REVIEWS IN

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Volume 14

STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON
ORE GENESIS
Editors
Jeremy P. Richards and Richard M. Tosdal

---/
100 em QUARTZ

SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS, INC.

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REVIEWS IN ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

(ISSN 0741-0123)
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Vol. 1: FLUID-MINERAL EQUILIBRIA IN HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS (1984) ISBN 0-9613074-0-4

Vol. 2: GEOLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF EPITHERMAL SYSTEMS (1985) ISBN 0-9613074-1-2
Vol. 3: EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY: DESIGN AND
INTERPRETATION OF SOIL SURVEYS (1986) ISBN 0-9613074-2-0
Vol. 4: ORE DEPOSITION ASSOCIATED WITH MAGMAS (1989) ISBN 0-9613074-3-9
Vol. 5: SEDIMENTARY AND DIAGENETIC MINERAL DEPOSITS:
A BASIN ANALYSIS APPROACH TO EXPLORATION (1991) ISBN 0-9613074-4-7
Vol. 6a: THE ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY OF MINERAL
DEPOSITS PART I: PROCESSES, TECHNIQUES,
AND HEALTH ISSUES (1999) ISBN 1-887483-50-0
Vol. 6b: THE ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY OF MINERAL
DEPOSITS PART II: CASE STUDIES AND RESEARCH TOPICS (1999) ISBN 1-887483-50-0
Vol. 7: APPLICATIONS OF MICROANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
TO UNDERSTANDING MINERALIZING PROCESSES (1998) ISBN 1-887483-51-9
Vol. 8: VOLCANIC-ASSOCIATED MASSIVE SULFIDE DEPOSITS:
PROCESSES AND EXAMPLES IN MODERN AND
ANCIENT SETTINGS (1999) ISBN 1-887483-52-7
Vol. 9: ORE GENESIS AND EXPLORATION:
THE ROLES OF ORGANIC MATTER (2000) ISBN 1-887483-53-5
Vol. 10: TECHNIQUES IN HYDROTHERMAL ORE DEPOSITS GEOLOGY (1998) ISBN 1-887483-54-3
Vol. 11: METAMORPHOSED AND METAMORPHOGENIC ORE DEPOSITS (2000) ISBN 1-887483-55-1
Vol. 12: APPLICATION OF RADIOGENIC ISOTOPES TO ORE
DEPOSITS RESEARCH AND EXPLORATION (1999) ISBN 1-887483-56-X
Vol. 13: GOLD IN 2000 (2000) ISBN 1-887483-57-8
Vol. 14: STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON ORE GENESIS (2001) ISBN 1-887 483-58-6

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 REVIEWS IN
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
(ISSN 0741-0123) Volume 14

STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON
ORE GENESIS

ISBN 1-887483-58- 6

Volume Editors

jEREMY P. RICHARDS RICHARD M. TOSDAL

Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Mineral Deposit Research nit
University of Alberta Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences
Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E3 University of British Columbia
Canada Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4
Canada

SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS, INC.

The Authors:
Byron Berger Steve Ludington Richard H. Sibson
U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey University of Otago
MS 964, Federal Center MS 989, 345 Middlefield Rd. Department of Geology
Denver, CO 80225-0046 Menlo Park, CA 94025 PO Box 56
USA USA Dunedin
Tel. +303.236-5533 Tel. +650.329.5371 New Zealand
Fax: +303 .236-3200 Fax: +650.329.5374 Tel. +64.3.479.7506
E-mail: bberger@usgs.gov E-mail: slud@usgs.gov Fax: +64.3.479.7527
E-mail:
Jean Braun Nick Oliver rick.sibson@stonebow.otago.ac.nz
Research School of Earth Sciences Economic Geology Research Unit
The Australian National University School of Earth Sciences Richard M. Tosdal
Canberra, ACT 0200 James Cook University Mineral Deposit Research Unit
Australia Townsville, QLD 4811 University of British Columbia
Tel. +61.2.6125.5512 Australia Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4
Fax: +61.2.6125.5443 Tel. +61.7.07.4781.5049 Canada
E-mail: Jean.Braun@anu.edu.au Fax: +61.7.07.4725.1501 Tel. +604.822 .5149
E-mail: Nick.O liver@jcu.edu.au Fax: +604.822.6088
Stephen F. Cox E-mail: rtosdal@eos.ub.ca
Department of Geology and Alison Ord
Research School of Earth Sciences CSIRO Division of Phaedra Upton
The Australian National University Exploration and Mining Department of Geology
Canberra, ACT 0200 PO Box 437 University of Otago
Australia Nedlands, WA 6009 PO Box 56
Tel. +61.2.6125.0045 Australia Dunedin
Fax: +61.2 .6125.5544 Tel. +61.8.9389.8421 New Zealand
E-mail: sfcox@geology.anu.edu.au Fax: +61.8.9389.1906 Telephone: +64.3.479.7519
E-mail: a.ord@dem.csiro.au Fax: +64.3.479.7527
Thomas G. Hildenbrand E-mail:
U.S. Geological Survey K. Howard Poulsen phaedra.upton@stonebow.otago.ac.nz
MS 989, 345 Middlefield Rd. 34 Walford Way
Menlo Park, CA 94025 Nepean, ON K2E 6B6 Richard K. Valenta
USA Canada MIM Exploration
Tel. +650.329.5303 Tel. +613.723.1766 GPO Box 1042
Fax: +650.329.5313 Fax: +613.723.7192 Brisbane, QLD 4001
E-mail: tom@usgs.gov E-mail: hpoulsen@attcanada.ca Australia
Tel. +61-7-3214.9245
Robert C. Jachens Jeremy P. Richards Fax: +61-7-3214.9133
U.S. Geological Survey Department of Earth E-mail: rkvalent@mim.com.au
MS 989, 345 Middlefield Rd. and Atmospheric Sciences
Menlo Park, CA 94025 University of Alberta
USA Edmonton, AB T6G 2E3
Tel. +650.329.5300 Canada
Fax: +650.329.5313 Tel. +780.492.3430
E-mail: jachens@usgs.gov Fax: +780.492.2030
E-mail: Jeremy.Richards@ualberta.ca
Mark A. Knackstedt
Research School of Fran<;:ois Robert
Physical Sciences and Engineering Barrick Gold Corporation
The Australian National University 7257 Dunver
Canberra, ACT 0200 Verdun, QC H4H 2H6
Australia Canada
Tel. +61.2.6125.2495 Tel. +514.732.0021
Fax: +61.2.6125.1884 Fax: +514.732.0021
E-mail: mak110@rsphy1.anu.edu.au E-mail: frobert@barrick.com

11
 BIOGRAPHIES
BYRON R. BERGER graduated from Occidental College,
Lo Angeles, with a B.A. degree in economics, and from the
Univer ity of California at Los Angeles with an M.. degree in
geo logy. From 1971 to 1977, he worked in the Mineral
Exploration Department and Mineral Exploration Research
Divi ion, Research and Development Department, of the
Continental Oil Company. In 1977 hejoined the .S. Geo-
logical Survey, where h ha be n a research geologist and
ha s rved as Chief, Branch of Geochemi try ( 1983-1988)
and Deputy Chief, Office of Min raJ Re ource (1988-1992).
He i pre ently a member of the Cru tal Imaging and Char-
acterization Team and conducts research on (1) thermal,
mechanical, and hydraulic coup ling in ore formation, (2)
the environmental geology and geochemistry of mineralized
areas, and (3) the development of tectonic and structural
models of epizonal hydrothermal min raJ depo its for min-
eral resource asse ment applications.
JEAN BRAUN is a fellow in the Geodynamics Group at the
Re earch School of Earth Science at the Au tralian ational
U niversity. Hi re earch specialize in computational model-
ing of geodynamic proce e , including fluid transport in
permeable media. He hold a B. c. degree in physics from
the niversity of Liege, and a Ph.D. degree in oceanography
from Dalhou ie University.
STEPHEN COX i professor of structura l and econo mi c
geo logy, jointly in the Department of G ology and the
Re earch School of Earth Sciences at the Australian ational
University. Hi research intere t ar primarily in the cou-
pling between deformation proce e and fluid flow in
cru tal r gim , with applications to ore g nesis and cru tal
mechanics. His research is pur ued via field-based tudi s,
microstructural and microchemical analyse , and high-pres-
sure/ high-temperature experimental studies. He holds a
B.Sc. (Hons) degree from the Un iver ity ofTa mania and a
Ph.D. degree from Monash Univer ity.
THOMAS G. HILDENBRAND i a geophy icist with the .S.
Geological Survey in Menlo Park, Californ ia. He received his
B.S. degree in engine ring phy ics and hi M.. and Ph.D.
degree in engineering geosc ience from the Univer ity of
California at Berkeley. He began his career at the .S. Geo-
logical Survey as a postdoctoral fellow from 1975 to 1977.
From 1984 to 1990, he served a Section Ch ief and then as
Chi f of the Branch of Geophy ic , an interdi ciplinary team
devoted to th th oretical development and application of
potential-field, electrical, and remote sensing techniques. As
are earch scienti t, Hild nbrand i int re ted in interpreting
potential-field data by developing geologic models address-
ing the origin and evolution of cru tin various tectonic et-
tings. Recent research activities have been directed toward
extracting geologic information from potential-field data in
the (1) asse ment of mineral re ource on local and
regional cale in western Un ited State , (2) investigation of
local tructures affecting groundwater flow at the evada
Ill
Test Site, with the purpose of examining environmental
restoration is ues, (3) tudy of cru tal tructure and funda-
m ental geologic processes r lated to earthquake and vo l-
canic hazard in the cenu·al and western nited States (pri-
marily the ew Madrid ei mic zone and rift yste ms on
volcanic i land uch a Hawa ii ), and (4) determination of
the location, attitude, and displacement hi tory of potentially
dangerou , often concealed faults in the San Francisco and
Los Angele areas.
ROBERT JACHENS rece ived hi B.. degree in geology
from San Jo Stat niv rsity a nd his M.S. and Ph.D.
degrees in geophysics from Columbia niversity. He wa a
research associate , Lamont-Doherty Geo logical Observa-
tory, from 1972 to1976, and ha been a geophy icist with the
.S. Geological Survey from 1976 to the present.Jachen 's
primary intere t i in the application of gravity and magnetic
techn iques to th solu tion of geologic problem . Work h as
included stud ies of tid al gravity, temporal gravity change
a sociated with tectonic and volcanic deformation, earth fis-
uring due to groundwater extraction, regional geop hy ic
in mineral resource assessments, plate tectonic of w stern
orth America, continent- cale relation hips between grav-
ity and upper-crustal geology, and th tectonic evo lution of
the Californ ia coast ranges. His mo t recent work h as
focused on the use of regional gravity and magnetic anom-
alie to under tand the u·ucture of and off: ets on fau lts of
the an Andreas y tem, app lication of geology and geo-
phy ics to defining the hydrogeologic framework of aquifer
systems, and th creation and vi ualization of 3-D g ologic
maps.
MARK KNACKSTEDT is an Au tralian Research Council
Queen Elizabeth II Fe ll ow in the Department of Applied
Mathematics at the Re earc h School of Physical Sciences
and Engineering at the Au tralian ational n iver ity. Hi s
re earch intere ts include multiphase flow in porou medi a,
application of percolation theory to the geological science ,
and characterization of di ordered materials. H e h old a
bachelor 's degree from Columbia niversity and a Ph.D.
degree from Ri ce Univer ity, both in chemical engineering.
STEVE LUDINGTON received his B.S. degree in geo logy
from Stanford University in 1967, and a Ph.D. degree in geol-
ogy from the Un iversity of Colorado in 1974. He worked for
the mineral indu try from 1969 to 1974, doing exploration
in the central and south rn Rocky Mountains. In 1974, h
joined the U.S. Geological urvey. H e has worked for the
Survey in Denver, olorado, and Reston, Virginia, and since
1987, he has been in Menlo Park, alifornia. Until the mid-
1980 , Ludington wa a pecialist, interested in Clim ax-type
molybdenite d po its and other m ineral deposits as ociated
with evolved granites. More recently, he ha participated in
regional mineral resource tudie in Co ta Ri ca, Ven zuela,
and Bolivi a, and in evad a. H e coordinated th e ation al
Min raJ Resource As e ment of th e .. Geological urvey
 BIOGRAPHIES (continued)
for precious and base metals. At present, he is engaged in
using regional geochemistry to elucidate the tectonic frame-
work of the northern Great Basin.
NICK OLIVER is professor of economic geology and Direc-
tor of the Economic Geology Research Unit at James Cook
University, a position he has held for four years. Previously he
held academic positions at Curtin University, Monash Uni-
versity, and research positions at CSIRO and the Carnegie
Institute Geophysical Laboratory, where his research
involved analysis of large hydrothermal systems through
combinations of petrology, geochemistry, and structural
geology. He has a B.Sc. (Hons) degree from the University of
Queensland and a Ph.D. degree from Monash University.
His research experience covers a broad range of deposit
types and geological settings, from banded iron formations
through various epigenetic base metal and gold deposits,
regional alteration patterns in the Mt. Isa block, Yukon gran-
ite-related gold, and greenstones and metamorphosed mas-
sive sulfides in Finland. With collaborators in CSIRO and the
minerals industry, he has applied numerical modeling to
assist with interpretation of field and mine patterns for most
of these districts. He is a fellow of the Society of Economic
Geologists and was awarded the 1999 Mineralium Deposita
Reviewer of the Year.
AliSON ORD received a B.Sc. (Honours) degree from the
University of Edinburgh in 1977, and a Ph.D. degree from
the University of California at Los Angeles in 1981. From
1981 to 1984, she held a postdoctoral research fellowship at
Monash University, studying the effect of defect chemistry on
the strength of quartz at high pressures and temperatures.
She joined the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation of Australia (CSIRO) in 1984 as a
research scientist in the division of Geomechanics. She is
now a chief research scientist in the division of Exploration
and Mining, leading the research group, Structural Controls
on Mineralisation. Her principal areas of research are explo-
ration of the fun dam en tal controls of mechanics, solid and
fluid, on the formation of giant ore deposits, including
numerical modeling of deformation-fluid flow-thermal trans-
port-chemical reaction feedback systems. She has interests
also in 3-D vision systems for the mining and mineral pro-
cessing industries, particularly remote and automatic systems
for determining joint structures in pit walls and fragment
size distributions on muck piles and conveyor belts. She is on
the editorial board of the Australian Journal ofEarth Sciences
and is a member of the Geological Society of Australia.
HOWARD POULSEN was born and raised at Thunder Bay,
Ontario, and attended the University of Waterloo (Honors
B.Sc. degree, physics, 1970), Lakehead University (M.Sc.
degree, structural geology, 1980) and Queen's University
(Ph.D. degree, economic geology, 1984) . With more than 25
years of cumulative research experience at Lakehead Unver-
sity, the Ontario Geological Survey, and the Geological Sur-
iv
vey of Canada, he is currently a consulting economic geolo-
gist who specializes in structural geology of ore deposits. His
research has focused mainly on problems of significance to
the global mineral exploration and he has authored or co-
authored 55 journal papers and reports. He served a an
associate editor for Economic Geology from 1993 to 1998 and is
a fellow of the Society of Economic Geologists as well as a
member of the Association of Geoscientists of Ontario. He
currently teaches a graduate-level course in structural geol-
ogy and ore deposits for the mineral exploration program at
Queen's University.
JEREMY P. RICHARDS received his B.A. degree (1983) in
geology from the University of Cambridge, UK, his M.Sc.
degree (1986) in economic geology from the University of
Toronto, Canada, and a Ph.D. (1990) in economic geology
from the Australian National University. Mter holding a two-
year postdoctoral position at the University of Saskatchewan,
Canada (1990-1992), he joined the faculty at the University
of Leicester, UK, and was Course Director of the Mineral
Exploration M.Sc. program from 1994 to 1997. He joined
the University of Alberta in 1997, and is currently associate
professor of economic geology. Research interests have
spanned a wide range in both pure and economic geology,
and include investigations of Keweenawan and central
Mrican copperbelt geology, alkalic-type epithermal u
deposits in Papua New Guinea and British Columbia, por-
phyry Cu-Mo deposits in Ontario, and in Chile, Argentin a,
and Ecuador, and volcanology and su·uctural geology of the
Central Andes. In the face of the current downturn in metal
prices, his most recent foray is into sand and gravel resources
in Alberta. Actually, there is a lot of gold in those gravels!
FRAN(:OIS ROBERT is a graduate of Ecole Polytechnique
in Montreal, where he received his B.Sc. (1978), M.Sc.
(1980) and Ph.D. (1983) degrees. His doctoral work focu ed
on the geology, structure, and hydrothermal characteristics
of the Sigma gold deposit in Abitibi. Following one-year post-
doctoral studies at the University of Michigan, where he stud-
ied fluid inclusions of the Sigma deposit, he joined the Geo-
logical Survey of Canada, in 1985, as a research scientist with
the mineral deposits group. His research focused largely on
the geology and structure of gold deposits and districts in
metamorphic terranes, in Canada and abroad. He worked
closely with industry and participated in a number of mis-
sions for international agencies and governments. He
received the Society of Economic Geologists Waldemar Lind-
gren Award in 1990 for his work on gold deposits. In 1997,
he joined Barrick Gold Corporation as Senior Research
Geologist. In addition to his other duties, he serves as in-
house technical consultant on different projects worldwide.
RICHARD (RICK) SffiSON graduated with a B.Sc. (Hons)
degree in geology from the University of Auckland, and M.Sc.
and Ph.D. degrees from Imperial College, London. He
taught at Imperial College ( 1973-1982) and at the University
 BIOGRAPHIES (continued)

