given.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 25
6. REGULATIONS
In many countries, much legislation, with
many regulations, directives etc. has
been issued on foodstuffs, including the
refrigerated transport of chilled and
frozen foods.
Specific regulations (legislation, stan-
dards, international agreements) on
transport vehicles have been prepared,
see section 6.1.
For several chilled and frozen foods, and
especially for meat and meat products,
most countries have specific regulations
on slaughtering, hygiene, temperatures,
permitted additives, labelling, etc. The
European Economic Community (EEC)
now slowly evolving into a political union,
so more correctly named the European
Community (EC) have set up a number of
regulations and directives concerning all
aspects of the trade in foodstuffs. Some
of the existing EEC-legislation today only
applies for products marketed between
the Member States and not for products
marketed in the domestic market. Harmo-
nization of the food law of the member
states is still a matter of discussion and
has not been obtained in all fields. For
example the use of food additives, di-
rective 89/107/EEC of 21. December
1988 on the approximation of the law of
the Member States concerning food addi-
tives approved for the use in foodstuffs in-
tended for human consumption, only con-
tains a framework, but more specific reg-
ulations on permitted additives and the
acceptable amounts are still to come.
The EEC-legislation in the above men-
tioned areas is summarized in section
6.2, as is the legislation in a few selected
countries.
In section 6.3 the situation regarding
legislation in the area of packaging mate-
rials is reviewed. Only a few countries
have set up requirements for the materi-
als used for packaging foodstuffs. The
EEC has made a framework directive on
REGULATIONS
materials intended to come into contact
with foods as well as a more specific di-
rective relating to plastic materials.
Irradiation of foodstuffs in order to reduce
the number of micro-organisms and pro-
long the storage life is a matter of great
international interest. Until now no inter-
national regulation applies, but both the
Food and Agricultural Organisation
(FAO) of the United Nations, the World
Health Organisation (WHO) and the EEC
are preparing guidelines/regulations in
this area. A few specific countries have
national legislation including the kind of
foodstuffs to be irradiated and the accept-
able doses. The situation regarding the
use of irradiation is reviewed in section
6.4.
With the intention of protecting the health
of the consumer and to ensure fair prac-
tices in food trade, an international food
standards programme has been
established by the FAO and WHO. A
short description of the work of the Codex
Alimentarius Commission can be found in
section 6.5.
6.1 Transport equipment
Transport equipment should be built in
compliance with relevant international
standards, and tested to ensure that they
conform. Transport equipment is classi-
fied on the basis of results obtained from
these tests.
Equipment for the carriage of perishable
foodstuffs comprises wagons, lorries,
trailers, semi-trailers, containers, and
other similar equipment.
International regulations have been
established by the Economic Commission
for Europe of the United Nations (ECE),
the International Organization for Stan-
dardisation (ISO), and International Rail
Union (UIC).
ATP-Agreement
The ECE Agreement on the International
25
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 26
REGULATIONS
Carriage of Perishable Foodstuffs and on
the Special Equipment to be used for
such carriage (ATP) has been ratified by
24 countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria,
Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy,
Luxembourg, Morocco, Netherlands, Nor-
way, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,
United Kingdom, United States of Ameri-
ca, Yugoslavia.
The ATP Agreement is the most important
set of standards and regulations for the
construction and use of insulated and re-
frigerated equipment. It occupies a place
in road transport similar to that applicable
to marine containers by the ISO regula-
tions.
The purpose of the agreement is to facili-
tate international traffic in certain perish-
able foodstuffs by setting common and
centrally recognized standards. These
standards should ensure that equipment
is capable of maintaining the required
product temperatures. ATP defines stan-
dards of insulation and refrigeration ma-
chinery as well as defining maximum tem-
peratures for deep (quick) frozen, frozen
and chilled foodstuffs, although it does
not include fresh fruits and vegetables.
The agreement requires the listed food-
stuffs to be carried in equipment which
has been certified by ATP, except where
ambient temperatures render such equip-
ment unnecessary.
ATP does not apply to air transport, nor to
sea voyages exceeding 150 km.
Certificates of conformity to ATP are is-
sued by officially designated test stations;
today there are 18 test stations, most of
them situated in Europe.
These stations measure the K-value of
the vehicle, and the performance of the
refrigeration system.
26
K-coefficient.
The K-coefficient (U-coefficient in some
countries) or K-factor or K-value of the in-
sulated body is a measure of the effec-
tiveness of the insulation of the equip-
ment. The K-coefficient (W/m2°C) is the
overall coefficient of heat transfer, i.e. the
heat transferred through the surface of
the equipment. The International Institute
of Refrigeration defines the K-coefficient
as the heat transferred, in steady condi-
tions, through unit area of surface, in unit
time for unit temperature difference. The
lower the K-coefficient, the better the in-
sulation.
The transport vehicle must have a K-
value equal to or less than 0.4 W/m2°C to
be classified as heavily insulated (IR),
and a K-value equal to or less than 0.6
W/m2°C to be classified as normally insu-
lated equipment (IN).
A K-value of 0.2 W/m2°C or even lower is
recommended in order to reduce the re-
frigeration load and reduce ageing of the
insulation material. On average the K-
value will increase by about 5% per year,
due to water uptake and due to diffusion
of freon from the insulation material into
the atmosphere.
Refrigeration system.
The refrigeration system must be able to
lower, and to maintain internal air temper-
atures according to the class of vehicle:-
20°C or below (classes C and F), -10°C
or below (classes B and E), 0°C or below
(classes A and D).
ATP certificates.
After inspection and measurement, the
transport vehicle may be classified in one
of the some 20 categories. A Type
Approval Certificate is normally issued
with a six-year validity. For other vehicles
the certificate is normally valid for three
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 27
years, after which a new inspection
and/or new measurement must take
place.
Transport temperatures.
The ATP-agreement, Annex 2, gives max-
imum permissible product temperatures
during transport of frozen or deep frozen
foods. Here it is stated that during certain
operations, such as defrosting the evapo-
rator of mechanically refrigerated equip-
ment, a brief rise of the temperature of
the surface of the foodstuffs of not more
than 3°C in a part of the load, e.g. near
the evaporator, above the appropriate
temperature may be permitted. Annex 3
gives maximum product temperatures
during transport of chilled foods (which
does not include fresh fruits and vegeta-
bles). The temperatures given in annex 2
and annex 3 are included in this book,
see the different groups of foodstuffs in
chapter 3 section 3, 4 and 5.
The ISO standard is a recommendation
for performance and test of refrigerated
containers.
UIC is based upon ATP, and applies to
railway wagons.
There is very little difference between
ATP and ISO or UIC.
6.2 EEC, and a few specific countries.
Introduction.
In order to obtain an Internal Market with-
out barriers to trade within the Communi-
ty, several directives have been issued to
establish a common set of rules relating
to the production, marketing and distribu-
tion of foods which would apply in all
Member States. The EEC has sought to
establish both horizontal measures which
apply to a wide range of foods, for in-
stance the directives on food labelling,
and on materials in contact with foods-
REGULATIONS
and vertical measures which apply to
specific food items, for instance directives
on fresh meat, fresh poultry, minced
meat, and meat products.
It is recognized that it is impossible to
make detailed technical standards for
every foodstuff, and the future legislation
is limited to consideration of public
health, consumer information and fair
trading.
The following summarizes some of the
above mentioned directives. However,
many of the directives are being reviewed
in 1990 and changes can be foreseen.
No general international standards have
been developed for the microbiological
requirements for chilled or frozen meat
products. This section includes a sum-
mary of the national requirements in this
area in France, USA and Japan.
Quick frozen food directive.
In December 1988, a Council directive on
quick-frozen (deep frozen) foods was
issued (89/108/EEC). Quick-frozen food-
stuffs are defined as foodstuffs which
have undergone a suitable freezing pro-
cess, whereby the resulting temperature
of the food product (after thermal stabi-
lization) is maintained at -18°C or colder
at all points.
Also, the foodstuffs must be marketed in
such a way as to indicate that they pos-
sess this characteristic.
Article 5 states that the temperature of
quick-frozen foodstuffs must be -18°C or
lower, with possible brief upward fluctua-
tions to -15°C during transport. However,
tolerances in the product temperature in
accordance with good storage and distri-
bution practice shall be permitted, up to
-15°C during local distribution (in some
27
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 28
REGULATIONS
EEC countries the limit may be -12°C
until 1994), and up to -12°C in retail cabi-
nets. For retail cabinets, some countries
may prescribe colder maximum product
temperatures.
Article 11 states that a directive on sampl-
ing procedures for quick-frozen foodstuffs
and the procedures for monitoring their
temperature must be issued in 1990. In
this directive it will probably be prescribed
that the means of storage, warehousing
and transport must be fitted with suitable
recording devices to automatically and
constantly monitor the air temperatures to
which quick-frozen foodstuffs are subject-
ed. The temperature recordings obtained
in this manner must be dated and stored
for a certain period. For retail display cab-
inets and for local distribution, tempera-
ture recording devices will not be manda-
tory. Here the temperature must be moni-
tored by at least one thermometer.
Food labelling directive.
EEC directive 79/112/EEC on labelling,
presentation and advertising of foodstuffs
has been developed in order to provide
the consumers in the EEC with relevant
information on the foodstuffs concerned.
By the latest amendments of this directive
(89/395/EEC), the application field is
prepackaged food products for sale to the
ultimate consumer and for catering pur-
poses.
The labelling must include the following
information:
The name under which the product is
sold,
• the list of ingredients,
• the net quantity,
• the date of minimum durability, or - for
foodstuffs which are microbiologically
highly perishable -
28
• a “use by” date,
• any special storage conditions or condi-
tions of use,
• the name or business name and ad-
dress of the manufacturer or packager or
of a seller established within the Com-
munity.
Furthermore, the directive includes specifi-
cations on how the above mentioned infor-
mation should be presented on the label.
It is stated that it is prohibited to provide
information on the label or in the presen-
tation and advertising of the foodstuff
which could mislead or confuse the con-
sumer.
The directive on food labelling is supple-
mented by a directive on indications or
marks identifying the lot to which a food-
stuff belongs (89/396/EEC). This identifi-
cation should be preceeded by the letter
“L” and could be excluded if the date of
minimum durability or the “use by” date is
given in the label and at least includes a
statement of day and month.
Fresh meat directive
The trade in fresh meat within the EEC
shall comply with the regulations in the Di-
rective 64/433/EEC relating to health
problems affecting intra-Community trade
in fresh meat (with further amendments).
Fresh meat must have undergone a
thorough veterinary health inspection out-
lined in the directive and shall be stamped
with a health mark before being dis-
patched. The meat shall be followed by a
health certificate. The directive includes
the conditions for the approval of slaugh-
terhouses and cutting plants, and detailed
requirements for the hygiene of slaughter
and cutting as well as for the persons en-
gaged in the handling of the meat. Also
mentioned are certain requirements for
the storage and transportation of the fresh
meat.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 29
Without undue delay, the meat must be
chilled to an internal temperature of 7°C
or colder for carcases, half carcases, half
carcases cut into three wholesale cuts,
and quarter carcases, and 3°C or colder
for offal. The meat should be kept con-
stantly at or below that temperature.
Fresh meat intended for freezing must be
frozen by a rapid method and be stored
at -12°C or colder. These temperatures
should be kept throughout the period of
transportation.
Poultry meat directive
The trade in fresh poultry and poultry
meat within the EEC must be in accor-
dance with the Directive 71/118/EEC re-
lating to health problems affecting trade
in fresh poultry meat (with further amend-
ments). The directive lays down detailed
requirements to the slaughterhouses and
the veterinary health inspection as well
as provisions for health marking.
The internal temperature of the fresh
poultry should be 4°C or below, and this
temperature should be kept during trans-
portation.
For poultry marketed within the Communi-
ty, a Commission Regulation (EEC) No.
2967/76 lays down common standards for
the water content of frozen and deep
frozen chickens, hens and cocks. Poultry
can only be marketed if the water content
does not exceed the technically unavoid-
able minimum absorbed from the chilling
processes stated in the Regulation as de-
termined by further specified methods of
analysis. If the amount of water absorbed
is greater than the specified level, an ap-
propriate description should be attached
before the poultry is marketed.
Minced meat directive
EEC Directive 88/657/EEC on minced
meat and pieces of meat less than 100 g
REGULATIONS
establishes requirements for the produc-
tion and trade in the EEC of the type of
meats. If the meat is sold chilled in retail
packages, it must be prepared at latest 6
days after slaughter of the animal. The
temperature should be below 2°C.
If the processing of the meat takes a
maximum of 1 hour, the temperature in
the centre of the meat must not exceed
7°C, and the temperature in the produc-
tion rooms should be 12°C or colder. If
the processing takes more than 1 hour,
the centre temperature of the meat must
be a maximum 4°C before processing.
Immediately after processing, the meat
must be hygienically packaged and stor-
ed at 2°C or colder in the case of chilled
meat, at -18°C or colder in the case of
deep frozen meat and at -12°C or colder
in the case of frozen meat.
Deep frozen minced meat or packages of
pieces of meat less than 100 g should
reach a temperature in the centre of the
product of -18°C or colder within 4 hours.
Frozen products should reach a tempera-
ture of -12°C in the centre within 12
hours. However, the latter products must
not be retail packaged.
Intra-community trade of minced poultry
meat, minced meat containing mechani-
cally recovered meat or offal or minced
meat from hoofed mammals is accepted
only into Member States which on their
own territory allow production and sale
thereof.
If spices are added to the minced meat,
the acceptable amount of spices is 3% of
the finished product when the spices are
dry if mixed with the meat, and 10%
when mixed in any other condition.
Meat preparations made from minced meat
mixed with other ingredients, e.g. spices,
additives and flour, can be dispatched only
on the condition that they are frozen at a
freezing speed of at least one cm/hour.
29
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 30

REGULATIONS

These meat preparations must be market- dards for different types of minced meat
ed within 6 months of production. regarding the fat content and the colla-
The directive sets up compositional stan- gen/meat protein ratio:

Fat Content Collagen: Meat Protein Ratio

Lean minced meat ≤7% ≤12%

Minced pure beef ≤20% ≤15%

Minced meat containing pig meat ≤30% ≤18%

Minced meat of other species ≤25% ≤15%

The products must comply with the following microbiological standards:

M m

Aerobic mesophile bacteria 3x106/g 5x105/g

n=5; c=2

Escherichia coli 5x102/g 50/g

n=5; c=2

Sulphite-reducing anaerobes 102/g 10/g

n=5; c=1

Staphylococci 5x102/g 50/g

n=5; c=1

Salmonella absence in 25g

n=5; c=0

M = acceptability threshold, above which results are no longer considered satisfactory

m = threshold below which all results are considered satisfactory

n = number of units making up the sample

c = number of units in the sample giving value between m and M

The directive includes specified interpreta- Meat products directive.

tions of the results of the microbiological The EEC directive 88/658/EEC of 14.De-
analyses. cember 1988, amending directive

30
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 31
77/99/EEC on health problems affecting
intra-Community trade in meat products
harmonized the regulation in this area.
This directive defines meat products as
products prepared from or with meat
which has undergone a treatment such
that the cut surface shows that the product
no longer has the characteristics of fresh
meat. Processed poultry products are in-
cluded in this directive. Excluded from the
field of application are meat extracts, meat
consomme’ and stock, meat sauces, and a
number of by-products e.g. animal gelatin
and blood plasma. The treatments can be
heating, salting, curing or drying, or a
combination of these processes.
The directive includes conditions for the
approval of establishments and for hy-
giene. The production must be supervis-
ed by competent authorities, the products
must carry a health mark and must be ac-
companied by a health certificate.
For meat products in general, neither
compositional nor microbiological stan-
dards have been set up in the Communi-
ty. Article 15 states however, that a deci-
sion on the incorporation into meat prod-
ucts of starch or proteins of animal or
vegetable origin and on the maximum
Aerobic Coliform, Coliform,
micro- 30°C faecal
organisms
Carcasses, frozen 5x102
or chilled
Minced meat 5x105
Cooked meat 3x103 102
products
Poultry, whole,
frozen or chilled
REGULATIONS
permissible percentages from a techno-
logical viewpoint should be taken before 1
January 1991.
Several of the Member States have their
own regulation on meat products, not
only for the incorporation of the above
mentioned substances but also require-
ments to the minimum meat content,
maximum water content etc. Until further
notice these regulations still apply for the
products marketed in the domestic mar-
ket. A crucial principle of the EEC is that
products legally produced in one Member
State shall be allowed free entrance to
any other Member State provided that
they do not constitute any health hazard.
Other Standards for Meat and Meat
Products
For chilled or frozen meat and meat prod-
ucts in general, no general international
microbiological standard apply. However,
several countries have set up national
standards for these products.
In France, detailed requirements for the
microbiological standard of meat pro-
ducts are set up. The acceptable number
of micro-organisms per gram for selected
types of meat can be seen in the follow-
ing table.
Staph. Anaerobic, Salmo-
aureus sulphite- nella
reducing
2
102 102 30 absent
10 102 30 absent
absent
in 25g
breast
muscle
31
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 32
REGULATIONS
The US Meat and Poultry Inspection Reg-
ulations imposes requirements for meat
inspection as well as standards of compo-
sition for a number of meat products. The
minimum meat content for some of the
products are specified and the use of cer-
tain ingredients is restricted.
Japan has set up standards for the manu-
facture of meat products but does not
have specified compositional standards.
Sugar, starch and seasoning used in
manufacture must have not more than
1000 heat resistant bacteria (spore form-
ing count) per g. Products must be steril-
ized to a centre temperature of 63°C for
30 min. (or equal) unless they are dried.
Dried and smoked cured meat must be
prepared at temperatures below 20°C or
above 50°C, and the product must obtain
a water activiy less than 0.94. Meat prod-
ucts not being sterilized in airtight pack-
ages must be stored at a temperature
below 10°C (frozen products must be
stored at -15°C or colder).
6.3 Packaging regulations.
In many countries, the legislation on
packaging materials (and especially on
plastic materials) is not very comprehen-
sive. Several countries have realized that
the area of plastic packaging is changing
so rapidly, that it is very difficult for the
legislators to remain up to date. However,
some countries have had detailed regula-
tions on packaging materials (and other
materials intended to come into contact
with foodstuffs) for many years.
In this section, the regulations in USA,
West Germany and EEC will be summa-
rized.
USA.
Packaging was brought into the Food,
Drug and Cosmetic Act by an amendment
issued in 1958. The use of plastics and
other packaging materials in contact with
32
food is under the direct jurisdiction of the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) who
issues detailed positive lists for permitted
plastics and additives.
The FDA regulations are held in great re-
spect throughout the world. Many coun-
tries tend to follow them, often in a simpli-
fied form.
The Governmental Regulations cover all
chemical components of the food supply
in the USA, whether these components
enter the food by direct addition or by indi-
rect means, for example, by virtue of mi-
gration from a food packaging material.
Thus, there is a great deal of work in
bringing under control, by scientific
evaluation, the many thousands of sub-
stances involved in foods and in food
packaging materials.
All packaging materials and the additives
used must comply with the FDA regula-
tions, which in a number of sections in-
clude positive lists for food packaging ma-
terials, i.e. lists of approved plastics and
additives with maximum concentrations,
all others being banned.
The user of packaging materials has to
obtain assurance from a particular sup-
plier that the material in question actually
meets with provisions of a specific regula-
tion.
Migration.
Migration of additives from the packaging
material into the foodstuff is one of the
areas where comprehensive tests are
run. Migration tests normally utilize a
range of solvent solutions capable of sim-
ulating food extraction, for example dis-
tilled water, 3% water, 3% aqueous acetic
acid, and vegetable oil.
USDA.
The Department of Agriculture issues reg-
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 33
ulations on packaging, especially con-
cerning the packaging of meat and poul-
try products. In order to import such prod-
ucts to the USA, it is necessary to obtain
a written concession, which includes the
packaging material that is to be used.
West Germany
The Ministry of Health (Bundes Gesund-
heits Amt) has issued comprehensive
guidelines for packaging materials, the
so-called BGA-rules.
This is not legislation, but if a packaging
material does not conform to the BGA
guidelines, the guidelines are treated as if
they were legislation, and the company
(or person) can be prosecuted.
BGA guidelines include positive lists, i.e.
lists including the components permitted
in the manufacture of food packages, and
the allowed maximum amount of each of
these components. The guidelines also
contain limits for the permissible migra-
tion from the packaging material, and
from the packages in contact with food.
EEC.
Some years ago, the EEC Council issued
a framework directive on materials and
articles intended to come into contact
with food.
Based on this, some directives have been
issued, for example a Directive on PVC,
which limits the quantity of vinyl chloride
(VCM=Vinyl Chloride Monomer) present
in plastic materials prepared with VCM,
and for the quantity of VCM released by
these materials, i.e. a specific migration
limit for VCM.
The compilation of positive lists for
plastic materials has been in preparation
for several years, as it was a difficult task
to harmonize the existing legislation in
REGULATIONS
the 12 Member States. However, Direc-
tive 90/128/EEC relating to plastic mate-
rials and articles intended to come into
contact with foodstuffs was issued in
February 1990. The Member States must
bring into force the laws, regulations and
administrative provisions necessary not
later than 31 December 1990, and pro-
hibit trade in and use of plastic materials
which do not comply with this Directive
before 1 January 1993.
Only those monomers and other starting
substances listed in Annex II of this di-
rective may be used for the manufacture
of plastic materials and articles. The di-
rective also limits the overall migration
from plastic materials into foodstuffs: The
overall migration limit is 10 milligram per
square decimeter of surface area of plas-
tic material (mg/dm2), or 60 mg per kilo-
gram of foodstuff (mg/kg). The positive
lists in Annex II includes specific migra-
tion limits (in mg/kg foodstuff) for several
substances.
Earlier EEC Directives have laid down the
basic rules (time, temperature, etc.) for
testing migration of the constituents of
plastic materials, and have established
the list of simulants to be used in the mi-
gration tests. The simulants prescribed
are approximately the same as in the
USA regulations, see above.
As mentioned in the introduction, several
countries do not have detailed legislation
on food packaging. A few countries have
recommendations, while some countries
simply refer to the legislation in other
countries. This means that the authorities
in several countries simply demand certifi-
cates that the packaging materials com-
ply with the legislation in West Germany
(BGA), or USA (FDA) or the Netherlands.
The regulations on packaging materials
to be used for foodstuffs is an important
33
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 34
REGULATIONS
area as the authorities in several coun-
tries demand certification that imported
foods are packed in suitable and safe
packagings.
6.4 Irradiation
The use of ionizing radiation of foods is a
topic of great interest world-wide. There is
no international legislation in this field, but
FAO/WHO have drawn up a proposal for
international standards.
A FAO/WHO expert group has concluded
that irradiation of foodstuffs is a com-
pletely safe method, when the dose ab-
sorbed by the foodstuff is below a certain
limit, 10 kGy (1 Mrad). Several countries
have appointed expert groups with the
task to study irradiation of foodstuffs, but
all of them have supported this conclu-
sion.
Irradiation may be used for several pur-
poses:
• to retard sprouting of potatoes and
onions. This demands a dose of about
0.2 kGy
• to kill insects in for example wheat. This
demands about 0.7 kGy
• to kill bacteria and micro-organisms, in
order to prolong storage life of for exam-
ple fresh (chilled) strawberries, or to sig-
nificantly reduce (eliminate) the number
of food poisoning micro-organisms, such
as Salmonella and Campylobacter, see
chapter 3 section 1.1. The dose normally
is 3 to 7 kGy.
• to kill micro-organisms in spices and
herbs in order to increase the safety and
storage life of the foods to which these
spices and herbs are added. The neces-
sary dose is 10 kGy.
• in order to produce ambient stable food
34
products, i.e. food products stable for
some months at room temperature (20°C)
it would be necessary to use a dose of
about 45 kGy. As this is above the maxi-
mum permitted dose of 10 kGy, shelf sta-
ble irradiated foods will not be seen in the
trade.
This implies that even when irradiation be-
comes a permitted method the irradiated
food products would still need cooling and
temperature controlled transport. The tem-
perature requirements and the monitoring
of product temperatures during transport
(and during storage and display) would
probably be intensified for irradiated foods.
There is no advantage for the food indus-
try in using as high a dose as allowed in
legislation, because irradiation may cause
pronounced changes, especially in flavour
and taste. The maximum dose to be used
in practice will differ, from about 10 Kgy
for killing most micro-organisms in spices,
to 3-6 kGy for killing of pathogenic micro-
organisms (Salmonella, Campylobacter),
down to 0.1-0.2 for potatoes. In several
foods, for example in many dairy prod-
ucts, significant flavour changes occur
when the dose exceeds 0.5 kGy, meaning
that irradiation can not be used commer-
cially for such foods.
However, although (or perhaps because)
practically all experts agree that irradia-
tion could be a very useful preservation
method for some foods, most consumer
organizations and media persons seem to
be convinced that irradiation is a very
dangerous, or at least unwanted or un-
necessary method.
In the EEC, a draft Directive on irradiation
is being discussed in 1990. The draft in-
cludes a list of food groups with the pro-
posed maximum allowable dose for each
group.
Irradiation of foodstuff, especially of
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 35
spices, is employed in several countries,
such as USA, Netherlands and Japan,
but only to a very limited extent.
Irradiation is permitted in many countries,
but is often not applied in practice be-
cause of labelling regulations and public
opinion, which means that food producers
and retailers reject using this theoretically
excellent method.
It may be added that labelling of irradiat-
ed foods and ingredients is a crucial fac-
tor. If the industry was allowed to irradiate
some foods without having to state “irra-
diated” or “ionized radiation” on the label,
it might be a lot busier irradiating food,
especially spices, rather than confined to
sterilizing medical utensils, petri dishes,
and the like.
6.5 Codex Alimentarius
The international organizations FAO and
WHO established, in 1962, the Codex Al-
imentarius Commission to implement a
joint food standards programme. The
purpose of the programme is to protect
the health of the consumers and to en-
sure fair practices in food trade both na-
tionally and internationally. In pursuit of
these objectives, efforts have been put
into the standardization of several types
of product categories as well as stan-
dardization of labelling, use of additives,
food hygiene, pesticide residues, etc.
Furthere, recommended international
codes of hygiene and/or technological
practice have been developed, for exam-
ple in the fields of fish and fishery pro-
ducts, meat and poultry products, fruits
and vegetables. Foodstuffs complying
with the Codex can generally be con-
sidered as being safe, wholesome and
good quality.
As of 1989, 137 countries had become
members of the Commission.
REGULATIONS
The published work of the Commission
can be found in the Codex Alimentarius
which consist of Standards (at present in
17 volumes), recommended Codes of
Practice and Guidelines (at present in 8
volumes) and regularly up-dated tables of
government replies.
It should be noted that the Codex Alimen-
tarius is advisory only, but that it can be
valuable in the communication between
buyer and seller.
Food Labelling
Codex standards and Guidelines for the
labelling of foods and food additives
(CAC/Vol. VI-Ed.2) include a standard for
the labelling of prepackaged foods. The
standard supplies the points of interest
for all consumers and the requirements
can be observed in practice. Countries
often base their food labelling law on this
standard which has also influenced the
regulation in this field in the EEC.
Standards
The programme has set up Codex stan-
dards for various foods, e.g. for pro-
cessed meat and poultry products
(CAC/vol. IV - Ed. 1). These standards,
mainly dealing with composition and la-
belling of certain specified meat and
poultry products, applies only to canned
products. However, a recommended
code of hygienic practice for processed
meat products has been made especially
concerning requirements for the ingredi-
ents used, and the facilities in the facto-
ries. The end product specification states
that the product should not contain
pathogenic micro-organisms in amounts
that would constitute a health hazard to
the public without establishing limits to
the actual numbers.
For fish and fishery products (CAC/Vol. V
- Ed. 1), standards have been developed
35
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 36

REGULATIONS

for some canned products as well as
some quick frozen fish species (e.g. Pa-
cific Salmon, Cod, Haddock, Flat Fish,
Shrimps). These standards include lists of
defects in the fish products which can be
used in quality evaluation.
For certain quick frozen fruits and veg-
etable the standards also include defect
“lists” (CAC/Vol. VIII - Ed. 1).
6.6 Other regulations
It should be noted that besides all the top-
ics dealt with in this section, there are
many other special regulations throughout
the world. The use of chlorine in the
washing and chilling of chickens is recom-
mended in certain countries, but forbid-
den in others.
Some additives are considered useful in
some countries, but are forbidden in
neighbouring countries.
The application of colouring to fresh fruits
and vegetables is allowed in some coun-
tries, such as Japan, but there are no in-
ternational regulations or outlines on this
matter. It is appropriate, therefore, to
refer to the particular country’s regula-
tions in each case.
Such a procedure would only indicate the
temperature at that moment in time, and
give no indication of the time- tempera-
ture history of the load, which may be im-
portant for the quality of the foods, and for
the safety of chilled foods.
Checking temperatures in transported
cargoes is straightforward, provided cer-
tain procedures are followed. Transport
vehicles in themselves are relatively sim-
ple however, the refrigeration system as a
whole is complex and it’s temperatures
are neither uniform in distribution nor con-
stant in time.
It is recommended to use the following
sequence of inspections and measure-
ments in checking temperatures in trans-
port of chilled and frozen foods:
a. - Inspection and checking a log or a
record of air temperature measure-
ments. In most cases, further action will
be superfluous.
b. - Use of a non-destructive product tem-

7. TEMPERATURE MONITORING AND

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
This looks at what methods should be
used in checking that the food in the vehi-
cle or container has been maintained at
the prescribed temperature.

It is in the interest of all parties that there is

minimal disruption during the journey of
perishable produce, especially at border
crossings. Any manual temperature mea-
surement carried out by inspection authori-
ties will require the vehicle to be opened,
temperature measuring devices inserted,
etc.
Fig. 1.3 Vehicle seen from behind,
indicating the position of product
temperature (by a non-destructive
method) in transit or before unload-
ing

36
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 37
TEMPERATURE MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT
perature measurement, should the air
temperature measurements leave rea-
sonable doubt about the temperature of
the food products.
c. - Use of a destructive temperature mea-
surement method. This stage should only
be undertaken, where the evidence from
stages a and b lead to the conclusion that
the food could be outside the required
temperature limits.
7.1 Air temperature measurement.
Suitable air temperature recorders should
be installed in all types of transport equip-
ment for long-distance transport of per-
ishable foods.
At the receiver, the air temperature
record should be examined. Verification
of the position and accuracy of the sen-
sors is difficult in a loaded vehicle. It may
be possible to check the accuracy of a
sensor situated near the rear of the vehi-
cle. The readout of this sensor and a
calibrated control instrument should be
the same.
As mentioned above, the temperature
check will normally end at this point.
However, if air temperature data are not
available, or the air temperature record is
not satisfactory, then the product temper-
ature should be measured by a non-de-
structive method, (the between pack
method, see section 7.2.1).
A number of companies have specific
guidelines on testing temperatures of in-
coming foods. When a transport vehicle
arrives, inspectors test temperatures, and
the guidelines for such temperature tests
may include one or more measurement. It
seems that more and more companies
carry out quality control, including tem-
perature measurements, of practically all
foods received, whether chilled or frozen,
whether raw materials or finished pro-
ducts. Such procedures should be con-
sidered an advantage for all parties in-
volved.
7.2 Product temperature measurement
Product temperatures may be checked
whilst the vehicle is still loaded, but in-
spection should not cause rises in load
temperature, and only those packs avail-
able from the doors should be ex-
amined.
When it is considered necessary to check
Fig. 1.4 Vehicle with a
single set of doors. It is
indicated (x) where
product temperatures
should be measured,
preferably using a non-
destructive method.
37
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 38
TEMPERATURE MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT
product temperatures during transport or
before unloading, it is recommended to
take a measurement at the position
shown in figure 1.3, but the exact position
may depend on type of packaging and
stowage. It is recommended to begin with
a non-destructive product temperature
measurement, see section 7.2.1.
If further investigation is required, then
unloading should take place and mea-
surement be conducted under controlled
conditions, i.e. the load should be placed
in a room having about the same temper-
ature as the foods. Unloading of the vehi-
cle should be carried out so that the prod-
ucts to be measured can be identified or
marked for measurement under tempera-
ture controlled conditions.
For vehicles with a single set of doors,
the product temperature should be mea-
sured at six points, as shown in figure
1.4:
• At the centre of each doorway, at the top
and bottom
• At 1/4 and 3/4 the distance from rear and
front, at the centre of the load
• At half the distance from the rear, at the
top of the load
• At the front, one sample from the bottom
centre position
For vehicles with more than one set of
doors, a more complicated sampling plan
is necessary.
In all cases, product temperatures should
be determined using the non-destructive
method.
If between pack temperatures are too
high, the packs should be set aside for
38
destructive measurement (section 7.2.2,
below), which should be carried out with
the minimum of delay.
7.2.1 Non-destructive measurement
If the top of a case is accessible, it should
be opened, and the sensor inserted be-
tween the food packs. If not, a small flap
should be cut at the edge of the outer
case, taking great care not to damage the
food packs, see figure 1.5. A sensor can
be placed between food packs, which
should be under sufficient pressure to
give a good contact, and the temperature
read after reaching a steady value.
Between pack measurements can give
rise to a 2°C difference between mea-
sured and true product temperature.
7.2.2 Destructive measurement
As mentioned above, the destructive
measurement should not be used until
the non-destructive measurements have
lead to the conclusion that the food may
be too warm.
For frozen foods, it is necessary to pre-
cool the temperature sensors, and for
solid food products it is necessary to make
a hole of the appropriate diameter, using a
pre-cooled punch or drill. The drilling or
formation of a hole generates heat. This
can cause large errors in reading the true
temperature, especially in foods having a
low capacity to absorb heat. This is partic-
ularly true of small consumer packs.
For chilled foods there is normally no
need for pre-cooling the temperature sen-
sor or taking other elaborate precautions.
The measurement should be made whilst
the food remains in chilled/frozen sur-
roundings, and the temperature mea-
sured at least 25 mm below the surface
(or in the centre when the product is less
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 39
TEMPERATURE MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT
Fold
back
Cuts made with a
sharp knife
Fig. 1.5 Illustration of non-destructive (between pack) temperature measurement
than 50 mm thick). The temperature
should be recorded after reaching a
steady value. The sensor should remain
in the test package until it is required for
the next measurement.
7.3 Temperature recording during
transport
As mentioned before it is highly recom-
mended - and in the EEC countries
mandatory for long distance transport of
deep frozen foods and for transport of
some chilled foods- to install a suitable
temperature recorder in the transport
equipment. Temperature recorders are
dealt with in chapter 2 section 3.4
7.4 Temperature measuring instru-
ments
Temperature measuring instruments
should meet the following requirements:
• stable temperature reading should be
achieved within 2 minutes.
• the instrument should give readings to an
accuracy of +/-0.5°C or better in the tem-
perature range -20°C to +20°C.
• the accuracy of the instrument should not
Temperature sensor
be affected by the temperature of the sur-
roundings, between the temperatures -
20°C and +40°C.
• the markings on a scale should be read-
able to 0.5°C, or a digital readout of the
same order or better.
• the temperature sensitive element
should be enclosed or constructed from
materials that are non-toxic and capable
of being sterilised.
• the temperature sensitive part of the in-
strument should be constructed to facili-
tate good thermal contact with the food
product.
The instrument used should be powered
by a dry cell battery and incorporate a
method of checking the battery voltage to
indicate when replacement or recharging
is necessary. The read-out may be digital
or dial display.
The temperature sensor should be built
into and form either a robust rigid stem
with a sharpened point suitable for inser-
tion directly into the product or into a pre-
drilled hole or be formed into a flat head
39
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 40
TEMPERATURE MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT
suitable for measurement of surface tem-
perature on or between packages.
Calibration of instruments
The temperature measuring instrument
should be tested at regular intervals.
Instruments may be checked by compari-
son to a readings with a reference ther-
mometer known to be accurate.
40
Modern electronic instruments often have
their calibration “factory set”. Therefore if
and when comparing with a reference
temperature the difference is greater than
0.5°C, the thermometer should be sent
back to the manufacturer for re-calibra-
tion. On older models adjustments can be
made until the readings are within that
value, but the instrument should be
rechecked after adjustment.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 41

2 CHAPTER
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 42
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 43
GENERAL INFORMATION ON TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT CONDITIONS
Chapter 2 deals with the transport equip-
ment used in the transport of chilled and
frozen foods.
Section 1: General information on trans-
port. Heat sources, insulation,
temperature requirements,
pre-cooling, loading/ unload-
ing, mixed loads.
Section 2: Mechanical refrigeration. Prin-
ciple, mechanical
refrigeration units, thermo-
stats, defrosting.
Section 3: ISO intermodal containers, in-
cluding air ventilation,
controllers, temperature
recording, loading.
Section 4: Primary distribution vehicles
(trailers, trunkers).
Section 5: Other types of refrigeration
systems
Section 6: Other types of transport
equipment.
Section 7: Code of good practice for
refrigerated transport.
Before loading, unloading,
pre-cooling of foodstuffs.
1.GENERAL INFORMATION ON TRANS-
PORT.
The transport of chilled and frozen foods
can involve movement by road, rail, sea
or air or combinations thereof, employing
thermally insulated vehicles or containers
which are normally equipped with a refrig-
eration system for maintaining the
desired temperature in the cargo space.
The mode of transportation and type of
equipment used should be based on
• destination
• outside temperature conditions during
transport
• amount and value of the product
• recommended temperature during
transport
• time in transit to reach destination
• product perishability
The following transport equipment is
available:
• ISO containers
• Primary distribution vehicles (trunkers,
trailers)
• Secondary distribution vehicles
• Piggyback trailers, for rail,road and roll-
on/roll-off sea transport.
• rail cars
• ocean vessels, with refrigerated holds.
• air cargo containers
This book concentrates on long distance
transport, and in this chapter mainly ISO
containers (section 3) and primary trans-
port vehicles (section 4) will be described.
A few other types of transport equipment
will be described in section 6.
43
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 44
GENERAL INFORMATION ON TRANSPORT
Long distance transport require well-
designed equipment, and desirable
features include:
• sufficient refrigeration capacity
• a continuously operating high capacity
evaporator air circulating fan for more
even product temperatures
• adequate insulation
• adequate air circulation under the load
• containers: delivery air temperature sen-
sors are used for chilled foods in order to
reduce freezing injury
• containers: return air sensors are always
used for the transportation of deep frozen
(and frozen) foods
• trailers: inlet air ducts to ensure even air
distribution
• trailers: provisions, e.g. a solid return air
bulkhead, at the front to ensure air circu-
lation
• trailers: vertical ribs on the rear door to
assist in air circulation
1.1 Heat sources
The refrigeration system in transport
equipment must have sufficient capacity to
remove heat from the following sources:
• heat conducted through the insulation
from warm outside air
• heat absorbed from radiation from the
sun or the road
• infiltration of heat from warm outside air
through small holes and cracks
• heat from the evaporator fan and motor
• heat from any internal electric lights, if fit-
ted
• heat introduced through open doors (very
important in local distribution)
• residual heat from the air inside the cargo
space, and residual heat in the insulation
and inner lining
• foodstuffs with a temperature above the
required temperature
• heat of respiration is not relevant for the
foodstuffs dealt with in this book.
The refrigeration system must have suffi-
44
cient refrigeration capacity to remove the
sum of these sources. This should be
done in such a way as to minimise the
temperature difference of the air passing
over the evaporator coil so as to avoid the
dehydration effect caused be water con-
densing from the circulating air, see sec-
tion 2.4 below.
It must be emphasized that the foodstuffs
must have the desired temperature when
loaded into the transport equipment. If the
foodstuffs are at a higher temperature,
they must be cooled to the desired transit
temperature before loading.
1.2 Insulation
Transport equipment to be used for trans-
porting perishable foods, should be well
insulated to retard the flow of heat
through its walls. Insulating quality is
measurable, and the commonly used unit
of measure is the K-coefficient (K-factor,
K-value), see section 6.1 in chapter 1. To
obtain an ATP certificate for international
transport of frozen and deep frozen
perishable foodstuffs, the K-value for
heavily insulated equipment must be
0.4 w/m2xC or less.
The lower the K-value, the better the insu-
lation.
Plastic foams, and especially polyur-
ethane foam, are the predominant materi-
als used in insulated refrigerated equip-
ment. Polyurethane foam almost always
incorporates a low conductivity halocar-
bon gas within closed cells to improve the
performance. The insulation thickness
was usually about 70-80 mm for the side
walls and about 100 mm for roof and
floor. Due to improvements in polyur-
ethane insulation technology, side walls
with a thickness of about 60 mm are now
being used by some manufacturers.
Plastic foams give a low K-value, are
lightweight, waterproof, and noncorrosive.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 45
GENERAL INFORMATION ON TRANSPORT
In 1989 the EEC decided to increase the
maximum external width of road vehicles
in ATP class FRC, i.e. vehicles capable of
maintaining -20°C. For such vehicles, the
maximum permissible width was changed
from 2500 mm to 2600 mm. With a maxi-
mum width of 2500 mm, thin wall vehicles
were used to some extent, see section
6.3 below.
Most new vehicles have bodies construct-
ed of sandwich panels, with plastic foam
laminated between fibreglass or stainless
steel or aluminium walls. Sandwich pan-
els give a low K-value, even at reduced
wall thickness.
The outer cladding should reflect heat ra-
diation; reflective paints could also re-
duce the heat load. However, the reflect-
ing effect is reduced if the outside of the
vehicle is not kept clean. As mentioned
later, polished metal (stainless steel or
aluminium) is normally used for the out-
side skin on ISO containers.
Insulation materials of high quality are of
little value if door seals etc. are leaking.
The door seals must be kept properly fit-
ted and in good repair.
Polyurethane foam deteriorates with age,
partly due to loss of halocarbon, partly due
to moisture ingress. The overall range of
rate of deterioration is about 5% per year,
somewhat lower for some of the newer
sandwich panels.
1.3 Temperature requirements
With perishable products of all types tem-
perature is of prime importance, i.e. the
food products must maintain low temper-
atures throughout the cold chain. In
transportation of chilled foods freezing in-
jury must not occur, i.e. it is often neces-
sary to ensure that the circulating air
does not become colder than about -1°C.
Also, the air temperature must be as con-
stant as is practicable, as fluctuating air
temperature may accelerate water loss
and can cause frost formation inside re-
tail packed deep frozen foods such as
vegetables, meat balls, see chapter 1
section 3.2.
The ideal and the prescribed transport
temperatures for some groups of deep
frozen, frozen and chilled foods can be
found in chapter 3 sections 3, 4 and 5.
Chilled foods.
Generally, the temperature should be as
cold as possible. This very often means
that the temperature should be maintain-
ed a little above the freezing point of the
foodstuff, for example 0.5°C,. As mention-
ed in chapter 1, the freezing point for
most raw foods is about -1°C to -2°C.
Thus, the ideal transport temperature for
such chilled foods is -1°C with a minimum
of fluctuations. As stressed below, it is not
possible to maintain constant temper-
atures in transport equipment. If the con-
troller in a container is set at 0°C, the de-
livery air temperature will be around 0°C.
The return air will be warmer, e.g. 1-2°C,
and the average temperature of the load
will be 0.5-1°C.
Frozen foods
The quality is maintained best when the
temperature is as low and constant as
practicable. In freezer storage rooms the
temperature is very often about -28°C,
and in transport the temperature is norm-
ally -18 to -25°C.
Air circulation
Regardless of the method of refrigeration,
provision should be made for the condi-
tioned air to circulate uniformly. In warm
weather, the primary purpose of air circu-
lation is to carry heat penetrating walls,
floor and ceiling of the transport equip-
ment to the refrigeration unit which re-
moves the heat. Circulating air, like water,
tends to take the path of least resistance
45
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 46
GENERAL INFORMATION ON TRANSPORT
or short-circuit back to the refrigeration
unit. The cargo must be uniformly stowed
to achieve uniform air passages, neces-
sary to obtain uniform product tempera-
tures.
1.4 Pre-cooling
Transport equipment is designed to hold
the product at a desired temperature.
Containers or trailers rarely have suffi-
cient refrigeration power to reduce the
temperature of the mass of the cargo to
the required level as quickly as is normal-
ly required. The foodstuffs must have the
correct temperature when loaded. For fur-
ther information on pre-cooling of food-
stuffs, see section 7.4 below.
Pre-cooling the transport equipment
As the outside temperatures, refrigeration
unit capacities, and insulation (K- values)
all vary, there can be no set rule for pre-
cooling of the transport equipment.
In most cases, there is no need to pre-
cool the equipment before loading as the
heat from the equipment will warm the
cartons against the walls by only about
0.5°C.
In several countries, a recommended pro-
cedure before loading is to set the ther-
mostat at the desired temperature, close
the doors, and run the refrigeration unit
for about half an hour. This is especially
recommended for deep frozen foodstuffs.
Some countries prescribe pre-cooling, i.e.
it is mandatory to pre-cool the transport
equipment before loading.
It is obvious that ambient air should not
be allowed to pass into pre-cooled trailers
or containers, as this would cause con-
densation.
1.5 Loading
The most important factors to take into
consideration during the loading process
are time and contact with ambient air.
46
Ideally, the loading bay should be kept at
the same temperature as the required
carriage temperature. In that case, the
trailer/container should be connected to
the cold room or the loading area via a
port door with seals.
This is not always the case, but vehicles
should at least be placed so the loading
doors are under cover away from direct
sunlight.
Because of restriction in space, before
vehicles are backed into loading bays the
hinged doors must be opened and folded
back. If delays in loading occur and the
bay is not temperature controlled, then
undesirable large temperature rises can
occur.
Perishable foodstuffs must not be allowed
to remain outside the cold room unneces-
sarily while waiting to be loaded into the
transport equipment.
If a pallet load of deep frozen foods with a
temperature of -25°C is placed at +15°C,
the temperature of the foods placed in the
outer corners will be about 12-15°C warm-
er, i.e. about -10°C, after a period of 2
hours. After 4 hours at +15°C, the corner
temperatures will be around -5°C, while
the foodstuffs in the centre of the pallet will
still be colder than -20°C. Of course, if the
ambient temperature is warmer than 15°C
and/or the pallet is left in the sun unpro-
tected, the increase in temperature of the
foodstuffs will be much more pronounced.
Loading patterns
Packaging and packaging materials are
described in chapter 1 section 4.
It is self-evident that whatever packaging
is used, it must be secure. What is impor-
tant is that while remaining secure, the
packaging must allow air to circulate
freely around the periphery of the con-
tainer and in the area of the door. The
important criterion here is to have uniform
distribution of air throughout the load.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 47
GENERAL INFORMATION ON TRANSPORT
This requires the cargo to be uniformly
stowed. Different sized packaging obvi-
ously dictates different stacking patterns.
The higher the resistance to the air pres-
sure developed by the fans, the smaller
the volume of air that will pass over the
cargo and, subsequently, the lower the
rate of heat exchanged between the air
and the cargo. In an extreme case, the
high resistance to air flow will mean that
cargo will have relatively little or no air
flowing over it. Conversely, in cargo
stowed with large gaps and no resis-
tance, the air will short-circuit through the
low-resistance areas and return to the re-
frigeration unit without cooling the bulk of
the cargo. As stated earlier, the key to
uniform cooling is uniform air distribution.
For the foods touched on in this book, the
transport cartons should be loaded in a
solid block. The goal is to keep the heat
that penetrates the vehicle from reaching
the cargo by keeping the load encircled
with an envelope of cold air.
The internal dimensions of containers/
trailers differ considerably, and carton
sizes also differ. Thus, it is not possible to
specify one standard stowage pattern.
Most outer cartons are designed to with-
stand more pressure or weight on one
side without collapse. Some outer cases,
e.g. wooden crates, should always be
stacked so that all overhead weight is
born by the ends.
Corrugated board cartons are designed
to bear vertical overhead weight on their
four walls. The midsection of the top is
usually the weakest point, and the car-
tons should not be stacked in a manner
that will cause excessive weight on the
foods at the carton midsection.
A common mistake is to load pallets or
cartons up to ceiling height, restricting air
flow along the return air passage over the
top of the cargo to the evaporator fan.
Where dissimilar sized packaging is
used, or cargoes do not fill the container
or trailer fully, it is recommended that ad-
ditional empty cartons or some other ma-
terial is used to fill up the void space so
that the air passages remain uniform. In
vehicles with canvas ducting on the roof,
these should always be free and not re-
stricted by the load.
Most containers have bottom air delivery,
and it is absolutely essential not to stow
above the red load line, see also section
3.5 below. In most containers the load
line is approximately 10 cm below the
ceiling. In transport equipment with bot-
tom air delivery, there must be a gap of at
least 10 cm between the top layer and
the ceiling.
Unit load patterns should be designed to
reduce the contact of the product with the
walls and the floor, especially if the vehi-
cle is without ribbed walls and without a
ducted floor, e.g. a T-bar floor.
Reducing the amount of surface contact
will improve product arrival temperature
and reduce the chance of product warm-
ing.
Fig. 2.1 shows three basic pallet patterns
in a vehicle or container.
The loading pattern should also take into
account that the vehicle might be sched-
uled for more than one receiver. Of
course, the cargo intended for the first
customer should be placed so it is easy
to unload.
Proper loading practices are also dealt
with in section 7.2 below.
1.6 Pallets, slipsheets
Most shippers and receivers have switch-
ed from handling of individual outer pack-
47
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 48
GENERAL INFORMATION ON TRANSPORT
Fig 2.1 Overhead view of three basic pallet or unit load patterns in a trailer og
container
aging to unit loads on pallets or slip-
sheets.
Unit loads offer the following advantages:
• reduced handling
• less damage to the packaging and to the
foodstuffs inside
• faster loading and unloading of transport
vehicles
• reduced pilferage
Unit loads may be standard wood pallets
(Europallets 800 mm x 1200 mm, or Iso-
pallets 1000 mm x 1200 mm), plastic net-
ting around a pallet load of cartons, slip-
sheets, cornerboards (plastic or metal),
plastic or metal strapping around cartons
and cornerboards.
Wood pallets must have sufficient
strength to allow storage in three tier
48
Bulkhead
wall
Bulkhead
wall
racks, and provisions for forklifts and pal-
let jacks are necessary.
In transport equipment without a ducted
floor, the pallets should be placed so they
do not block air circulation under the load.
The cartons and other outer packaging
used in unit loads must have dimensions
suitable to fit the pallets used. The object
is to achieve utilization of 90-100 percent
of the surface of the pallet with no over-
hang, more stable pallet loads, and
reduced transportation costs.
Cartons should be placed correctly and
must not overhang the edges of the pal-
lets, as this can reduce the strength of the
paperboard cartons.
Slipsheets
These cost less than pallets and also elimi-
nate the cost of transporting and returning
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 49
GENERAL INFORMATION ON TRANSPORT
pallets. A special forklift is needed to trans-
fer slipsheet loads to and from pallets at
the shipper and at the receiver. If a receiv-
er does not have the proper handling
equipment, the packages are unloaded by
hand onto pallets for storage. Outer cases
on slipsheets are cross-stacked and film
wrapped, or otherwise stabilized with cor-
nerboards and strapping.
1.7 Mixed loads
In practice, several commodities are
sometimes stored in the same container or
in the same trailer, even though the com-
modities may have different ideal tempera-
Fig 2.2 Pallet and slipsheet
tures. For short-term storage and trans-
port, this is usually of no significance.
Dairy products, eggs, and fresh meat are
highly susceptible to strong odours. Pack-
aging reduces the problem, but most
plastic materials allow quite a lot of odour
to penetrate. Thorough cleaning and air-
ing of vehicles or containers previously
used for transporting fish, apples, cab-
bage, citrus fruits, onions and other odor-
ous products is necessary.
Odours from some products are nearly
impossible to remove, and such products
should not be transported if it is planned
to shortly transport fresh meat etc.
49
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 50

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION

2. MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION tion cycle, includes four stages, as shown

Mechanical refrigeration systems used in
transport equipment usually operate with
refrigerant R12 (Freon 12), and have
reciprocating compressors mostly in the
5-8 hp range.
2.1 Principle of mechanical refrigera-
tion
The refrigeration process, or the refrigera-
schematically in fig. 2.3:
• Compression. In the compressor, the re-
frigerant gas is compressed, i.e. the pres-
sure and temperature of the gas is in-
creased. Then the high pressure gas is
discharged into the condenser.
• Condensation. In the condenser, the high
temperature and high pressure gas is

Expansion Valve

Condenser Evaporator

Compressor

High Pressure Low Pressure

Fig. 2.3 Schematic diagram of a refrigeration cycle

50
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 51
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION
cooled by means of air or water. The gas
is changed into a liquid, still at high pres-
sure.
• Expansion. The expansion valve controls
the flow of refrigerant, which it receives
from the condenser (possibly via a liquid
receiver) so that the correct amount of re-
frigerant passes to the evaporator.
• Evaporation. On entering the evaporator
section the refrigerant passes from the
high pressure side, through a small orific-
e in the expansion valve, to the low pres-
sure side of the system. The low pres-
sure causes it to evaporate. The latent
heat of evaporation is extracted from the
surroundings, for example from air pass-
ing the evaporator coils. The refrigerant
gas is then drawn back to the compressor
and the cycle is repeated.
Refrigeration capacity
Refrigeration capacity is the measure of
cooling power available. Gross capacity is
the total cooling done by the refrigeration
unit. Net capacity (or effective capacity) is
that available to the cargo space after re-
moving the heat generated by evaporator
fans and motors. The capacity is reduced
as the evaporator temperature falls; the
reduction is 3-4% per degree C at tem-
peratures below 0°C.
The capacity is also reduced as the dif-
ference in temperature between the in-
side and the outside the vehicle increas-
es.
Generally, every 2°C rise in ambient tem-
perature means that the minimum achiev-
able internal temperature becomes 1°C
higher. If the minimum achievable tem-
perature is -20°C at an ambient tempera-
ture of 22°C, it will be -19°C at 24°C am-
bient.
Capacity reduction.
In most modern transport equipment, the
mechanical refrigeration unit has some
sort of mechanism controlling the refriger-
ation capacity, in order to achieve prac
tically constant air temperatures. This is
essential for many chilled foods, where
precise control at the lowest temperature
the goods can tolerate is necessary.
A common way of reducing the refrigera-
tion capacity of the refrigeration unit is
hot-gas bypass, where a certain part of
the hot refrigerant gas from the compres-
sor is injected into the evaporator. There
are several ways of controlling how much
gas should bypass the condenser and is
injected into the evaporator. The refriger-
ation unit runs continuously, this gives a
more accurate control over the tempera-
ture but an increase in energy consump-
tion compared to on/off control.
Other methods of capacity control are
cylinder unloading (see section 4.2
below), suction throttling, where the flow
of refrigerant to the compressor is regulat-
ed, and control of the speed of the com-
pressor motor. The latter method would
result in lower energy consumption, but
the system is still not fully developed.
In many trailers the compressor runs at
high speed (HS) when the air is some de-
grees C warmer than required, and at low
speed (LS) when the air temperature is
close to the required temperature, see
section 4.2 below.
2.2 Transport refrigeration units
A transport refrigeration unit is a conven-
tional circuit consisting of a compressor,
a condenser, an expansion valve, and an
evaporator coil, with the thermal expan-
sion valve providing the primary control to
the circulating refrigerant.
51
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 52

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION

It is necessary to minimize the space oc-
cupied by the refrigeration unit, but at the
same time securing the correct function-
ing of the unit. A cutaway view of a typical
layout of a container refrigeration unit is
shown in fig. 2.4.
The internal air is circulated through the
cargo space and the evaporator coils.
The direction of the air flow is shown by
the arrows. This is known as bottom air
delivery, see fig. 2.9. In earlier containers
and most long distance trailers, the air cir-
culates in the reverse direction: top air de-
livery, see figure 2.11.
The fans (1) force the air through the
evaporator coil (2) which cools the air to
the required temperature. The air then
passes over the delivery air thermostat
(4) used by the controller and out into the
cargo space by way of the ducted floor
(5). The most common form of ducted
floor is known as T-bar floor, taking its
name from the T-shaped cross section
aluminium extrusions that form the floor,
see fig. 2.9.