of California at Santa Barbara (1982-1990) before returning PHAEDRA UPTON received a B.Sc. (Hons) d egree in
to ew Zealand as professor of g ology at the University of ch emistry from Canterbury Un iver ity in 1989, and a Ph.D.
Otago (1990-2001) . Hi re earch focu es on the structure of degree in geology from tl1e niversity of Otago in1995. She
cru tal fault zones and the mechanics of hallow crustal earth- was a po tdoctoral fellow with CSIRO from 1996 to 1998.
quakes. Increa ing recognition of fluid involvem nt in fault- Since 1998 she has been a Foundation of Re earch , cience
ing has led to an interest in mechanisms for fluid redistribu- a nd Technology postdoctoral fellow at the Un iver ity of
tion around sei mically active faults, and tructural controls Otago. Her research i focu ed on the geodynamics of, and
on the development of fau lt-hosted hydrothermal mineral- the fluid flow systems assoc iated with, convergent plate
ization. He is author or co-author of more than 60 re earch boundary settings. The majority of her work has been based
papers and i an elected fellow of the Geological Society of around the Southern Alps of ew Zealand. She u es geody-
London , the Geological Society of America, the American namic modeling, fieldwork, and stable isotope geochemi try
Geophysical Union, and the Royal Society of ew Zealand. in her studies of coupled deformation and fluid flow. She is
am mb r of the Geological and Geophy ical Societies of
RICHARD TOSDAL received a B.A. degree from the Uni- ew Zealand and of the American Geophysical Union.
versity of Californ ia at Santa Barbara, an M.Sc. degree from
Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, and a Ph.D. degree RICK VALENTA i Chi ef Geologi t of Mount Isa Mines
from the Un iversity of Californ ia at Santa Barbara. Tosdal Exploration and ha be n witl1 MIM for over ix year . Prior
has worked for the .. Geological Survey and as an inde- to mat he lectured in geophysics, image interpr tation , and
pendent geo logist for the mining industry. He currently i tructural geo logy at Mona h niversity and a! o consulted
the Director of the Mineral Deposit Research Un it at the for MIM, World Geoscience, and Aerodata. He has a B.Sc.
University of British Columbia in Vancouver, wh re h super- (Ho ns) degree from the Un iversity of ew Brun wick and a
vise re earch group investigating intrusion-re lated Au Ph.D. degree from Monash University ( pecializing in defor-
deposits, Carlin-type ed im entary rock-hosted deposits, mation and ore genesis at the Hilton Pb-Zn mine near Mt.
epithermal systems, and pericratonal VMS deposit , and is Isa) . Rick has been instrumental in regional and local area
developing projects in the diamond-related fields and in car- election and geological synthesis of MIM projects in Au -
bonate terranes. He ha worked on geologic, tectonic, and tralia, Africa, and South America. He is well known across
metallogenic problems in the cordi ll eras and cratons of Ausu-alia as an xpert in integrated geological an d geophy i-
orth and South America. His personal re earch intere t cal approaches to project generation and terrain interpreta-
include the rol ofsu-ucture and tectonics in ore genesis and tion. He i involved with everal collaborative re earch pro-
magmatism, the role of climate in ore genesis, and the jects, including one on geophysical interpretation, su-ucture,
ource of metals in ore deposits. and ore gene is in the Erne t Henry Cu-Au district.

v
 PREFACE
The spark for this volume arose amid the euphoria of For those readers who seek more discussion of this aspect
completing Techniques in Hydrothermal Ore Deposits Geology of the discipline, we provide below a Table of Events for the
(Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 10), and the accompany- construction of a Reviews in Economic Geology volume:
ing Society of Economic Geologists-sponsored short course
at the 1998 Geological Society of America Annual Meeting in Event Reality
Toronto. Dick Tosdal noted the Jack of any structural geol-
ogy in the Techniques volum e, and I glibly replied that this Protolith formation Volume editors dream up concept;
could be the subject of a whole Reviews volume on its own. invite authors to submit chapter
outlines
Several espressos later we shook hands on a new project, this
one also to be presented in Toronto, but as part of the Editors tell authors what they
Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada Conven- actually wanted
tion in March 2001. Unconformity Time passes ...
The reason that Dick's comment triggered such precipi- Manuscripts prepared by authors
Sl,MI
tate action was that we recognized, both in ourselves and in regardless, and sent out for review
the wider economic geology community, a Jack of clear
understanding about this fundamental aspect of our disci- Unconformity Time passes ...
pline. The mantra of hydrogeologists and hydrothermal D2 Reviews received
ore deposits geologists alike is "permeability, permeability, s2 Reviews considered
permeability," and one of the best ways to enhance perme- Time passes ...
Unconformity
ability is by fracturing rock. This we all know, but for many
of us, formal training in structural geology ceased in our M2 Some changes made and revised
undergraduate years. What this volume aims to do is to pro- versions submitted
vide a refresher on basic aspects of structural geology and Mineralization Revised manuscripts accepted by
its control on fluid flow, and also to review some of the editors
more soph isticated models that can be used to predict D3,M3 Copyediting and production
paleo fluid flow paths-and therefore , zones of potential
Uplift Publication of volume
mineral deposition-from structural and rheological data.
The closing chapter attempts to place deposit-scale struc- Erosion No! Volume withstands the test of
tural controls on ore deposition in the context of regional time ...
crustal stress fields and plate tectonic models, using por-
phyry deposits as an example. No volume such as this can be prepared without the ded-
The volume is intended for economic geologists whose icated efforts of the various authors, and Dick and I thank
specialization is not structural geology, and should appeal the 14 contributors who stayed the course. We also th ank
to a wide audience from academia and industry, including David John , who guest-edited our own conU"ibution , and all
students. It is not intended to supplant formal instruction the reviewers who provided timely and incisive critiques
in this field, but instead aims to renew interest in structural that have, we hope, kept us honest-their names are listed
approaches to ore deposits geology, and to showcase some below. Production of this volume would not have been pos-
of the developments that allow the formulation of predic- sible without the untiring efforts of Lisa Laird and Alice
tive models for deposit localization. Bouley at SEC, and Lee Ewert, who expertly handled the
Perhaps surprisingly-and this may be a relief to some copyediting.
people-only one chapter alludes to multiple deformation
events, the staple of many classic structural geology courses. Jeremy P. Richards
Ri chard M. Tosdal

Reviewers
J ennifer Adams MichelJebrak
Anne-Marie Boullier David John
Ron Bruhn Robert Kerrich
Mark Duffett John Ridley
David Hill Tom Schroeter
Jay Hodgson Stephen Temperley
Carol Finn Ted Theodore

VI
 CONTENTS
Chapter !-Principles of Structural Control
on Permeability and Fluid Flow in
Hydrothermal Systems
S. F Cox, M. A. Knackstedt, and J Braun
Ab tract ........ . ............ . .............. 1
Introducti o n ................. .... ...... . .. . .1
Prin ciple of Fluid Flow in Porou and
Fractured Rocks ............................ 2
Principle of Macroscopic Fracture Formation .... .10
Evolution of Flow Pa thways
during Deformation .. ..... . ... ... ..... ..... 19
Conclusions ........... ... . . .. . ... .. .... .... 22
Acknowledgm ents .......... . ................ 22
Refere nce ................................. 22
Chapter 2-Seismogenic Framework for
Hydrothermal Transport and
Ore Deposition
R ichard H. Sibson
Abstract ... . .... .. ................. . . ...... 25
Introductio n . . ... . . . ..... . . .. .. .. .. . ....... 26
Seismogenic Crust .. ........ .. ......... . ..... 26
Tectonic tre and Fluid Pre ure Regimes ....... 31
Faults, Fractur s, and Fluid Pressure Level . ...... 35
Dynamic tructural Permeabili ty .. .. . . . .... .. . .3
Fluid Redistribution Mech anisms
Linked to the Earthquake Stress ycl e . ... ... .. .41
Summary Discussion ........... . ............ .4 7
Acknowledgments . ... . ... ....... . ....... ... .47
Reference . ... . . .......................... .4 7
Chapter 3-Deformation, Fluid Flow,
and Ore Genesis in He terogeneous Rocks,
with Examples and Numerical Models
from the Mount Isa District, Australia
icholas H. S. Oliver, A lison Ord,
R ichard K. Valenta, and Phaedra Upton
Abstract ................................... 51
Introduction ............................... 51
Princip les of Fluid Flow ...... .. ..... ......... 52
Deforma tion and Fluid Flow . ......... . .... . . .. 54
H eterogen eo us D form ation and Flu id Flow ...... 54
Numerical Models . . .... . ... . ................ 56
Examples .. ................. ... ... .... ..... 57
Di cussion . . ............................... 71
Acknowledgment .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . ... . .. . . . ... 72
Referen ce ................................. 72
Vll
Chapter 4-U tility of Magnetic and
Gravity Data in Evaluating Regional
Controls on Mineralization:
Examples from the Western United States
T G. Hildenbrand, Byron Berger,
R . C. Jachens, and Steve Ludington
Abstract .. . . .. ..... . . . ..... .. .. . .... .. . . ... 75
Introduction . .. . . .. ..... ... .. . ...... .. . . ... 75
Potential-Field Data and Me thods .. . .. .......... 76
Mine ralized Area in the Weste rn United State ... 85
Relationsh ips of Geophysical Structur
and Deposit Patte rn ....................... .90
onclu ions and Summary . .. . .... .. . .. . .... 104
Acknowledgments .... . ..................... 106
Reference ............ . ... ...... .... . . .... 106
Chapter 5-Vein Formation and
Deformation in Greenstone Gold Deposits
Fran{:ois R obert and K. Howard Poulsen
Ab tract . .. ..... . . . . ... ... . . . ... ... .. .... .111
Introduction and cope . .. .. . ......... . .... . 111
Structure of Greenstone Gold Di trict ... . ..... 112
Vein and Th eir Analy is .. . .................. 118
Clas ification ofVeins .............. . ........ 124
Ve in Deformation and Supe rimposed Strain ... . .138
Structural Timing ofVeins ... . ............... 146
Discussion of Concluding Remarks ....... ...... 150
Acknowledgment ... .. ... . . ... . ... . . .. .. . . .152
R ference s ... . .... .. .... .. ... . . .... . . .... . 152
Chapter 6-Magmatic and Structural
Controls on the Development of
Porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au Deposits
R . M. Tosdal and J P. Richards
Ab tract .................... .... . ...... . . .157
Introduction ..... . ....... . ............... .157
General Porphyr y Mod el .. . . ................ 15
Convergent Pla te Margin Magmatism ........... 165
Volcanoes and Shallow-Level
Intrusive Complexe :The
Environment of Porphyry Cu Deposit ......... 166
Structural Sequence in Porphyry ystem . .. .... 171
Origin of Breccia Pipe in Porphyry Cu Deposits .. 173
Tectonic Se tting of Porphyr y u Depo its ....... 174
Concluding R marks ........ . ........... . ... 175
Acknowledgments ........... . . ..... . ....... 177
Reference ...... .. . . ..... .. . . ..... . ...... .177
 Society of Economic Geologists
Reviews v. 14, 2001, fl. 1-24