1
2 6

3
3

9
10 11
8 5
4
7

Fig 2.4 Cutaway view of refrigeration unit and container

52
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 53
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION
The air returning to the fans (1) is warmer
than the delivery air as it has absorbed
heat from the cargo space.
The low pressure refrigerant in the evapo-
rator (2) absorbs heat from (and cools)
the air passing the evaporator coil, via the
compressor (7) the refrigerant gas flows
to the condenser (8) where the refrigerant
gas is condensed by outside air forced
through the condenser by the condenser
fan (9). The now high pressure liquid re-
frigerant returns to the evaporator via the
thermal expansion valve (not shown). On
passing through the expansion valve from
the high pressure to the low pressure
side, the liquid refrigerant expands to a
mixture of liquid and gas, which reduces
the temperature of the refrigerant. The re-
frigerant in the evaporator coil again ab-
sorbs heat from the air passing the evap-
orator coil.
The temperature recorder (10) measures
and records the internal air temperature
by a separate sensor (6), shown here in
the return air passage but more often lo-
cated in the delivery air duct, or both
places, see section 3.3 below.
2.3 Thermostats
In refrigerated transport equipment the
temperature is maintained by a thermostat
controlling the refrigeration machinery.
The thermostat sensor measures the
temperature (practically always an air
temperature) and sends a signal to the
controller which adjusts the refrigeration
system. Generally speaking, the refriger-
ation system, if an on/off control type is
switched on, or if a capacity controlled
type is in it’s full capacity mode when the
measured temperature rises to above the
pre-set temperature. The refrigeration
system is switched off or uses reduced
capacity when the measured temperature
falls below the pre-set temperature.
Controllers are described in sections 3.3
and 4.2 below, where the importance of
the location of the thermostat sensor is
also stressed.
2.4 Defrosting
During operation of the refrigeration unit,
water vapour is transferred from the air
and unwrapped food products, and the
outer cases to the evaporator coils. If the
temperature of the coils is below 0°C,
then frost builds up, and the air circulation
rate and refrigeration efficiency falls.
Many units are fitted with timers to give a
defrost at set periods, commonly once or
twice a day. In some units, a differential
pressure controller starts the defrosting
process when the resistance to air flow
across the evaporator reaches a pre-set
value. In some units, the defrosting pro-
cess is initiated when the difference be-
tween the evaporator temperature and
the air temperature (return or delivery air)
exceeds a pre-set value.
The defrosting process, i.e. heating of the
evaporator coil is provided for by electrical
resistance heaters or by hot gas from the
compressor bypassing the condenser,
going directly into the evaporator coil. The
air circulation fans in containers are turn-
ed off so that the heat is utilised in melting
the ice on the evaporator coils, and not in
heating the cargo. In most trailers, the fans
continue during defrosting, but by closing
of air vents, the circulating air is kept inside
the evaporator section.
The melt-water (melted ice) falls into a
tray and then runs outside. By means of
electric heaters, see (3) in fig. 2.4, the
melt-water is kept above 0°C and can
flow out.
When the outlet is blocked, water may ac-
cumulate on the floor with potential dam-
age to the outer cases and the food. The
water on the floor may freeze and block
the air flow leading to a rise in temper-
53
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 54

ISO INTERMODAL CONTAINERS

ature of the food products. Of course,
blocked outlets should not occur, and the
outlets should be properly cleaned before
the transport begins.
During defrost, the temperature in the
evaporator section rises, and this can
usually be seen as a sharp rise and fall in
temperature on the temperature recorder.
3. ISO INTERMODAL CONTAINERS
During the last few years a large number
of ISO intermodal containers have been
built. In 1990, about 180,000 refrigerated
(thermal) containers are in operation, and
the number of containers increases every
year.
A container essentially consists of three
parts:
• an insulated box
• a refrigeration system
• an air circulation and distribution system
The work of international standardization

Clip-on
unit

Fig 2.5 Porthole container showing ports, plenum and

clip-on unit. The arrows show the air flow from bottom to
top. (Bottom-air delivery)

Return air
temperature sensor

Delivery air
temperature sensor

Fig 2.6 Integral container with refrigeration unit built into

the container and showing the positions of the tempera-
ture sensors for the controller/recorder. The arrows
show the air flow (Bottom-air delivery)

54
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 55
ISO INTERMODAL CONTAINERS
in the field of freight containers is carried
out by Technical Committee 104 of ISO.
The insulated box is mostly 6.06 m (20 ft)
or 12.12 m (40 ft) or even 13.64 m (45 ft)
in external length, and 2.44 m in width.
The height of older containers is 2.44 m,
but most new ones are 2.57 m (or even
2.74 m) high. Insulation is described in
section 1.2 above.
The floor of the container is normally
made of T-bar channel sections to allow
movement of air beneath the cargo, see
figs.2.7 and 2.9.
In most modern containers aluminium or
stainless steel is used as a material for
outer cladding. High grade stainless steel
inner linings have replaced the damage
prone glass reinforced plastic inner linings.
3.1 Types of containers
There are several types of refrigerated
containers, or thermal containers as they
are described by ISO, especially
• insulated containers, having no devices
for cooling or heating (porthole contain-
ers, see below)
• refrigerated containers, using a means of
cooling such as dry ice and liquid nitro-
gen
• mechanically refrigerated containers, hav-
ing a refrigerating appliance such as a re-
frigeration unit as shown in fig. 2.4. Most
mechanically refrigerated containers also
have a heat-producing facility
• removable equipment, such as clip-on
units for porthole containers
The two main types of refrigerated
containers are the insulated container
and the integral container.
Porthole container.
The insulated container is very often call-
ed a porthole container or an isothermic
container. This is an insulated box with
two holes or ports in the end wall, see fig.
2.5. Refrigerated air is delivered to the
Fig. 2.7 Container with slightly corru-
gated walls. The T-bar floor and the
red load line can also be seen
bottom porthole and is distributed into the
T-bar floor channels. This is called bottom
air delivery. The air flows from the T floor
into and through the cargo space and
leaves through a slot, 50-100 mm deep,
which runs the full width at the top of the
container rear wall. The air leaves
through the top porthole. Provision is
made for closing the portholes when they
are not being used.
On land, while awaiting loading onto a
ship, a portable refrigeration unit ( a clip-
on unit) can be fitted to the end of the con-
tainer. On board a cellular ship, i.e. a ship
built to carry porthole containers, the con-
tainers are stowed below deck and are
supplied with air from a central refrigera-
tion plant which the ship’s engineers su-
pervise. Sometimes porthole containers
are shipped on deck with a clip-on unit
attached and then they are essentially the
same in operation as an integral container.
Integral containers.
Integral containers constitute more than
80% of refrigerated containers, and the
proportion seems likely to increase in the
future.
55
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 56

ISO INTERMODAL CONTAINERS

The integral container has an electrically

driven mechanical refrigeration unit,
plugged into electric power at depots or
aboard ships. The unit will often resemble
the unit shown in fig. 2.4. Fig 2.6 shows
(schematically) an integral container with
bottom air delivery, see fig. 2.4 and fig.
2.9. During land transport, the all-electric
refrigeration units require the support of a
diesel engine driven generator set (gen-
set). Current designs of gensets include

• clip-on gensets, mounted over the front of

an electric unit
• nose mount gensets, fitting within the ISO
profile
• undermount gensets, mounted beneath
the chassis on which the container is
being transported.
Fig. 2.8 Clip-on genset
Two types are seen in fig. 2.8

Fig. 2.8 Undermount genset

56
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 57
ISO INTERMODAL CONTAINERS
All refrigerated containers must be suit-
able for the carriage of both frozen and
chilled foodstuffs on different occasions.
Therefore, most containers are able to
maintain temperatures from about +20°C
to about -23°C.
3.2 Air ventilation in containers
Ventilation during transport of the chilled
and frozen foods dealt with in this book,
is internal ventilation (forced air circula-
tion) with cold air to maintain the required
product temperature.
For the foodstuffs dealt with in this book,
it is absolutely essential that the fresh air
ventilation is closed. The fresh air vents
should only be opened during transport
of, for instance, fresh fruit and vegeta-
bles.
Internal ventilation is an essential part of
Fig. 2.9 Pathways of air in trailer with bottom-air delivery
the process for maintaining prescribed
temperatures. Cold air is constantly cir-
culated through the cargo space to re-
move transmitted heat. For unwrapped
products water vapour will be removed as
well.
Bottom-air delivery
Most containers are equipped with bot-
tom air delivery. The air is forced down
the bulkhead and through the T-bar floor,
under and up through the load. The air
returns to the evaporator over the top of
the load and through the top of the bulk-
head, see fig. 2.5 and fig. 2.9.
For maximum efficiency with bottom-air
delivery, the following factors are import-
ant:
• the product should be loaded tightly
together
Board or plate
Board or plate
T-bar floor
57
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 58
ISO INTERMODAL CONTAINERS
• Adequate space must be left between the
top of the load and the ceiling for air to re-
turn to the evaporator. Adequate space
means at least 10 cm, and when
the load is kept below the red load line,
this will be attained. If the gap is less
than 10 cm, the air circulation is restrict-
ed, resulting in foods at the door end
being carried at higher temperature than
desired. This effect will be even greater if
the cartons bulge and allow the air to
short-circuit through the resultant vertical
gaps near the refrigeration unit.
• It is important to block unloaded space
over the T-bar floor between the end of
the load and the rear doors to maintain air
pressure under the load. Heavy paper-
board is suitable for this purpose.
3.3 Controllers in containers
The main object of food transport is to as-
sure the minimal loss of quality during
transport, and therefore, precise control at
the lowest temperature the foods can tol-
erate is necessary.
In addition to the primary control provided
by the thermostatic expansion valve,
there are a number of alternative
additional controls providing a choice of
sophistication and accuracy.
The operation of the refrigeration system
depends on its construction and control
system. It is therefore important that the
handling agent is familiar with the direc-
tions supplied by the manufacturer.
Temperature control systems
Set-point.
The set-point is the temperature at which
the controller is set. However, the temper-
ature in the cargo space depends on
where the temperature sensor for the
controller is placed. Most of the earlier re-
58
frigeration units are controlled from a tem-
perature sensor located in the return air
(see fig. 2.6), i.e. the air coming back to
the refrigeration unit after absorbing heat
from the cargo space. This is called re-
turn air control.
When transporting chilled foods, most
modern refrigeration units are controlled
by a sensor located in the delivery air
stream, i.e. the air leaving the unit and
about to enter the cargo space. This is
called delivery air control. These units
retain a sensor in the return air for control
when transporting frozen foods.
It must be emphasized that the set-point
temperature should not be confused with
the product temperature.
The air warms up as it moves through the
cargo space, and the temperature of the
return air will be higher than the tempera-
ture of the delivery air. Exporters must un-
derstand this difference when they make
requests to a shipping company regarding
the setting on a container. Some exporters
do not differentiate between the set-point
and the food product temperature.
Return air control
Most units that are controlled from a re-
turn air sensor operate in an on/off mode.
When the temperature of the return air
falls to the set-point, the controller
switches the refrigeration unit off. To avoid
short-cycling, i.e. switching on and off too
frequently, some refrigeration units are
not switched on again until the air temper-
ature becomes 1-2°C warmer than the
pre-set temperature. This means that the
temperature of the return air will cycle
1-2°C, but the delivery air will cycle more
than that, sometimes 3-6°C.
Delivery air control.
Most of the units that are controlled from
a delivery air sensor, have some method
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 59
ISO INTERMODAL CONTAINERS
of (controlling) reducing the refrigerating
capacity of the unit, see section 2.2
above.
Combined control
A theoretical good control is an electronic
delivery air controller and a mechanical
return air controller, operating together.
The delivery air is kept at the temperature
setting on the delivery air controller, but if
the return air temperature falls to the set-
ting on the return air controller, the unit is
switched off. In practice, this type of con-
trol may give problems, mainly due to a
poorly set or calibrated return controller.
Mechanical safety thermostats that should
secure against freezing of chilled foods,
need careful supervision to obtain the
best results. If set inaccurately, the
refrigeration unit may operate in an
on/off mode with the result that the cargo
is transported at a warmer temperature
than desired.
The modern electronic controllers
described below ensure a combined con-
trol without significant problems.
Modern control in containers.
With advances in electronics and micro-
processors, many newer refrigeration
units are fitted with controllers/recorders
that have both a return air and a delivery
air thermostat feeding control signals to
an electronic, often computer based, con-
troller. The controller adjusts the refriger-
ation unit, the fans, and the overall capac-
ity of the refrigeration unit to give a very
precise delivery air temperature. The sig-
nals (temperatures) from the two thermo-
stat sensors are recorded and stored in
memory, along with other information, for
later retrieval. Such microprocessor con-
trollers have a digital readout, and can
display the temperatures and other
events stored in the memory. Printout is
obtained by means of an ordinary (or
portable) PC. This allows much more ac-
curate records to be obtained and has
the potential for more reliable control.
The controller often provides other facili-
ties, such as testing the machine’s func-
tions prior to loading as a part of the PTI
(Pre-Trip Inspection).
If the temperature is set to a temperature
between +20°C and -5°C (-4°C to -6°C
depending on the manufacturer), it is
automatically decided that the delivery air
sensor shall be used to control the refrig-
erating unit. If the temperature is set to
-5°C or colder, the control is taken over
by the return air sensor. The evaporator
fans often run at full speed when the set-
point is -5°C or warmer, and at reduced
(half) speed when the set-point is colder
than -5°C. A typical control system works
in the following way:
The refrigeration unit operates on full
cooling capacity until the delivery/return
air is a little above the set-point. Then the
unit will operate on reduced (e.g. 50%)
capacity until for example 0.1°C above
the set-point, where further reduction in
capacity (to for example 25 %) will be in-
troduced. If the delivery air becomes a
little (e.g. 0.3°C) colder than set-point, a
heating cycle will be introduced. By
means of such systems, the delivery air
can be maintained within 0.2°C of the
set-point.
When the set-point is -5°C or colder,
heating (and sometimes also capacity re-
duction) is locked out, and the unit will be
de-energized when the return air reaches
a little (e.g. 0.6°C) below set-point.
The control system is somewhat similar
to the system used in modern trailers,
see section 4.2 below.
Some modern ISO containers have con-
trollers that will allow information about
59
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 60
ISO INTERMODAL CONTAINERS
individual containers to be obtained
through pulses down the power lines.
This will enable integral containers to be
monitored from the ship’s control room. A
broad band high data rate system will be
included in ISO’s remote reefer container
monitoring standard.
Temperature differentials.
This refers to temperature differences
within the cargo space. These differences
depend on the volume of circulating air,
the effectiveness of floor design, the
stacking pattern of cargo, and the control
system.
The effectiveness of temperature control
is judged by:
• The temperature at the thermostat sen-
sor. Constant (and correct) temperature
at the thermostat sensor, which in chilled
cargoes should be in the delivery air. The
average temperature over an hour should
be within +/-0.1°C, with short term varia-
tions of max. +/-0.5°C.
• The temperature spread across the width
of the vehicle. The spread should be with-
in a range of +/-0.3°C.
• The temperature range through the cargo.
The laws of physics dictate that completely
uniform temperatures can never be
achieved. Greater awareness of what is a
normal and reasonable temperature distri-
bution is needed, especially as there is
now an increased awareness of the impor-
tance of maintaining the correct tempera-
tures of chilled and deep frozen foods dur-
ing storage and transport. The tempera-
ture difference between delivery and return
air can be below 1°C. This difference can
be calculated from the flow rate (air
changes per hour), the heat input (the ve-
hicle heat leak, in W/K),specific heat ca-
pacity and density.
60
Experimental results have shown that ac-
tual maximum cargo temperature
ranges are about twice the difference be-
tween delivery air and return air.
The temperature difference between the
coldest and the warmest foods can be
about 1.5°C.
3.4 Temperature recording in contain-
ers
Any temperature measurement, for ex-
ample at border crossings or on arrival at
destination, only indicates the tempera-
ture at that moment in time, and cannot
disclose what might have occurred during
the journey. There are a number of pos-
sible causes of failure in long distance
transport, such as a refrigeration unit
breakdown which has been repaired but
not reported, or the unit deliberately has
been switched off. A temperature recorder
indicates the time-temperature history
from loading to unloading and would
show such incidents. Temperature record-
ers normally record air temperatures and
this is often considered sufficient, al-
though it must not be overlooked that cor-
rect return or delivery air temperatures do
not prove that product temperatures
throughout the load are as required.
Some shipping companies place one, two
or three independent temperature record-
ers in the load in order to record product
temperatures.
Recording systems
Temperature recorders must be sufficient-
ly robust to withstand the vibration and
adverse conditions encountered during
transport, loading and unloading. At the
same time the recorders should be suffi-
ciently accurate and as tamper-proof as is
practically possible.
Most containers are fitted with a mechani-
cal circular chart recorder, 150 or 200 mm
in diameter, that records the temperature
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 61
ISO INTERMODAL CONTAINERS
of the return air or the delivery air. The
recorder is frequently combined with the
controller; the principal manufacturer is
“Partlow” and this company’s name has
become a general term to describe this
type of recorder/controller. These
mechanical recorders can be in error up
to 1°C. Small errors occur through wear
in the mechanical linkages. Larger errors
are usually the result of poor adjustment.
As mentioned above, see section 3.3,
modern electronic controllers record and
store delivery air and return air tempera-
tures.
Recording of temperatures in the
cargo
Mechanical temperature recorders locat-
ed in the cargo, for example in one of the
transport cartons, have been used for
decades. The system is still used, partic-
ularly a recorder using a battery to drive a
pressure sensitive chart, and a pen to
make the recording. Such recorders can
be bought or leased.
Modern independent temperature record-
ers are electrical devices, often with a
memory where the recorded tempera-
tures are stored. Such devices are often
called temperature loggers. After the jour-
ney, the logger is connected to a comput-
er and the time-temperature history can
be shown or printed out.
There are several such devices and many
of them are very robust and able to oper-
ate at low temperatures. They can also
be bought or leased.
A logger can give a very good picture of
the product temperature at the point
where it is placed in the cargo. One log-
ger is not enough to give an exact picture
of the temperature in the whole cargo,
unless it has several sensors. However, it
is normally considered sufficiently when a
single logger shows temperatures that
are at the required level.
There is disagreement about where in-
dependent recorders should be placed. If
there is concern for freezing injury, then
the recorder should be placed near
where the delivery air enters the cargo
space. If there is a desire to record the
mean product temperature, then the
recorder should be placed in the centre of
the stow. If there is concern that packag-
es near the door are getting too little air
and may be too warm, then the recorder
should be placed in a carton near the
door - at the bottom for a top air delivery
container or at the top for a bottom air de-
livery container. To avoid confusion, it
would be best to place the recorders at
half height in the container.
However, for simplicity, the recommended
position is 1-1.6 m from the rear doors, at
half height and in the centre line of the
container. The carton must be clearly
marked to ensure that the recorder is re-
covered, and somebody must be given
the responsibility for forwarding the rather
expensive recorder to the appropriate
place.
Temperatures recorded by independent
recorders should be regarded more as
devices to record “catastrophes” than to
give representative temperature records.
They are accessible only at the end of the
journey and no corrective action can be
taken if the vehicle or container is mal-
functioning.
In some countries and for some foods, it
is mandatory to place a recorder in the
load.
3.5 Loading of containers
The foodstuffs must always have the re-
quired temperature at loading and the
61
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 62
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION VEHICLES (TRAILERS)
Fig. 2.10 Trailer with top-air delivety, showing the air flow around the cartons stowed
in a block
outer cartons should be stowed in a
block, so the air can pass above and be-
neath the block. The cartons should be
arranged in order to ensure a stable
cargo, but at the same time must be se-
cured so that the air circulation between
the cartons and the wall is not restricted.
Most earlier containers have some form
of wall battens to keep the cargo from
being in direct contact with the walls and
to allow air to flow over the walls to re-
move the heat being transmitted into the
container through the walls. To cut main-
tenance costs many containers are being
built now with smooth or slightly corrugat-
ed sidewalls. There is some evidence to
suggest that less air flows over the walls
of smooth-walled containers than over
those in containers with wall battens, re-
62
sulting in higher temperatures in transport
cartons against the walls.
Marine containers are marked with a
height limit, the red load line mentioned
before, which should never be exceeded.
Further information on loading can be
found in sections 1.5 and 1.6 above, and
in section 7.2 below.
4. PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION VEHICLES
(TRAILERS)
Food products are usually transported
from the factory or a primary cold store to
cold stores and/or distribution depots by a
large refrigerated vehicle, the refrigerated
vehicle usually being at least 11-12 m in
length. Such a vehicle is usually referred
to as a primary distribution vehicle, trailer
or a trunker.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 63
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION VEHICLES (TRAILERS)
The official formula for calculating effec-
tive refrigeration capacity is:
Eff. ref. capacity =
Sm x K-coefficient x ∆ T x SF
where Sm = mean surface area (m2),
K-coefficient is defined in section 1.2
above, ∆ T= difference between ambient
air and internal air temperatures,
SF=Safety Factor.
In the ATP the minimal Safety Factor is
1.35 to 1.75, but it seems advisable to
apply higher factors, e.g. 2 to 2.5 for ATP
class C (-20°C), and 4 to 5 for ATP class
A (down to about 0°C).
Provided there is good internal air circula-
tion, the effective refrigeration capacity for
the transport of quick frozen foods should
be at least 4100 W for a body volume of
60 m3, and at least 4800 W for a body
volume of 70 m3. In the calculation of
these figures, a safety factor of 1.75 has
been used. By using the recommended
factor 2.2, a volume of 60 m3 demands
about 5100 W and a volume of 70 m3 de-
mands about 6000 W.
Trailers, Trunkers. Trailers usually have a
mechanical refrigeration system, see sec-
tion 2 above. In principle, trailers and inte-
gral containers are very similar, the main
difference being that containers built for
intermodal service have all the machinery
recessed into the front section of the con-
tainer, see fig. 2.6. By remaining within
the envelope of the ISO prescribed di-
mensions the refrigerated containers can
be interchanged with all other containers
and in particular stacked above and
below deck on cellular containerships.
The trailers refrigeration unit is usually
driven by a diesel engine. Some units
may be plugged into electric power, for
example while in depots overnight.
Some units operate via the truck’s en-
gine, directly or via a generator, but
these systems are mainly used for short-
er distances.
Two types of thermostatically controlled
mechanical units are most commonly
used on road vehicles for long distance
transport. One type has the compressor,
power unit, condenser, and other acces-
sories mounted on the nose of the ve-
hicle, with the evaporator coils and air
fans directly inside the front of the ve-
hicle, see fig 2.10. The other type (a split
unit) has the compressor, condenser, etc.
under the frame of the vehicle, again with
the evaporator coil and fans inside the
front of the vehicle.
4.1 Ventilation in trailers
Ventilation during transport of the chilled
and frozen foods dealt with in this book,
is normally forced air circulation with cold
air to maintain the required product tem-
perature. The air temperature is pre-set
on the controller (the thermostat), see
section 4.2.
Internal ventilation is an essential part of
the process for maintaining prescribed
temperatures. Cold air is constantly circu-
lated through the cargo space to remove
transmitted heat. For unwrapped pro-
ducts water vapour will be removed as
well.
Top air delivery
In most transport vehicles with mechani-
cal refrigeration, top air delivery is the
conventional method, see fig. 2.10 and
fig. 2.11. The cold air from the refriger-
ation unit exits at the front ceiling and the
air must be at a relatively high velocity to
carry it all the way to the rear of the ve-
hicle.
63
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 64
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION VEHICLES (TRAILERS)
To obtain improved air circulation and
product temperatures the following factors
are important:
• Air ducts should be used to assure air de-
livery to the rear of the vehicle and to as-
sure even air distribution.
• Open space, it is suggested that 5 cm
should be left between the rear doors
and the load to allow adequate air circu-
lation.
The existence of such a rear air path is
dependent on good loading. In order to
guarantee this air path, it is recom-
mended that a minimum of 25 mm
wide channels be incorporated into
the rear doors.
• The top layer should be loaded so as to
prevent short-circuiting of the air back to
the evaporator.
• The cold air should be allowed to circulate
down the sides of the load to absorb the
heat conducted through the walls. For ve-
hicles without ribbed walls, some form of
strip or batten on the sidewalls is recom-
mended to allow air circulation between
the wall and the load.
• Bracing at the rear doors should prevent
the load from shifting. The installation of
angle irons over the full length of the
cargo space is recommended, see sec-
tion 7.2 below.
• The floor design must provide an ade-
quate air flow under the load. This could
be a T-bar floor as shown in fig. 2.9, or
other types of ducted floors, such as the
so-called “alhut” profiles.
• There should be some arrangement at
the front, e.g. a solid bulkhead, to allow
the air to return to the evaporator. Some
vehicles have a false bulkhead with metal
64
screen or holes at the bottom for return
air passage. In some vehicles, wood pal-
lets are set on their end, with the stringers
vertical, between the
bulkhead wall and the first stack of
the load.
4.2. Temperature control in trailers
The operation of the refrigeration system
depends on its construction and control
system. It is therefore important that the
handling agent is familiar with the direc-
tions supplied by the manufacturer.
Temperature control systems
Set-point. The set-point is the temperature
at which the controller is set. However, the
temperature in the cargo space depends
on where the temperature sensor for the
controller is placed. Refrigeration units in
trailers are controlled by a temperature
sensor located in the return air, i.e. the air
coming back to the refrigeration unit after
absorbing heat from the cargo space. This
is called return air control.
Delivery air control, see section 3.3
above, is seldom used in trailers.
It must be emphasized that the set-point
temperature should not be confused with
the product temperature. In warm cli-
mates heat will be coming through the in-
sulation, the door if it is not sealed and in
the case of respiring cargoes such as fruit
and vegetables from the product, conse-
quently the air warms up as it moves
through the cargo space, and the temper-
ature of the return air will be higher than
the temperature of the delivery air. Thus,
to maintain the required average tem-
perature of the food in the vehicle, the
temperature on a return air controller
must be set higher than on a delivery air
controller. If the required temperature of
the load should be around 4°C, a delivery
air controller should be set at about 3°C,
while a return air controller should be set
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 65

PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION VEHICLES (TRAILERS)

Control modes Temperature Control modes

in 4-stage system in 6-stage system

HS, Cooling HS, Cooling

LS, Cooling LS, Cooling

b
LS, Cooling, Unloading
c Set-
point
LS, Heating, Unloading
d

LS, Heating LS, Heating

e
HS, Heating HS, Heating

Decreasing Increasing Decreasing Increasing

Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature

at about 5°C. However in arctic climes
heat may be escaping through the insula-
tion and arctic cold air entering through
any gaps in the door. In this case the set
point must be adjusted the other way.
Control systems. Some units operate in
an on/off mode. When the temperature of
the return air falls to the set-point, the
controller switches the refrigeration unit
off. To avoid short-cycling, i.e. switching
on and off too frequently, the refrigeration
unit is not switched on again until the air
temperature is 1-2°C warmer than the set
point temperature. The delivery air tem-
perature will cycle more than that, some-
times 3-6°C. In most cases the evapora-
tor fans run continuously to provide a
constant air change in the cargo space.
Most newer refrigeration units are driven
by a diesel engine running continuously.
The compressor, usually a four cylinder
compressor, runs at two speeds, high
speed (HS) which is about 2200 rpm, and
low speed (LS) which is about 1450 rpm.
Naturally, low speed operation saves en-
ergy and hence fuel.
In many refrigeration units, a 4-stage or
6-stage thermostat control system auto-
matically regulates the unit. A typical
4-stage control system operates in the
following way: When the thermostat sen-

65
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 66
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION VEHICLES (TRAILERS)
sor in the return air measures a tempera-
ture some degrees (often about 3.5°C)
warmer than the set-point, the unit cools
at high speed. When the return air tem-
perature gets below point a in the figure
above, the unit runs at low speed, still
cooling. This continues until the return air
gets colder than the set-point (point c), or,
more correctly, colder than point d, which
is about 0.8°C colder than the set-point.
The unit then is switched into low speed
heating. When the return air gets warmer
than point b (about 0.8°C warmer than
the set-point) the unit is switched to low
speed, cooling.
High speed heating is used when chilled
foods are transported through very cold
regions, e.g. ambient temperatures below
-10°C, as this could cause freezing of
some foods.
However, heating of the air when the re-
turn air becomes some degrees colder
than the set-point may have some disad-
vantages, for example when deep frozen
foods are loaded with a temperature of
-25°C and the thermostat is set at -18°C.
As frozen foods should be stored and
transported as cold as possible, it is a
waste of energy and has a negative (al-
though very small) influence on product
quality to heat the air and the food pro-
ducts. The thermostat should be set a
little colder, or there should be a system
where high speed heating cannot be in-
troduced when the thermostat is set
below -13°C. This system is used by
some manufacturers of refrigeration units.
Other control systems include a “heat
lock-out” option.
In some modern units, a 6-stage control
system is used, see the figure above.
Here, the refrigeration capacity is reduced
by means of cylinder unloading, further
reducing the fuel consumption. The unit
66
will usually start at HS, cooling and
change to LS,cooling. When the return air
temperature gets below point b in the fig-
ure above) two of the four cylinders are
unloaded, and in many cases the unit can
operate with low speed, cylinder unload-
ing, cooling or heating, most of the time.
This saves energy and also results in a
more even temperature in the cargo
space.
Such control systems normally allow a
time lapse of some minutes (e.g. 6-10
minutes) from the return air temperature
increasing to a level where more
refrigeration capacity is indicated, until
cylinder unloading is finished and low
speed, cooling is started.
The evaporator fans normally run with a
speed proportional to the compressor. In
some units, a constant air flow option is
incorporated in the control system as
there is a special or separate electrical
evaporator fan motor. Thus, high speed
air circulation can be maintained all the
time, even though the compressor may
run at low speed 70% of the time. Higher
air circulation should result in an improv-
ed air distribution, minimizing temperature
variations.
It is recommended that the air circulation
should be at least 60-80 times the body
volume per hour for all frozen food car-
goes as well as for sensitive loads at
about 0°C, e.g. fresh meat.
At low speed, 40-50 times the body vol-
ume per hour may be sufficient.
As mentioned in section 3.3 above, the
effectiveness of temperature control is
judged by:
• Constant (and correct) temperature at the
thermostat sensor.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 67
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION VEHICLES (TRAILERS)
• The temperature spread across the
width.
• The temperature range through the
cargo. Greater awareness of what is a
normal and reasonable temperature dis-
tribution is needed, especially as there
are now increased demands on and
specifications for the temperature of
chilled and (deep) frozen foods. The dif-
ference between delivery and return air
can be below 2°C, but is sometimes
higher. The temperature difference be-
tween the coldest and the warmest foods
can be about 2-3°C.
4.3 Temperature recording in trailers
Any temperature measurement only indi-
cates the temperature at that moment in
time, and cannot disclose events that may
have occurred during the journey. There
are a number of possible causes of failure
in long distance transport such as a refrig-
eration unit breakdown which has been
repaired but not reported, or that the unit
has been deliberately switched off (be-
cause of noise problems).
A temperature recorder indicates the time-
temperature history from loading to
unloading, and would show such inci-
dents. Temperature recorders generally
record air temperatures, and this is nor-
mally sufficient, although it must not be
overlooked that correct return or delivery
air temperatures do not prove that product
temperatures throughout the load are as
required.
In many newer units, temperature re-
corders are included in the control sys-
tems. Partlow recorder/controllers, see
section 3.4 above, are often used. Elec-
tronic controllers including recording sys-
tems are found in many new refrigeration
units, see section 3.3 above. Such con-
trollers also record defrosting periods and
provide several other facilities.
An alternative system is to fit temperature
sensors permanently into the walls and
ceiling, with wires connecting the sensors
to a central unit. The driver of a trailer is
able to read the temperature easily, and a
signal (red light) could be started if a fixed
temperature limit is exceeded. Print-out of
the time-temperature history from loading
to unloading can be given to the receiver.
As mentioned in chapter 1 section 6.2, it
is likely that suitable temperature record-
ers will be mandatory in transport ve-
hicles in the EEC-countries within a few
years, at least for long distance transport
of deep (quick) frozen foodstuffs.
Recording systems
Temperature recorders must be suffi-
ciently robust to withstand the vibration
and adverse conditions encountered dur-
ing transport, loading and unloading. At
the same time the recorders should be
sufficiently accurate and as tamper-proof
as is practically possible. For further infor-
mation, see section 3.4 above.
Positioning of temperature sensors
In transport equipment with mechanical
refrigeration, the temperature sensor is
usually placed in the return air.
The return air temperatures will often re-
flect the average temperature of the
cargo, but there could be considerable
temperature differences between the
warmest and the coldest food products.
This could be the case if the air flow is
not being correctly distributed throughout
the cargo space, or if the foods were not
as cold as required at loading. An incor-
rect stowage system can cause faulty air
distribution, see section 1.5 above.
It is clearly an advantage to record two
(or more) temperatures in transport ve-
hicles. One sensor should be close to the
67
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 68
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION VEHICLES (TRAILERS)
refrigeration unit, preferably in the return
air. Another one should be placed at the
wall or roof of the vehicle, so that the air
temperature of at least one point well re-
moved from the evaporator can be mon-
itored. This gives some problems as load-
ing and unloading could damage the sen-
sor. Permanent fixing of the sensors will
minimize damage and malfunctions, and
cause minimum disturbance during load-
ing and unloading. The only disadvantage
is that no direct measurement of food
temperature is taking place. However, the
recordings should indicate that the cargo
space temperatures have been main-
tained satisfactorily during the journey. It
is also advisable to record the door open-
ings
The alternative system mentioned above
should give a very good picture of tem-
peratures during the journey.
Recording of product temperatures
The temperature recording devices de-
scribed in section 3.4 above would be as
valuable in road vehicles as they are in
containers.
The recommended position of such re-
cording devices is in the top carton in the
last tier and in the centre line of the trailer.
The carton must be clearly marked to en-
sure that the recorder is recovered, and
somebody must be given the responsibili-
ty of forwarding the sometimes rather ex-
pensive instrument to the appropriate
place.
Temperatures recorded by independent
recorders should be regarded more as
devices to record “catastrophes” than to
give representative temperature records.
They are accessible only at the end of the
journey and no corrective action can be
taken if the vehicle or container is mal-
functioning.
68
It has been proposed to make the use of
time-temperature integrators mandatory.
Such devices are fixed to the packaging,
for instance to each transport carton, and
they react to temperature, for example a
temperature dependent colour reaction.
Thus, it can be seen directly what time-
temperature history the integrator (and
the carton) has been exposed to. Some of
these integrators are cheap, e.g. about $
0.3 each, but until now such integrators
have had limited usage.
4.4 Loading of trailers
The most important factors to take into
consideration during the loading process
are time and contact with ambient air. Ide-
ally, the loading bay should be kept at the
same temperature as the required car-
riage temperature, and the trailer
should be connected to the cold room via
a port door with seals.
Chilled and frozen foods should not be
allowed to remain outside the cold room
unnecessarily while waiting to be loaded
into the trailer.
The foods must be at the correct temper-
ature when loaded and transport cartons
should be stowed in a solid block. It is self
evident that whatever packaging is used,
it must be secure. What is important is
that while remaining secure, the packag-
ing must allow air to circulate freely
around the periphery of the vehicle and in
the area of the door. The important crite-
rion here is to have uniform distribution of
air throughout the load. This requires the
cargo to be uniformly stowed.
As mentioned in section 1.2 above, the
maximum external width of trailers in the
ATP class FRC is now 2600 mm in
Europe. This gives an effective internal
width of more than 2400 mm, thus mak-
ing it possible to place two pallets,1200
mm wide, side by side.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 69
OTHER TYPES OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
For further information on loading, see
sections 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7 above and sec-
tion 7.2 below.
5. OTHER TYPES OF REFRIGERATION
SYSTEMS
Refrigeration systems other than me-
chanical refrigeration are sometimes
used to transport chilled and frozen
foods, especially by road and in local dis-
tribution.
5.1 Cryogenic refrigeration
Cryogenic systems or total loss systems
involve cooling, storing and transporting
the refrigerant to another location before
making use of it. After the refrigerant has
been used, the refrigerant is lost to the
atmosphere, hence the descriptive term:
total loss.
Cryogenic refrigeration systems use liquid
nitrogen or liquid or solid carbon dioxide.
Liquid cryogenic systems usually operate
by having liquid refrigerant in pressurized
tanks. A temperature sensing element in
the vehicle activates a controller which
releases the liquid refrigerant through a
spray nozzle at the ceiling of the vehicle.
When the temperature has been reduced
to the pre-set temperature, the tempera-
ture sensing element sends a signal to
the controller to shut off the flow of
refrigerant.
Carbon dioxide gas is heavier than
atmospheric air and settles quickly to the
floor. Fans should be operated contin-
uously in carbon dioxide refrigerated
loads of chilled products to prevent too
low temperatures (freezing injury) in the
bottom layers and too high temperatures
in the top layers of the load.
Solid carbon dioxide or dry ice in the form
of blocks, snow, or pellets is used as a re-
frigeration medium in some vehicels. The
most frequent use is in frozen food and
ice cream delivery vans, and in smaller
containers, see section 6 below. Solid
carbon dioxide may be placed within indi-
vidual outer packaging.
For local distribution and where there is a
requirement for separate temperatures in
the same vehicle, direct expansion of cryo-
genic gases can be used as the means of
refrigeration. These systems usually use
liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide.
The controls are particularly simple and
reliable, but it is not always cost effective.
A thermostat injects the liquid gas behind
a shield in the cargo space in order to
prevent produce coming into direct con-
tact with the exceptionally low tempera-
ture of the gas.
Several precautions must be taken where
carbon dioxide or nitrogen may have re-
placed oxygen in a transport vehicle. Sev-
eral minutes should be allowed before
anybody enters a trailer (or container)
after the doors are opened to allow re-
plenishment of oxygen to a normal con-
centration.
Because of the limited number and distri-
bution of suppliers of refrigerant this type
of refrigeration is used primarily in jour-
neys of less than one days transit time.
Cryogenic systems have fewer moving
parts to maintain and replace than me-
chanical systems.
In cryogenic systems, it is difficult to pre-
scribe the most suitable position for the
sensors to be used in temperature moni-
toring or recording.
5.2 Eutectic plates
Eutectic plates contain a solution of water
and various chemicals such as salts or
69
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 70
OTHER TYPES OF TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT
glycols. Such solutions should have a
suitable melting point and be non toxic.
The eutectic solution solidifies at a tem-
perature lower than the required carriage
temperature; often the solidifying tem-
perature is commonly around -30°C. This
is achieved by circulating a refrigerant
through the coils enclosed in the plates
before the vehicle is loaded. This is done
either at a depot or dockside central plant
condensing unit, or a closed circuit truck-
mounted condensing unit.
The plates are mounted on the vehicle
walls and ceiling and during the run the
eutectic solution melts, providing the re-
frigerating effect necessary to maintain
the required temperature.
The plate system is sometimes augment-
ed with a blower device to provide forced
air circulation in combination with the
hold-over facility of the plates. This combi-
nation can help bring about faster temper-
ature reduction than can be achieved with
plates alone.
However, fans are seldom used in these
smaller vehicals equipped with eutectic
plates as they rely on natural convection
to provide air circulation.
As mentioned above, the mandatory use
of suitable temperature recorders will not
cover local distribution. The main reason
is that it is difficult to prescribe where the
temperature should be measured to give
the most accurate picture of the tempera-
ture conditions in a local distribution van
where the doors may be opened 25-50
times a day.
5.3 No refrigeration system
Insulated containers (or vehicles) with no
refrigeration system must only be used for
short journeys (less than 2-3 hours) or
when ambient temperatures are close to
70
the recommended transport temperature
throughout the journey.
However, insulated trailers are often used
for long distance transport of fresh fish,
which must then be transported in melting
ice. Here, the air temperature in the cargo
space should be 1 to 3°C, see chapter 3
section 5.5.
6. OTHER TYPES OF TRANSPORT
EQUIPMENT
The equipment described above is
intended for long distance transport.
Perishable foodstuffs are distributed in
other types of equipment. The following
are types of equipment used in local dis-
tribution.
6.1 Secondary distribution vehicles or
delivery vans
These are loaded at the distribution de-
pots and deliver to shops and stores.
Delivery vans may have mechanical,
eutectic plates or cryogenic refrigeration
systems. The use of eutectic plates are
common in this type of vehicles.
In local distribution, it is common to have
mixed loads with retail packed chilled
meats, fresh fruits and vegetables, fre-
quently unwrapped, and bread also often
unwrapped being distributed in the same
vehicle with the temperature set at about
5°C. In some countries the authorities
may prescribe special precautions such
as a physical separation between meat
products and the two other groups. When
products demanding lower temperatures
are distributed together with other food-
stuffs in a vehicle at say 5°C, it is neces-
sary to use an insulated box within the ve-
hicle to store the lower temperature
goods. Thus, deep frozen foods (-18°C or
colder) or MAP meat are carried in an in-
sulated boxes within the 5°C controlled
vehicle.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 71
OTHER TYPES OF TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT
Special precautions must be taken for
fresh fruits and vegetables, among the
considerations are ethylene production
and type compatibility, see the book
GUIDE TO FOOD TRANSPORT, FRUIT
AND VEGETABLE.
6.2 Equipment with several transport
temperatures
Transport equipment (mostly trailers) with
two or three separate compartments can
be used to carry loads of food products
with different temperature requirements.
The conditions provided by three com-
partment vehicles may include -18°C,
0°C, 10°C, or ambient for foods not
requiring refrigeration.
The frozen compartment is usually locat-
ed at the front of the vehicle adjacent to
the refrigeration unit. Movable bulkheads
are placed between the compartments.
Ventilation between compartments pro-
vides temperature control for the non-
frozen products. However, this means
that warm air is returned to the refrigera-
tion unit in the frozen food compartment,
giving condensation problems and warm-
ing of the frozen food products. Side
doors are needed for access to the for-
ward compartments when the vehicles
are inspected at ports of entry or used to
make multiple deliveries on a single run.
Some modern trailers have a mechanical
refrigeration unit and three separate
evaporators, one in each compartment.
This enables a free choice of temperature
in each compartment.
For local distribution, different tempera-
tures can be provided in the same vehicle
by insulated containers. Such containers
may be small, e.g. 180 cm x 60 cm x
40 cm, and their use for chilled as well
as for deep frozen foods is well known.
However, they should not be used for
long distance transport.
6.3 Thin wall equipment
Thin wall vehicles are characterized by a
sidewall thickness of less than 45 mm.
In conventionally insulated equipment,
the wall thickness is about 70-80 mm. In
thin wall vehicles roof and walls have a
thickness up to 200 mm, to achieve a
total K-value equal to or less than 0.4
W/m2x°C.
The advantage of thin wall vehicles is that
they can accommodate two pallets, 1200
mm wide, side by side in the cargo
space. The internal width must be at least
2430 mm wide to allow for rapid loading
and unloading. The maximum external
width in Europe has recently become
2500 mm.
A thin wall vehicle with a usable length of
12.2 m can accommodate 24 pallets
1200 mm x 1000 mm, whereas a conven-
tional vehicle can accommodate only 22
pallets. This implies an increase of about
10% in load capacity, provided the weight
limit is not exceeded. Similarly, 30 Euro-
pallets (800x1200 mm) can be transport-
ed in the thin wall trailer, but only 25 in
the conventional trailer, i.e. an increase of
20%.
As mentioned before, insulation ageing
for all types of insulated equipment is a
persistent recurring problem, and with
thin wall vehicles it could be of consider-
able significance. Thin wall vehicle insula-
tion deteriorates at a rate of about 6% per
year compared to about 5% for conven-
tional vehicles. The initial K value is 0.35-
0.38 W/m2 x°C for thin wall vehicles, and
it could be difficult to get ATP re-certifi-
cation after 6 years.
However, the above-mentioned improve-
ments in polyurethane insulation technol-
71
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 72
CODE OF GOOD TRANSPORT PRACTICE
ogy may solve this problem, see section
1.2 above.
Another factor which can be influenced by
equipment design is the air circulation
rate inside the cargo space. A figure
often quoted for a 40 ft container is 60 air
changes of the empty container per h or
about 3600 cu.m per h. At 30°C ambient
and -20°C internal temperature, the return
air temperature will be about 1.8°C warm-
er than the delivery air.
The air flow at the side walls of thin wall
vehicles should be higher than in conven-
tional vehicles and an increase to 80-90
air changes per h should secure a mini-
mum air change per h even with an air re-
striction from a part frosted evaporator.
This would result in increased fan power
and a reduction in the net capacity of the
refrigeration unit.
In thin wall vehicles, the cargo should not
lean against the side walls, and a gap of
at least 6 mm between product and side
walls is essential. However, permanent
battens have been eliminated in most 40
ft equipment due to problems of loading
pallets.
A possible solution to the enhanced
requirement for increased air flow in thin
wall vehicles would be to use bottom air
delivery.
7. CODE OF GOOD TRANSPORT PRAC-
TICE
7.1 Transport equipment before
loading
Many carriers check their transport equip-
ment before presenting it to the shipper
for loading. This procedure is commonly
used by responsible owners of ISO con-
tainers. Known as the Pre Trip Inspection,
72
PTI or just the Pre Trip the condition of
the machinery is normally subjected to a
functional test. The modern electronic
control unit can perform some of these
routine tests automatically. The shipper
should also check the equipment for:
• cleanliness - the cargo space should be
clean. There should be no odour from
previous shipments as this could result in
off-odour or off-taste, see section 1.7
above. It must be checked for debris
blocking drain openings or air circulation
along the floor, etc. It is usual and good
practice to wash the interior with hot
water or wet steam between each journey
or on a weekly schedule if in constant use
on multiple short deliveries.
The interior of the transport vehicle must
be made of and repaired with materials
approved for contact with foodstuffs; this
is especially necessary when transporting
carcass meat and other unwrapped
foods. Some countries demand that
transport vehicles and hooks used for
hauling meat should be cleaned and in-
spected before loading. In order to reduce
the number of microorganisms present
and to dissolve fat particles, some coun-
tries recommend or demand that the
wash water is 82°C or warmer. This pro-
cedure should not be used in transport
equipment with some types of plastic
inner linings.
Sanitizers may be used if approved by the
relevant authorities in the exporting coun-
try and in the importing country.
The outside of the vehicle should be kept
clean in order to reflect radiant heat, see
section 1.2 above.
• damage - walls, floors, doors, ceilings
should be in good condition, as damage
can let in the outside heat, moisture, dirt,
etc. Broken places in the wall and floor
may house dirt and microorganisms, and
are difficult to clean.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 73
CODE OF GOOD TRANSPORT PRACTICE
Damage to the inner walls may allow the
ingress of moisture into the insulation
which will lead to a higher K-value, i.e. a
deteriorated insulation. Operation and the
conditions of the doors, ventilation open-
ings, and provisions for load locking and
bracing should be checked.
• temperature control - the refrigeration units
should have been recently calibrated.
• air tightness should be checked by hav-
ing someone in the cargo space with the
doors closed, to check for light.
Door seals and floor drain caps should be
checked regularly and repaired or re-
placed as needed.
A solid return air bulkhead should be in-
stalled at the front of a trailer.
A heating device should be available for
transportation of chilled foods, sensitive
to freezing injury, in areas with extreme
cold weather.
Equipment with top air delivery must have
a fabric air chute or metal ceiling duct in
good condition.
• the thermostat, temperature recorder etc.
should be checked. A temperature sensor
from a calibrated instrument should be
placed in mechanical contact with the
sensor that is being checked. The two
readings are compared and
necessary adjustments made. There may
be some problems here because:
a. there is not sufficient time for the sen-
sors to measure the correct tempera-
ture.
b. the two sensors are not placed suffi-
ciently close
c. the calibrated instrument has not been
checked recently
The despatch documents should bear a
record of product temperature measured
before loading to ensure the load has
been properly pre-cooled. In some cases,
the product temperature can be measured
between the packs, in other cases it is
necessary to use the destructive method,
see chapter 1 section 7.2.
7.2 Proper loading practices
The food products must have the desired
temperature prior to loading into the ve-
hicle. Product temperatures should be
checked with an electronic temperature
probe and the result recorded for future
reference.
The loading area should be enclosed and
refrigerated, and there should be port
doors so the food to be loaded into the
transport vehicle/container does not
come in contact with the ambient air.
Loading may be bulk loading, by machine
or manual, of un-packaged foods. It may
be manual loading if individual cartons or
it may be loading if unitized loads on pal-
lets or slipsheets, using forklifts or pallet
jacks.
Air circulation. Adequate space for air
circulation over and around the cargo is
necessary to protect the food products
from heat from the outside. For all types
of cargo, it is absolutely essential to leave
a few centimetres between the floor and
the goods. One way of ensuring this is to
use a ducted floor.
Pre-cooling of the transport equipment is
sometimes recommended, see section
1.4 above.
Temperature control. The temperature
setting should follow recommendations
from the carrier, who should be familiar
with the equipment, the location of the
probe and the systems logic.
Bracing. The cargo should be secured
to prevent vibrations, shifting etc. Shifting
73
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 74
CODE OF GOOD TRANSPORT PRACTICE
may block air channels under and
through the load. Especially at the end of
the last stack in trailers, cross-bracing
should be used to prevent the cargo from
shifting backwards and blocking air circu-
lation at the rear door.
Similarly if a load is consigned to several
receivers, cross-bracing should be used
at the stack left after each drop off to
keep the cargo in place.
In road vehicles, the installation of angle
irons in the lower corners and the full
length between wall and floor is often rec-
ommended.
This ensures permanent ventilation chan-
nels between the side walls and the cargo
and also gives greater load stability.
Most foodstuffs are loaded on pallets for
road transport and the products are often
secured to the pallet by protective plastic
film wrapping. This technique guarantees
that the packaging+pallet assembly keeps
a predictable shape. However, the bottom
8 cm of each pallet should be kept free of
plastic film to ensure that the correct air
circulation at floor level is not prevented.
Further information on loading is given in
sections 1.5 and 1.6 above.
7.3 Receiving procedures
The unloading area should preferably be
enclosed and refrigerated, with dock
seals at the trailer or container doors (port
doors).
Receivers should check the load to deter-
mine if it meets specifications for quality
and packaging. The receiver should also
note whether the load was adequately
braced and should check the tempera-
ture. The air temperature recorder should
be read and any other recording devices if
74
placed in the load should be studied. If air
temperature data is suspect or insignifi-
cant product temperatures may be mea-
sured, as described in chapter 1 section.
Unloaded food products must be protect-
ed from direct sun, condensation, con-
tamination, etc. and should be transferred
to the relevant storage rooms as soon as
possible. Otherwise, the efforts of the
manufacturer, shippers and carriers to
maintain quality will all have been in vain.
7.4 pre-cooling the foodstuffs
Loading cargo without pre-cooling may
cause considerable problems, because
the product temperatures can not be low-
ered quickly enough. These problems
may be quality degradation or, especially
for chilled foods, excessive microbiologi-
cal growth. Condensation problems may
also occur. It can be seen from fig.1.1, the
psychrometric chart, that as the tempera-
ture drops within the vehicle, water
vapour will condense out of the air. A lot
of this water will condense on the cold
fins of the evaporator coil, forming ice
which could restrict the air flow. Conden-
sation may also collect on the cardboard
cartons thus weakening the strength of
the packaging, but the most damaging
problem caused by condensate is that the
free water provides good conditions for
bacterial growth. The trend for packing
foods in plastic overwraps or plastic bags
means that, if the food is not pre-cooled
to the transport temperature, the subse-
quent cooling of the packaged food prod-
uct may result in free water inside the
bag, providing a suitable environment for
bacterial growth.
Cooling time
When foods must be cooled prior to trans-
port, the arrangement of the food prod-
ucts (the transport cartons) is very impor-
tant. If uniform size cartons (600 x 400 x
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 75

CODE OF GOOD TRANSPORT PRACTICE

250 mm) are cooled in circulating air with
a temperature of 0°C and a velocity of 2
m/s, the time to reduce the product tem-
perature from 12°C to 2°C will be about 6
h if the cartons are spread out on, for ex-
ample a pallet, in a way that circulating
cold air will come into contact with all
sides of all cartons.
If the cartons are placed in a single tier,
the cooling time will be 8-10 h. It will take
20 h or more if the cartons are stacked in
a block without spacings.
Cooling during transport.
Where pre-cooling facilities are not avail-
able and the product has to be loaded
“hot”, then every precaution should be
taken to reduce the product temperatures
as quickly as possible.
The cooling times mentioned above illus-
trate clearly that when cooling of foods
during transport is unavoidable, it is es-
sential to stow the cartons in such a way
that all parts of the cargo are supplied
with a sufficient amount of cold air. Dun-

B C

Fig.2.11 Refrigerated vehicle with top-air delivery and a loading pattern providing
good air circulation through the cargo. A solid return air bulkhead is installed at the
front to prevent air from bypassing the load. The cartons must have sufficient
strength to permit this stacking system. In vehicles without T-bar floor or similar con-
struction, pallets should be used.
A. Side view showing the continuous air channels constructed in alternate layers.
B. End view showing the rear stack.
C. Header stack at the front for connecting the horizontal air channels and allowing
the air to return to the evaporator.

75
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 76
CODE OF GOOD TRANSPORT PRACTICE
nage battens between each layer, and a
stowage system as shown in fig. 2.11
should be used, but as stressed several
times, refrigeration units in transport
equipment are not designed and do not
have the capacity to cool down foods at a
reasonable or safe rate. Especially at
high ambient temperatures, the cooling
will be very slow and there is a consider-
able risk of quality deterioration and
reduction in the remaining storage life. In
chilled foods, the risk of bacterial growth -
possibly of pathogenic organisms - is
high.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 77

3 CHAPTER
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 78
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 79
PRACTICAL STORAGE LIFE
INTRODUCTION
Section 1 describes the processes in-
volved in quality degradation, i.e. the pro-
cesses limiting the practical storage life
(PSL) of foods.
Section 2 includes the TTT-PPP concept,
i.e. the factors determining quality and
storage life of chilled and frozen foods.
Calculation of quality loss, or more
correctly of remaining PSL is included in
section 2.5.
Section 2.6 outlines the type of informa-
tion given in sections 3,4 and 5.
Sections 3,4 and 5. More detailed infor-
mation is given for a number of food prod-
ucts. The most relevant regulations and
standards, minimum requirements for the
raw materials, processing and packaging,
the practical storage life (PSL) at different
storage temperatures (in most cases a
PSL-diagram), ideal and prescribed
transport temperatures, and sensitivity to
temperature and odour. The following
food product groups are discussed:
Section 3. Deep frozen foods (quick
frozen foods)
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Meat
3.2 Poultry
3.3 Fish
3.4 Fruit and fruit juices
3.5 Vegetables
3.6 Miscellaneous
Section 4. Frozen foods
Meat,poultry,butter
INTRODUCTION
Section 5. Chilled foods
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Retailpacked fresh meat
5.2 Retailpacked meat
products
5.3 Meat for further processing
(manufacturing meat)
5.4 Poultry
5.5 Fresh (retailpacked ) fish
5.6 Fish products
5.7 Live fish
5.8 Dairy products
5.9 Miscellaneous
Definitions and explanations of some
terms and expressions may be found in
chapter 5.
1. Factors influencing quality process-
es.
During storage (including transport and
display), the quality of foods changes
gradually, in most cases the quality de-
creases.A number of factors may be in-
volved. For chilled foods growth of mi-
croorganisms is the main factor. General-
ly the storage life of chilled foods is limit-
ed by microorganisms.
1.1 Microbiology.
Microorganisms can be divided into three
categories, namely thermopfilic,
mesophilic and psychrophilic (or more
correctly psychrotrophic) organisms. The
relative rate of growth depending on stor-
age temperature is shown in figure 3.1.
79
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 80
INTRODUCTION
Activity
-40 -20 0 20
Fig.3.1 Growth rate of microorganisms and enzymatic activity, depending on tempera-
ture. The figure gives relative activity.
The figure shows that thermophilic and
mesophilic bacteria generally grow much
faster than do psychrotrophic bacteria and
mold. Mesophilic bacteria grow fastest at
30-40°C, and they are killed -except for
bacterial spores- at temperatures around
70°C. At temperatures below 10°C, very
few mesophilic bacteria are able to grow.
At chill temperatures psychrotrophic bac-
teria, but also mold and yeast are the im-
portant microorganisms.
The growth of microorganisms depends
on temperature, but also on factors such
as available nutrients ( the composition of
the foodstuff ), aw (water activity, see
chapter 5) ,availability of oxygen, and the
possible presence of growth inhibitory
compounds ( preservatives, a high per-
80
Thermophilic
bacteria
Mesophilic
bacteria
Psychrotrophic
bacteria
Mold
Enzymes
40 60 Temperature, °C
centage of carbon dioxide in the atmo-
sphere surrounding the foodstuff). The
so-called Hurdle-concept is often used to
illustrate the influence of different factors
(different hurdles) on the safety and stor-
age life of foods.
The importance of availability of oxygen
must be stressed, especially for chilled
food. Most food spoilage microorganisms
are aerobic, i.e. they prefer or demand
that the atmosphere surrounding the
foodstuff contains a rather high amount of
oxygen, e.g. around 20% oxygen.
Some microorganisms are useful, for ex-
ample the types of yeast used in the pro-
duction of bread, beer and wine. In many
vacuumpacked meat products, lactic acid
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 81
bacteria usually becomes the dominant
flora. The changes in eating quality
resulting from the growth of lactic acid
bacteria are rather small. Furthermore,
they produce lactic acid which lowers the
pH, thus reducing the possibilities of
growth of spoilage and pathogenic bacte-
ria. Therefore, lactic acid bacteria are
mostly regarded as useful bacteria.
The majority of microorganisms are re-
garded as harmful. The microorganisms
may multiply on the food surface, and
their main deteriorative effect is to pro-
duce unpleasant smelling and tasting
compounds, which ultimately make the
food inedible. The microorganisms norm-
ally involved in food spoilage generally
present no health hazard as the changes
occuring in the food product are such that
nobody will consume it.
Food poisoning.
Some microorganisms can cause food
poisoning without causing noticeable
changes in the foodstuff, i.e. the taste and
smell will not tell the consumer that the
foodstuff may cause illness.
Name of bacteria
Clostridium botulinum,type A and B
Clostridium botulinum,type E
Listeria monocytogenes
Salmonella typhimurium
Staphylococcus aureus
Yersinia enterocolitica
Table 3.1 Minimum temperature for growth of some important food poisoning bacteria.
INTRODUCTION
Some organisms can cause illness if the
foodstuff consumed contains a sufficient
large number of viable bacteria, often
100000 to 1 million per gram foodstuff.
Examples on this type of food poisoning
bacteria are Salmonella, Campylobacter,
Yersinia enterocolitica and Listeria mono-
cytogenes.
The second type of food poisoning organ-
isms produce a toxin in the foodstuff prior
to being eaten by the consumer. Exam-
ples are Staphylococcus aureus and ,es-
pecially, Clostridium botulinum which
generally is considered the most danger-
ous microorganism. Clostridium bo-
tulinum is a spore forming bacteria, and
spores from Cl.botulinum type A or B may
survive heating to above 110°C.
Most food poisoning microorganisms are
mesopfilic and grow very slowly, or not at
all, at temperatures below 10C. During
the last years, an increasing number of
incidences of food poisoning have been
caused by food poisoning bacteria cap-
able of growing at temperatures down to
around 0°C, see table 3.1 below.
Minimum temperature
10.0°C
3.3°C
1.0°C
5.0°C
6.0°C
-0.5°C
81
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 82
INTRODUCTION
For chilled foods at temperatures below
0°C, fig. 3.1 shows that mold may grow
faster than bacteria.
For frozen foods, there is no microbiologi-
cal growth at temperatures below about
-8°C. As shown in fig. 3.1 enzymatic activi-
ty continues, even at temperatures as cold
as -40°C. A high number of bacteria in
foods before freezing may lead to spoilage
before completion of the freezing process
when the freezing process is not started
soon enough, or when the freezing pro-
cess is too slow. Freezing kills only a few
microorganisms, and thawed food pro-
ducts will contain approximately the same
number of microorganisms as before
freezing. Normally, the storage life (PSL) of
a thawed product is approximately the
same as that of an unfrozen product.
1.2 Chemical and biochemical pro-
cesses.
Flavour changes.
A number of chemical and/or biochemical
(enzymatic) processes may proceed in
foods during storage, most of them result-
ing in changes in taste and odour, i.e. a
deterioration in the organoleptic (sensoric)
quality. The general rule is that decreasing
temperature slows down chemical and bio-
chemical processes. Most processes are
only known to a limited extent; however,
the processes leading to rancidity have
been studied in great detail.
Rancidity is a phenomenon occuring in
fats. To start the process oxygen must be
present. Rancidity results in rancid taste
and odour, which is unacceptable to many
consumers. The fat in foods such as fatty
fish is very susceptible to oxidative rancidi-
ty, while the fat in for example beef is much
less susceptible. Rancidity is the main qual-
ity limiting process in many foods, especial-
ly in many deep frozen foodstuffs.
82
Texture changes.
Optimal texture varies from food to food.
In meat, poultry and fish, it is the proper
degree of tenderness. Cold shortening
may cause toughening of meat, see sec-
tion 3.0 below.
For meat, the ageing (also called ripening
or maturing) is accompanied by a gradual
increase in tenderness. This process
takes a few hours in chicken and several
days in beef. The ageing time depends on
the temperature, and is longer at lower
temperatures. Full ageing, at 4°C, may re-
quire up to 2 weeks for beef, 1 week for
veal, and 4 days for lamb.
Texture changes in frozen meat,poultry
and fish is caused by protein breakdown,
and oxidation seems to have some influ-
ence on these protein changes. The
increased concentration of salt in deep
frozen foods seems to be the main
explanation to protein breakdown in these
frozen foods.
In other foodstuffs different processes
may cause texture changes, for example
the enzyme pectinesterase may cause
“cloud loss” after reconstitution of frozen
concentrated orange juice.
Colour changes.
Any change in appearance from the natu-
ral (fresh) character is regarded as a
quality defect.
In many frozen vegetables, the bright
green colour (chlorophyll) becomes more
dull and yellow (pheophytin). Proper
blanching and proper storage tempera-
ture (below -18°C) minimize this quality
defect. In frozen fruits, several enzymes
may cause degradation of pigments.
In meat and especially in beef, the colour
is very important. In meat, the main pig-
ment is myoglobin. In traditionally packed
chilled meat, myoglobin is found in the
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 83

TTT-PPP CONCEPT

oxygenated form, oxymyoglobin, which is
bright red. Removal of oxygen, for exam-
ple in vacuumpackages, will result in for-
mation of the purple myoglobin. During
storage, myoglobin or oxymyoglobin may
be oxidized to the less attractive form of
the pigment, brown metmyoglobin.
• Product, i.e. nature and quality of the
product at time of chilling/freezing
• Processing during preparation, including
the cooling process
• Packaging

In cured meats, myoglobin is found as ni- The first two are referred to as TTT
trosomyoglobin, and after heating as ni- (Time-Temperature-Tolerance), while the
trosohemochrom, see section 5.2 below. last three are referred to as the PPP-fac-
tors (Product, Process, Packaging).