Chapter 1

Principles of Structural Control on Permeability and

Fluid Flow in Hydrothermal Systems
S. F. Co x,t
Centre for Advanced Studies of Ore Systems, Department of Geology and Resean:h School of Earth Sciences,
The Au tralian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia

M. A. K NACKSTEDT,
Research School of Physical Sciences and Engineering, The Australian ational University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia

Dj. BRAUN

ReseaTch School of EaTth ciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia

Abstract

Fluid path way be tween me tal so urces and sites of ore depositio n in hydro therm al syste ms a re gov-
e rn ed by fluid pressure gradie n ts, buoyancy effects, a nd th e pe rm eabili ty di tribution . tructural controls
o n o re fo rmati o n in many e pige ne ti c sy te m derive la rgely fro m th e role tha t defo rma tio n processes and
fluid p re ures play in gene ra ting and mainta ining perm eabil ity within ac tive fa ults, shear zo nes, associ-
a ted fracture ne two rks, and va rious o th e r tructures at all crustal leve ls.
In hydro th e rm al y te ms wi th low inte rgranu lar po ro ity, po re conn ectivity is low, a nd flu id fl ow is typ-
ically contro lled by frac ture pe rm eabi li ty. D fo rmatio n-induced fractures develo p o n caJe fro m micro ns
to greate r tha n hundred of meters. Becau e mineral sealing of frac tures can be rapid re la ti ve to the life-
tim es of hydro th e rmal syste m , ustai ned fluid fl ow occu rs o n ly in ac tive structures whe re pe rmeabil ity i
repeatedly re newed.
In the b1;ttle upper cru t, defo rm ati on-induced pe rmeability is a sociated with macroscopic fracture ar-
rays and damage products pr duced in e pisodically slipping (seismogen ic) and aseismically creeping faults,
growing folds, a nd related tructu res. In tl1 e mo re ductile mid- to lowe r crust, perm eabi lity enhancement i
associated with gra in-scale dilatancy (especially in active shear zo nes), as well as with macroscopic hyd raulic
frac ture arrays. Below tl1e seismic- aseismic transitio n, steady tate creep lead to steady state pe rmeabili ty
a nd continuo u fluid fl ow in actively deforming strucn1res. In contrast, in the seismogenic regi me, large
cyclic chan ges in permeabi li ty lead to e pisodic fluid fl ow in fa ul ts a nd as ociated frac ture .
Th e geometry and el i tribu tio n of fracture pe rm eability i controlled fundame ntall y by su·ess a nd fluid
pressure states, but may al o be influe nced by preex.i ting mechanical ani o tro pi es in the rock mass. Frac-
ture growth is favo red in high p01·e fluid fac tor regime , which develop e pecially where fluids discharge
fro m fa ul ts or shear zo nes beneath low-pe rmeabili ty fl ow ban·iers. Flow localizatio n within fa ul ts and hear
zo nes occur in areas of highe t fracture aperture and frac ture density, uch a dam age zo ne associa ted
with fa ult j og , bend , and play . Po itive fee dback be tween defo rmation , fluid flow, and fluid pre ure
pro motes flu id-drive n growth of hydraulically linked netwo rks of fau lts, frac tures, and sh ar zon es.
Evoluti o n of fluid path way o n scales linking fluid re e rvo ir a nd o re clepo its is influe nced by th e rel-
a ti ve pro po rti o n of backbo ne, dangling, and i o latecl tructure in tl1 e network. Modeling of the growt11
of ne tworks indicates tha t fracture systems reach the pe rcolatio n tl1 resho ld at low bulk su·ains. Just above
th e pe rcolati o n thresho ld, fl ow is concentra ted alo ng a mall pro po rtio n of th e to tal frac ture po pula tio n,
and favo rs localized o re de positio n . At higher stra ins, fl ow is disu·ibutecl more widely thro ugho ut th e frac-
ture po pu la ti o n and, acco rdin gly, th e po te nti al fo r localized, high-grade ore depo ition may be reduced .

Introduction manly localized within faults, shear zones, or as ociated frac-

of many types of e p ige n e tic o re d e po it
TH E F O RtvlAT !ON
involves some form of control by tructure produced dur-
ing crustal deformation. In particular, ore deposition i com-
t Corresponding author: -mail , sfcox@geology.an u.edu.au
ture sys tems. Additionally, mine rali zation can be re tricted
to p arti cular p ar ts of fa ults or h ar zo ne uch as jogs or
bend (Hulin, 1929; ewhou e, 1942; McKin try, 1948; Sib-
on, 1987), to fo ld-rela ted tructure such a add le reef:
(Hulin, 1929; Chace, 1949; Cox et a!., 1991 ), or related to
d eform ation a round hete roge neiti e su ch a compe te nt

1
2 COX ET AL.
rock masses (Oliver et al. , 2001). Epigenetic mineralization
also is typically localized along low displacement faults and
fracture systems (e.g., Robert et al. , 1995; Cox, 1999).
Hydrothermal mineral deposits are produced by focused
flow of large volumes of fluids (Henley et al. , 1985; Fyfe,
1987; Cox, 1999). Mass balance calculations, based for
example on silica and metal solubility, indicate that time-
integrated fluid volumes in many types of hydrothermal ore
systems are typically greater than several cubic kilometers.
Crustal deformation processes influence fluid flow in
hydrothermal systems via controls on rock permeability and
the driving forces for fluid flow. Understanding how defor-
mation processes and structures influence permeability evo-
lution is a key aspect to understanding the architecture of
fluid pathways in hydrothermal systems, and the factors con-
trolling where ore deposits form along these pathways. This
review explores how active deformation controls the perme-
ability of rock masses through the formation of macroscopic
fracture systems, damage zones, and grain-scale microcrack
permeability within actively deforming structures. The role
of fluid pressures and stress regimes in driving permeability
enhancement and growth of permeable fault/ fracture /
shear networks is highlighted. We outline how stress regimes
and variations in fluid pressure in hydrothermal systems gov-
ern the location and geometry of fluid pathways between
metal sources, fluid sources, and sites of ore deposition. We
also examine how linkages among structures develop during
progressive deformation, and how they control the architec-
ture of fluid pathways from deposit to crustal scales.
Principles of Fluid Flow in Porous and Fractured Rocks
Fluid migration through the Earth 's crust occurs in
response to various driving forces. The fluid flux and geom-
etry of flow is fundamentally controlled by permeability
variations in the crust. In this section, we outline the forces
driving crustal fluid flow and examine the dependence of
fluid flux on rock permeability. We also discuss how the evo-
lution of grain-scale to macroscopic permeability in
hydrothermal systems is influenced by stress regimes and
fluid pressure regimes during both brittle and ductile styles
of deformation. Two central points are highlighted: firstly,
the geometry of fluid pathways is strongly dependent on
the geometry and style of deformation; and secondly, per-
meability is a transient rock property that can be rapidly
reduced by porosity-destruction processes such as com-
paction and sealing of intergranular pores and fractures.
Maintenance of permeability and fluid flow in hydrother-
mal systems is, therefore, dependent upon active deforma-
tion repeatedly regenerating permeability. Accordingly,
fluid flow is localized within structures that were active dur-
ing the operation of hydrothermal systems.
Driving forces for fluid flow
Fluid flow occurs in response to two major classes of dri-
ving forces: ( 1) pressure-driven flow, and (2) buoyancy-
driven flow.
Pressure-driven flow arises from a number of causes. Par-
ticularly at crustal depths less than several kilometers, rock
permeability is generally high enough that pore spaces are
highly interconnected and fluid pressures are close to
hydrostatic values (i.e. , owing to the weight of the fluid ol-
umn). In this regime, topographic relief is a major fac tor
establishing hydraulic gradients that drive subsurface flow
downward from regions of high topography towar ds
regions of lower topography. Depths of topographica lly
driven fluid penetration are typically up to several kilome-
ters (Forster and Smith, 1990).
Transient, deformation-induced pore pressure changes
that set up vertical and lateral hydraulic gradients can be
important at all crustal depths. These changes arise from
compaction of intergranular pore spaces during burial or
regional deformation, grain-scale dilatation associated with
granular flow, or from microscopic to macroscopic crack
growth and closure during deformation. Such deforma-
tion-induced pore pressure gradients are associated with
both small elastic responses (poroelastic effects) or larger
inelastic deformations of intergranular pore spaces and
fractures owing to stress changes associated with the seismic
cycle and heterogeneous deformation (Muir-Wood and
King, 1993). In particular, macroscopic dilatancy associated
with episodic fault slip exerts a powerful control on fl u id
migration around active faults in the crustal seismoge n ic
regime (Sibson, 1987,1993, 2001). Transient fluid migra-
tion in response to pressure gradients due to deformation-
induced grain-scale dilatancy during regional deformation
has been discussed by Cox and Etheridge ( 1989) and
McCaig and Knipe (1990) , and modeled by Ord and Oliver
(1997) and Oliver et al. (2001).
Driving pressure-gradients within the crust are also gen-
erated by development of suprahydrostatic-pressured flu id
reservoirs. For example, suprahydrostatic fluid pressuriza-
tion can be associated with emplacement of magmas into a
cooler, porous, fluid-saturated rock-mass. Transient dri 'ng
pressure-gradients are also associated with metamorp h ic
fluid-production and fluid-absorption reactions (Walther,
1990; Rumble , 1994), as well as by fluid expulsion associ-
ated with crystallization of hydrous silicate melts. Modeling
of two-dimensional advective flow regimes associated with
drainage of suprahydrostatic reservoirs has been conducted
by Matthai and Roberts (1997). In these flow regimes, spa-
tial variations in permeability (for example, owing to the
presence of active and permeable faults or shear zon es)
establish hydraulic gradients that focus fluid flow and gov-
ern flow pathways (Fig. 1). Temporal and spatial variations
in permeability induced by episodic fault rupture particu-
larly influence the dynamics of fluid flow in pressure-dri en
flow regimes in the seismogenic upper crust (Sibson et al. ,
1988; Cox, 1999; Sibson, 2001).
Buoyancy drive for crustal fluid flow arises from vertical
variations in fluid density, either through effects of temp ra-
ture gradients or variable concentrations of dissolved species
(e.g., salinity) in pore fluids. Decreasing density of hydro-
thermal fluid with increasing temperature and depth for
many pore fluid compositions leads to gravitational instabil-
ity and convection of fluid through porous media in n ar-
hydrostatic fluid pressure regimes. An excellent exampl of
 PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL CONTROL IN HYDROTHERI'vfAL SYSTEMS 3

! I ! . 1 I
'
t
t
• t
t ' I I 1 I
this i provided by thermally driven convection around hot
intrusive complexes, a mode led by orton and Knight
'
t
' t t
1 1
! 1 t I f I r r 1 t (1977), For ter and Smith (1990), and Cathles eta! (1997).
' t I 1
t 1 , ~ t r t t r I 1 t
Flow in porous media
I I
' ' '
' t 1
In addition to a driving force , crusta l fluid fl ow a! o
t f I I I t I requires a rock mass with pore space to con tain fluid , a
t
well as connectivity between pore space . The pore paces
I I I 1 r I I 1 I

' I r r 1 •
can be intergranular pores or grain- cale to macrosco pic
I 1 r r r 1 1 • fracture . The one-dimensional macroscopic flux of a in-
I
' f I ' I
gle-phase fluid in a horizontal plane through an i otropic,
I t
t 1 I porous medium is de cribed by a implified form of Darcy's
I I t ' I I 1
I I
I I I
law, which states that
1 I 1 I I
1
' ' I 1 1 1

q = Ql At = k/ 7J (dP I dx) , (1)

'' 1' 1
' ' \
\
\
I
\
' I
1
I
1

' 1' 1
1
' '
\ I where
r r t 1
'
-t ,
q is th e fluid flux (i.e ., th e volum e Q of fluid traver ing
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 r
' t r t t t r t t cross- ectional area A pe rpe ndicu lar to the x axis, per
t t 1 I t ' t t t unit time t);
t t r t t t t
t 1 t t 1
k i the p rmeability of the porou medium;
a 1 t t 1 I 1 1 1 f 7J i the kinematic viscosity of the por fluid ; and
dP/ dx i th horizontal fluid pre ure gradient that drives
flow (Bear, 1972; Fig. 2) .
I 1 f I f t

1 f •
' Th e volum e flux has dimensions of velocity, and i orne-
1 ! ' '' 1 '
t 1 t 1 t t ' "' ' i tim es refe rred to a the Darcian velocity. ote , however,
! !
I 1 1 1 t I that the Darcian vel city is not the actual velocity at which
1 1 1 the fluid moves through the pore space. Rather, it i a mea-
f t t I 1 f I

t I I
sure of the fluid volu m per unit time moving through unit
' I cross-sectional area of the rock. It i related to the real aver-
' l t t ~ age fluid velocity, v, by the relationship,
I t • t 1 1 t t
l I I I
1 1 I 1 t t t 1 1 ' t I q =v·Q. (2)
I f ' I