2. TTT-PPP CONCEPT
2.1 TTT.
The factors affecting the quality of chilled This means that for each product there
and frozen foods are: exists a relationship between storage
temperature and storage life. Storage life
• Temperature (Storage temperature) may be defined in several ways, but here
PSL is used (Practical Storage Life), de-
• Time (Storage time) fined as the period where the food pro-

PSL, months

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
°C
-30 -20 -10 0

Fig. 3.2 TTT-diagram giving PSL for frozen minced beef at different temperatures. '

83
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 84
INTRODUCTION
duct retains its characteristic properties
and remains fully acceptable.
The relationship between storage tem-
perature and storage life is normally given
in a TTT-diagram, also referred to as a
PSL-diagram, as shown in fig. 3.2.
A PSL-diagram shows how the practical
storage life (PSL) of the food product de-
pends on storage temperature. As can be
seen later, see sections 3,4 and 5, some
foods deteriorate rapidly (chilled minced
meat), others are less susceptible, and
some foods are rather stable (deep frozen
beef).
PSL-diagrams are used for chilled as well
as for frozen foods. In most cases PSL for
frozen foods is given in months, while for
chilled products it is given in days or
weeks.
The PPP-factors can be as decisive for
product quality as the storage tempera-
ture and time. Below the PPP-factors for
some chilled and frozen foods are
discussed.
Generally, the PSL-diagrams give an indi-
cation of the PSL at different tempera-
tures, for foods of high initial quality which
have been processed and packaged ac-
cording to good manufacturing practice
(GMP) and have been maintained at a
reasonably steady storage temperature.
2.2 Product
Product means the nature and quality of
the raw material before processing. It is
well-known that some foods keep longer
than others, for example frozen beef
keeps longer than frozen fatty fish. It is
well-known that a low initial microbial level
in the food product and of the raw materi-
als, results in a longer storage life.
Meat.
At slaughter, glycogen is converted to lac-
tic acid causing a fall in muscle pH from 7
84
in the live animal to an ultimate pH of 5.5-
6 in meat, and 5.9-6.4 in poultry. At the
same time, the concentration of ATP in
the muscles decreases, leading to rigor
mortis. Rigor mortis is developed in about
10-30 h for beef, 4-8 h for pigs, and 2-4 h
for chicken.
DFD.
If an animal is exhausted at the time of
slaughter, the glycogen reserves are
small, and the ultimate pH will be higher
than normal. DFD meat has a pH above
6.4, and the meat is dark, firm and dry.
The storage life of chilled DFD meat is re-
duced, especially when vacuumpacked.
PSE, (pale, soft and exudative (exud-
ing water)).
A very quick fall in pH immediately after
slaughter may cause PSE meat, i.e. pale,
soft and exudative meat. The problem is
confined almost entirely to pigs. PSE
meat is of lower quality, with a reduced
water binding capacity.
Ageing is mentioned in section 1.2 above,
and cold shortening in section 3.0 below.
Fish and shell fish
The term fish (or fishery products) includ-
es fish and shellfish. Shellfish can be fur-
ther divided in molluscs such as oysters
and squids, and crustaceans such as
shrimps, crabs and lobsters. For technical
reasons, fish is often divided into lean and
fatty fish.
Fish may come from seawater or fresh-
water and they can be caught in their nat-
ural surroundings or be farmed under
controlled circumstances.
It is a very diverse group with thousands of
species and therefore the products differ
greatly. In this book, the term fish (or fish-
ery products) is used for all of the above
mentioned groups. The chemical composi-
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 85
tion of fish varies depending on the
species, and in individuals depending on
age, sex, season and environment. The
composition of a fish fillet is 16-21% pro-
tein, 0.2-25% lipid, less than 0.5% carbo-
hydrate and 66-81% water. Marine fish
contain trimethylamine oxide (TMAO). Fish
lipids contain many long-chain unsaturated
fatty acids. The polyunsaturated lipids are
considered a good nutrient for humans,
but they are very susceptible to oxidation.
Fish contains only a small amount of
glycogen, and the ultimate pH is 6.2-6.5
compared to 5.5-6.0 in mammalian meat.
The high pH in fish flesh is less inhibiting
to the bacteria, causing a shorter storage
life of chilled fish than of chilled meat.
The newly caught fish has many microor-
ganisms on skin, gills and in the guts.
They will be transferred to the flesh when
the fish is filetted. The type of micro-
organisms on the fish will depend on the
geographical area in which the fish is
caught. Bacteria on fish from temperate
Quality score
10
2 4 6 8
Fig. 3.3 The change of quality with time for cod stored at 0°C
INTRODUCTION
zones will mostly be psychrotrophic bac-
teria such as Pseudomonas, Shewanella
and Moraxella. Since they grow well at
temperatures below 10°C, lowering the
temperature by using ice is of great im-
portance.
The deterioration of fish starts after death
with degradation of the nucleotides. Later
on, bacterial deterioration will take over.
Fatty fish will be rancid due to oxidation of
the polyunsaturated lipids. All three dete-
rioration processes are temperature de-
pendent. As bacteria on fish from temper-
ate zones are psychrotrophic, their activi-
ty is reduced very much by lowering the
temperature to 0°C. During chilled stor-
age, Pseudomonas and Shewanella be-
come the dominant bacteria having a
high spoilage potential. The guts usually
contain many enzymes and bacteria and
the storage life is usually lengthened by
gutting/evisceration.
In fig. 3.3 is shown a typical S-shaped
curve for the decrease of the eating quali-
Days at 0°C
10 12 14
85
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 86
INTRODUCTION
ty of cod stored at 0°C. A change in one
of the PPP-factors can increase the stor-
age life; for example the use of vacuum
packaging could increase the time until
the acceptability limit is exceeded from
about 12 days to about 15 days. However,
for vacuum packed lean fish the quality
decrease during the first 5-7 days will be
the same as for non vacuum packed fish
as shown in fig. 3.3. After 5-7 days the
quality degradation in vacuum packed
lean fish will be slowed down, thus in-
creasing the time where the fish is of sec-
ondary quality.
2.3 Processing
Processing, i.e. the pre-treatment prior to
chilled/freezer storage, often influences
storage life.
Heat processing. Blanching is used in the
production of most frozen vegetables in
order to inactivate enzymes that other-
wise would cause off-taste during stor-
age, even at temperatures below -18°C.
Blanching is carried out by heating the
vegetables in water at 90-98°C, or in
steam at about 100°C, for a relatively
short time,usually 1-10 min.
Heat processing kills some micro-organ-
isms, depending on time and tempera-
ture. When foodstuffs are heat processed,
the bacterial number is reduced, and this
should increase the storage life.
Comminuting, mincing, slicing, etc. in-
crease the surface of the foodstuff, and
increase the possibility of unwanted pro-
cesses, i.e. normally result in a reduced
storage life.
The freezing process is described in sec-
tion 3.0,below.
The chilling process is described in sec-
tion 5.0, below.
2.4 Packaging
The most common packagings and pack-
86
aging materials are described in section
4.1 in chapter 1.
The packaging can have a pronounced
influence on storage life. For most chilled
and frozen foods, the storage life can be
increased considerably by using a pack-
age with a low WVTR and by preventing
oxygen from coming in contact with the
food. This is done by vacuum packaging
or using MAP, in both cases the packag-
ing materials must have a low or very low
permeability to gases, especially oxygen
and carbon dioxide.
Some of the PSL-diagrams in sections
3,4 and 5 show the influence of different
packagings on Practical Storage Life
(PSL).
2.5 Calculation of quality loss.
Calculation of quality losses, or more cor-
rectly of loss of the PSL, is based on the
rule of additivity. This rule was developed
for frozen foods, in 1950-1960 in USA.
The principle is that when the time-tem-
perature history of a product is known,
then the quality loss can be calculated,
provided sufficient information on the PSL
at the relevant storage temperatures. It is
assumed that the loss of quality, the loss
of remaining PSL, is irreversible and cu-
mulative.
For minced beef with a PSL diagram as
shown in fig. 3.2, PSL at -24°C is 15
months (450 days) and PSL at -18°C is
10 months (300 days). If this product is
stored at -24°C for 90 days and at -18°C
for 45 days, the loss of PSL is 90/450
+ 45/300= 0.35 (or 35%). Still, 65% re-
main, i.e. the product could be stored at
-18°C for a further 195 days and still be
fully acceptable. It can be seen that the
sequence ot these two time-temperature
episodes do not influence the result.
For frozen foods, the rule of additivity is
valid except
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 87
• when temperatures become above -8°C,
where microbiological growth may occur
• at highly fluctuating temperatures that
could cause dehydration (frost formation
inside the package) or breakdown of
emulsions.
• for products such as fruits in syrup
where temperatures warmer than about
-12 to -15°C will cause melting and an
unacceptable appearance of a con-
sumer pack.
Transport.
Similar calculations can be carried out in
order to determine the influence of too
warm conditions, for example during
transport.
Example: If the minced meat product with
the PSL diagram shown in fig. 3.2 was
transported 10 days at -12°C instead of
at the required -18°C, what would be the
loss in remaining PSL?
At -12°C, PSL of minced beef is 6 months
(180 days). 10 days at -12°C is
10/180=0.06 (a loss in PSL of 6%) while
10 days at -18°C is 10/300=0.03 (a loss
in PSL of 3%). The incorrect transport
would increase the loss in remaining PSL
from about 3% to about 6%, a difference
so small that it would be impossible to de-
termine by means of analysis.
These calculations have been concentrat-
ed on frozen foods, mainly because the
rule of additivity was developed from ex-
periments with frozen foods. It is general-
ly accepted that such calculations give
reasonably accurate results for frozen
foods.
Chilled foods.
The additive rule calculations are not
valid for all chilled foods. For some chilled
foods storage at too high a temperature
in the beginning of the cool chain has a
more detrimental effect on the remaining
INTRODUCTION
PSL than if the incorrect temperature oc-
curs later. Thus, it is very important for
the quality and storage life (and safety) of
chilled foods that the product temperature
is kept as low as practicable for as long a
time as possible.
Although the rule of additivity does not
give as accurate results for chilled foods
as for frozen foods, calculations on chilled
foods will in most cases give reasonably
reliable results.
2.6 Information given on product
groups
For each of the product groups included
in sections 3, 4 and 5, the following infor-
mation is given:
• Description. This is general information
on the foodstuffs included in the product
group.
• Regulations, standards. This mentions
the regulations, standards, etc. which
are relevant for the foodstuffs in the
product group. More detailed informa-
tion may be found in chapter 1 in sec-
tion 6.
• Minimum requirements. This summa-
rizes the relevant PPP-factors, see sec-
tions 2.2 to 2.4.
Product, the minimum quality standards
of the raw material.
Processing, the standards of the manu-
facturing of the foods.
Packaging, the packaging normally
used for the product group.
• Practical storage life (PSL). This is in
most cases depicted in a PSL-diagram,
see fig 3.2 in section 2.1 above. Some-
times PSL is given at one or two tem-
peratures, due to lack of relevant data.
For the foodstuffs included, a PSL-dia-
gram only provides a very rough guide
to their storage potential. To enable a
87
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 88
DEEP FROZEN FOODS
prediction to be made of the storage life
of a particular product, knowledge of the
PPP factors relevant to it is vitally im-
portant.
• Temperature limits. This comprises:
The ideal temperature, i.e. the tempera-
ture which should be maintained in the
cold chain to give the best quality and
the longest PSL of the foods.
The limits for transport, set up by ATP
and EEC. It should be noted that the
ATP-Agreement includes a tolerance (a
brief rise of the temperature of the sur-
face of the foodstuff of not more than
3°C above the maximum temperature)
for frozen and deep-frozen foods, see
chapter 1 section 6.1. The EEC Quick
frozen food directive allows a brief rise
in the temperature of the foodstuff to
-15°C during transport of deep-frozen
foodstuffs, see chapter 1 section 6.2.
For a few product groups in section 5,
the legislative demands in Denmark are
included.
• Sensitivity. The temperature sensitivity is
shown by means of stars (★).
★ means that the foodstuff is
relatively robust to tempera-
tures above the required stor-
age and transport temperature.
★★★★★ means that the product must
be maintained at the required
temperature. Temperature
abuses may result in much re-
duced PSL, or involve consid-
erable risk of (bacterial) food
poisoning.
For some foodstuffs, the sensitivity to-
wards foreign (off-) odours is given.
★ means little or no sensitivity, while
★★★ shows that the foodstuff easily
picks up odour from the surroundings.
See also chapter 2 section 1.7.
88
A summary is given indicating the effect
of incorrect temperature and the products
sensitivity to temperature variations.
3. DEEP FROZEN FOODS
3.0 Introduction
Deep frozen (quick frozen) foods must be
maintained at a temperature of -18°C or
lower.
The quality degradation processes limit-
ing the storage life of frozen foods are
summarized above, see section 1.
The PPP-factors are summarized in sec-
tion 2.2-2.4 above, and here only the
freezing process and the thawing process
will be discussed.
Freezing process.
During the freezing process, the product
temperature is lowered to below the initial
freezing point. At this temperature, ice
crystals begin to form. As the temperature
is further reduced, more and more water
is turned into ice so that the residual solu-
tion will become more and more concen-
trated. A high percentage of water (many
foods contain 70-90% of water) is con-
verted into ice as the temperature is
brought down to -18°C, but even at -40°C
some unfrozen water remains.
The freezing process must be started as
quickly as practicable, and the speed of
the freezing process itself should be ade-
quate. Most experimental data show little
or no influence of freezing rate on food
quality, when very slow freezing is avoid-
ed. However, the widespread view of
quick freezing leading to small ice crys-
tals and superior quality is still popular,
and is even incorporated in legislation in
some countries. The EEC Quick-frozen
directive (see chapter 1 section 6.2)
states that “.. the zone of maximum crys-
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 89
tallization is crossed as rapidly as possi-
ble..”.
When freezing food products, there will
normally be a pronounced difference be-
tween the surface temperature and the
centre temperature. After 16 h of blast
freezing of hindquarters of beef, the sur-
face temperature could be -32°C and the
centre temperature -5°C. After for instance
4 hours of equalization (thermal stabiliza-
tion) the temperature could be -20°C
throughout the product, i.e. the average
temperature after 16 h of freezing was
-20°C. The freezing process must not be
considered as completed until the average
temperature has reached the intended
storage temperature. However, it is norm-
ally recommended to continue the freezing
process until the centre temperature is
-10°C or colder, and in this case the freez-
ing process should be continued until the
centre temperature has dropped from -5°C
to -10°C or colder.
There is no need to continue the freezing
until the centre has reached the intended
storage temperature. On the contrary,
continued cooling of the product may re-
sult in unnecessary low temperatures in
the surface layers. This will result in ener-
gy waste and inefficient use of freezer ca-
pacity, and could in some cases even be
harmful to product quality.
Freezing time.
Freezing time is often defined as the time
elapsed from when the product is placed
Freezing process
Rapid freezing
Normal freezing
Slow freezing
Very slow freezing
DEEP FROZEN FOODS
in the freezing apparatus until the final
product temperature is reached. The
freezing time depends on the initial and
final temperature of the product, the quan-
tity of heat to be removed, the dimensions
(especially the thickness) of the product,
the heat transfer coefficient and the tem-
perature of the freezing medium.
In packaged foods, the packaging mate-
rial acts as an insulator and reduces heat
transfer. However, packaging in plastic
materials will have very little influence on
freezing time, unless air is trapped be-
tween product and packaging material. If
the food products are placed in cartons,
especially in corrugated board cartons
(see chapter 1 section 4.2.2) the freezing
time is increased considerably.
Freezing rate or freezing speed.
It is not very meaningful to compare
freezing times for products of vastly differ-
ent size, e.g. beef quarters and peas, and
hence the concept of freezing rate has
been introduced. Freezing rate is normal-
ly expressed as the average velocity at
which the ice front advances from the
food surface to the centre. For practical
purposes, an average freezing rate can
be defined as the ratio between the mini-
mum distance from the surface to the
centre and the freezing time. Freezing
time could be the time from the surface
reaching 0°C to the centre reaching
-10°C.
Freezing methods may be characterised
by the freezing rate:
Freezing rate
over 1 cm/h
0.3-1 cm/h
0.1-0.3cm/h
less than 0.1 cm/h
89
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 90
DEEP FROZEN FOODS
Freezing methods.
Freezing equipment must be designed to
accommodate the freezing process.
Freezers may be divided into four main
groups according to the heat transfer
medium (freezing medium):
• Direct contact. Plate, band freezers.
• Air. Air blast freezers.
• Liquid. Immersion freezers.
• Evaporating liquids/solids. Liquid nitro-
gen, liquid or solid carbon dioxide freez-
ers.
Air blast freezing.
Equipment designs vary widely, and
among the systems employed are tunnel
freezers, belt freezers, and fluidised bed
freezers.
Tunnel freezers are insulated rooms
equipped with evaporator coils and fans.
Products of every size and shape, wrap-
ped or unwrapped, can be frozen in the
very flexible tunnel freezers. Cold air,
often -35°C or colder, is circulated over
the food products placed on racks or trol-
leys. The cold air must have access to all
food products, and the air velocity over
the foods must be sufficient, i.e. above 2-
3 m/s for packaged foods. An air space
should be left between the product layers
in order to prevent too slow freezing of the
products in the middle of a block.
The rate of freezing depends on the di-
mensions (thickness) and shape of the
product, and the overall heat transfer. The
heat transfer increases with increasing air
velocity, but too high air velocity results in
an increased amount of heat produced by
the fans. As mentioned above, packaging
materials (especially outer cartons made
of corrugated board) may considerably in-
crease the freezing time and reduce the
freezing rate.
The remaining groups of freezers are
90
used to a much lesser extent than the air
blast freezers.
Mobile freezers.
A mobile freezer is a trailer or container
with a refrigeration unit designed to
freeze foodstuffs, i.e. a much higher re-
frigeration capacity than normally used in
transport equipment. The freezing is air
blast freezing, and when the mobile freez-
er is correctly packed, the freezing time
for a load can often be reduced consider-
ably as compared to the freezing time
necessary for most regular freezing tun-
nels. This concept ensures the customer
of considerable versatility, since the freez-
er can be positioned where the need is
greatest. Thus it is suitable for seasonal
goods as well as for foodstuffs from areas
where there is a considerable distance
between a food processing plant, e.g. a
slaughterhouse, and a cold store. Here,
the freezing process can be completed
during the transport.
Thawing.
Many food processors use frozen raw ma-
terials. Usually, the frozen products must
be tempered or thawed before they can
be utilised. If thawing is not carried out
carefully, quality and yield can suffer. Ap-
pearance, microbiology and weight loss
are important if the foodstuff is to be sold
in the thawed condition, but are less so if
it is destined for further processing.
Thawing methods may be the convention-
al surface heating methods or electrical
methods (especially microwave thawing).
Thawing simply reverses the freezing pro-
cess and each point in the foodstuff fol-
lows the typical highly simplified curve
shown in fig. 3.4. The thawing process
clearly is divided into three parts:
• heating the frozen foodstuff to its thaw-
ing plateau.
• thawing.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 91
• heating the foodstuff above its thawing
point.
The thawing time is the time elapsed from
the start of the process to the point where
no ice remains in the foodstuff.
Surface heating methods are often based
on programmed temperature differences
between the food surface and the sur-
roundings (the thawing medium), the sur-
roundings starting warmer and becoming
colder as the food surface warms up to a
predetermined level, often 5-8°C, where
there is little risk of bacterial growth and
discoloration.
Thawing is much more difficult to control
than freezing. In some types of air thaw-
ing equipment, the air temperature is
controlled by means of a temperature
sensor, measuring the food surface
temperature, but this demands a very ac-
Temperature, °C
a b
0
-20
Fig. 3.4 Typical, simplified, thawning curve for a foodstuff
DEEP FROZEN FOODS
curate positioning of the sensor. The
maximum surface temperature is pro-
grammed, and when this temperature is
reached, the air temperature is reduced
to this level. In this manner it is possible
to achieve a well controlled thawing pro-
cess at the highest speed that is practic-
able.
Irrespective of the method used, heat en-
ergy must be supplied, most of it being
required to melt the ice in the food. About
300 kJ are required to thaw 1 kg of fish
with a temperature of -30°C, see En-
thalpy below.
Since the thermal conductivity of the
thawed product is much less than that of
the frozen product, conventional thawing
methods suffer from the inherent disad-
vantage that resistance to heat transfer
increases progressively once thawing has
started.
a: Tempering
b: Thawing
c: Heating
c
Time
91
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 92
DEEP FROZEN FOODS
Tempering.
Especially in the meat industry, frozen
foodstuffs may be processed, for example
in choppers, when their temperature has
been raised to about -4°C. The process is
called tempering, i.e. the initial phase of a
complete thawing process. Tempering is
process a. in fig. 3.4 above.
Tempering can be done by means of
microwaves, thus obtaining a very rapid
process. The use of microwaves for com-
plete thawing is constrained by thermal
instability. At its worst, parts of the food
may be cooked whilst the rest remains
frozen. This arises because the absorp-
tion of microwave energy increases as
the temperature increases. If a region of
the foodstuff becomes slightly hotter than
its surroundings, proportionately more
energy will be absorbed within that re-
gion, increasing the temperature diffe-
rence between that region and its sur-
roundings. This is often called runaway
heating.
Runaway heating can be reduced by in-
creasing the thawing time, e.g. by
allowing some time during the process for
temperature equalization. However, this
will demand so much time that the main
advantage by microwave thawing dis-
appears.
Specific heat and enthalpy.
The specific heat for water is 4.19 kJ/kgxC
(1kCal/kgxC), i.e. to change the tempera-
92
ture of 1 kg water 1°C, it is necessary to
remove or add 4.19 kJ. For ice, it is about
1.81 kJ/kgxC (0.45 kCal/kgxC). As most
foods contain large amounts of water, the
specific heat for food products will be
rather close to that of water or ice, i.e. 65-
80% of that of water or ice.
The specific heat of foods is comparative-
ly constant at temperatures warmer than
the freezing point of the foodstuff or cold-
er than -18°C, but during the freezing pro-
cess, the specific heat is not constant.
The reason is the amount of energy
necessary to freeze water (or to melt ice),
the so-called latent heat, the energy re-
quired to change from a solid to a liquid.
Enthalpy.
This has led to the use of the total heat
content (enthalpy). Several tables exist in
which the enthalpy (kJ or kCal) can be
seen at different temperatures. For
example, the enthalpy of lean fish, e.g.
cod with 80% water, is
20.5 kJ/kg at -30°C,
41.8 kJ/kg at -20°C,
74.1 kJ/kg at -10°C,
322.8 kJ/kg at 0°C, and
361.1 kJ/kg at 10°C.
Thus, the enthalpy change for lean fish
from -30°C to 0°C is about 300 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy change is a determining factor in
the dimensioning and design of both
freezing and thawing equipment.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 93
3.1 DEEP FROZEN MEAT
Description
Deep frozen meat (often called quick
frozen meat) may be beef, veal, pork,
lamb, game, etc. Meat is produced and
consumed in all parts of the world, and
transport of meat is a very large part of
temperature controlled transport of food-
stuffs.
Meat is produced and marketed in a num-
ber of ways:
Frozen minced (comminuted) meat, in-
cluding hamburgers etc.
Frozen retail cuts.
Frozen manufacturing meat (primal cuts,
pieces, carcasses).
Regulations,Standards.
In the EEC States the meat must be pro-
duced according to the Fresh meat direct-
ive, the Minced meat directive or the Meat
products directive. The Quick-Frozen food
DEEP FROZEN MEAT
directive and the Labelling directive also
applies.
The EEC directives are summarized in
section 6.2 in chapter 1.
Minimum requirements
Raw materials
For meat the main quality parameters are
appearance (colour), texture, taste, and
juiciness. It is absolutely necessary that
meat has an acceptable tenderness.
Therefore, cold shortening during chilling
must not occur, and appropriate ageing
must be secured. However, aged meat
should not be used for the manufacture of
minced meat.
Raw materials used in the manufacture of
deep frozen foods must be of good and
sound quality and be of the required de-
gree of freshness.
As mentioned above, the freezing pro-
93
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 94
DEEP FROZEN MEAT
cess should be started without undue
delay, and be as rapid as is practical.
After thermal stabilization (equalization)
the temperature of the product should be
maintained at -18°C at all points.
Packaging.
For frozen meat, an appropriate packag-
ing should be used in order to reduce
quality losses, especially to reduce weight
losses. The packaging should be a tight
fitting plastic material with a low WVTR.
For meats susceptible to oxidation, lead-
ing to for example rancidity in pork with its
high percentage of unsaturated fat, the
oxygen permeability should be low or
very low. Vacuumpackaging is often used
for retail cuts and steaks, and for primal
cuts; it is sometimes used for minced
meat.
PSL, months
20 Lamb Steaks
Beef Steaks
15
10 Pork Cuts
-30 -20
PSL-diagram for some types of retail packed frozen meat
94
Carcasses are often stored and transport-
ed unwrapped. However, an increasing
number of carcasses are enclosed in
stockinettes or plastic packed, for ex-
ample shrink-wrapping in a suitable
plastic material.
Meat patties, e.g. hamburgers, are some-
times packed in paperboard cartons with
or without an inner plastic coating. This
type of packaging should not be used
when the intended PSL is more than a few
months, as meat patties packed this way
easily suffer dehydration and freezer burn.
Practical Storage Life ( PSL ).
The PSL curves shown in the diagram
below are typical, and as mentioned be-
fore the PPP-factors influence PSL very
much. Fig. 3.2 above shows a PSL-dia-
gram for frozen minced beef.
°C
-10 0
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 95

DEEP FROZEN MEAT

Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: -25°C or colder

Legal requirements for transport:

ATP: -18°C or colder Tolerance: -15°C for short periods
EEC: -18°C or colder Tolerance: -15°C for short periods

Sensitivity

temperature. odour.

Retail packed minced beef ★★★ ★★

Retail packed pork ★★★ ★

Retail packed beef,lamb ★ ★

Manufacturing meat ★ ★

Odour. about 6%, see the example in section 2.5

As mentioned in section 1.7 in chapter 2,
fresh meat readily absorbs odour from
food products with a strong odour such
as fish, apples, etc. This also applies to
frozen meat, although the transfer of
odour is much slower at -18°C than at
about 3-5°C.
Temperature.
During transport, a temperature of -12°C
for 10 days will give a minor reduction of
the remaining PSL, for minced beef only
above.
Product temperatures up to -8°C can not
cause microbiological problems, and as
transport times generally are restricted to
days or weeks, the quality degradation of
frozen meat will normally be negligible.
In practice, as long as the meat is still
frozen, i.e. the meat temperature is below
-2°C, the quality will normally be only
marginally affected by temperature abus-
es, on condition that the transport time is
less than a few days.

95
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 96
DEEP FROZEN POULTRY
3.2 DEEP FROZEN POULTRY
Description
Domestic poultry, e.g. chickens, hens,
cocks, turkeys, ducks, guinea fowl and
geese are very frequently preserved by
freezing.
Poultry is eaten in all parts of the world,
and is generally regarded as a highly ac-
ceptable and nutritious foodstuff, with a
high protein and a low fat content.
Regulations,Standards
In the EEC directive 71/118 with several
further amendments, the requirements for
water chilling of poultry are laid down. It is
prescribed that counter-current chillers
must be used, that the temperature of the
inlet water must be below 4°C and of the
exit water below 16°C, that spray cleaning
before chilling must be used, with pre-
scribed amounts of water per carcass ,
that the water pick-up during processing
must be below certain limits, etc.
96
The EEC Quick frozen food directive and
Labelling directive must be followed in the
EEC countries.
The EEC directives are summarized in
section 6.2 in chapter 1.
Minimum requirements
Raw materials
The feeding of, for example, chickens with
even small amounts of feeds containing
unsaturated fatty acids ( from fatty fish)
may result in an early onset of rancidity.
Slaughtering, including scalding, plucking,
evisceration and chilling must be carried
out hygienically and according to good
manufacturing practice(GMP) and the rel-
evant regulations.
For whole turkeys an ageing period be-
tween chilling and freezing (12-24 h at
about 0°C) or after freezer storage gives
more tender meat. For smaller birds such
as chickens, an ageing period (2-4 h) be-
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 97

DEEP FROZEN POULTRY

tween chilling and freezing may give
some improvement in tenderness.
Broilers, turkeys and ducks are often cut
into portions, resulting in additional sur-
face area being exposed to air. PSL of
cut-up poultry is somewhat shorter than
that of the whole bird due to additional
handling and contamination.
Pre-cooked poultry or poultry parts are
mentioned in section 3.6 below.
Packaging.
Whole chickens are generally packed
after the chilling process, but before
freezing, in rather thin plastic (PE) bags,
closed with a clamp. Such packaging ma-
terials may result in damage to the plastic
in the freezer chain and may cause white
spots due to local dehydration, see sec-
tion 3.2 in chapter 1. Turkeys and ducks
are generally vacuumpacked or shrink-
packed in more expensive plastic materi-
als with low WVTR and low oxygen per-
meability. Turkeys especially demand
good packaging because of the tendency
for turkey meat to become rancid more
quickly than other poultry.

PSL, months

25

20 Chicken, Whole

15

10 Ducks, Geese Chicken parts/cuts, vac. pack.

Chicken parts,
normal packaging
5

°C
-30 -20 -10 0

PSL-diagram for some types of retail packed frozen poultry

97
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 98

DEEP FROZEN POULTRY

Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: -24°C or colder

Legal requirements for transport:

ATP: -18°C or colder Tolerance: -15°C for short periods
EEC: -18°C or colder Tolerance: -15°C for short periods

Sensitivity

temperature odour

Whole chickens ★ ★

Chicken parts ★★ ★

Turkey ★★★ ★

Temperature. colder, the influence on quality and re-

Deep frozen poultry, and especially chick- maining PSL is small for normal transport,
en, is a rather robust product with long lasting less than 1-3 weeks, see section
PSL. When the temperature is -8°C or 2.5 above.