Particularly in low-poro ity rocks, th r a! fluid velocity at

the pore scale can be much larger th a n the Darcian veloc-
ity. Darcy' law as ume laminar flow, and applie in porous
rocks at flow rates up to about 1 m/ s. At higher flow rate ,
turbulence and high inertial fore s lead to breakdown of
Darcy' law (Gueguen and Palciau ka, 1994).
Permeability has units m 2 (1 darcy = 10-12 m2), and is an
1 '
1 I 1 I
intrin ic rock property quantifying the capacity of fluid to
pa s through rock. Permeability is influ enced by the con-
nectivity between in tergranular pore paces or fracture in
b a rock, and is particularly sensitive to the minimum throat
size between connecting pore . atural rocks have perme-
Ftc . 1. Numerical (finite element) models simu lating steady state, pres- abiliti es that range over more than ten order of magnitude
ure-driven fluid fl ow pattern aro und permeable fa ult o r shear zones (Brace, 1990; Manning and Ingebritsen, 1999) . For exam-
embedded in a le penneable medium. A verticalli thosta ti c fluid pressure pl e, porous and tone (poro ity, ¢ > 15 %) and poorly com-
grad ient is maintain ed in th e medium away from the fa ult. Le ngth of fl ow pacted tuffs can have permeabilities as hi gh a 10-12 m 2,
vectors corresponds to fl ow velocity; flow vectors with in fau lts not shown.
Conto urs indicate departures of fluid pressure from li thostatic values: light whereas unfractured, "tight" metamorfhic or igneous rocks
areas are below and clark areas are above lithosta ti c pre ure. a. Simple pla- can have permeabilitie le s than 10-2 m 2. Fluid fluxe and
nar fau lt or shear zone with a permeability 103 times that of the surrou nd- the geometry of flow are, therefore, particularly depende nt
in g host rock matrix. ote fluid focusing at the upstream (lower) pan of on spatial an d time variatio ns in permeabili ty within the
the structu re, and fluid discharge around the downstream (upper) part of
th e su• rcnrre . b. Fluid fl ow pauern as ociatecl with the presence of a fa ult
cru t. We examine below the critical ffect of deformation
ste pover region. Permeab ility a nd imposed fluid pressure gradie n ts are proce e in generating large, a lthou gh common ly tran-
th e ame a in (a). sient, ch ange in rock permeability.
4 COXETAL.

pressure, whereas the pg(ml Jx) term accounts for gravity

DARCY'S LAW and also buoyancy effects assoc.m ted with spatial variations
in fluid density. This full Darcian relationship illustra tes
that the driving force for fluid flow is the difference
Q/At = kl11(dP/dx) between the fluid pressure gradient and the hydrosta tic
component of the fluid pressure gradient. This result is
illustrated by considering fluid pressure variations in aver-
tical column of fluid in a porous medium with fu lly con-
nected porosity. The depth dependence of fluid pressur Pr
in a column of fluid at rest is given by

Pr = pgz, (4)

area, A
where z is the depth below the surface.
driving pressure
w gradient,dP/dx In this case , the vertical fluid pressure gradient, pg,
a:
::)
owing to the weight of the fluid column does not drive flow,
(f)
(f)
w
a:
I and is known as the hydrostatic fluid pressure gradien t.
Deviations in dP I dz from pg are required to drive vertical
0...
0 p2 -- -~ --- - - - - -------~------ flow. Accordingly, for vertical flow of a uniform density
5_J 1 I fluid , Darcy's law reduces to
LL I I

DISTANCE , x q = (ki 7J)·(dPi dz-pg). (5)

Flc. 2. Darcy's law and control of horizontal fluid flow rate by driving
pressure gradie nt, rock pe rmeability, and fluid viscosity.
The Darcy equation also illustrates how fluid flux is
inversely proportional to the kinematic viscosity of the pore
fluid. At temperatures between 100° and 800°C, and pres-
sures between 50 and 300 MPa, the viscosity of water ranges
over about one order of magnitude (40-400 ,uPa·s) ,
decreasing with increasing temperature and decreasing
pressure (Haar et al., 1984). Viscosity increases with increas-
ing salinity (Carven and Freeze, 1984). The extreme range
in permeability in rocks compared with the much smaller
range in viscosity in typical ore fluids , means that variations
in permeability usually have a greater impact on fluid flux
than variations in viscosity in simp le water-dominated
hydrothermal systems. The dynamics of two-phase flow in
porous media can lead to complex effects that will not be
treated in this review (Sahimi, 1994).
For fluid flow with a vertical component of motion (z
axis), the driving force for flow is not the absolute fluid
pressure gradient, but the nonhydrostatic component of
the gradient. An expanded expression for Darcy's law is
given by the relationship,
where
q; is the fluid flux in the coordinate direction i;
ku is the permeability tensor (allowing for an isotropy of per-
meability);
p is the fluid density; and
g is the gravitational acceleration (Forster and Smith,
1990);
dPI Jxj represents the driving force due to gradients in fluid
Where dP I dz is greater than pg, upwards flow occurs,
whereas if dP I dz is less than pg, downwards flow occurs in a
fluid of uniform density. For general pressure-driven flow in
rocks with isotropic permeability, flow is parallel to the non-
hydrostatic component of the fluid pressure gradient. Per-
meability anisotropy may result in flow that is not parallel to
the driving pressure gradient.
Types of porosity
Porosity, lj!, is the ratio of the volume of void space to the
bulk volum e of a porous medium,
tf! = Vpore/ (Vpores + Vsolids) · (6)
Permeability is not always simply related to porosity. It is
dependent on various factors , including pore diamete rs
and shapes, diameters of pore throats (which connect large
intergranular pores), and connectivities between por s.
From the standpoint of flow through a porous medium, the
interconnected pore volume is of interest.
Porosity usually comprises intergranular porosity and
fracture porosity. Intergranular porosity, such as primary
pore spaces in poorly cemented or weakly compacted clas-
tic sediments and pyroclastic materials, can control fluid
flow in sh allow, low-temperature hydrothermal systems.
Examples include some carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn systems
(Carven, 1985) and some parts of shallow, volcanic-related
geothermal systems. Intergranular porosity, alth ough usu-
ally very low, may also be present in metamorphic regimes
(Holn ess, 1997). Reaction-enhanced porosity is associated
with volume changes during metamorphic reactions at ele-
vated temperatures and pressures (Rumble et al., 1982;
Zhang et al. , 2000). This effect is particularly important in
controllin g grain-scale fluid infiltration in skarn environ-
 PRiNCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL CONTROL IN HYDROTHL'RMAL SYST'ti \1/S 5

m ents, and pervasive hydroth ermal alteratio n as ociated

a
with fluid discharge from fracture-controlled hydrothermal
systems into relatively low-p ermeability wall-rocks. Volume 0
change between th e solid reactants and reac tion products
tends to produce transient changes in intergranular poros-
ity and permeability in these regime . Macroscopically duc-
tile deformation in shear zones can be associated with grain
translation and grain-scale cracking, which also enh ances
intergranular porosity. Similarly, in low-temperature brittle
deformation regimes, cataclasis in active fa ult zones may
modify the in tergran ular porosity of the h ost rocks.
In rocks with low, or poorly connected in tergranular
porosity, fluid transport is controlled by fracture porosity.
Fractures can be present at scales ranging fro m grain-scale
0
to macroscopic (> tens of meters long). Fracture formation
is usually controlled by the stress and fluid pressure states
e backbone pores

' pore throats

during deformation of a rock mass (see "Princi ples of ®IJD dangling pores
Macro co pic Fracture Formation" below) , but may also be
influenced by thermal shocking. 0 isolated pores

Porosity1Jermeability relationships
Low temperature regimes- Clastic rocks and fault rocks: In low-
temperature crustal regime wh ere primary intergranular
porosity can survive for geologically long periods, perme-
abili ty exhibits a simple re lationship with porosity, espe- b 10·11
I I I

... . • -~.;:4:~. .- ••
cially at high porosities. For porosity greater than about 6 to I
I 3 l.• -c .......
10 p ercen t, pores are generally fully in terconnected and 10· 12
I
k <jlOC
~ ..~ ... t.#..'7r"•
, ...... -:-.. !
~:.
porosity is related to pe rmeability by a relationship of the I , .... -: ·...
0

N
form I
E . . ... . . : ~~; .
>-- 1Q·13 I , J<
k oc 1/>'', (7) 1- I .~}
::J I . .t:'
. ... ..
where n is approximately 3. In this regime, permeability
05 1Q-14 I ~.,.
~ I
I .:=·:t·
d ecrease with d ecreasing porosity is controlled by pore w
~
shrinkage. At lower porosities, progressive loss of connectiv- a: I .!:~!'
ity between pores occurs through closure of narrow throats w 1Q-15 '
I ..·~!t-.
0...
between the larger in tergranular pores. Pores that form part I ~ :·
I. ~·.
of a connected n etwork that spans the sample/ system com-
prise what is known as the backbone porosity (Fig. 3a) . All
flow is localized along this backbone pore network; accord-
10·1 6
v
1:·..
percolation threshold

ingly, the backbone porosity controls the p ermeabili ty. The
remaining porosity comprises two elemen ts: (l) isola ted
pores, wh ich do not connect with th e backbone porosity,
even though they may form localized clusters of pores that
are connected to each other; and (2) dangling, or dead-end
pores, which connect to the backbone porosity fro m one
sid e only. Although they are part of the interco nn ec te d
porosity and contain pore fluid , they do not contribute to
the flow. At low porosities, permeability ch anges are directly
related to progressive changes in the relative proportions of
backbone, dangling, and isolated pores, as well as the total
porosity of a rock.
The relationship , k oc ¢3, breaks down where th e back-
bone porosity becomes less than the total porosity. At lower
porosity, permeability typically becomes more sensitive to
small changes in porosity (Fig. 3b). The porosity at which
all p ore connectivity is lost (i.e., 1/Jbackbone = 0, 1/Ji olated = 1)
and permeability vani sh es, is known as the p ercolation
10·1 7 I
0 0 .05 0 .10 0 .15 0 .20 0 .25
TOTAL POROSITY
FIG. 3. a. chema tic illustration of classes of intergran u lar pores. Flow
rate is controlled by the backbon e porosity, rather th an by total porosity or
tota l co nnected ( i.e. , backbone + danglin g) poros ity. b. Re lations hip
between tota l porosity and perm eabili ty in Fontainebleau sandstone (after
Bourbie and Zinszne 1~ 1985). The percolation thres ho ld porosity and the
relationship k oc rJ)l are indicated.
threshold . Where permeability is controlled by approxi-
mately equant intergranular pores, the percolation thresh-
old typically occurs at total porosities in th e ran ge 3 to 6
percent in many types of clastic rocks.
Above the percolation threshold , permeability a sociated
with intergranular porosity is influe nce d on ly mode ra tely
by confining pressure (David and Daro t, 1989). Permeabil-
6 COXETAL.

ity decreases with increasing confining pressure (Fig. 4) in a

response to elastic and inelastic deformation , causing pore

·~
sh rinkage and collapse. Note that at co nstant confining
pressure, chan ges in pore fluid pressure (i.e., ch anges in
effective confining pressure) lead to relatively small
grain A ........! grain C
changes in p ermeability. Poroelas tic effects on total inter- grain A grain C
granul ar pore volume, driven by ch anges in stress states
associated with fault rupture events and interseismic stress
recovery, may play a role in episodic fluid redistribution
around active fault zones (Muir-Wood and King, 1993; Sib-
son, 1993). Such effects are likely to be a small part of the
overall fluid budget in a high-flux hydrothermal system. b c
The relatio n ships between porosity, permeability, and
effective stresses, found for clastic sedimentary rocks, will
apply also to granular damage products (gouge, cataclasite,
and breccia) produced in fault zones.

High temperature regimes-metamorphic rocks: In high-

temperature metamorphic regimes, atomic diffusion ,
creep, grain boundary migration, and chemical reactions
are fast on geologic tim escales. In this case, intergranular
porosity and pore connectivity in rock-fluid systems is con-
trolled principally by interfacial surface energy effects, pro-
vided that the polycrys talline aggregate is not deforming.
Where pore shapes are controlled by surface energy mini-
mization, there is a balance of surface tension forces along
the surfaces where two solid grains and a fluid phase meet,
and we can define a dihedral wetting angle, e, which is the
angle be tween the two solid-fluid interfaces (Fig. 5a). The
magnitude of the wetting angle is controlled by the balance
of interfacial forces expressed by the relation ,
e = 2 arcos( Ys-/ 2Ys_11 ),
where Ys-s and 'Ys-!1 are the solid-solid and solid-fluid sur-
face energies per unit area, respectively (Smith , 1964) .
• along grain edges, and p ores at grain corners tend to be
FIG. 5. Schematic illustration of pore geomeu·ies in polycrystallin e grain
aggregates at elevated tempe ratures where pore shapes are controlled by
surface energy minimi zation. a. Cross section through a grain-edge chan-
ne l; dihedral wettin g a ngle, G, is indicated. b. For d ih ed ral wetting angles
::>60°, fluid fo rms isolated pockets on two-grain inte rfaces, and fluid chan-
nels along three-grain edges m ay conn ect fluid pockets at fow~g ra in cor-
ners. c. For dih edra l wettin g angles >60°, fluid on two-gra in in terfaces,
three-grain edges, and fo ur-grain corn e rs occurs as iso lated pockets (after
Watson and Bre nan , 1987).
The three-dimensional connectivity of intergranu lar
(8) pores in isotropic mineral aggregates is dictated by interfa-
cial wetting angles and total porosity. We distinguish
between pores that form at two-grain inte rfaces, alo ng
three-grain edges, and at grain corners (Fig. 5) . For dihe-
dral wetting angles greater than 60°, pores a t two grain
interfaces tend to form isolated pockets. At low porosity,
grain-edge channels pinch off to form discontinuous beads

\"
2 isolated (Fig. 5c) . In contrast, at dihedral wetting angles less
C\1
E than or equal to 60o, connectivity between pores at grain
1.()
';' corners may be provided to low porosities by continu o us
0 1.8 channels along grain edges (Fig. 5b). For e greater than oo,
X • the equilibrium fluid distribution on two-grain interface is