98
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 99
3.3 FISH
Description
Almost all the groups of fish and fish
products mentioned in section 2.2 above
and in sections 5.5 and 5.6 below, are
marketed and transported in the deep-
frozen as well as in the chilled state.
Fish that has to be transported at sea
over a long distance, is often quick-frozen
aboard the ships which means that
frozen fish and fish products can be of
better quality and be more “fresh” than
similar chilled fish after some days on
ice.
In Japan, fish is often consumed raw, and
in order to secure an optimal quality, stor-
age temperatures as cold as -50°C are
used onboard the fishing boats.
Regulations,Standards
In the EEC, the Quick-frozen food direc-
tive and the Labelling directive are the
most relevant. These directives are sum-
FISH
marized in section 6.2 in chapter 1.
Codex Alimentarius has issued an inter-
national code of practice for frozen fish,
where storage and transport at -29°C or
colder is recommended. It also states
that the freezing process should not be
regarded as complete unless and until
the centre temperature has reached
-18°C or colder after thermal stabilization.
In the Codex standards for quick frozen
shrimps or prawns, the determination of
net content of the products covered by
glaze is described.
Codex Alimentarius has issued Recom-
mended International Standards for the
following quick (deep) frozen fishery
products:
Gutted Pacific Salmon, Cod and Haddock
fillets, Ocean Perch fillets, Flat Fish fillets,
Shrimps and Prawns, Hake fillets, and
Lobsters.
99
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 100

FISH

Minimum requirements brings about loss of water and a change

Raw material.
The fish should be of good quality and of
the desired degree of freshness, i.e.
newly caught and/or chilled quickly to and
maintained at 0°C, i.e. the temperature of
melting ice.
Frozen fish has a shorter PSL than frozen
meat. As mentioned in section 2.2 above,
fish contain a higher proportion of polyun-
saturated lipids which are susceptible to
oxidation, and marine fish contain TMAO
which can be degraded to dimethylamine
(DMA) and formaldehyde (FA). The
degradation compounds from oxidized
lipids and TMAO can give off-flavours and
off-odours, but they can also cause break-
down of the proteins. This breakdown
in texture. In fatty fish, a considerable
amount of free fatty acids can be formed.
Processes such as filetting, breading etc.
must be carried out according to the
above mentioned Codex documents
and/or the Codex documents referred to
in section 5.5 below.
Packaging.
Low storage temperatures slow down the
degradation, and so does good packag-
ing. The packaging must be tight fitting
and must have a low WVTR, as the sur-
face of fish easily suffers freezer burn. For
fatty fish it is especially necessary to use
a packaging material with a low oxygen
permeability, and vacuumpackaging is
preferred.

PSL, months

20

15

10

Lean fish
5

Fatty fish, glazed

Herring
°C
-30 -20 -10 0

PSL-diagram for some types of retail packed frozen fish

100
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 101

FISH

The fish can also be protected by glazing,
i.e. a cover of ice on the surface, which
reduces oxidation and dehydration. Glaz-
ing is commonly used for whole gutted
fish (e.g. Salmon), shrimps (especially
IQF, i.e. Individually Quick Frozen), and
blocks of fish or fillets. After some
months, much of the glaze has evaporat-
ed and the product must be reglazed.

Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: -29°C or colder, especially for fatty fish

Legal requirement for transport:

ATP: -18°C or colder Tolerance: -15°C for short periods
EEC: -18°C or colder Tolerance: -15°C for short periods

Sensitivity

Temperature

Fatty fish ★★★

Lean fish ★★

Shrimps ★★★★

Temperature. ed by, for example, transport at tempera-

When the wrong temperature or a fluc-
tuating temperature occurs, the quality
loss is increased and the remaining stor-
age life reduced. However, as long as the
temperature is below about -8°C, no bac-
terial growth can take place.
Thus,it is possible to calculate the loss of
quality and of remaining storage life caus-
tures warmer than prescribed by using
the method described in section 2.5
above.
It must be stressed that most frozen
fishery products have a rather short PSL
which makes it essential to maintain the
required temperatures throughout the
freezer chain.

101
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 102
FRUITS AND CONCENTRATED JUICE
3.4 FRUITS AND CONCENTRATED JUICE
Description
Fruits are frozen whole, as halves or
slices, with sugar and/or syrup, and as
juices or concentrated juices.
Most frozen fruit is used for further pro-
cessing, into jams, marmalades, fruit
pulps, fruit juices, fruit yoghurts, etc.
Many fruits, e.g. apples, oranges, etc. are
normally consumed raw, and freezing is
not suitable for such fruits, as they will
lose their characteristic texture when
thawed.
Regulations,Standards
Except from the general food laws, little
legislation deals with deep frozen fruits.
Of course, the EEC Quick-frozen food di-
rective and the Labelling directive must
be followed in the EEC countries. These
directives are summarized in section 6.2
in chapter 1.
102
Codex Alimentarius have issued recom-
mended international standards for the
following quick frozen fruits: Strawberries,
raspberries, peaches, bilberries and blue-
berries.
Minimum requirements
Raw materials
The raw materials, the fruits, should be
clean and sound, and with no fungal
growth. The desired properties of fruits dif-
fer considerably between the various indu-
stries that use these products. For produc-
tion of jams it is preferable to use fruit with
a firm consistency, which is retained after
freezing and cooking. For fruit juices, fruit
flavours, etc. it is preferable to use fruits
with a full aroma and an intense colour.
Especially for strawberries, the same varie-
ty seldom possess both firm consistency
and good aroma. For direct consumption,
only varieties of strawberries with a firm
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 103
FRUITS AND CONCENTRATED JUICE
flesh which retain as much of the original
texture as possible should be frozen.
Fruits for freezing must be clean and
sound. The degree of ripeness at harvest
has a marked influence on the quality of
the frozen product. Prematurely harvest-
ed fruits lack flavour and colour. Fruits
picked too late are soft and prone to
crushing and fungal attack. Fruits should
be cooled between harvest and freezing,
unless the time can be kept very short.
Processing. Peeling, stoning, slicing etc.
are nearly always performed mechanical-
ly. Blanching is rarely applied to fruits.
The freezing process should be as rapid
as practicable. However, fruits when
thawed are softer in consistency than the
fresh equivalent, even using the fastest
freezing method. The benefits of fast
PSL, months
30
25
20
15
10
5 (bulk packed, no sugar)
Peaches, retail, syrup
-30 -20
PSL-diagram for some frozen fruit products
freezing are small when compared with
the selection of the best varieties.
Packaging.
Fruits may be packed before freezing, e.g.
fruits in sugar, fruits in syrups, concen-
trates etc. Whole fruits or individual frozen
pieces are packaged after freezing.
Frozen concentrated fruit juice is some-
times bulk packed and transported in ply-
wood containers with inner plastic liners,
containing up to two tons. The load
ing of such heavy containers into the
transport equipment demands special at-
tention. Concentrated juice is also trans-
ported in US steel drums (55 A.G.). and
even 20,000 litre refrigerated ISO tank
containers. Retail packaging is done later
on, for example in composite cans (cans
made of paper with plastic linings).
Fruit juice concentrate
Raspberries
Raspberries, retail, syrup
°C
-10 0
103
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 104
FRUITS AND CONCENTRATED JUICE
Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: -18°C or colder
Legal requirements for transport:
ATP: -18°C or colder Tolerance: -15°C for short periods
EEC: -18°C or colder Tolerance: -15°C for short periods
In the ATP, Annex 2, it is stated that deep
frozen concentrated fruit juice, when in-
tended for immediate further processing
at destination, may be permitted to gradu-
ally rise in temperature during carriage so
as to arrive at destination at temperatures
no higher than those specified by the
sender and indicated in the transport con-
Sensitivity
Deep frozen fruits without sugar
Deep frozen fruits in syrup
Deep frozen conc. fruit juice
Temperature.
For retail packed deep frozen fruits in
syrup it is absolutely essential to maintain
the product temperature below about
-15°C, in order to prevent melting which
results in an unacceptable appearance of
consumer packs.
For most other deep frozen fruits and fruit
104
tract. The transport document must state
that further processing of the concentrat-
ed fruit juice is to be carried out immedi-
ately on arrival at its destination. This car-
riage should be undertaken with ATP-ap-
proved equipment without use of the ther-
mal appliance to increase the tempera-
ture of the foodstuff.
Temperature
★★
★★★★
★
products, temperature abuses during
transport normally have a limited influ-
ence on product quality as can be calcu-
lated using the method described in sec-
tion 2.5 above. Due to the rather low pH of
most fruits, microbiological growth is sel-
dom a problem, even at temperatures ris-
ing to the freezing point of fruit products.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 105
3.5 VEGETABLES
Description
Vegetables cover a large number of vari-
eties.
Vegetables such as peas, spinach,
French beans, Brussels sprouts,
cauliflower, etc, can be successfully
frozen. Salad vegetables, for example
tomatoes, lettuce and cucumber, which
are normally consumed raw, lose their
characteristic crisp texture when thawed.
Regulations,Standards
In the EEC countries, the Quick frozen
food directive and the Labelling directive
must be followed. These directives are
summarized in section 6.2 in chapter 1.
Recommended international Codex stan-
dards have been issued for the following
quick frozen vegetables: Peas, spinach,
leek, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels
sprouts, green beans, French fried pota-
toes and whole kernel corn.
VEGETABLES
Minimum requirements
Raw materials
Only material which is clean, sound and
of high quality should be frozen. Some
varieties (cultivars) are better suited for
freezing than others. The intensely
coloured and highly flavoured varieties
should be selected for freezing. The veg-
etables must be able to withstand me-
chanical harvesting.
It is essential to harvest vegetables at the
ideal moment of maturity. This optimum
period may last a few hours for peas, but
2-3 days for French beans. The period be-
tween harvesting and freezing must be
short, and the most susceptible varieties
must be frozen 2-4 hours after harvesting.
Packaging.
After freezing (often fluid bed freezing)
many vegetables are bulk packed, e.g. in
PE-lined pallet boxes which can contain
105
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 106

VEGETABLES

several hundred kilos of product or in PE- more sophisticated packagings such as

coated paper sacs containing 30 kg.
Repackaging into consumer packs can
then be carried out according to market
demands.
Deep frozen vegetables are usually
packed in heat sealed plastic materials,
e.g. PE pouches. Some companies use
alufoil laminates with a very low perme-
ability, thereby reducing the rate of quality
degrading processes and increasing PSL.
Vegetables such as spinach are usually
packed in consumer packs (cartons) be-
fore the freezing process.

PSL, months

25

20

Cauliflower
15 Peas

10

5 Brussels sprouts

Aspargus

°C
-30 -20 -10 0

PSL-diagram for some retail packed frozen vegetables

106
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:42 Side 107

VEGETABLES

Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: -18°C or colder

Legal requirements for transport:

ATP: -18°C or colder Tolerance: -15°C for short periods
EEC: -18°C or colder Tolerance: -15°C for short period

Sensitivity

Temperature

Deep frozen vegetables in general ★

Deep frozen asparagus, cauliflower, etc. ★★★

Temperature. remaining storage life can be calculated

Most deep frozen vegetables have a very
long storage life, and in most cases tem-
perature abuses during transport will only
result in a minor decrease in quality and
remaining PSL. The loss in quality and
as shown in section 2.5 above.
Microbiological problems are seldom
seen in deep frozen vegetables when the
temperature is kept below -2°C, (for a
limited period of time of course).

107
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 108
MISCELLANEOUS DEEP FROZEN FOODS
3.6 MISCELLENANEOUS DEEP FROZEN FOODS
Description
Several other groups of foodstuff are
frozen commercially, e.g. bakery and
confectionary products, ice cream,
desserts, eggs and egg products, pre-
pared meals, etc.
Regulations,Standards
The relevant regulations depends
very much on the product. If a prepared
meal contains meat, the controlling
authorities in several countries regard
the meal as a meat product, and similar
rules are valid for several other food
products.
In the EEC, the Quick frozen food direc-
tive and the Labelling directive are valid
for all consumer packed deep frozen
foods. These directives are summarized
in section 6.2 in chapter 1.
108
Minimum requirement
Raw materials
The requirements depend on the product,
but in any case the raw materials should
be of normal and satisfactory quality, and
the processing should be carried out ac-
cording to good manufacturing practice,
GMP.
Packaging.
The packaging must protect the food
product against dehydration and oxida-
tion. For products which are not sensitive
to oxidation, packaging materials with a
rather high gas permeability may give suf-
ficient protection. For food products sensi-
tive to oxidation, packaging materials with
low or very low oxygen permeability must
be used, and vacuum packaging or simi-
lar packaging techniques should be ap-
plied.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 109

MISCELNANEOUS DEEP FROZEN FOODS

Practical Storage Life (PSL).
The PSL-diagram below indicates the
storage life at different temperatures for
a few deep frozen products not included
in sections 3.1 to 3.5. As is the case for
most frozen foods, the storage life
depends very much on the PPP-factors
and cannot be predicted without know-
ledge to these factors.

PSL, months

25

20

15

Cakes
French fries (potato chips)
10
Ice cream

°C
-30 -20 -10 0

PSL-diagram for some retail packed frozen foodstuffs

Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: -18°C or colder

Legal requirements for transport:

ATP: ice cream -20 °C or colder Tolerance: -17 °C for short periods
ATP: all other deep frozen
foodstuffs -18°C or colder Tolerance: -15°C for short periods
EEC: deep frozen foodstuffs -18°C or colder Tolerance: -15°C for short periods

109
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 110
MISCELLANEOUS DEEP FROZEN FOODS
Sensitivity
For this group of deep frozen products it
is not possible to indicate the sensitivity to
temperatures warmer than -18°C. simply
because of the great variation between
the different foodstuffs.
Temperature.
As is the case for most deep frozen
foods, the loss of quality and remaining
storage life can be calculated when the
time-temperature history is known. The
principle is outlined in section 2.5 above,
where it also indicates which type of
frozen foods the rule of additivity may not
be valid.
110
Problems with microbiological growth do
not exist as long as the product tempera-
ture is below -8°C, or as long as higher
product temperatures (for example -2°C)
are only experienced for a day or perhaps
two.
As is indicated in the PSL-diagram, some
foods are very sensitive to temperature
abuses. For ice cream, PSL becomes
very short at temperatures warmer than
-18°C, and it is often recommended to
store and transport ice cream and similar
products at -20°C or below, and to display
these foodstuffs in special display cabi-
nets in the supermarkets.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 111
4. FROZEN FOODS
Description
Frozen foods comprise foodstuffs which
are stored and marketed at temperatures
between -12°C and -18°C. The name for
this group is “congele” in France and
“gefroren” in Germany. The three tradi-
tional frozen products are meat, (espe-
cially beef and chicken) and butter. These
three foodstuffs are robust, i.e. charac-
terized by having a long PSL.
Most countries allow the marketing of re-
tail packed frozen foods at -12°C but sev-
eral countries do not, these demand
-18°C for all deep frozen foodstuffs.
Regulations,Standards
The EEC Quick frozen food directive
does not apply to frozen foods. Several
EEC directives include the storage and
transport requirements (-12°C or colder)
for frozen products (frozen meat, frozen
poultry), see section 6.2 in chapter 1.
FROZEN FOODS
In the EEC countries, the Labelling direc-
tive also applies if the frozen products are
destined for the retail market.
Minimum requirements
Raw materials
The requirements for the raw materials
are as for deep frozen foodstuffs, see for
example sections 3.1 and 3.2 above.
In the Fresh meat directive (see section
6.2 in chapter 1), it is stated that the
freezing process for frozen foods does
not have to be as rapid as for deep frozen
foodstuffs.
The cream for butter making must be
pasteurized, preferably at temperatures
above 90°C, to inactivate enzymes and to
reduce the number of microorganisms
which would otherwise cause quality loss.
Only fresh butter, no older than 14 days,
of high quality, is suitable for freezing.
The storage life depends upon the butter
111
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 112

FROZEN FOODS

type (sweet cream or cultured, salted or
unsalted), the pH, the content of copper,
the water distribution through the butter,
the salt content and the storage tempera-
ture.
Packaging.
The packaging must protect the foodstuff
against contamination, dehydration etc.
and must be sufficiently strong to cope
with the conditions in the cold chain.
Thus, the requirements are the same as
for packaging of deep frozen foodstuffs,
see for instance section 3.2 above.
During freezer storage butter deteriorates
mainly by oxidation, but it is also essential
to avoid dehydration. Aluminium foil lami-
nates are often used for the packaging of
butter in retail packs.
Practical Storage Life ( PSL ).
The practical storage life of frozen beef
can be seen in section 3.1, and for frozen
chickens in section 3.2, above.
The PSL-diagram for butter shows the
great importance of pH and salt content.
Sweet cream butter (pH 6.6) has a long
PSL whether salted or unsalted. For cul-
tured (also called ripened or fermented)
the difference between salted and unsalt-
ed is significant: Salted cultured butter
has a rather short PSL, but unsalted cul-
tured butter has a reasonable PSL.

PSL, mothns

25

20
Sweet cream, salted
pH = 6.6

15
Cultured, unsalted
pH = 4.7

10

Cultured, salted
pH = 4.7
5

°C
-30 -20 -10 0

PSL-diagram for different types of frozen butter

112
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 113
Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: -20°C or colder
Legal requirements for transport:
ATP, frozen poultry,meat etc. -12°C or colder
ATP, frozen butter -10°C or colder
EEC, frozen foods -12°C or colder
In the ATP, Annex 2, it is stated that butter,
when intended for immediate further pro-
cessing at destination, may be permitted to
gradually rise in temperature during car-
riage so as to arrive at destination at tem-
peratures no higher than those specified
by the sender and indicated in the trans-
port contract. This temperature must not
be higher than 10°C. The transport docu-
Sensitivity
Beef
Chicken
Butter
Temperature.
As mentioned earlier, see for example
section 3.1 above, these frozen foods are
very robust, and could withstand rather
severe temperature abuses as long as the
temperature violations are restricted to a
few days. The loss of quality and remain-
ing storage life can be calculated as de-
scribed in section 2.5 above.
In practice there are no microbiological
FROZEN FOODS
Tolerance: -9°C for short periods
Tolerance: -7°C for short periods.
mentation shall state the name of the food-
stuff, whether it is deep frozen or frozen
and that it is to be further processed im-
mediately at destination. This carriage
should be undertaken with ATP-approved
equipment without use of the thermal ap-
pliance to increase the temperature of the
foodstuff.
Temperature Odour
★ ★
★ ★
★ ★★★
problems caused by transport tempera-
tures when the temperature is maintained
below -8°C.
Odour.
Beef, and especially butter, easily pick up
odour from the surroundings, for example
from other foodstuffs, see section 1.7 in
chapter 2.
113
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 114
CHILLED FOODS
5. CHILLED FOODS.
5.0 INTRODUCTION.
Chilled foods must be maintained at tem-
peratures between about -1.5°C and
about +5°C. For some chilled foods or in
some countries, higher temperatures, for
example 8°C, may be allowed.
For some chilled foods, an upper maxi-
mum temperatures of 2°C or 3°C may be
prescribed.
The chilling process.
For most chilled foods the temperature
should be reduced to the intended stor-
age temperature as quickly as practic-
able. As the chilling medium usually is
considerably colder than the foodstuffs,
there will normally be a pronounced tem-
perature difference between the surface
and the centre during the chilling process.
After 4 hours of air blast chilling at -10°C,
the surface of pork sides could be -1.5°C,
the centre +18°C, and the average tem-
perature +5°C. If the intended storage
temperature is 5°C, there is no need to
continue the chilling until the centre is
5°C. The air temperature could be chang-
ed to about 5°C, or the pork sides could
be transferred to an equilibrium room,
again with an air temperature of 4-5°C.
The specific heat or the enthalpy change is
used for dimensioning and designing the
chilling equipment, see section 3.0 above.
The chilling process used is very often air
chilling, i.e. chilling by cold circulating air.
The lower the air temperature, the more
rapid the temperature of the foodstuff is
reduced to the desired level. However, the
air temperature used depends on the food
type. For some foods, circulating cold air
as low as -25°C is used, but for other
foods it is important that no part of the
114
foodstuff should suffer freezing, i.e. the cir-
culating cold air should not be colder than
-2°C.
For fruits, poultry, etc. hydro-cooling, i.e.
chilling by cold circulating water, is often
used.
The most common , and best, means of
chilling fresh fish and shell fish is to use ice
made from fresh clean water, refrigerated
sea water (RSW) or chilled sea water,
(CSW). Chilling by means of refrigerated
sea water or chilled sea water involves the
total immersion of the fish in a tank. These
two methods offer considerable advan-
tages particularly on board fishing vessels.
The sea water, which must be fresh and
clean, can be kept at 0°C to -1°C by
means of a mechanical refrigeration sys-
tem or by adding ice. The water should be
circulated in the tank. A substantial exten-
sion of storage life can be obtained for
many types of fish (especially fat fish), by
bubbling gaseous carbon dioxide through
the tank.
Vacuum-chilling is used for some food-
stuffs, e.g. leafy vegetables, as it is a very
rapid chilling method.
Cold shortening. Lowering the temperature
of a hot carcase too rapidly, especially
beef, veal and lamb, may result in severe
contraction of the muscle fibres, a phe-
nomenon known as “cold shortening”. This
is an irreversible process which may cause
considerable toughness in the meat. The
temperature in any part of beef, veal or
lamb should not be permitted to fall below
10°C within 10 hours of slaughter.
For pork, chickens etc. a very rapid chill-
ing process may result in a certain tough-
ening, but for these foods ageing seems
to improve texture.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 115
CHILLED FRESH MEAT, RETAIL PACKED
5.1 CHILLED FRESH MEAT, RETAIL PACKED.
Description.
The meat may be beef, veal, pork, lamb,
etc. It may be comminuted (minced), or in
small pieces (less than 100 grammes), or
in the form of retail cuts.
The main quality parameters are taste,
texture and juiciness, but above all the
appearance and colour (especially for
beef). In most cases, the consumers
choose meat and meat products from the
appearance and the colour of the packag-
ed meat in the supermarket display cabi-
net.
Regulations,standards.
In the EEC, the following directives are
the most important: The Fresh meat di-
rective, the Minced meat directive, and
the Labelling directive.
These directives are summarized in sec-
tion 6.2 in chapter 1.
Minimum requirements.
Raw Materials
The meat must be of good and sound
quality prior to the chilling process. The
chilling process must be started as quick-
ly as practicable , and the chilling must be
sufficiently rapid to ensure minimum
weight loss and no growth of microorgan-
isms, but not be so rapid as to result in
toughening of the meat due to cold short-
ening, see above.
Packaging.
In conventional retail packs, meat is plac-
ed on a tray made of plastic or wood-
pulp, and then overwrapped with a highly
gas permeable plastic material which al-
lows an almost unrestricted supply of
oxygen to the pigment (myoglobin), re-
sponsible for the meat colour. These con-
ditions favour formation of the bright red
colour (oxymyoglobin) which most con-
115
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 116
CHILLED FRESH MEAT, RETAIL PACKED
sumers associate with freshness and
good eating quality. The oxymyoglobin is
stable for only 1-3 days in normal display.
For fresh beef, vacuum packaging will re-
sult in a reduced oxygen level inside the
bag and the colour changes to purple, a
colour which most consumers are not fa-
miliar with. Vacuumpackaging results in a
considerably increased PSL, see the PSL
diagram. For vacuum-packed beef, pH is
a very important factor, and meat with a
pH of less than 5.9 is preferred to avoid
storage life problems.
The-PSL diagram shows that the storage
life of minced beef in conventional
packaging is so short that it cannot be
transported over long distances.
PSL, days
35
30
25
Meat cuts, vacuum packed
20
15
10 Pork cuts, conv.
5 Minced beef, MAP
Minced beef, conv.
0 5
PSL-diagram for some types of retail packed chilled meat
116
MAP (Modified Atmosphere Packaging) is
used to some extent. The meat is placed
in a tray with a volume about 2-3 times
the volume of the meat. The air is drawn
out and replaced with a gas mixture
which often contains about 80% oxygen
(maintains the bright red colour) and 20%
carbon dioxide (reduces the growth of
bacteria). The improvement in storage life
can be seen in the PSL diagram.
Masterpacks are used to some extent,
see section 4.1.3 in chapter 1. The result-
ing PSL is about the same as for MAP
meat.
CAPTECH is a special form of master-
pack, where 100% CO2 is used, and
where it is absolutely necessary that no
oxygen comes into the package, i.e. it is
necessary to use alufoil-laminates.
°C
10
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 117
CHILLED FRESH MEAT, RETAIL PACKED
Temperature limits.
Ideal temperature: -1.5°C
Legal requirements for transport:
ATP, minced meat max 3°C
EEC, minced meat max 2°C
ATP, cuts/steaks max 7°C
EEC, cuts/steaks max 7°C
Sensitivity
Product
Minced meat, conventionally packed
Cuts/steaks, conventionally packed
Minced meat, MAP
Cuts/steaks, MAP
Temperature
Temperatures above those recommended
or prescribed will increase the growth rate
of microorganism and lead to spoilage.
Food poisoning is usually no problem in
conventionally packed fresh meat as
spoilage will turn the meat unacceptable
long before food poisoning is possible.
For vacuumpacked meat there seems to
be a limited risk, but for MAP meat there
is a greater risk and here it is absolutely
necessary to maintain low temperatures
throughout the chill chain. For MAP meat,
it is often recommended or laid down in
legislation that the temperature of the
meat should be maintained below 2°C or
3°C.
Temperature Odour
★★★ ★★
★★ ★★
★★★★ ★★
★★★ ★★
Calculation of loss of quality or remaining
storage life can be carried out according
to section 2.5 above. However, for several
chilled meats such calculations do not
give very precise results, as warm stor-
age in the beginning of the chill chain re-
duces quality and remaining storage life
significantly more than would be found in
such calculations.
Odour
As mentioned before, see section 1.7 in
chapter 2, fresh meat easily picks up
odour from the surroundings. This is es-
pecially important for meat in convention-
al retail packs where the plastic overwrap
has a high permeability.
117
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CHILLED MEAT PRODUCTS, RETAIL PACKED
5.2 CHILLED MEAT PRODUCTS, RETAIL PACKED
Description
This group consists of a variety of meat
products, defined in the EEC as products
prepared from or with meat which has un-
dergone a treatment such that the cut
surface no longer shows the characteris-
tics of fresh meat. The treatment can be
heating, curing or drying, or a combina-
tion of these processes.
1Meat products usually have a longer
storage life than fresh meat.
Regulations,Standards
In the EEC, the Meat products directive,
and the Labelling directive are the most
relevant. These directives are summa-
rized in section 6.2 in chapter 1.
Minimum requirements
Raw materials.
The meat must have a good and sound
118
quality, and be of the desired degree of
freshness.
The processing must be carried out ac-
cording to good manufacturing practice,
and the temperature during processing
should be below 20°C or above 50°C.
The resulting PSL depends on the com-
position of the product (for instance the
salt/water ratio), the initial bacteriological
quality (total count and composition of the
bacterial flora), the time and temperature
of a possible heat processing, etc. The
meat products should be chilled as quick-
ly as practicable, preferably to 0°C or
even colder. The initial freezing point for
many cured meat products is about -3°C
to -4°C, and such products would benefit
from storage and transport at temperature
around -2°C (deep chilling).
Meat products are often sliced, and to
achieve a good initial bacteriological qual-
ity the slicing process must be carried out
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 119

CHILLED MEAT PRODUCTS, RETAIL PACKED

hygienically , which involves frequent and the oxygen content must be less than
adequate cleaning and disinfection of ma- about 0.3%, and a commonly used mixture
chinery, conveyors, tables etc. is 60% nitrogen and 40% carbon dioxide.

Packaging. Practical storage life (PSL)

The pigment in cured meat is nitrosomyo-
globin, which after heat processing is
transformed into nitrosohemochrom. Both
pigments fade rather quickly if the meat
product is in contact with oxygen. There-
fore, vacuumpackaging or MAP is general-
ly used to obtain the required PSL. In MAP,
The PSL-diagram below indicates the
storage life of vacuum packed sliced
cured meat products. PSL of meat pro-
ducts depend very much of the initial bac-
terial state, the processing and the pack-
aging (the so-called PPP-factors, see
section 2 above).

PSL, weeks

20

15

Cooked pork loin,

sliced, vac.packed
10

5
Bologna-type sausage,
sliced, vac. packed

°C
-5 0 5 10

PSL-diagram for two types of retail packed cured meat products

119
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 120
CHILLED MEAT PRODUCTS, RETAIL PACKED
Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: -2°C (depending on initial freezing point)
Legislative demands for transport
ATP: max 6°C
EEC: for the moment, no limit
Denmark: max 5°C
Sensitivity
Cured meats
Heat processed uncured meats
Temperature.
The sensitivity to temperature depends on
the product composition and on the pack-
aging. Cured meats requiring chilling are
usually vacuumpacked or packed in MAP,
but the content of salt, and possibly nitrite,
gives a certain degree of protection against
pathogenic bacteria. Of course a higher
storage temperature results in shorter stor-
age life.
Heat processed, uncured meat products
are sometimes retailpacked in MAP or in
vacuum-packs. However, it involves a sig-
nificant risk of food poisoning if product
temperatures are not maintained at the rec-
120
Temperature Odour
★★ ★
★★★★ ★
ommended or prescribed level, normally a
maximum temperature of 5°C.
For retail packed meat products, some
countries prescribe lower maximum tem-
peratures than 5°C, e.g. 3°C, while other
countries allow 8°C.
Calculation of loss of quality or remaining
storage life can be carried out according to
section 2.5 above. However, for several
chilled meat products such calculations do
not give very precise results, as warm stor-
age in the beginning of the chill chain re-
duces quality and remaining storage life
significantly more than would be found in
such calculations.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 121
5.3 MANUFACTURING MEAT
Description
This is meat intended for further manu-
facturing processes. It may be carcases,
sides, quarters, primal cuts, and even
meat in smaller pieces. However, when
the latter group is transported over long
distances it is usually in the deep frozen
form, see section 3.1 above.
Chilled carcases, sides and quarters are
often transported without wrapping, usu-
ally hung by metal hooks on overhead
rails.
Cured meat products such as Wiltshire
bacon, hams in large packs (6 lbs. or
more) are often transported over long dis-
tances to be cut or sliced and retail
packed at the receiver.
Regulations,Standards
In the EEC, the Fresh meat directive, the
Minced meat directive are the most rele-
vant.
MANUFACTURING MEAT
These directives are summarized in sec-
tion 6.2 in chapter 1.
Minimum requirements
Raw materials
The meat must be of good and sound
quality, and at the required degree of
freshness. The chilling process must be
started as quickly as practicable. In the
EEC, the meat should at all points be 7°C
or below, before being taken out of the
slaughterhouse.
Packaging.
As mentioned above, transport of un-
wrapped chilled meat still takes place.
This demands special requirements for
the loading procedure, but also closer at-
tention to RH (relative humidity) than for
wrapped foodstuffs in order to keep the
weight loss at the desired level and at the
same time to be sure that bacterial
121
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MANUFACTURING MEAT

growth is limited. The recommended RH
is 85 to 92%.
Beef, principal cuts and similar large
pieces are often vacuumpacked in large
plastic bags and then placed in corrugat-
ed fibreboard cartons. Hence it is called
boxed beef. Pork is often packed the
same way, but MAP is also used. The
large plastic bags must have low gas per-
meability. The gas mixture could be 50%
nitrogen and 50% carbon dioxide, or
100% carbon dioxide. As mentioned be-
fore, the colour of beef changes to purple
in packagings without oxygen (e.g. vacu-
um-packs), but the bright red colour will
re-appear about 15 minutes after opening
the package and exposing the beef to the
atmosphere.
Practical storage life
The diagram below indicates the storage
life of some types of manufacturing meat.
PSL for cured meat products is not includ-
ed in the diagram, as PSL can be several
months at 5°C, especially if the cured
meat is heat processed (pasteurized)
after being packed in an appropriate
packaging.