~=~·~
:>="
1- disconnected bubbles. Only in the extreme case of e equal
:::::i 1.6
iil to 0° can a continuous fluid film exist stably on two-grain
<( • :::::::_•--:-----:::.•
.... 40 MPa interfaces. Experimental studies of interfacial wetting
w •------.:• 30 MPa
~ angles for common minerals and pore fluids indicate th at
a: 1.4 ·--------· 20 MPa
• 10 MPa for some common mineral-fluid systems, dihed ral wetting
LlJ
0...
angles are greater than 60° (Holness, 1997). For example,
1.2 in the quartz-H 20-C0 2 system at eleva ted pressures and
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 tempera tures in the range 950° to 1,150°C, dihedral we t-
ting angles are typically greater than 60° unless high solu te
CONFINING PRESSURE , MPa concentrations are present in the pore fluid (Watson and
FIG. 4. Relatio nship betwee n permeability and co n fin ing pressure, at Brenan , 1987).
va1·ious pore fluid pressures, in Fontainebleau sandsto ne with porosity of The evolution of permeability with decreasing porosity at
0.06 (after David and Darot, 1989). elevated temperatures, where surface energy effects con trol
 PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL CONTROL IN HYDROTHJ:,J?MAL YSTJ:,i VJS 7

pore geometry, is illustrated by high-temperature isostatic

compaction expe rim ents on calcite aggregates (Zhan g e t
a 1Q-15 I I I

al. , 1994a). The overall porosity-permeab ili ty relationship i 1Q-16 -

imilar to that for clastic sedim entary rocks (Fig. 6a). For N
.~+
+ #" +

+
t tl'+
E
the calcite-argon syste m , the dih dral wetting an gle is >-- 1Q-17 -
greater than 60°, so the situation is analogo us to many min- I-
::::i
eral-fluid systems at elevat d temperatures. Th e poro ity- iii 1 o-1a
<(
p e rm eabili ty relatio nship approximately fo llows the cube w
law (i.e. , n = 3 in equation 7) to porositie down to about ::2 1Q-19
cr:
0.06, where full connectivity betvve n por starts to be los t w
a._ +-t
(Fig. 6b). Below thi porosity, p ermeabili ty is much more 1o-2o r- +
strongly dependent on total porosity. Th e critical porosity,
if>c, at which pore completely lose connectivity (i. e., the per- 1Q-21 I

colation thresho ld ) occur at a porosity of 0.04. For min- 0 0 .05 0 .1 0 .15 0.2
eral-fluid systems with wetting angle les th an 60°, the p r- TOTAL POROSITY
co lation threshold will occur at poro itie les than 0.04.
ear if>c, the permeability of the intergranu lar pore network
obey th e scaling law (Knackstedt and Cox, 1995),
b 0.16 I
o experimentally measured
I
rb /
(9) /tl
>- • model backbone porosity
I- .....0
ii5 0.12 /. tJ
For high-temperature, i o tatically str ed (i . ., all prin- 0 / . "
cipa l stresses e qual ) mineral-fluid systems, wh e re pore cr: /fli'
0a._ ,d •
geometry i con trolled by minimization of in terfacial ur- 0 •
w 0 .08 r{
face e ne rgy, dihedral wetting angles have a profound effect _J
co a' 0 •
•
on fluid transport. For wettin g a ngles greater than about (f) ~
• •
/ ao
••
(f)
60°, pore co nn ectivity is lost at poros iti s of several pe r- w / 0
0 0.04 0
cent. Accordingly, many metamorphic fluid-rock ys tem ,
••
/ ()
0
which have porositi less than one perce nt, wi ll be below <( / 0
/ o. •
th e p rcolation threshold a nd effec tive ly imp e rmeable , ./ •
0
unless deformation proce ses actively ge nerate fracture 0 0.04 0 .08 0 .12 0.16
n e tworks.
TOTAL POROSITY
Fracture-controlled fluid flow
FIG. 6. a. Porosity-permeabi li ty re lation hip for calc ite gra in aggre-
In hydroth ermal y tem where compaction , pore sealing ga te , i ostatically hot-pressed at tempe ratures between 360° and 560°C.
proce es, or diffusion-controll ed surface e nergy effec ts Co nfinin g press ures ra nged from 200 to 300 MPa a nd argo n pore fluid
have driven intergranular poro ity below the p rcolation pre ure ranged from 100 to 250 MPa (after Zhang et al., 1994a) . b. Re la-
tion hip betwee n total poro ity a nd co nn ected (or access ibl e) porosity
threshold , fluid migration is dependent on the ge neration experim entally determ in ed dUI-ing isostatic hot-pressing of ca lcite aggre-
offracture porosity. ga te . Also hown are numeri ca lly modeled values of the backbo ne poro -
ity. Modifi ed afte r Zh ang et al. (1994a) and Kn ackstedt and Cox (1995) .
MacroscojJic to micro copic fracture at low temperature :For
steady tate, laminar, incom pressible flow in an ideal , hori-
zontal, parall el-sided plane fracture, the volume flow rate In reality, relationship betwee n fracture ap ertu re and
( m 3I s) is give n by th e relationship, flow rates are more complicated owing to the effects offrac-
ture rou ghne leading to aperture chan ge and tortuous
Q = wb3I 12T)· (dPI dx), (10) fl ow path . Exp rimental tudies provide clear evidence of
surface roughne cau ing departure from the cubic law in
where natural rough fracture (With e r poon et al. , 1980; 'I ang
b is the fracture aperture; and With rspoon , 1981; Brown, 1987). Numerical mode l-
w is th e wid th of th e fracture (measured in th e fracture ing of fl ow through rough fractures a! o confirms that frac-
plane ); and ture roughn ess and tortuosity lead to ub tantial departures
dP I dx i th e fluid pressure grad ie nt along th e fracture fro m the cubic law (Waite et al. , 1999).
(Gueguen and Dien e, 1989). Becau e cracks have high a p ct ratios, elastic opening or
By a n alogy with Darcy' law, for a fract ure with cro - closure of crack in re pon e to change in effective tress
ectional area wb , the equ ivale nt fracture perm eability is states h as important effects on crack ap erture and perm e-
given by ability (Walsh , 1981). The dependence offracture perme-
ability o n effective confi ning pressure (i.e., confining pres-
k = b2112. (11 ) sure - fluid pre ure), illu u-ated in Figure 7, show that th e
8 COXETAL.
60
C\J
E
"<!" 40
~
0 systems, the highest flux will occur where and when (1)
0
,-
X
>-- 20
I-
:::::i
m Experimental results, together with fie ld observations of
<X: 10
LU
8 fluid-rock interaction in exhumed shear zones, indicate
~ tha t permeability enhancement is commonly associate d
a: 6
LU
0...
4 studies indicate that macroscopically ductile deformation at
0 50 100 150
EFFECTIVE CONFINING PRESSURE , MPa
Fie. 7. Dependence of crack permeability on effective confin in g pres-
sure (after Gueguen and Palciauskas, 1994) .
pressure dependence is substantially greater than for mate-
rials where permeability is controlled by approximately
equant intergranular pores (Fig. 4). Accordingly, low poro-
elastic and inelastic strains in cracked rocks will be more
effective than deformation of intergranular pores in chang-
ing permeability, and driving fluid redistribution in
response to stress changes (e.g., around active faults).
For a cracked rock with fracture porosity ¢r, and where
penny-shaped cracks are fully interconnected and ran-
domly oriented, permeability k is given by
where a is the average crack half-aperture. For an average
crack radius, r, and average crack spacing, l,
and so (Gueguen and Palciauskas, 1994),
This relationship holds true for fractured media where
fractures are developed at microscopic to macroscopic
scales. It illustrates how both fracture density and fracture
connectivity play a critical role in controlling permeability.
For randomly distributed fractures that are not fully con-
nected, permeability is given by
where connectivity, f, is 0 ~ f ~ 1 (Gueguen and Dienes,
1989). As in the case for a single fracture, this relationship
illustrates how the permeability of a cracked medium is very
sensitive to average fracture aperture. The evolution of con-
nectivity among elements of networks of fractures, fau lts,
and shear zones, and its influence on flow architecture, is
an important aspect of the evolution of hydrothermal sys-
terns, and is discussed below in "Evolution of Flow Pathways
during Deformation."
In summary, for flow in fracture-controlled hydrothermal
fracture apertures are highest, (2) fracture density is high-
est, and (3) fracture connectivity is highest.
Permeability during macroscopically ductile deformation:
with macroscopically ductile deformation. Experimental
200 elevated temperatures and confining pressures is only asso-
ciated with permeability enhancement when a component
of strain (albeit small) is accommodated by microfractur-
ing, which generates grain-scale fluid pathways.
The evolution of permeability during deformation
involving both intragranular plastic deformation and grain-
scale crack growth is illustrated by experimental studies on
calcite rocks (Zhang et al., 1994b) . This work demonstrates
that for low effective confining pressures , permeability
increase with increasing strain can be very rapid and large
(Fig. 8a, b). For example, at an effective confining press re
of 30 MPa, permeability increases by two orders of magni-
tude with three percent shortening, and increases by a f r-
ther order of magnitude after ten percent shortening. O n ly
small increases in permeability occur with higher strai s,
however.
Major increase in permeability, at strains as low as a few
percent, is associated with growth of microcracks and
(12) rapid development of connectivity in grain-scale crack ne t-
works (Fig. 9a). Such behavior persists well into the dom i-
nantly crystal p lastic deformation regime , provided that
fluid pressures are high enough to facilitate some defo r-
mation by microcracking (Fischer and Paterson, 1992;
(13) Stormont and Daemen, 1992; Zhang et al., 1994b; Peach
and Spiers, 1996). As both temperature and effective con-
fining pressure increase , brittle/ frictional processes are
impeded and intracrystalline plasticity is favored. So, crack
(14) growth rates reduce, and the critical strain require d to
develop a well-connected, high-permeability crack netwo rk
increases.
The experimental studies demonstrate that where h igh
fluid pressures produce low effective confining pressures,
grain-scale crack growth significantly increases the perme-
ability of active shear zones re lative to their host-ro ks,
even though most displacement may occur by microscop-
ically ductile deformation mechanisms such as dislocation
(15) flow and dissolution-precipitation creep. A significant
aspect of the experimental work is that fracture networks
can develop high crack connectivity and high permeabil-
ity at very low strains. One implication of this result is that
low strain deformation , especially when localized in net-
works of faults , shear zones, and associated fracture arrays,
may h ave a big impact on the localization of fluid flo w
(see "Evolution of Flow Pathways during Deformatio n"
below).
 PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL CONTROL IN HYDROTHERNIAL SYSTJ:."MS 9

a >-
0.08
50 MPa
relationships in veins in shallow epithermal systems and
deeper m eso thermal systems commonly indicate multiple
t: 0.06 episodes of fracturing and vein sealing (Fig. 9c) . Expe ri-
(f)
0 mental studies of fracture h ealing (Hickman and Evans,
a: 1987; Brantley et al. , 1990; Zhang et al., in press) , also
0 0.04
a.. d emonstrate that, at temp eratures greater than approxi-
0 mately 300°C, diffusional crack healing and associated loss
w
f- 0.02 of crack connectivity in minerals such as quartz and calcite
0
w can be fast, even on laboratory timescales.
z Permeability evolution in faults in the seismogenic upper
z 0
0 crust can be influenced strongly by porosity changes associ-
0
ated with deformation during repeated, episodic slip events
-0 .02 (over several seconds), or during aseismic creep. In rocks
0 5 10 15 20 with high initial intergranular porosity, fault slip is associated
STRAIN ,% with reduction in porosity and permeabili ty owing to the
production of fine-grained , compact, low-porosity gouges
b 10·16 (Knipe, 1998; Zhang eta!., 1999). In this case, faults become
seals or aquitards in hydrothermal systems. However, in
intrinsically low-porosity, tight rocks (e.g., metamorphic and
C\1 10·17
~ 30MP•
.s igneous rocks), faulting leads to porosity and permeability
increase dming slip, owing to fracture growth and cataclasis.
>-
f- 50 MPa

f""
10·18 8 El
:J
co
<(
w 10·19
~ and Paterson 1991 ; Cox, 1995). Episodic slip and interseis-
a:
w
a.. 10·20
10-21
0 5 10 15 20
STRAIN ,%
FIG. 8. Relations hip betwee n (a) porosity a nd strain , and (b) perme-
ab ility and stra in , as a function of effective co nfinin g press ure durin g
defo rm atio n of Ca rra ra marbl e at room temperature a nd in the presence
of a rgo n pore fluid. Relati onships at effective confinin g pressures of 30,
50, a ncllOO MPa a re illustrated. Co nfinin g pressure= 300 MPa; no minal
stra in rate= 1.2 x 10-'~ s- 1 (afte rZha ngetal. , 1994b) .
Competition between deformation-induced permeability
enhancement and permeability reduction processes
At depth in the Earth's crust, and especially at elevated
temperatures in active hydrothermal systems, porosity-
destruction processes such intergranular cementation,
compaction , and healing and sealing offractures can cause
permeability to decrease on timescales that are short rela-
tive to the lifetimes of hydrothermal systems. Permeability
evolution is, therefore, controlled directly by competition
between deformation-induced porosity-creation processes
and various porosity-destruction processes.
The structure of veins in ore systems provide spectacular
evidence of repeated fracturing and fracture sealing in
hydrothermal systems. For example, crack-seal microstruc-
tures in veins (Ramsay, 1980; Cox, 1995) indicate that
macroscopic fractures in some deep hydrothermal regimes
can open and seal up to several thousand times in the life-
time of one active vein (Fig. 9b) . Similarly, overprinting
In contrast, porosity evolution during interseismic intervals is
governed by progressive porosity destruction by pore col-
lapse and hydrothermal sealing (Angevine et al. , 1982; Cox
mic sealing may result in large, time-dependent changes in
permeability in fault zones (Fig. 10). Particularly in fracture-
co ntrolled hydrothermal systems, flow within permeable
faults and associated fracture array (Fig. 1) promotes rapid
pore sealing by mineral deposition. As soon as porosity drop
below the percolation threshold , fluid flow will shut off. An
important conclusion then, is that in the immediate post-
rupture phase, faults in low-permeabili ty host rocks are
highly permeable structures that act as fluid conduits. How-
ever, with progressive interseismic sealing and loss of perme-
ability, faults can become aquitards until a later slip event.
Accordingly, in active hydrothermal regimes, penneability
is rapidly destroyed unless ongoing deformation regenerates
permeability. Additionally, for permeable fluid pathways to
develop, the rate of deformation-induced permeability
enhancement must be greater than the rate of permeability
reduction owing to closure and sealing of pores and fractures.
Episodic versus continuous flow
Competition between porosity-creation processes and
porosity-destruction processes in actively deforming rocks
results in a contrast between flow regimes in the upper
crustal seismogenic regime and the lower crustal aseismic
regime. At depths below the se ismic- aseismic transition
(typically 10-20 km deep) , where steady state creep
processes usually dominate, a balance betwee n rates of
porosity destruction and porosity creation in creeping
shear zones is expected to generate quasi-steady state per-
meabilities th at are higher than those of the surrounding,
less rapidly deforming rock mass. This leads to e e ntially
continuous fluid flow along actively creeping elements of
shear networks. Creeping faults and sh ear zones probably
play a key role in focusing the migration of deeply sourced

>
10 COXETAL.