PSL, weeks

15

10

Beef carcases,
5 unwrapped Beef, primal cut,
vac. packed

Pork carcases,
unwrapped Pork primal cut
vac. packed
°C
-5 0 5 10

PSL-diagram for some types of manufacturing meat

122
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 123
Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: -1.5°C
Legal requirements for transport:
ATP: max 7°C
EEC: max 7°C
Sensitivity
Manufact. meat,unwrapped
Manufact. meat,vac.pack
Temperature.
For unwrapped meat, temperatures ex-
ceeding the prescribed level will reduce
the quality and the PSL, but the spoilage
bacteria will result in changes so pro-
nounced that there is little risk of the meat
being eaten and causing food poisoning.
For meat packed in vacuum-packs or
MAP, the growth of pathogenic bacteria
are of much more concern, because most
spoilage bacteria do not grow very well
without oxygen in the package. The nor-
mal signs of spoilage (off-odour, discol-
oration) could be lacking, although the
product could have experienced such a
time-temperature history that there is a
real hazard of food poisoning.
For cured meat products the sensitivity to
temperature depends on the PPP-factors.
However, the content of salt. and possibly
nitrite, gives a certain protection against
MANUFACTURING MEAT
Temperature Odour
★★ ★★★
★★ ★
pathogenic bacteria. The temperature
should be kept at 5°C or below.
Calculation of loss of quality or remaining
storage life can be carried out according
to section 2.5 above. However, for several
chilled foodstuffs such calculations do not
give very precise results, as warm stor-
age in the beginning of the chill chain re-
duces quality and remaining storage life
significantly more than would be found in
such calculations.
Odour
Fresh meat, and especially unwrapped
fresh meat, is highly susceptible to the
uptake of foreign odours from the sur-
roundings, see section 1.7 in chapter 2.
The plastic materials used for vacuum-
packs and MAP have low permeability,
and this reduces (but does not prevent)
the uptake of foreign odours.
123
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 124
CHILLED POULTRY
5.4 CHILLED POULTRY
Description
As mentioned in section 3.2 above, poul-
try is eaten in all parts of the world, and is
generally regarded as a highly accept-
able foodstuff.
Although poultry has a limited PSL at nor-
mal chill temperatures (2-5°C) several
countries have recently demonstrated a
trend towards chilled (fresh) instead of
deep frozen poultry.
Regulations,standards.
The EEC directive 71/118 with further
amendments specifies how slaughtering,
chilling, cutting, packaging etc. of fresh
poultry meat must be carried out.
In the EEC countries, the Labelling direc-
tive also applies. These directives are
summarized in section 6.2 in chapter 1.
Minimum requirements.
Raw materials
The raw materials must be of a good and
124
sound quality, and the content of food
poisoning bacteria must be as low as is
possible. The initial microbial state, i.e. the
number and type of microorganisms pre-
sent on the poultry immediately after chill-
ing and packaging has a pronounced influ-
ence on quality and storage life.
The processes involved in slaughtering
and chilling should be carried out accord-
ing to good manufacturing practice, and in
the EEC countries or for export to the
EEC countries according to current EEC
directives, e.g. directive 71/118 mention-
ed above. Other processes are not rele-
vant for “fresh” poultry.
Packaging.
Fresh poultry meat, e.g. chickens, are
normally packed in foodtainers, i.e. a tray
overwrapped with a plastic material which
has traditionally has been PVC. As can
be seen in the PSL-diagram, chicken
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 125
packed this way has a rather short stor-
age life.
Vacuum packaging of whole poultry results
in only a minor increase in storage life.
The use of MAP can increase the stor-
age life considerably, particularly if pro-
duct temperatures are kept at 2-3°C or
below, as is required in some countries. A
gas mixture of about 40% carbon dioxide
and 60% nitrogen would be used; oxygen
is absent as myoglobin is not important
for the colour of chickens as it is in the
case of beef, see section 5.1 above.
Cut-up poultry (chicken portions) are usu-
ally packed the same way as whole poul-
PSL, days
30
25
20
15
10
5
-5 0 5
PSL-diagram for chilled whole chicken,either conventional packed or in MAP
CHILLED POULTRY
try. The storage life of these foods is simi-
lar to, or a little less than that for whole
birds.
An effective method of increasing PSL is
to use super chilling (also called deep
chilling or partial freezing) where the
chickens are chilled to and transported at
-2°C (28°F). When the poultry arrives at
the wholesaler or at the retailer, the poul-
try is placed at usual chill temperatures in
storage rooms or display cabinets. The
PSL-diagram shows that PSL is about 4
weeks at -2°C, and the use of super chill-
ing enables long distance transport of
chilled poultry.
Chicken, MAP
Chicken conv.
°C
10
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CHILLED POULTRY

Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: -1.5°C

Legal requirements for transport:

ATP: max 4°C
EEC: max 4°C

Sensitivity

Temperature Odour

Whole poultry ★★★★ ★★

Cut-up poultry ★★★★ ★★

Temperature. ence will be much more pronounced than

The PSL-diagram above clearly indicates
the enormous influence of storage tem-
perature on PSL, and the advantage in
using superchilling as is often done in the
USA. In order to reduce the growth of
spoilage and food poisoning bacteria it is
absolutely essential to maintain low tem-
peratures in the chill chain.
Temperature abuses during transport will
result in a significant reduction in quality
and the remaining storage life. The influ-
could be calculated according to section
2.5 above. Warm temperatures in the ini-
tial stages of the chill chain promote
growth of spoilage organisms, eventually
leading to fast spoilage.
Odour
Fresh poultry easily picks up odour from
foodstuffs that give off strong odours,
such as oranges, apples, onions, and
fish.

126
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 127
5.5 CHILLED FISH
Description.
As mentioned in section 2.2 above, chill-
ed (fresh) fish comprise a large number
of species with different characteristics.
Chilled fish can be whole and gutted fish,
fillets or mince. However, chilled fish
mince has a very short PSL, and should
always be transported in the frozen state.
Regulations,standards
In the EEC Council Regulation 103/76
with later amendments, common market-
ing standards for certain fresh or chilled
fish are laid down with rules for freshness
and size categories.
In the EEC, the Labelling directive ap-
plies, see section 6.2 in chapter 1.
Codex Alimentarius recommended code
of practice for fresh fish (CAC/RCP 9-
1976) states that fresh fish should always
be carried in melting ice. In order to allow
the ice to melt, the temperature in the
CHILLED FISH
storage room must be a few degrees
above 0°C.
Codex Alimentarius has also issued Rec-
ommended Codes of Practice for:
Shrimps or Prawns (CAC/RCP 17-1978),
Lobsters (CAC/RCP 24-1979), Minced
fish prepared by mechanical separation
(CAC/RCP 27-1983), and Crabs
(CAC/RCP 28-1985), as well as a Rec-
ommended Code of Hygienic Practice for
Molluscan shellfish (CAC/RCP 19-1978).
Minimum requirements.
Raw materials
The fish must be of good and sound
quality prior to the chilling process.
The chilling process should be started as
quickly as possible in order to minimize
growth of microorganisms. Further infor-
mation on fish is given in section 2.2
above.
The best way of maintaining fresh fish at a
127
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CHILLED FISH

temperature close to 0°C is to keep it in
melting ice in a room with a temperature of
1-3°C. If the thermostat in the room is set
at 0°C, the air temperature may occasion-
ally fall below 0°C which will prevent the
ice from melting. This will inhibit cooling of
the fish and cause some parts to freeze.
Superchilling (also called deep chilling or
partial freezing) to around -2°C may give
a longer storage life, but this method is
seldom used.
Processing
Processing, e.g. filletting, should be hy-
gienic and follow the Codex documents
mentioned above, see also the Codex doc-
uments referred to in section 3.3 above.
Packaging.
Fresh fish is often marketed unpacked,
with ice in the retail tray.
Vacuum-packaging or VSP of fish in
plastic pouches is a good form of retail
packaging. For fatty fish the oxygen per-
meability should be low as this will in-
crease PSL due to lower oxidation of the
lipids. Trout stored at 0°C (in ice) packag-
ed in PE (high oxygen permeability) could

PSL, days

12

10

6
Cod fillets

°C
-5 0 5 10

PSL-diagram for chilled cod fillets at different storage temperatures

128
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 129
develop a markedly rancid taste after 8
days. For trout vacuum-packed in a plas-
tic material with low oxygen permeability
the PSL at 0°C is about 20 days.
Vacuum-packaging of lean fish gives a
slightly longer PSL, but as mentioned in
section 2.2 above, the advantage comes
Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: in melting ice (0°C to -0.5°C)
Legal requirements for transport:
ATP: In melting ice, i.e. 0°C
EEC: the temperature of melting ice, i.e. 0°C.
Sensitivity
Whole gutted plaice
Cod fillets
Mince
Temperature.
Storage without melting ice (or storage at
temperatures above 0°C) will increase
the activity of bacteria and lead to rapid
spoilage. Bacteria able to cause food poi-
soning may develop in fish which are not
well iced. Clostridium botulinum type E
which is often found in fresh fish, can pro-
duce toxins at temperatures down to
3.3°C, see table 3.1. Clostridium bo-
tulinum can only grow under anaerobic
conditions, i.e. where the oxygen concen-
tration is very low. Therefore, vacuum-
packaging of fish products in plastic ma-
terials with low oxygen permeability and
CHILLED FISH
when the fish is only of secondary quality.
MAP is used in some countries, with 30%
oxygen, 40% carbon dioxide and 30% ni-
trogen for lean fish, and 60% carbon di-
oxide and 40% nitrogen for fatty fish.
However, MAP makes cooling of the fish
more difficult than with vacuum-packag-
ing.
Temperature
★★★
★★★★
★★★★★
the use of MAP with no oxygen, necessi-
tates product temperatures below 3.3°C.
The toxin from Clostridium botulinum type
E and harmful bacteria such as Vibrio will
be destroyed under normal cooking.
However, with fish products intended to
be eaten raw such as sushi or oysters, or
to be used as raw materials for the manu-
facture of lightly preserved fish products,
such as gravad fish and cold smoked fish
(see section 5.6 below), it is very impor-
tant that the fish is constantly well iced.
Heat stable histamine may be formed, in
fish of the tuna and mackerel type if they
are not stored at low temperatures.
129
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 130
LIGHTLY AND SEMI-PRESERVED FISH PRODUCTS
5.6 LIGHTLY AND SEMI-PRESERVED FISH PRODUCTS
Description
This group contains a wide variety of fish
products with regional variations. The fish
has been treated by one or more of the
following treatments: salting, smoking,
marinating, heating or addition of preser-
vatives. Such fish products have a longer
PSL than fresh fish. Lightly preserved fish
products are cold smoked lightly salted
salmon, gravad halibut and shrimps in
brine. Semi-preserved products are her-
ring fillets in a marinade with a pH lower
than 5, and salted cod.
Regulations,standards.
The only international standard for the
transport of preserved fish products is the
Codex Recommended international code
of practice for smoked fish (CAC/RCP 25-
1979). This recommends that smoked fish
which is not treated in such a way as to
prevent the outgrowth of Clostridium bo-
tulinum type E, should be kept at a tem-
130
perature below 3.3°C. Codex Alimentarius
has also issued a Recommended Practice
for Salted fish (CAC/RCP 26-1979).
In some countries, vacuum-packed fish
products must be kept below 3°C, and
some countries do not allow chilled vacu-
um-packed smoked fish, simply because
of the risk of Clostridium botulinum type E
(in these countries such products must be
marketed in the frozen state).
In the EEC countries, the Labelling direc-
tive applies, see section 6.2 in chapter 1.
Minimum requirements.
Raw materials.
The raw materials must be of good and
sound quality and be of the required de-
gree of freshness.
The processing must be in accordance with
good manufacturing practice, and should
result in the desired characteristics, e.g.
salt/water ratio, temperature, concentration
of preservatives, pH, etc.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 131

LIGHTLY AND SEMI-PRESERVED FISH PRODUCTS

Practical storage life lose the desired distinctive flavour.

The spoilage pattern differs from that of
fresh fish, and depends on the method of
preservation, packaging, moisture con-
tent and temperature. The spoilage is
mainly of microbiological origin, but may
be oxidation in fatty fish. Smoked fish can
The examples given below should only be
regarded as very rough guidelines be-
cause the spoilage -and the storage life-
depends so much on the initial quality
and the preserving treatment.

Vacuum-packed sliced gravad halibut at 5°C: 10 days

Vacuum-packed sliced cold smoked salmon at 5°C: 3 weeks

(4-5% salt in the water phase)

Shrimps in marinade at 5°C: 5 weeks

(pH 5.8 ,benzoic acid added)

Marinated herring fillets at 10°C: 6-10 months

Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: lightly preserved products 1°C
semi-preserved products 1-5°C

Legal requirements for transport

ATP: for the moment, no limit
EEC: for the moment, no limit
Denmark: Lightly preserved fish products, max 5°C

In the ATP-Agreement, Annex 3 will prob- the label, but must not exceed 6°C. The
ably be revised to state that the maximum maximum temperature during transport
temperature for chilled foodstuffs during will be 3°C for chilled vacuum-packed
transport is the temperature indicated on lightly preserved fish products.

Sensitivity

Temperature

Lightly preserved ★★★★

Semi-preserved ★

Temperature. um botulinum type E and it is absolutely

Most of the products in this group are
consumed without further heat treatment.
In lightly preserved fish products, there is
the possibility of bacterial growth such as
Salmonella, Listeria, Vibrio and Clostridi-
essential to keep these products at low
temperatures and always below 5°C.
In semi-preserved fish products there is
no such risk, but high storage tempera-
tures will reduce quality and storage life

131
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 132
LIVE FISH
5.7 LIVE FISH
Description
This group includes live fish transported
in containers with water and live flatfish,
eel, crustaceans and molluscs transport-
ed in wooden boxes and the like.
Regulations, standards
Because of the risk of spreading diseases
there are veterinary rules prohibiting import
of fish from areas with certain diseases. For
example the import of live salmonids (i.e.
salmon and trout) to United Kingdom is
prohibited. This is to protect the salmonids
in United Kingdom from the diseases Viral
Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (VHS) and In-
fectious Haematopoietic Necrosis (IHN).
132
Minimum requirements.
The live fish must be healthy and sound.
The recommended temperature is 3-
10°C. Live crustaceans and molluscs
should not be kept at temperatures below
4°C, and during the winter live trout
should not be suddenly transferred to
water several degrees above the tem-
perature of the water they came from. If
the temperature of the water in which the
fish live rises the fish may suffer as the
oxygen level falls below a critical.
Oxygen is usually added to the water for
transport of live trout and other fish.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 133
CHILLED DAIRY PRODUCTS
5.8 CHILLED DAIRY PRODUCTS
Description
Dairy products, especially pasteurized
“fresh” milk, are generally regarded as
highly nutritious foods, particularly
important for children.
Dairy products include a complex range
of food products, in many cases of an ap-
parently diverse nature, all produced from
raw milk: Pasteurized milk, cream, fer-
mented (cultured) milk products, butter,
cheese, milk based desserts, etc.
Milk in Europe is synonymous with cow
milk, but sheep, goat and water buffalo
are important to the health and economy
of other countries, especially for cheese
production.
The products dealt with in this section are
those dairy products that demand chilling
in order to achieve an appropriate stor-
age life.
Regulations, standards
Most countries have very detailed legisla-
tion on milk and dairy products, for
example on temperatures of milk from the
farm, the bacteriological and chemical
“quality” of the raw milk, the treatment of
the milk, the composition of different
products (especially milk and butter), etc.
In the EEC the Labelling directive (see
section 6.2 in chapter 1) applies.
Minimum requirements
Raw materials
Milk is a very good medium for microbial
growth. Many dairy products are highly
perishable and demand chilled storage.
On receipt from the farm the milk is sub-
ject to a variety of checks to ensure that
the composition and bacteriological stan-
dards are met.
The majority of milk is pasteurized, com-
monly at 72-78°C for 15 seconds. In
133
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CHILLED DAIRY PRODUCTS
many countries, there are legal require-
ments for pasteurization and for the sub-
sequent chilling process. Heat treatment
brings about a considerable reduction in
bacterial flora and should ensure absence
of pathogenic bacteria. This alone, how-
ever, is of no use if packaging etc. allows
re-infection.
Pasteurized milk
Retail packed pasteurized milk has a
short storage life and is seldom transport-
ed over long distances.
Cream
Fresh cream is often pasteurized at 95-
100°C for 15 seconds. UHT-milk and
UHT-cream is of increasing importance;
UHT products can be stored at ambient
temperatures for some months.
Fermented (cultured) milk products.
Fermentation (culturing) of milk is a very
old form of food preservation. There has
been a dramatic increase in the con-
sumption of these products which include
several types, of which Yoghurt is the best
known: Milk is pasteurized at 90-95°C for
15-30 minutes (in some countries 5-10
minutes) and then cooled to 42-45°C. A
starter culture, a solution of lactic acid
bacteria, is added, and after 2-4 hours the
product is cooled to 5°C. Fruit is often
added.
Butter
The cream for butter-making is pasteuriz-
ed at above 90°C to inactivate enzymes
and to reduce the number of microorgan-
isms which would otherwise cause quality
loss. Butter is an emulsion of water and
oil (fat). The fat emulsion containing in so-
lution sugar, albumen and salt, where as
fats and casein are present in celloidal
dispersion. There are several common
types of butter: Sweet cream unsalted
butter (pH = 6.5-6.6), Sweet cream salted
134
butter (pH = 6.5-6.6, 1.2% salt), Cultured
unsalted butter (pH = 4.6-5-1), Cultured
salted butter (pH = 4.6-5.1, 1% salt). Cul-
tured butter is also called fermented or
ripened butter. The storage life depends
on the quality of the raw milk, salt content
and pH, the size of the water droplets,
etc. Butter is subject to becoming rancid
due to oxidation, producing tallow oily
flavours. Another common fault is unde-
sirable flavours picked up from adjacent
goods during storage and/or transport.
The packaging for butter usually has a
low permeability in order to reduce oxida-
tion and dehydration. Butter is not norm-
ally transported over long distances
together with other foodstuffs.
Cheese
Milk is transformed into cheese by a pro-
cess of partial dehydration and a coagula-
tion of the casein. Cheese contains less
water than milk. The amount of water in
cheese greatly influences the storage life,
and its sensory properties. Many types of
cheese are stored for a certain period,
known as the ripening period, which may
last for weeks or months. During ripening
the cheese acquires special organoleptic
qualities (appearance, texture, flavour).
Microorganisms play an essential role in
the development of these characteristics.
After ripening (at a temperature between
8°C and 25°C for many types of cheese),
the cheese should be kept at a tempera-
ture between 0°C and the ripening tem-
perature, depending on how long time it is
to be stored.
Fresh cheeses
Fresh cheeses has a high water content
and should be kept at chill temperatures.
Processed cheeses
Processed cheeses are produced from a
blend of hard cheeses together with emul-
sifying salts which is cooled in the molten
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 135
CHILLED DAIRY PRODUCTS
state and re-solidified. Other ingredients
such as ham may be present, and the
final product may be smoked before pack-
ing.
Desserts.
Fresh cream desserts consist typically of
a flavoured base thickened by various
types starch, together with pieces of fruit,
topped with a fresh, often whipped cream.
The risk of contamination in the produc-
tion together with the combination of in-
gredients make such products highly
perishable, and also present a food poi-
soning hazard.
Pasteurized milk
Butter
Cultured milk products
Fresh cheese
Cheese, Camembert
Cheese, Cheddar
Cheese, Emmenthal
Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: 0°C to 2°C
Legal requirements for transport:
ATP: Butter max 6°C
Industrial milk max 6°C
Cream, Yoghurt, fresh cheese, etc.max 4°C
EEC: for the moment, no limit
In the ATP-Agreement, Annex 3 will prob-
ably be revised to state that the maximum
temperature for chilled foodstuffs during
transport is the temperature indicated on
the label, but must not exceed 6°C. How-
Packaging.
A wide range of packaging is used for
dairy products: Paperboard cartons, glass
bottles, plastic pouches (sometimes with
low permeability), aluminium foil laminates,
grease proof paper, trays or cups made of
different materials (often laminates), etc.
Practical storage life (PSL)
The examples given below should only be
regarded as very rough guidelines be-
cause the storage life depends so much
on the quality of the raw materials, the
processing and the packaging (the PPP-
factors, see section 2 above).
5-10 days at 5°C
8-14 days at 1°C
10-20 weeks at 5°C
2 weeks at 5°C
3-4 weeks at 0°C
2-4 weeks at 5°C
6-8 weeks at 2°C
Several months at 0°C
Several months at 10-12°C
ever for certain chilled foods the maxi-
mum temperature will still be higher. The
maximum temperature during transport
for butter will be 10°C (and 4°C for raw
milk).
135
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CHILLED DAIRY PRODUCTS

Sensitivity

Temperature Odour

Butter ★★ ★★★

Pasteurized (liquid) milk ★★★★ ★★★

Fermented milk products ★★★ ★★

Cheese ★★ ★

Temperature The storage life of most cheeses is not

The temperature sensitivity varies widely,
depending on the composition (salt con-
tent, pH, etc.), but most milk products are,
as mentioned before, highly perishable. In
order to market high quality products and
to obtain the storage life indicated on the
label, it is essential to maintain the re-
quired temperatures throughout the chill
chain.
There are several hundreds different
types of cheese. The ripening process is
reduced, especially for soft cheeses, but
is not stopped at chill temperatures. The
carriage temperature may vary with the
type of cheese and whether or not it is re-
quired to ripen during the journey.
particularly temperature dependent. How-
ever, PSL generally increases with de-
creasing temperature. Freezing, except in
rare cases, is undesirable since it
changes the texture and spoils the quality.
For most soft processed cheeses and
cheese spreads it is essential to maintain
chill temperatures.
Odour
As mentioned before, see section 1.7 in
chapter 2, most dairy products easily pick
up odour from their surroundings, for ex-
ample from foodstuffs such as fish, citrus
fruits, onions.

136
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MISCELLANEOUS CHILLED PRODUCTS
5.9 MISCELLANEOUS CHILLED PRODUCTS
Description
Several chilled foods, not belonging to the
food groups described earlier in chapter
3, are found in the chill chain, and in long
distance transport equipment. This in-
cludes bakery and confectionery pro-
ducts, eggs and egg products, prepared
meals, ready-to-eat dishes, salads (for
example mayonnaise based salads),
ready-to-eat raw vegetables etc.
Regulations, standards
As is the case for deep frozen foods, see
section 3.6 above, the relevant legislation
depends on the product, and different
countries sometimes use different types
of regulations for the same product.
It is therefore impossible, even for the
EEC, to indicate the relevant regulations.
However, in the EEC the Labelling direc-
tive (see section 6.2 in chapter 1) always
applies for retail packed foods.
Minimum requirements
Raw materials.
The raw materials used must be of good
and sound quality. The initial microbial
state is important for most chilled foods
as PSL is usually limited by microbial
growth. Good hygienic practice (GHP)
should always be followed.
Processing.
This group comprises so many different
foodstuffs that it is not possible to outline
the procedures that should be used in
manufacture, but good manufacturing
practice should always be followed.
Packaging.
Many different types of packaging are
used and it can only be repeated that the
packaging used must give the foodstuffs
adequate protection, for example against
dehydration and oxidation.
137
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 138
MISCELLANEOUS CHILLED PRODUCTS
A description of some foodstuffs belong-
ing to this group follows.
Margarine
Margarine is now seen as a product in its
own right rather than as a butter substi-
tute. A significant factor is public aware-
ness of the role of dietary fats in heart
disease. A wide variety of different types
of margarine are marketed today, differing
in raw materials, proportion of polyunsat-
urated fats, spreading properties, packag-
ing etc. Margarine is rarely subject to mi-
crobial spoilage, but may become rancid
due to oxidation. Margarine can pick up
taints if improperly stored.
Eggs
Eggs should be collected frequently and
chilled as rapidly as practicable. In some
countries, eggs which are sound, clean
and without cracks may be washed; after
drying they may be treated with a suitable
mineral oil to reduce weight loss during
storage. The packaging must protect the
eggs against shocks, vibrations etc. in the
chill chain. During storage the temperature
of eggs should be around -2°C. Eggs are
normally tempered before they are remov-
ed from chill storage. This means that the
temperature is raised sufficiently so as to
avoid condensation of water on the shell.
Prepared meals
Chilled prepared meals have a limited
storage life, often just a few days at 3-
5°C, making such products unsuitable for
long distance transport.
Chilled meals may be given heat treat-
ment after sealing the packaging, thus im-
proving storage life considerably. This is
used for example in the “sous-vide” tech-
nique, whereby it is possible to achieve a
storage life of 2-3 weeks at 3°C; but for
“sous-vide” products it is essential to
maintain temperatures below 3°C.
When very good hygienic practices (GHP)
138
are followed and MAP (e. g. 50% nitro-
gene and 50% carbon dioxide) is used,
the storage life of prepared meals can be
increased to 1-2 weeks at temperatures
below 3°C.
Prepared salads
Prepared salads typically consist of chop-
ped vegetables in either a mayonnaise or
oil and vinegar base. The best known is
coleslaw (basically cabbage in mayon-
naise) which also forms the base for many
variants including those containing meat
or fish. The market for prepared salads
has increased vastly in recent years.
Care is needed when formulating salads
because interaction between ingredients
may create conditions suitable for growth
of potentially pathogenic bacteria. The
traditional coleslaw types are quite stable,
but some types have a very short storage
life and are fundamentally unsuitable to
large scale retailing. Manufacturers of
coleslaw and other salads should ensure
that raw materials are obtained from sup-
pliers whose practice preclude the possi-
bility of contamination with Listeria mono-
cytogenes or other pathogenic microor-
ganisms.
Prepared raw vegetables
Ready-to-eat raw vegetables consist of
washed and peeled vegetables which
have been diced, sliced, grated or other-
wise size-reduced. They are becoming in-
creasingly popular either for use as salad
component or as ready-to-cook material
for a main course.
By preparing vegetables in this way the
risks of bacterial infection and spoilage
are increased, bacteria generally being
unable to penetrate the intact surface of
plant tissue. Consequently, packaging or
storage conditions that would inhibit bac-
terial spoilage of prepared raw vegetables
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 139

MISCELLANEOUS CHILLED PRODUCTS

will increase the storage life and saleabili-
ty of the product. Thus, packaging in plas-
tic materials with low permeability, vacu-
um-packaging or MAP increases PSL; as
with the other products using these sys-
tems it is still necessary to maintain cold
product temperatures.
Practical storage life (PSL)
The examples given below should only be
regarded as a very rough guideline be-
cause the storage life -and the spoilage-
depends so much on the TTT and PPP-
factors, see the examples mentioned
above. See also section 2 above

Margarine 3 months at 5°C

Eggs 6 months at 0°C

2 months at 5°C

Prepared meals 3-5 days at 5°C

“sous vide” 2-3 weeks at 3°C

Ready-to-eat raw vegetable

packed in plastic with high WVTR 3-10 days at 5°C
packed in plastic with low WVTR 8-28 days at 5°C

Temperature limits
Ideal temperature: 0°C to 3°C
-2°C for eggs

Legal requirements for transport:

ATP: for the moment, no limit
EEC: for the moment, no limit

In the ATP Agreement, Annex 3 will proba-
bly be revised to state that the maximum
temperature during transport of chilled
foods is the temperature indicated on the
label, but must not exceed 6°C.
However, for certain chilled foods the maxi-
mum temperature will still be different from
6°C.
For prepared meals (vacuum-packed
ready-to-eat products) the maximum tem-
perature during transport will be 3°C.

Sensitivity

Temperature Odour

Eggs ★★★ ★★★

Margarine ★ ★★

Prepared meals ★★★★ ★

Prepared raw vegetables ★★★ ★

139
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MISCELLANEOUS CHILLED PRODUCTS
Temperature
Some products in this group are highly
perishable, e.g. prepared meals which
have not been treated so as to prevent
the growth of Clostridium botulinum (es-
pecially type E). Thus it is essential to
maintain vacuumpacked (also “sous
vide”) ready-to-eat products at 3.3°C or
colder in order to eliminate the risk of
food poisining.
For all foodstuffs in this group low tem-
peratures (i.e. around 0°C) during storage
and transport will increase quality and
storage life, and reduce the risk of food
poisoning.
140
Calculation of loss of quality or remaining
storage life can be carried out according
to section 2.5 above. However, for several
chilled foodstuffs such calculations do not
give very precise results, as warm stor-
age in the beginning of the chill chain re-
duces quality and remaining storage life
significantly more than would be found in
such calculations.
Odour
Eggs and egg product easily pick up
odour from surroundings, and this is also
the matter for margarine and some other
foodstuffs in this group.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 141

4 CHAPTER
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GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 143
LIABILITY FOR CARRIAGE OF GOODS
INSURANCE
1. LIABILITY FOR CARRIAGE OF
GOODS
Goods are often lost, damaged or de-
layed during transport. This situation is
normally followed by the question of who
is liable for the losses and to what extent.
Anticipating this problem it is possible to
assess the needs for and the type of
cargo insurance.
The text below describes the Danish law
and practice but the liability and compen-
sation described will apply in principle in
most other jurisdictions.
The liability of the carrier is based on in-
ternational conventions with the rules and
laws common to most countries.
1.1 Sea Carriage
The rules about sea carrier’s liability are
contained in the Danish Merchant Ship-
ping Act, and the provisions are based on
the Hague/Visby Rules of 1968.
As a starting point the carrier is liable for
loss, damage or delay to goods in the car-
rier’s custody unless the carrier is able to
prove that this is not due to negligence by
the carrier himself or anybody for whom
the carrier is responsible. This means that
the carrier has to prove the cause of the
damage and also that the damage is not
due to his negligence.
Furthermore the carrier is not liable if he
proves that the damage is due to a fire, or
caused by the navigation of the vessel.
Consequently, typical maritime damage,
such as grounding, collision and fire, will
not be covered by the carrier’s liability.
However the carrier is liable if the loss or
damage is due to the vessel’s unseawor-
thyness at the beginning of the voyage.
If the Hague/Visby Rules, as incorporated
in the Danish Merchant Shipping Act,
apply, the rules are mandatory and the
carrier is not able to refer to conflicting
provisions in the Bill of Lading. If the carri-
er is liable for the loss, damage or delay
to the goods, the carrier’s liability towards
the person or company having the right to
the goods is limited to 2 Special Drawing
Rights (SDR) per kilo lost, damaged or
delayed goods, or a fixed amount, 667
SDR per lost, damaged or delayed unit if
this amount is higher. However, the limita-
tion provisions do not apply if it can be
proved that the management of the carri-
er has caused the damage intentionally,
or by showing gross negligence, and with
the understanding that it would possibly
result in damage.
The carrier’s liability is limited by the
“Global Limitation Provisions” by which
the carrier can limit his liability for all loss-
es resulting from the same incident. This
limitation amount is calculated on the
basis of the tonnage of the vessel.
The carrier’s liability is limited to a 1-year
143
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LIABILITY FOR CARRIAGE OF GOODS
limitation period as from the date of dis-
charge or the arrival of the vessel at the
port of discharge. If legal proceedings are
not instituted within the 1-year period the
claim will be time-barred, and can no
longer be maintained against the sea car-
rier. Certain detailed provisions apply to
giving notice of loss to the sea carrier.
1.2 Road Transport
International carriage of goods by road is
regulated by the CMR Act incorporating
the CMR Convention of 1965.
As a starting point the CMR Act provides
for almost strict liability of the road carrier
for loss, damage or delay of goods.
The road carrier is not liable if he proves
that the loss, damage or delay was
caused by a wrongful act, or negligence
of the claimant, by the instructions of the
claimant given otherwise than as a result
of a wrongful act or negligence on the
part of the carrier, by the inherent nature
of the goods, or through circumstances
which the carrier could not avoid, and the
consequences of which he was unable to
prevent. As will be seen the burden of
proof lies with the carrier, but if the carrier
succeeds in proving that the loss, da-
mage or delay might be attributed to one
of several special causes, such as bad
stowage performed by the shipper, the
burden of proof shifts to the plaintiff who
must then prove that the loss, damage or
delay was not, in fact, wholly or partly,
due to one of these causes.
The damages recoverable for total or par-
tial loss of the goods are to be calculated
by reference to the value of the goods at
the place and time they were accepted for
carriage. The liability is limited to a fixed
amount, 8,33 SDR per kilo gross weight
losts or damaged.
144
In the case of delay the damages are
limited to the amount of charges for car-
riage unless a surcharge is paid to cover
a higher value declared in the consign-
ment note.
A limitation amount does not apply if the
carrier has been guilty of wilful miscon-
duct, or if his servants or agents have
been guilty of wilful misconduct in the
course of their employment.
The act provides that the period of limita-
tion for a claim against the carrier shall be
1 year. The period limitation runs in the
case of partial loss, damage or delay from
the date of delivery, in the case of total
loss from 30 to 60 days from the date the
carrier took charge of the goods, and in
all other cases 3 months from the date
the contract was entered into. In case of
wilful misconduct the period of limitation
is 3 years.
The Act contains certain rather unclear
provisions about suspension of time and
about notice of loss.
For national, rather than international,
carriage of goods by road either the liabil-
ity provisions in the Road Traffic Act, or
the Danish Common Rules for Compen-
sation will apply.
1.3 Air Carriage
The stipulations about the air carrier’s lia-
bility towards the cargo are contained in
the Act of Air Carriage which is based on
the Warsaw Convention of 1929 with later
changes and amendments. Since this
convention is widely accepted throughout
the world, the general rules are common
to all countries with only a few details par-
ticular to certain nations.
The air carrier is liable for loss, damage
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 145
or delay of goods in his custody unless
he proves that he took all reasonable
measures to avoid the damage, or that it
was impossible to take such measures. In
practice this is interpreted to mean that
the air carrier has to prove the cause of
the damage, and prove that the damage
was not due to negligence by himself or
anybody for whom he is responsible.
The air carrier’s liability is also limited.
The limit of liability is a fixed
amount,presently 17 SDR per kilo lost,
damaged or delayed. The air carrier can-
not apply this provision if the damages
have been
caused by wilful misconduct.
The claim against the air carrier will be
time-barred if legal proceedings are not
instituted within 2 years of the date on
which the aircraft arrived, or should have
arrived. Some further provisions about
notice of claim can apply.
1.4 Rail Carriage
The railway’s liability towards the cargo
are contained in the Danish Railways Act
which, to a large extent, is based on the
International Convention of Carriage of
Goods by Rail, the CIM Convention.
Danish railway’s (DSB’s) liability towards
the cargo interest is very much like the
road carrier’s liability. However, DSB’s
liability is limited to 21 US$ per kilo.
2. INSURANCE
2.1
As will be seen, sending goods from one
country to another as a part of a commer-
cial transaction can be a risky business.
Thus, it is important for the parties in an
international contract to decide whether a
INSURANCE
cargo insurance is to be taken out and,
and if so, whose duty it is to arrange for
the insurance.
By using the EEC-”Incoterms 1990”
which provide a set of rules for the inter-
pretation of the most commonly used
trade terms in international trade, the par-
ties also agree who is going to take out
the insurance.
A number of the Incoterms 1990 deal
with the question of taking out insurance
such as CIP (Carriage and Insurance
Paid to (....named place of destination)),
and CIF (Cost, Insurance and Freight
(....named port of destination)).
2.2
The most common insurance conditions
are the Institute Cargo Clauses (A).
These cover all risks of loss or damage to
the subject-matter insured except as pro-
vided in the exclusion clauses. The in-
surance covers loss of, or damage to, the
subject-matter resulting from any varia-
tion in temperature, attributable to break-
down of refrigeration machinery resulting
in its stoppage for a period of not less
than 24 consecutive hours.
With regard to insurance of frozen food
the common conditions are the Institute
Frozen Food Clauses (A) (excluding
frozen meat), and damage due to varia-
tions in temperature are only covered if
the variation is due to a breakdown of
machinery for more than 24 consecutive
hours, fire, explosion, a vessel’s ground-
ing, sinking, capsizing or collision, capsiz-
ing or derailment of land transport vehicle
or discharge in a port of refuge.
Also, the Institute Frozen Meat Clauses
(A) will cover risks of, or loss of, or dam-
age to, the cargo insured under certain
145
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INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CARRIER
conditions with regard to preparation of
the cargo for transportation.
Finally the Institute Frozen Food Clauses
(Full Condition) give a very wide coverage
as the insurance covers loss of, detoriora-
tion of, or damage to the interest insured
from any cause which might arise during
the period of the insurance. This in-
surance is very seldom agreed upon with
cargo underwriters.
Since the cargo insurance covers the
losses suffered by the cargo interests im-
mediately after the insurance conditions
are fulfilled, it is highly recommended that
a cargo insurance be taken out instead of
awaiting the clarification of the question of
the carrier’s liability and consequently
only receive a limited amount as compen-
sation.
3. INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CARRIER
Temperature
Before the start of transport, the carrier
must have received instructions on the
carriage temperature, i.e. the temperature
at which the consignment must be trans-
ported.
On loading, the carrier must always (by
means of random sampling) check the
temperature in the consignment, which
has been received for transport. A
reasonably correct thermometer, see
chapter 1 section 7.3, is a necessary tool.
The minimum and maximum tempera-
tures measured must be stated in the
transport document.
If significant discrepancies are noted be-
tween the required transport temperature
and the temperatures measured on
146
receiving the consignment, the carrier
must contact the party shipping the goods
before the shipment proceeds. In the
case of road transport the driver should
inform his employer of the situation so
that instructions can be given while the
trailer is still at the supplier’s loading bay.
Furthermore, during the journey the car-
rier must regularly check the carriage
temperature. If the refrigeration unit is
provided with an automatic recorder of
the air temperature in the transport equip-
ment, this apparatus must be in good
working order and the apparatus must be
fitted with a recording disc or tape so that
the measured temperature can be record-
ed. The latter is of course important evi-
dence, if damage arises to the consign-
ment as a consequence of temperature
variances during the journey.
Stowage
On loading a consignment into the trans-
port vehicle, the following two considera-
tions are of great importance:
1) Air circulation
The goods should always be loaded in
such a way that there is the possibility of
free air circulation around the goods.
2) Securing the goods
Goods must be stowed and secured in
such a way that the normal shocks and
vibration accociated with transport do
not cause the load to shift.
If the transport is to be carried out by
using a trailer, it is recommended that the
driver be present at the loading of his
trailer/lorry, and when necessary, show
the staff at the place of loading how he
wants the goods placed in the trailer, This
is partly to ensure the optimum circulation
of the cooling air, partly for the sake of
road safety, and of course to prevent
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 147
INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CARRIER
other kinds of damage to the consign-
ment or the equipment.
4. CONTROL ON DELIVERY
On arrival every consignment must be
checked by the consignee before signing
any form of receipt on the freight docu-
ment.
If there are remarks to be made regard-
ing the condition of the consignment they
should be made on the freight document.
The goods should be examined for visible
damage and the temperature of the
goods measured, preferably the product
temperature rather than the temperature
of the packaging. In addition, the record-
ed temperatures - if a suitable tempera-
ture recorder is installed - must be exam-
ined, as must the temperature setting on
the control panel.
If the consignment has arrived in a dam-
aged condition, it is important to record
the first impression of the condition of the
consignment. This is important for subse-
quent treatment of the damaged cargo
and the insurance claim.
Taking photographs before and during the
unloading of the cargoe is a good way of
recording and documenting the visible
condition of the consignment.
The original temperature recording chart,
or a photocopy should be kept as evi-
dence of the temperature conditions dur-
ing the transport from the supplier to the
consignee.
It is also important that any reservation
regarding the condition of the goods be
recorded on the freight documentation.
This reservation must not be phrased
generally, as for instance “received with
reservation”. The reservation must be
phrased precisely so that there will be no
doubt as to the connection between the
written remarks and any later complaint
of damage to the consignment.
5. SECURING THE EVIDENCE IN CASES
OF DAMAGED GOODS
If damage arises to the transported con-
signment, the claimant - usually the im-
porter or buyer - will apply for compensa-
tion for his loss from the insurers involv-
ed. The insurers will usually be
1) Cargo insurers if seller or buyer has
taken out a transport insurance, and if
the contract conditions cover the parti-
cular case.
2) The carrier’s third party liability insurers.
The two types of insurance are basically
the same, except for one essential differ-
ence;
As a rule the cargo insurers will compen-
sate damage arising from a sudden unex-
pected event.
The third party liability insurers, however,
are only liable, if the damage concerned
has arisen as a consequence of circum-
stances for which the carrier is responsi-
ble. There is also the possibility of limita-
tions of indemnity, due to the relevent
transport regulations governing and re-
stricting the carriers risk.
All international insurance companies
have a network of “average agents”
throughout the world. On behalf of the in-
surers (the principals) they have commit-
ted themselves to the objective treatment
of each claim.
In an average situation the claimant (im-
147
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INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CARRIER
porter/buyer) applies to either the in-
surers or the local average agent of the
insurers. Alternatively, contact is made to
the carrier who, via information in his third
party liability policy, contacts the average
agent.
The most important part of the treatment
of the case in an average situation is the
survey of the damaged consignment.
The purpose of this survey is to ascertain
the facts, i.e. the nature, extent, and the
cause of the damage. If it is found neces-
sary, special expertise is called in (e.g.
scientists or engineers) to assist the in-
surers average agent in the execution of
the survey.
The insurers average agent must collect
all necessary relevant documentation,
e.g. commercial invoice, freight bill, spe-
cial transport instructions, temperature in-
formation, etc.
After this, a survey report is issued, which
should be an objective, detailed descrip-
tion of the damage concerned. As a rule
the survey report must contain informa-
tion and documentation covering:
a) the nature of the damage
b) the cause of the damage
c) the extent of the damage
The survey report is important in the in-
surers’ subsequent treatment of the trans-
port damage, including, of course, the
judgment of the responsibility/liability to
pay damages. It goes without saying that
a survey report is an important document,
particularly if later it should be necessary
to go to court or to arbitration in order to
settle the degree of liability.
Because of the perishable nature of the
cargo it is important that all the parties in-
volved, importer, buyer and carrier, se-
cure all possible evidence while the
damaged consignment is still available.
Therefore, it is strongly recommended
that the parties, together or separately,
ensure that survey reports are issued. If
an importer/buyer has not taken out a
special transport insurance and if there is
no insurance information from the seller,
the importer/buyer can always seak ad-
vice and instruction from his own in-
surers.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 149

5 CHAPTER
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GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 151
DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATIONS
DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATIONS
Definitions and explanations of some
terms and expressions used in relation to
transport and storage life of the chilled
and frozen foodstuffs dealt with in this
book are given in this chapter.
ATP.
Agreement on Transport of Perishables
(ATP) is an international agreement on
the transport of perishable foodstuffs, see
chapter 1 section 6.1.
AW
see water activity
CHILL CHAIN
The chill chain comprises the different
stages from production to cooking or con-
sumption, i.e. chill storage, transport,
local distribution and display (for example
in a supermarket display cabinet).The
consumer's handling of the product ,
transporting it home and storage in refrig-
erator is part of the chill chain.
In order to maintain product quality and,
especially, reduce growth of microorga-
nisms it is vital to maintain the correct
temperatures throughout the chill chain.
CHILLED FOODS
Foods which have been subjected to a
chilling process and afterwards are kept
at chill temperatures are considered as
chilled foods.
CHILLING.
Chilling (chilling preservation) is defined
as bringing the product temperature
down to chill temperatures,i.e. tempera-
tures ranging from about -1.5°C to
+8°C,and maintaining this temperature. In
some cases the temperature can be a lit-
tle higher, e.g. +14°C for bananas, or a
little lower, e.g. -2°C, see Superchilling
below.
CHILLING INJURY
Chilling injury is physiological damage
caused to fruit and vegetables by expo-
sure to temperatures below a critical
threshold for each species, but above
freezing temperature.
CHILLING PROCESS
The chilling process is the process used
to reduce product temperatures from the
initial temperature to chill temperatures.
The most commonly used chilling pro-
cesses are summarized in section 5.0 in
chapter 3.
COLD CHAIN
This term is sometimes used as syno-
nymous with freezer chain, or to chill
chain. Thus, cold chain could mean either
or both, see also cooling, below.
COLD SHORTENING
The term used to describe the irreversible
phenomenon that causes considerable
toughening to meat, especially beef, veal
and lamb. It is caused when a hot car-
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DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATIONS
cass has been cooled too rapidly
resulting in severe contraction of the mus-
cle.
COOLING
Cooling means a reduction in the product
temperature, or maintaining the food at
temperatures below ambient, either chill
temperatures or freezer temperatures.
CSW
Chilled Sea Water is a storage method for
fish, involving the total immersion of fish
in a liquid (sea water) held in a tank. The
sea water is kept at around 0°C by adding
ice.
DEEP-FROZEN FOODS
The term deep-frozen foods (surgele, tief-
gefroren) is correctly used when the prod-
uct temperature is maintained during stor-
age,transport and retail sale at -18°C or
colder with a minimum of fluctuations.
The freezing process used must be rea-
sonably rapid.
Deep-frozen foods are often denominated
quick-frozen foods.
ENTHALPY
Enthalpy is the total heat content of a
food product. It is measured in kJ/kg, and
is set at 0 kJ/kg at -40°C.
EQUILIBRIUM TEMPERATURE
Equilibrium temperature or mean tempera-
ture is the temperature which is achieved
when the surface temperature and the
centre temperature become practically
identical after an equalization period.
After for example a quick chilling process
the surface temperature may be -1°C,the
centre temperature +15°C, but the equilib-
rium temperature could be +4°C.
152
FREEZER CHAIN
Like the chill cain above the freezer chain
comprises all stages from production
(right after completion of the freezing pro-
cess) to cooking or consumption.
FREEZING
Freezing (freezing preservation) compris-
es the freezing process, freezer storage
and - in most cases - a thawing process.
Foods which have been subjected to a
freezing process are considered frozen
foods.
In industrial and commercial practice
there are two temperature ranges for stor-
age and retail display, namely frozen
foods and deep-frozen foods (or quick-
frozen foods). In French: congelé and
surgelé, in German: gefroren and tief
gefroren (or tiefgekühlt).
FREEZING INJURY
The damage - mostly texture deterioration
- caused by exposure of the foodstuff to
temperatures below the (initial) freezing
point of the foodstuff.
FREEZING POINT
The freezing point - or more correctly the
initial freezing point - for foods depends
on the composition of the food, i.e. the
content of water, salt, etc.
The initial freezing point of many raw
foods is around -1.7°C. When food is
cooled to this temperature,ice begins to
form. As the food is cooled below its initial
freezing point, more and more water is
turned into ice so that the residual solu-
tion will become more and more concen-
trated. Even at -40°C some unfrozen
water remains.
FREEZING PROCESS
During the freezing process a high pro-
portion of the water in the food product
(many foods contain 70-90% water) is
converted into ice.The process should be
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DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATIONS
started as quickly as practicable after the
food product has undergone the the nec-
essary preparation procedures such as
cutting, washing, possibly packaging, etc.
The freezing process shall be as rapid as
practicable.
FREEZING RATE
The freezing rate is defined as the speed
of movement of the ice front through the
foodstuff. See chapter 1 section 3.0
FREEZING TIME
Freezing time is defined as the time
elapsed from the start of the freezing pro-
cess until the final temperature is
reached. For further information, see
chapter 3 section 3.0.
FROZEN FOODS
Throughout the industry and among con-
sumers, the term frozen food normally
means deep (quick) frozen foods. Frozen
foods simply is foods that are sold frozen,
i.e. at a temperature well below 0°C.
From a legislative point of view it is nec-
essary to distinguish between frozen and
deep frozen foods.
In legislation, the term frozen foods (con-
gele,gefroren) is used for a limited group
of products (meat and poultry) which are
maintained at a steady temperature of
-10°C (or -12°C) or colder, see chapter 3
section 4. (Deep (quick) frozen foods are
kept at -18°C or lower).
GMP
GMP (Good Manufacturing Practice) may
be defined as current good practice in
manufacturing, processing and holding
food products.
K-COEFFICIENT
K-coefficient (or K-value) is a measure of
the effectiveness of the insulation in
transport equipment (and in cold storage
rooms etc.), see chapter 1 section 6.1.
MIGRATION
Migration of additives from a packaging
material into foodstuffs, see chapter 1
section 6.3.
POSITIVE LIST
Lists of approved additives/components
with maximum concentrations, all others
being banned. See chapter 1 section 6.
PPP
The PPP-factors (Product, Process,
Packaging) can be as decisive for product
quality as storage temperature and time,
see chapter 3 section 2.
PRACTICAL STORAGE LIFE (PSL)
The practical storage life of a food pro-
duct is the period after chilling/freezing
during which the product retains its
characteristic properties and remains fully
acceptable to the consumer/
processor.
PSL
see Practical Storage Life
QUICK-FROZEN FOODS
This term is often regarded as syno-
nymous with deep-frozen foods, see
above.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY ( RH )
The ratio of the quantity of water vapour
present in the air to the quantity that would
be present if the air was saturated at the
same temperature. It is also defined as the
ratio of the pressure of water vapour pre-
sent to the pressure of saturated water
vapour at the same temperature.
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DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATIONS
RSW
RSW (Refrigerated Sea Water) is a stor-
age method for fish involving the total im-
mersion of fish in sea water held in a
tank. The sea water is kept at 0°C to -1°C
by means of a mechanical refrigeration
system.
SHORT-CIRCUITING
When used in relation to refrigerated stor-
age or transprot equipment it refers to the
circulating air that by-passes the majority
of the cargo by flowing through gaps inad-
vertently left in the stow, resulting in poor
air distribution.
SHORT-CYCLING
The term given to a defective part of a
control system that switches a machine
on and off too frequently.
SPECIFIC HEAT.
The amount of heat (expressed in kJ) re-
quired to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
a substance 1°C.
The specific heat of chilled foods is about
3 kJ, depending on the composition,
mainly the water content. The specific
heat of deep frozen foods is about 1.5 kJ,
depending on the water/ice content. See
chapter 3 section 3.0.
SUPERCHILLING
Superchilling, often called deep chilling,
means chilling the food to a temperature
a little below the initial freezing point, and
maintaining this temperature during stor-
age and transport. A temperature about
-2°C, in some cases as low as -3°C or
-4°C, is used.
TEMPERING
Tempering means heating a frozen food-
stuff from its initial temperature to the
thawing plateau, i.e. tempering is the first
part of a normal thawing process, see
chapter 3 section 3.0.
TTT
TTT (Time-Temperature Tolerance) is a
product’s storage life at different storage
temperatures, see chapter 3 section 2.
VSP
VSP (Vacuum Skin Packaging) is a spe-
cial form of vacuum-packaging, see chap-
ter 1 section 4.1.3.
WATER ACTIVITY
The ratio of the water vapour pressure of
the solution (the foodstuff) to the water
vapour of pure water at the same temper-
ature.
UHT
UHT (Ultra High Temperature) is a pro-
cess where milk (or similar foodstuffs) is
heated to at least 132°C for at least 1
second. The heated product is then asep-
tically packed in plastic coated paper-
board cartons. UHT products can usually
be kept at room temperature for several
months, and do not require refrigerated
transport.
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 155
INDEX
* after a word/term indicates that the
word/term ix explained or defined in
chapter 5 (page 151-154).
Air circulation .....................45, 63, 66, 72
Air temperature measurement.............37
Aluminium foil ......................................18
ATP*...............................................25, 88
Average agent ...................................147
Average temperature,
see equilibrium temperature ......89, 114
aw, see water activity* .................80, 154
Barrier layer .........................................18
Beef, see meat
BGA (Bundes Gesundheits Amt).........33
Board, see paperboard........................22
Bottom air delivery.........................52, 54
Bracing ..........................................64, 73
Butter, frozen .....................................111
Butter, chilled .....................................133
Calculation of quality loss ....................86
Calibration of thermometers ................40
Capacity control...................................51
Carbon dioxide cooling ........................69
Cartons....................................18, 21, 24
CA-storage ..........................................12
CAPTECH ...................................20, 116
Cheese ..............................................134
Chicken, see poultry
Chill chain*.........................................151
Chilled foods* ..............................87, 114
Chilled foods,
see under the specific product
Chilling* .............................................151
Chilling injury*......................................11
Chilling process*................................114
INDEX
Code of good transporting practice .....72
Codex Alimentarius .....................35, 127
Codex standards ...........35, 99, 102, 105
Cold chain* ........................................151
Cold shortening*..........................93, 114
Coleslaw ............................................138
Colour changes ...................................82
Compressor ...................................50, 52
Condenser ...........................................50
Condensation ................................14, 50
Concentrated fruit juice......................102
Consumer packs..................................16
Containers ...........................................54
Containers,air circulation .....................57
Controlled atmosphere*.......................12
Controllers .....................................58, 64
Cooling* ...............................................15
Cooling during transport ......................75
Corrugated board ..........................22, 47
Cream................................................134
Cryogenic refrigeration ........................69
CSW*.................................................114
Cured meat................................118, 121
Dairy products ...................................133
Deep chilling, see superchilling*........125
Deep-frozen foods*,
see under the specific product
Defrosting ............................................53
Dehydration .........................................14
Delivery air control...............................58
Delivery vans .......................................70
Desiccation ..........................................14
Directives, EEC....................................27
EEC-directives ...............................27, 88
Eggs ..........................................108, 138
Enthalpy* .............................................92
Equilibrium temperature* .......24, 89, 114
155
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 156
INDEX
Eutectic plates .....................................69
Evaporation....................................14, 51
Evaporator .....................................50, 52
FDA (Food and Drug Administration) ..32
Fish, raw material ................................84
Fish, chilled........................................127
Fish, deep frozen.................................99
Fish, live ............................................132
Fish products, chilled.........................130
Flavour changes ..................................82
Flushing ...............................................20
Flutes...................................................23
Foodtainer ...........................................19
Food poisoning ....................................81
Freezer burn ........................................15
Freezing* .............................................88
Freezing injury*....................................11
Freezing methods ................................90
Freezing point*.........................11, 45, 88
Freezing process*................................88
Freezing rate* ......................................85
Freezing time*......................................89
Frost formation...............................14, 53
Frozen foods*.....................................111
Fruit, deep frozen...............................102
Fruit, concentrate...............................102
Gas flushing.........................................20
Genset .................................................56
Glazing ........................................99, 101
GMP* ...................................................84
Heat sources .......................................44
Heaters (electric) .................................53
Hot-gas bypass..............................51, 53
Inner packaging ...................................16
Inside frost formation ...........................14
Insulated containers ......................70, 71
Insulation .............................................44
Insurance...........................................143
Integral containers ...............................55
Irradiation.............................................34
ISO ......................................................27
ISO-containers...............................43, 54
K-coefficient* .................................26, 44
156
K-value, see K-coefficient ....................44
Labelling directive, EEC.......................28
Lamb, see meat
Laminates ............................................18
Legislation ...........................................25
Loading..........................................46, 73
Load line ........................................47, 55
Loss of quality......................................86
Machinability........................................17
MAP.............................20, 116, 119, 129
Margarine ..........................................138
Masterpack ..........................................20
Meat, raw material ...............................84
Meat, chilled ......................115, 118, 121
Meat, deep frozen................................93
Meat, frozen.......................................111
Meat products, chilled........................118
Mechanical refrigeration ......................50
Microbiological standards ..............30, 31
Metal cans ...........................................18
Microbiology ........................................79
Microorganisms ...................................79
Migration* ......................................32, 33
Milk ....................................................133
Mixed loads .........................................49
Mobile freezers ....................................90
Nitrogen cooling...................................69
Odour.............................................49, 88
Outer packaging ..................................21
PA, Polyamide, Nylon...........................17
Packaging ......................................16, 86
Packaging forms ..................................18
Packaging materials ............................16
Pallet....................................................48
Pallet patterns......................................48
Paperboard ..........................................22
Pathogenic microorganisms ................81
PE, Polyethylene..................................17
Permeability .........................................16
PET, Polyester .....................................17
Plastic bags, pouches..........................19
Polyamide (PA) ....................................17
GuideFish 04/08/99 14:43 Side 157
Polyethylene (PE) ................................17
Polyester (PET) ...................................17
Pork, see meat
Porthole container .........................54, 55
Positive list* ...................................32, 33
Poultry, chilled....................................124
Poultry meat directive ..........................29
Poultry, frozen ....................................111
Poultry, deep frozen .............................96
PPP* ..............................................83, 87
Practical storage life(PSL)*............83, 87
Pre-cooling ..........................................46
Pre-cooling transport equipment .........46
Primary distribution vehicles................62
Primary packs......................................16
Product groups ..............................79, 87
PSL, see Practical Storage Life .....83, 87
PTI .................................................59, 72
PVC .....................................................18
Quality changes...................................79
Quality loss ..........................................86
Quick-frozen foods* .............................88
Quick-frozen food directive ..................27
Ready-to-cook dishes........................137
Ready-to-eat dishes ..........................137
Refrigeration capacity....................51, 63
Refrigeration, principle.........................50
Refrigeration cycle...............................50
Refrigeration process ..........................50
Refrigeration systems....................26, 69
Refrigeration unit ...........................51, 56
Regulations....................................25, 87
Relative humidity (RH)* .......................12
Remaining PSL....................................86
Retail packs .........................................16
Return air control ...........................58, 64
RH, see Relative humidity ...................12
RSW*.................................................114
Rule of additivity ..................................86
Salmon, see fish
Secondary distribution vehicles ...........70
Secondary packaging ....................16, 21
Sensitivity ............................................88
Set-point ........................................58, 64
INDEX
Shipping containers .......................16, 21
Short-circuiting* .............................47, 64
Short-cycling* ................................58, 65
Slip sheet.......................................48, 49
Specific heat*.......................................92
Storage life, see PSL ...........................83
Stowage pattern ..................................46
Superchilling*.....................118, 125, 128
Survey report .....................................148
T-bar ..............................................52, 57
Temperature control system ..........58, 64
Temperature fluctuations .....................15
Temperature limits ...............................88
Temperature monitoring.......................36
Temperature measurements................36
Temperature recording ............39, 60, 67
Temperature recorders ..................60, 67
Tempering* ..........................................92
Texture changes ..................................82
Thermoforming ....................................21
Thermometers .....................................39
Thermostats ........................................53
Thin wall vehicles.................................71
Top-air delivery ....................................63
Trailers ...........................................43, 62
Transport cartons...........................16, 21
Transport equipment......................25, 43
Transport packaging ......................16, 21
Trunkers...............................................62
TTT*.....................................................83
Turkey, see poultry
Vacuumpackaging ...............................19
Vegetables, deep frozen ....................105
VSP* ............................................20, 128
Water activity (aw)*..............................80
Water loss............................................14
Wrappers .............................................19
WVTR ..................................................16
UHT*..................................................134
UIC ......................................................27
Unit loads.............................................47
Unloading ......................................46, 74
157