FI G. 9. a. Grain-scale crack networks produced in Ca rrara marble durin g macroscopi cally ductil e deformation at room
temperature and an effective pressure of 100 MPa. The shorte nin g direction is parall el to the micrograph lo ng ax is. In ci-
dent li gh t mi crograph. b. Quartz-rich exte nsion vein with dark, crac k-seal inclusio n bands composed of tourmalin e. This
texture indi cates multiple episodes of ex tensio nal fracturing and fracture-sealing associated with gold min e ral ization ,
Sigma Mine, Val d'Or, Quebec. Transmitted light mi crograph . c. Laminated fault-fill ve ins indi catin g multiple ep isodes
of fa ult slip and dilation during gold mineralizati on. Revenge gold deposit, St lves goldfi eld, Eastern Goldfields Prm~ n ce ,
Western Australi a.

fluids upwards to the base of the seismogenic regime. In
contrast, above the seismic-aseismic transition, potentially
large, cyclic changes in fault permeability cause episodic
fluid flow. Episodic flow is associated with fluid pressure
cycling and episodic fluid redistribution around active
faults, and has important implications for the dynamics of
flow and reaction in hydrothermal systems in the seismo-
genic regime (Cox, 1999; Sibson, 2001).
Principles of Macroscopic Fracture Formation
The development of faults, shear zones, and associated
fracture arrays plays a key role in controlling the local per-
meability distributions and the macroscopic architecture of
fluid p a thways in hydrothermal systems. The geometry of
these structures is inherently influenced by the orientations
and relative magnitudes of stresses in hydrothermal systems.
The distribution of these stmctures is also controlled by fluid
pressure regimes. This section outlines the critical influence
of both fluid pressures and stress states in controlling macro-
scopic fracture growth and associated permeability gen ra-
tion in hydrothermal systems. Importantly, macroscopic frac-
ture systems can develop not only in the brittle upper cmst,
but also in the more ductile d eep er crust, provided fl u id
pressures are high enough.
Types offractures and orientation relationships
with stress fields
Three classes of macroscopic fractures may form during
 PRINCIPLE OF TRUCTURAL CONTROL IN HYDROTHERlvtAL SYSTEMS 11

regime during crustal deformation produce di tinctive ori-

a entation of shear fractures (faults) and spatially associated
extension fracture (and vein ; Fig. 13) . The relative orien-
1-- tation of fau lts and exte n sion veins provide one of the
z most powerful way of d eterminin g h ear se n e on struc-
w tures that were active during hydrothermal mineralization
~
w (Rob rt and Poul en, 2001).
u Faults and associated fracture a rrays exhibi t h eteroge-
<t:
...J neou di tributions of fracture apertu res and fracture den-
0....
(/) Sttl at mesoscopic to macroscopic scales. Areas with the
0 highest apertures and/ or fracture densitie produce the
highest permeability ites, wh ich locali ze mo t fluid migra-
EO EO EO EO
tion if tl1ey connect to fluid r servo ir . High fracture aper-
ture and densities are typically associated with dilatant
TIME fau lt bend , tepover regions , or j ogs that li nk approxi-
mately planar segments of faults and h ear zon s (Figs. 11d
b and 14a). High fracture densities and apertures can a lso
develop in area of competence co n trast (O liver et al. ,
>-
I- 2001) and during dilation at fo ld hinge during flexural
:::::i slip fo lding (Cox et al., 1991). High fracture p rm abi li ty
en can a lso localize a round fau lt t rmination zon , where

\I\ 1\ I"\
<t:
w fault plays, wing cracks, or brecciat d regions develop (Fig.
~ 14b). Contractional jog , as we ll a dilational jog , can be
a:
w
0....
C)
0 jogs, and slip dir ctions result in the lo ng axis ofjogs devel-
...J
EO EO EO EO
TIME
FIG. 10. Sch matic illustration oftime-dependent cha nges in (a) poros-
ity a nd (b) permeability in fault rocks during the se ism ic cycle. udden
permeability enhancement is assoc iated with episodic fau lt slip (EQ) .
lnterseismic pore sealing and compaction reduces permeability between
slip events. After Cox (1995) .
brittle deformation: (1) pure extension fractures; (2) hear
fractures; and (3) hybrid extensional-shear fracture . Mineral
filling in each of these fracture type produces veins (Fig. 11 ).
Any stre field can be re olved into three mutually per-
pendicular components, which are known as the maximum
principal stress ( cr1 ), the intermediate principal stress ( cr2),
and the minimum principal stress (cr3 ). Pure extens ion
fracture form perpendicular to cr3 and open p e rpe ndicu-
lar to the fracture wall (Fig. 12a). In intact, isotropic rock,
shear fractures (i.e., fau lts) tend to form at angles typically
between 20° and 35° to the orientation of cr 1, such that the
fault plane contains the orientation of cr2 (Fig. 12b). Two
c01~ugate ets of shear fractures can form , and where devel-
oped, their intersection is subparallel to cr2 . Hybrid exten-
sional-shear fractures have compon nts of displacement
both parallel and perpendicular to the fracture plane. They
form at a ngle between 0° and approximately 25 o to the cr1
direction.
The ori ntation of the maximum principal stresses asso-
ciated witl1 contractional, exten ional , and wrench tectonic
site of high fracture den ity, which localize fluid flow and
ore depo ition.
The orientation relationships between shear fractures ,
opin g approximately parallel to the cr2 orie ntatio n (Fig.
14c). Thi produce a permeability ani otropy favoring flow
parallel to the jog axis. For reverse and normal fau lting
regimes, extensional and contractionalj og have ubhori-
zontal plunges (Fig. 14d). Thi produces good horizontal
fracture connectivity within fau lts, a nd may cause o re hoots
to have gentle plunges. In conu-ast, strike-slip regimes pro-
duce jogs with good vertical conn ctivity that can control
th geometry of teeply plunging ore shoots (Fig. 14d).
Stress magnitudes and fracture fonnation
The type of fracture that control permeability in hydro-
thermal systems in the bt;ttle regime are governed by the mag-
nitudes of su-ess differences ( cr1 - cr3). The stre tate in rocks,
and the relation hip between tre magnitude , tre s differ-
ences, fractw-e type, and fi-acture orientation can be illu tt-ated
by two-dimensional Mohr circle con tructions.
The stre ses acting on a plane inclined to cr1 at an angle
a can be resolved into a normal tre (crn) acting perpen-
d icular to tl1e plane, and a shear u-e ('r5 ) acting parallel to
the plane (Fig. 15a). The magnitude of the normal stress
and hear su-ess are given by the relationships,
CYn = 1/ 2( cr1 + cr3 ) + 1/ 2( cr1 - cr3 )·cos 2a (16)
and
'l'5 = 1/ 2 ( cr1 - cr3 ) ·sin 2 a. (17)
A Mohr diagram p lots CYn again t 'l'5 , and has the geomet-
ric property that the normal and hear tre e acting on a
plane inclined at angle a to cr1 are given by the coordinate

::
12 COXETAL.

FIG. ll. Examples of ve in types classified acco rding to fracture modes. a. Pure exte nsion vein s; opening direction is
perpendicular to th e fracture wall s. Mt Lyell , Tasmania. Coin is 2 em in diameter. b. Hybrid extensional-shear ve in , with
open in g direction inclined to the fracture wall indi cated by orienta ti o n of displacement-controlled crack-sea l quartz
fibers. This vein is associated \\~th smaller, subh o ,; zontal extensio n veins. Mt Lye ll , Tasmania. c. Ge ntly left-dipping exten-
sio n ve ins spatia lly assoc iated with gently right-dipping fau lt-fi ll ve ins, witl1in dilatant segments of two faults associated
with gold min e ralization. The orientation relationship between the su bh orizontal extension veins a nd the fau lt ve ins
indi cates that min erali zation formed durin g reverse faulting. Victory go ld min e, St Ives go ldfi eld , Western Australi a.
Field of view is 6 m wide. d . Calcite-fill ed di latantj ogs deve loped on ste povers betwee n small , stee ply dippin g, sini stral
wrench fau lts . Les Matelles, Languedoc, France.

of the point P on the perimeter of the circle having diame-
ter ( <J1 - <r3 ) and center a t ( <J1 + <r3 ) / 2 on the normal stress
axis (Fig. 15a) . This circle is called the stress circle (or
Mohr circle). Note that Pis on a radius inclined at 2a to th e
normal stress axis.
Brittle shear failure: Under fluid-absent co nditions, the
stress state that causes compressional brittle shear fail ure
(i.e ., faulting) in an intact, isotropic m e dium is approxi-
mated by the relationship,
(18)
where
C is the coh esive strength of the m edium ; and
11 is the coefficient offriction.
This Coulomb shear failure criterion is indicated by the
line BC in Figure 15a. This lin e specifies the brittle shear
failure strength of the m e dium as a function of normal
stress. So, in dry, intact rock, brittle shear failure occurs
where and when the Mohr circle (describing the shear
stress and normal stress state in a rock) contacts the failure
e nvelope BC. Shear failure may, therefore, be indu ced by
decreasing <J3 and/ or increasing the value of <J1 (stress cir-
cle A in Fig. 15b). Because the angle between the Mohr cir-
cle radius (AP) and the normal stress axis is 2a, the angle a
between the shear failure plane and the orientation of the
maximum principal su·ess is given by the relationship,
a = (90° - arctan f.1.) / 2. (19)
For typical friction coeffi cients of approximate ly 0. 75,
shear fractures are inclined at approximately 27° to <J1.
Shear fractures formed in intact rock and obeyin g r Ia-
 PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL CONTROL IN HYD ROTHERMAL SYS1EMS 13

a EXT ENSION FRACTURES a REVERSE FAULT

su bhorizontal extension veins

b SHEAR FRACTURES b NORMAL FAULT

subvertical extension
veins

FIG. 12. Orie n tations of frac ture types with respect to principa l stress C WRENCH FAU LT
di rections, a 1, a 2, and a 3. a. Pure extension fractures . b. Conjugate shear
fractures, with sense of shear ind icated. \ (J3
su bvertical extension

tionship (1 9) are termed "o ptim ally oriented " fa ul ts (Sib-

son , 1985) . Ac tivatio n , or re-activatio n , of mi sorie n te d
structu res m ay also be im po r tant in con trollin g fracture
permeability in hydrothe rmal sys tem . Fo r example, m is-
o riented fa ul ts may develo p by rota tio n away fro m o ptimal
o rie ntati o ns with respec t to th e stress fi eld , due eith e r to
rota tio n of stress fi elds a nd / o r roc k m asses du rin g p ro-
gress ive deforma ti o n. Additi o n ally, p reexisting fa ul ts , o r
o th e r m ec ha ni cal anisotro pi es su ch a be dding o r fo li a-
ti on, can a lso be (re-)activated . Sh ear (re-)ac tivatio n
occurs whe n the sh ear stress o n th e misoriented pla ne sat- FIG. 13. o ,;entatio ns of faults and associated extension vein re lative to
isfi es th e Mo hr-Cou lo mb failure cri teri o n (Fig. 15c). Fig- the p rin cipal stress d irections for co n tractio nal (a) , extensiona l (b), and
ure 15c ha been con tructe d with the coh esive stre ngth , strike-sli p (c) tectonic regime .
C, of th e preexistin g fa ul t o r anisotro py less th an that of
intac t roc k. ote, h oweve r, th at ra pid sealin g o r com- an d shear stress state (Moh r circle) con tacts the non linear
pactio n of gouge o n faul t slip patch es in hydro th ermal sys- par t of th e failure e nvelo pe at negative (i.e., te nsile) nor-
tem s m ay ca use so m e fa ults to qui ckly regain co h es ive m al stresses. Pure exte nsio n failure occurs whe re the nor-
streng th (Ka n agawa e t a!. , 2000 ). mal stress equals the tensile strength (T) of th e rock (stress
circl e C in Fi g. 15 b). ote th a t th e a n gle 2a is zero, as
Extension and hybrid extensional-shear failure: Exte nsio n fail- exp ected fo r exte n io n failure alo ng the <J1-<J2 plane, per-
ure a nd exte nsion al shear failure occur if the normal stress pendicular to <J3 . Hybrid extensio nal sh ear fa ilu re occurs
14 COXETAL.

a c long axis of dilatant site

slip direction

contractional jog

----=~@
--
d
b

--
contractional splays

FIG. 14. a. Geometry of contractional a nd dilatantjogs. b. Wing cracks and contractional splays developed around
fault terminations. c. Geometry of a dilatantjog relative to fault slip direction . cl. Orie ntations of jogs in contracti onal,
extension al, and wrench tectonic regim es. High fracture density, aperture, and co nn ectivity alo ng jogs favors high fluid
flu x along the j og ax is.

where the stress circle contacts the failure envelope
between -T and C (stress circle Bin Fig. 15b).
Pure ex tension failure only occurs at relatively small
stress differences, typically less than approximately 4T. For
4T < ( <J1 - <J3 ) < 6T, failure occurs in extensional-shear
mode. Shear failure occurs at stress differences greater
than approximately 6T. Because rock tensile strengths are
typically less (sometimes substantially less) than about 10
MPa, the occurrence of pure extension veins in hydrother-
mal systems indicates stress differences less than 40 MPa
during vein opening (Etheridge, 1983).
The role offluids
Fluid pressure modifies stress states at depth in the
Earth 's crust. The effect of pore fluid pressure (Pr) is to
reduce the effective normal stress ( <J,') according to the
relationship,
(20)
In terms of the Mohr circle representation of stress
states, the role of fluid pressure is to move the stress circle
to the left (Fig. 16). ote that although fluid pressure m od-
ifies normal stress, it does not influence shear stress.
In hydrothermal regimes, changes in stresses and/ or
fluid pressures can induce brittle failure. For example, at
low stress differences, pure extension failure is induced by
increase in fluid pressure (Fig. 16a), provided the effective
minimum principal stress becomes negative and equal in
magnitude to the tensile strength of the rock. This fluid-dri-
ven extension fracturing is known as hydraulic extension
fracture. The hydraulic fracture criterion is, thus,
(21)
The abundance of mineral-filled extension fractures in
many epigenetic ore deposits indicates that tensile effective
su·ess states, and, thus, fluid pressures greater than <J3 , are
common in hydrothermal systems. Importantly, equatio n
 PRINCIPLE OF STR UCT URAL CON TROL rN HYDROTH1:.1?.A1AL SYSTEMS 15

a a
(f)
..."' B (f)
UJ
ui a:
(/)
LU 1-
c: (f)
f-
(/) a:
<(
c:
<(
UJ
LU I
(f)
I
(/)

Pt

'
cr3' cr, · cr3 'cr,
EFFECTIVE NORMAL STRESS
NOR MAL STR ESS, O'n

b b
(f)
(f)
UJ
a:
1-
(f)
a:
<(
UJ
I
A (f)

Pr
\

-T
'
I
I
NORMAL STRESS, crn -T
cr3' cr3 cr,· cr,
EFFECTIVE NORMAL STRESS
c
FIG. 16. Mohr circle co nsu·uctio ns illustrating the effects of increasing
fluid pre sure , by an amo unt Pr, o n effective stre taLes and conditi o ns
B fo r fa iiUI-e in in tac t rock. a. l nueasin g fluid pressu re at low su-e d iffe r-
e nces results in extensio n fa ilure. b. Increasing fluid pre ure at high tres
diffe rences induce shear failure.

(21) ill ustrate how th e openin g of hyd raulic ex te n sio n

NORMAL ST RESS, crn
FIG. 15. a. Mo hr di agra m and in se t ill ustra tin g re latio nship be twee n
prin cipal stre es, hea r u·e s, a nd normal u·es . The normal tress ( a 11 )
and shea r Lres ( -r, ) o n a pla ne inclin ed at angle u to the ori e ntation of
th e maximum prin cipal tress are give n b)' the coordinates of th e point P
o n a Mo hr circl e having diame te r (a 1 - a3) and ce nte r at (a 1 + a3) / 2 on
th e no rm al stress ax i . Th e curved lin e - T CB is a ty pi ca l brittle fa il ure
enve lo pe (modified Griffith-Mohr-Coulo mb failure criterio n ). Tis th e ten-
sile stre ngth of th e rock; the shear failure envelo pe ( B) i approx im ated
by the re latio nshi p T = C + J.la11 , whe re Tis th e shear strength , C is th e cohe-
sive stre ngth, J.1 is th e coeffi cie n t of fri ctio n , a nd a 11 is th e no rm al stress.
Note that hea r u·e ngth is de pe nde nt o n normal su-e s. Stres states to th e
ri ght of th e fa ilure e nvelo pe do no t result in bl"ittle fa ilure . b . Mo hr di a-
gram illu tra tin g Mohr circles for (A) shea r failu re (faulting) , ( B) hybrid
ex te nsio nal shea r, and (C) pure exte nsion failure of intact roc k. c. Mo hr
di agra m ill ustra tin g stre conditio n fo r reac ti va ti o n of a no no ptima lly
orie m ed , low cohesio n, shear fa ilure plane (e.g., preexisting fault, o r fo li-
atio n/ bedd ing anisotro py) inclin ed at angle {3 to th e maximum prin cipal
stress. Note th at wh en th e shea r fa ilure e nvelo pe (AB ) fo r a preex istin g
mecha nica l weakn ess lie be low the fa ilure e nve lo pe fo r intac t rock, th e
preex isting tructu re may be prefere ntially reactivated .
frac tu res limits th e m aximum fluid press ure th a t may
develop in hydrothermal systems.
An importan t aspect of the role of flui d pre sure in frac-
ture proce e i that brittl failure may be induced at any
de p th , provid d fluid p ressures are h igh e no ugh. Perme-
a bili ty e nh an ce m e nt by fracture growth can occ u r in
response to ch a n ge in stre d iffe re n ce (i.e., thro u gh
ch a nges to 0'1 and/ or 0'3 ) , and a! o by ch a nge in fluid
pressu re. This co n ce p t is illustra te d in Fig ure 17, whi ch
p lot fa ilu re mod es as a fun ction of stress diffe rence an d
flu id pres ure. H ere , fluid pre ure i ex presse d a th e
por fl uid facto r (?.), th e ratio of fluid p re u re to over-
burde n stress ( o). Th e po re fluid facto rs and stress diffe r-
ence leading to fai lure in extensio nal, extensio nal- h ar,
and h ear m od es are pl otted fo r a strike-s lip regim e a t a
d ep th of 3 k.m . From some ambie nt stress state, failure can
be induced eith er by increa ing the po re fluid fac tor along
the traj ectorie uch a Q and S (Fig. 17) with ou t chan ging
the absolute tre tate (an exa mple of pur ly fluid-d riven
failu re) , o r by maintaining a constant pore flu id fac tor and
increasing the tre differe nce (e.g. , traj ectory P), o r ome
16 COX ETAL.
strike-slip faulting, depth = 3 km
1.5
~ EXTENSION
cr:-
~ deformation style, caused by changes in fluid pressure states,
0 are a key factor influencing deformation style, the nature of
tt
0
::J
_J
LL
w
cr:
0 exhibit initial brittle shear failure, subsequent mixed brit-
CL
0 20 40 60 80 100
STRESS DIFFERENCE, MPa
FIG. 17. Failure mode diagram illustrati ng how changes in stress differ-
ence and fluid pressure (expressed as pore fluid factor; see text for expla-
nation) lead to brittle failure. Fields for pure exte nsion, exte nsional-shear,
an d shear failure are indi cated for a strike-slip regime at a d epth of 3 km.
A failure enve lope (AB) is indicated for intact rock with co hesive strength
of 10 MPa. Failure occ urs when the pore fluid factor and / or stress differ-
ence increase to touch the failure enve lope AB. Tr<!iectory Pleads to shear
fai lure at constant fluid pressure with increasing shear su·ess. Trajectory R
leads to shear fa ilure by in crease in both fluid pressure and stress differ-
ence. Trajectories Sand Q lead to sh ear failure and exte nsio n failure,
respectively, by pore fluid pressure in crease alone.
combination of both stress a nd fluid pressure increase
(e.g., trajectory R).
Fluid-driven failure is extremely important in generating
fault/fracture networks in hydrothermal systems in both
the upper and lower crust, provided fluid pressures are
high enough (Sibson, 1996; Cox, 1999). A significant
aspect of fluid-driven fracturing is that, even without
changes in the stresses acting on a previously nondeform-
ing rock medium , infiltration of high-pressure fluids can
drive the spontaneous growth offractures. The orientations
of these fractures are controlled by the orientation of the
principal stresses, magnitudes of the stress differences, and
geometry of any preexisting mechanical anisotropies in the
rock mass.
Effects of stress and fluid pressure on transitions
between failure modes
Particularly in hydrothermal systems formed at mid-
crustal depths (e.g., some meso thermal gold systems), fluid
flow, hydrothermal alteration, and mineralization are con-
trolled by faults and shear zones that exhibit mixed brit-
tle-plastic behavior. First order transitions between brittle
and plastic behavior in the crust are commonly ascribed to
the effects of increasing temperature and confining pres-
sure (with increasing depth) inhibiting brittle deformation
and promoting the operation of thermally activated defor-
mation processes such as dislocation creep and diffu-
sional/advective mass transfer processes. However, shear
zones in some m eso thermal gold systems exhibit evidence
for repeated transitions between brittle and plastic behavior
(Nguyen eta!., 1998) that cannot be ascribed to repeated
fluctuations in temperature and depth. They are instead
related to fluctuations in shear stress and fluid pressure asso-
ciated with episodic fault slip and fault-valve behavior in
shear zones (Sibson eta!., 1988; Sibson, 2001). Changes in
permeability, and pervasiveness of flow and alteration.
For example, in the shear-hosted Revenge gold deposit in
the St. Ives Goldfield (Eastern Goldfields Province, Yilgarn
craton, Western Australia), Au-mineralized shear zones
tle-ductile behavior, and finally, fully brittle behavior during
progressive hydrothermal alteration (Nguyen eta!., 1998) .
Initial fluid flow was controlled by macroscopic shear frac-
ture at pore factors near one, that is, near-lithostatic flu id
pressures (Fig. l8a). Progressive potassic alteration of
metabasalt and metadolerite host-rocks produced weaker,
biotite-rich alteration assemblages. Reduced plastic shea r
strength, due to reaction-weakening, induced a transition to
ductile deformation (Fig. l8b). In this deformation regime,
fluid flow was controlled by permeability enhancement asso-
ciated with grain-scale dilatancy and reaction-enhanced
porosity. Repeated brittle slip events occurred during ongo-
ing ductile deformation, and were associated with formati o n
of breccias and laminated fault-fill veins in dilatant bends
and jogs. Episodic fast seismic(?) slip events are interpreted
to have been driven by increasing pore fluid factors during
individual fault-valve cycles. Each brittle shear failure event
was preceded by an interval of interseismic ductile shear at
lower pore fluid factors (Fig. l8b). Sodic metasomatism late
in the hydrothermal history produced localized albite-ri h
assemblages, which resulted in reaction-strengthening and a
late transition back to fully brittle behavior and macroscopic
fracture-controlled fluid flow (Fig. l8c).
Implications of stress and fluid pressure regimes for
localization offracturing, fluid flow, and mineralization
Fluid pressure regimes in the crust are controlled to a
first order by permeability and fluid driving pressures. In
the upper few kilometers of the continental crust, where
fracture and pore connectivity is high, pore fluid pressures
are generally close to hydrostatic. At deeper levels, where
pore sealing and collapse are more rapid, loss of long-term
pore connectivity results in fluid pressures increasi ng
towards lithostatic levels. Deeper level fluid reservoirs are
accordingly suprahydrostatically press ured. Tapping of
these reservoirs by active and permeable faults , fractur s,
and shear zones provides transient pathways for rapid
upwards migration of fluids under high driving pressure
gradients. Fluid discharge from the upper levels of these
structures can generate overpressured domains at these
sites (Fig. l) , especially if the fluid discharge zone is capped
by a low-permeability domain. Fluid-driven growth of
fault/fracture systems is more favored as pore fluid factors
progressively increase above hydrostatic levels (Fig. 19).
An example of localized fluid pressurization and associ-
ated mineralization is provided by the development of the
 PRINCiPLES OF STRUCT URAL CON TROL 1 H YDROTH. ER.NIAL SYSTEMS 17

swarm of subhorizo n tal exte n io n veins which hosts tung-

a a:
p
lithos tatic Pt sten min eralizati o n a t Panasqueira in Portugal (Foxford e t
0 al. , 2000). T he vein swarm in this d po it developed above a
I-
0 grani toid stock in a subhorizo ntal, lenticular d omain which
Li: is I s than 200 m thi ck. The ve in are interpre ted to have
9
::::> grown wh e re fluid mi gra tin g up fro m th e tock becam
_J
l.L. 0.9
s tra pp ed below a low p e rm eabili ty zo n e and d evelo pe d a
w
a: up ralith ostati c-pre u red do ma in of hydraulic frac turing
0
c.. ~ (i.e., Pr = 0'3 + T ) . Because extensio n veining a t Panasqueira
ductile shear failure i not a ociated with fa ulting, tr s differences are infe rred
0.8 T
to have been low. Th thickness of the veined d o main is con-
0 50 100 150
trolled by th e limi ted depth in terval over whi ch supralith o-
STRESS DIFFERENCE , MPa tati c fl uid pre sures develo ped above the stock.
T he Bendigo goldfie ld in ce ntral Victoria, Au tralia, pro-
vides a n exampl e of where th e tructure of low permeabil-
b ity stra tigraphic uni ts may have locali zed the di tributio n of
a: lithostatic Pt
0 hig h p ore fluid fac tor sites a nd assoc iate d ve in go ld
I-
0 depo its. T h e Bendigo goldfield occurs in the regio nal cul-
Li: min a ti o n zon e of a se ries of do ubly-plunging fo lds. Addi-
9 tio nally, mo t fault-related and vein-related gold de posits in
::::>
_J
l.L. 0.9 the area are located in and near saddle ree£ in th e hinges
w of anticl in es. High pore fluid fac to rs, associa t d h yd raulic
a:
0 fractu rin g, and veining at Bend igo are interp re ted to have
c.. been controlled by fluid migratio n to the structurally high-
A
0.8 T est leve ls be n eath fo ld e d , low-permeabili ty tra ti graphi c
0 50 100 150 al (Cox et al. , 199 1).
STRESS DIFFERENCE , MPa At th e Porgera gold deposit in Papua ew Guin ea, early
hyd ro th e rm al a lteratio n , fluid fl ow, and low-g rad e, di-
pe r ed m in e rali zation was as ociated with pe rvasive grain-
c a: lithostatic Pt
scale and fractu re-co ntrolled fl ow around a mafic intrusive
complex (Munroe, 1995). Early in the deve lopm ent of the
12
0 hyd ro therm al sy te rn , stress diffe re nces were n ot hi gh
Li: eno ugh to gene ra te faults, but high po re fluid fac tors pro-
0 duced extension ve ins. Subsequent growth of a fault aero
5_J s
l.L. 0.9 th e active, in trusive-re lated hydro th ermal y tern wa a o-
w ci ate d with a rota ti on of th e tre fie ld and in crea e in
a: tre s diffe ren ce ( ox and Mun roe , 1999). Th e in crease in
0
c.. tre diffe re n ce, toge ther with hig h po re fluid fac to rs,
T drove the growth of a fa ul t and its associated high-perm e-
0.8
0 50 100 150 abili ty damage zone, which tapped deeper level hydro ther-
STRESS DIFFERENCE, MPa mal flu ids. Localizatio n of fluid flow wi thin the fault and its
damage zon e led to the fo rmatio n of a very high grade gold
FIG. 18. Fa il ure m od e d iagra ms ill ustra tin g brittle a nd p ia ti c fa ilure
e nve lo pes as a fu n ctio n o f po re fluid facto r a nd tress differe n ce. Th e dia- deposit aroun d the fa ult. Thi contrasts wi th th e early min-
gram is constructed fo r o ptimally o ri e nte d reve rse fa u lting a t a d e pth of 12 erali zatio n whi ch is more dispersed and not pati ally a soci-
km in ro k with a co h e ive tre n gth o f 10 MPa, te nsil e stre ng th o f 5 M Pa , ated with faulting.
a nd fri ctio n coeffi cie nt 0. 75 . Fluid pressure a nd stress ch a nge a ocia ted Co mpe te nce contras ts within rock rna e a! o con trol
wi th fa ult-valve b e h avio r m ay pro duce e p i o di c tra n iti o n s b e twee n n o
d e fo rma tio n , duc ti le h ear fa ilure , brittl e shea r fa ilure, and brittl e exte n-
localization of fracturing (see also Oliver et al. , 2001 ). Fo r
sio n fa il ure a t va1i o us ph ases o f tl1 e e ismic cycle. Th e fa il ure e nve lo pe is example, wh ere stro ng rock rna e occu r wi thin a weake r
ind ica ted by the curve PQR T. Duc ti le shea r fa ilu re occu rs fo r flu id pres- matrix, with boundarie 01ien ted at a high angle to the short-
sure and stress states in the inte rval ST; brittl e h ea r fa il u re occurs betwee n ening di rectio n, viscous or frictional d rag along the contacts
a nd R; e xte n sio nal-sh ear occurs be twee n R a nd Q; a nd extensio na l fail-
reduces the minimum pti ncipal tre s in the competent rock
ure occ urs in th e inte n •a l PQ. a . Brittle sh ea r fai lure a t po int B induced by
in c rea e in stress di ffe re n ce a nd fluid press ure . b. Reacti o n-wea ke nin g u n it. As fluid pressures build-up, hyd raulic exte nsio n frac-
d ecreases the ductil e sh ear stre n gth (ST}, so th a t in crease in tres di ffe r- ture or shear failure (depending on stre s difference) occur
e n ce a nd fluid pre sure lead s firs tly to du c til e s h ea r fa ilu re (ase ism ic first in th e zo ne of decrea ed minim um effective principal
creep ) a t p in t B, fo ll owed by brittl e sh ear fa il ure at pointS, in respo nse to stre s in th e com pete n t rock unit. Examples include th e
progressive in crease in po re flu id factor. c. La te- tag reacti o n-h a rde nin g
in creases ducti le shea r stren gth , so tha t fa ilure occurs by brittle sh ea r fa il-
development of me o thennal Au-mineralized extension vein
ure a t hi gh stress diffe re n e , o r exte n sio n fa il ure occurs a t low stress dif- array in do lerite in the Mt Charlo tte ore bodies at Kalgoorlie
fe re n ces a nd h ig h po re fluid facto rs. (Clout et al. , 1990); ladder vein systems in dikes, uch as at
18 COXETAL.

a b
surface FLUID PRESSURE
X ~-------------------------------
near-hydrostatic
"" high permeability
fluid pressure
""
_____
.\•• • ><• • •
regime
'. ·.. .·. . ::-.:·~
_,;.,.-. ~~~-..:.....~---

. ·.·.··.· ..··.,:- · ..
~. -
"- -- -~- -- ------- ·- · -· -

~~t:~:eability
low .... ·. . ·· ··· · ·. ._·>:

: ,: : : ~:. '0"i~ ~ ~ii~J~ 1 •·

••• \ ••
\'.. zone of
03
\ '-hydrofracture veining
+T I
\
1- and fluid-driven shear
0...
w \ fa ilure
.· ..· 0
\
flu~id /j"'~
~~
\ ""
focussed
migration
\
\ ""
~
i<.."'(' \
\
""
y
hydrostatic
(A-v "' 0.38)

FIG. 19. Locali zation of fluid-dri ve n failure controlled by depth-dependence of su·esses and fluid pressure. a. U pwa rds,
head-driven fluid fl ow in a fault, which taps an overpressured fluid rese rvo ir. Fluid discharge at th e downstream end of
the fault drives fluid pressure build-up be neath a low pe rm eabili ty lea ky seal zo ne. Wh e re stress diffe re nces are low,
hydrauli c exte nsion fracture arrays can form in the domain wh e re Pr~ cr3 + T Fo r hi gher stress differe nces, brittle shea r
fa ilure ca n occur where Pr < cr3 + T b. Schemati c profil e of fluid pressure as a fun ctio n of de pth (so lid lin e A.'Y) fo r tl1 e
fa ult-controll ed fl ow system illustrated in (a). Depth dependence of fluid pressures equi valent to hydrostati c and ( cr3 +
T ) leve ls shown for comparison. Fo r low su·ess diffe re nces (cr1 - cr3 < 4T ), hydrauli c extensio n fracturin g occurs where Pr
= cr3 + T At hi gher su·ess differences, sh ear failure may occur at lowe r fluid pressures.

Wood's Reef, Victoria (Clappison, 1954; Edwards, 1954) , and
at Lamaque, Quebec (Robert, 1990); and gold-bearing vein
systems hosted within dike-like, competent felsic intrusions
in the St Ives goldfield in Western Australia.
In the seismoge nic regime, fluid pressure and shear
stress cycling associated with fault-valve behavior potentially
lead to complex, but cyclically repeated changes to pore
fluid factors and stresses (Sibson, 2001). Time and space
variations in pore factors, shear stress, and normal stress are
the main parameters influencing the timing and location of
episodic fracture, and distribution of high-permeability
zones within hydrothermal systems.
According to Coulomb failure criteria, brittle shear fai l-
ure occurs where and when shear stress 1'5 is greater than
the rock shear strength; that is, where
(22)
Proximity to shear failure can, thus, be described by a
time-dependent parameter, 'rr, which is the difference
between the shear stress and the shear strength. Thus,
(23)
For rr greater than or equal to 0, shear failure will occ r;
for r f less than 0, shear failure will not occur. This parame-
ter is the same as the Coulomb stress parameter used to
predict locations of aftershocks triggered by stress transfer
after major earthquakes (King et al. , 1994; Stein, 1999).
Similarly, the growth of hydraulic extension fractures will
occur where and when
(24)
That is, where and when fluid pressure is highest, CY3 is
least, or tensile strength is least (Cox et al. , 1987) .
Understanding how stress and fluid pressure states vary in
a rock mass has important implications for predicting local-
ization of fluid flow and ore deposition in hydrothermal sys-
tems. The use of Coulomb failure criteria to predict where
deformation-induced flow paths can form requires a kno l-
edge of the variation of shear stress, normal stress, fluid pr s-
sure, friction coefficients, and cohesive strengths in ro ck
masses in three dimensions, over time. Numerical modeling
approaches such as that by Holyland and Ojala (1997) us d
two-dimensional and three-dimensional linear elastic defor-
mation modeling to predict where minimum mean stresses
 PRiNCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL CONTROL l
or effec tive minimum principal stress occur. However,
equation (23) illustra tes that these approaches are highly
simplified and might not adequately treat all the important
parameters controlling "proximity to failure." In particular,
potential spatial variations in fluid pressures need to be mod-
eled. Modeling strategie , used to assi t prediction of where
fluid flow and mineralization may be localized, need to treat
coupling between stre and fluid pre ure, as well as poten-
tial time and space variation in stress tates associated with
str ss relief, stress transfer, and fluid pressure fluctua tion
during the eismi c cycle. This i a ferti le field for further
development.
An exampl of potential feedbacks between deformation,
effective tres states, and permeability in contro lling ore
localization is provided by the di tribution of some
fault/ shear-hosted me othermal gold deposits around shear
ystems. Archean mesothermal deposits are typically located
within low displacement faults, hear zone , and as ociated
fracture sy terns adjacent to larger, crustal-scale fault system
(Robert et al., 1995; Cox, 1999). Timing, patial, and kine-
matic relationship between low-displacement and high-di -
placement structures indicate that many of the low-displace-
ment faults, hear zone , and fracture networks that host Au
deposits probably form d as aftershock structure in respon e
to lip events on major faults. Co- ei mic tress tran fer is a
major factor controlling the location of aftershock activity
(Stein, 1999). Accordingly, fluid invasion of slipped fault seg-
ments, th e consequ e nt decrease in effec tive stresses, and
fluid-driven failure after major slip events, may act together
with main hock-related tress n-an fer in localizing growth of
low-displacement tructures, high fluid flux, and mineraliza-
tion that produces me othermal gold sy tems.
Evolution of Flow Pathways during Deformation
Localization of deformation and flow
The so-ain di oibution associated with crustal deformation
is typically very heterogeneous, with high r o-ains and asso-
ciated permeabili ty e nhancem nt being localize d along
tructure uch as faults and shear zones. The ignificance of
active fracture networks in controlling fluid migration is illu -
o-ared by analytical olutions and numerical modeling stud-
ie of two-dimensional flow patterns around high-permeabil-
ity zones in a less permeable mauix (Phillips, 1991; Matthai
and Roberts, 1997; Taylor et al. , 1999). For permeable truc-
tures inclin d at low angles to the regional gradient of
hydraulic head , fluid focusing occurs around the higher
pre ure (upstream ) levels of sh ar zone , whereas fluid dis-
charge occurs in the lower pre ure (downstream) levels of
shear zones (Fig. 1). The dim en ion of fluid charge regions
are comparable to the dimen ion of the high-perm ability
segment of faults and hear zones. Importantly, shears
inclined at high angles to the regional hydraulic head gt-adi-
ent are much less effective at focusing fluid flow.
Development of percolation networks in hydrothermal systems
Fracture/ shear-controlled hydrothermal systems develop
where and when linked permeable structure develop suffi-
HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS 19
cient connectivity to create networks that link fluid ource
rocks and ore deposition sites. Percolation theory (Sahimi,
1994) provide u eful in ights about the evo luti on of
hydraulic connectivity and the partitioning of fluid flow
a mongst e lements of a network of relatively permeable
tructures in an otherwise low-permeabi lity m edium
(Berkowitz, 1995; Cox and Knackstedt, 1999) .
In the same way as for grain-scale pore networks, macro-
scopic percolation networks, comprising fau lts, fractures,
and hear zone , can be desoibed in tenns of three types of
elements: backbon e, dangling, and isolated elements (Fig.
20a). Backbone elements provide a direct connection from
one ide of the sy tem to the other (e.g., metal ource re er-
voir to ore depo it) and carry the bulk of the fluid flux. Dan-
gling elements, al o known a dead-end elements, branch
from the flow backbone and act as fluid feeder to the back-
bone in the up tream part of the system, or as distributary or
discharge su-uctures in the downstream part of the y tem.
Isolated elements are disconnected from both the backbone
and dangling elements in the network, and are, therefore,
low-flux structures not conn cted to fluid re ervoir .
At very low bulk em tal D-ains, most of the faults or shear
in a deforming domain will be short, isolated so-ucture . With
increasing deformation , active faults and shears in creas in
le ngth and surface area; new structures also nucleate and
grow o that fault connectivity increase with so-ain. A critical
point, known as the percolation thre hold (Sahimi, 1994), is
reached when enough elements connect to allow fluid flow
across the entire width of the network. Reaching the percola-
tion thre hold corresponds to the sudden on t of flow. The
point at which the percolation threshold is reached is depen-
dent on several factors including su-ain accommodated by
gt-owth of permeable faults, fl-acture , and shear zone , as well
as by fi-acture geomeuies and relative 1-ates of fracture growth
and nucleation (Zhang and Sander on, 1994; An and Sam-
mis, 1996; Roberts et al. , 199 ) .
Partitioning of flow among elements of a fracture / hear
network is dependent on the relative proportions of back-
bone, dangling, and isolated elements (Cox and Knack t-
edt, 1999) . Ju t above the percolation threshold, the flow
backbone is a very mall fraction of the total network, but
most of the flow is localized along this part of the system
(Fig. 20b). At higher strain the proportion of e lement
that are part of the backbone progre sively increases, so
that flow becomes progres ively more even ly eli tributed
across the ystem as more faults or shear become co n-
nected to each other and to fluid re ervoirs.
At low eli place ments, all fractur segment are i olatecl
from one anoth r and the fluid reservoir. The percolation
threshold i reached when approximately 30 percent of the
ites a re occupied. For the three-dimen ional fault configu-
ration illustrated in Figure 20b, and u ing typical
length / di placement scaling relationships for faults
(Scholz, 1990) , th percolation thre hold is reached at bulk
strains of only a£ w percent. For three-dimensional perco-
lation , flow pathways can be very tortuous and produce
point-like distribution of hi gh fluid flux sites along
re tricted segments offau lts and hear zone (Fig. 21). This
20 COXETAL.

tures, which link fluid sources and sinks. This situation max-
a f-
z imizes fluid/ rock ratios in the fluid-accessible parts of perco-
LJ.J lation networks, and therefore maximizes the potential for
0
<(
rr:
generation of"giant" ore deposits. In conu·ast, for hydrother-
(.9 mal systems well above the percolation threshold, fluid fl ow
0
<( is distributed over a larger proportion of the fracture popu-
LJ.J
I lation. This more dispersed flow is likely to produce more
()
:::; distributed, potentially lower grade mineral deposits.
::::>
<(
An example of this control could be provided by the typ-
rr: ical distribution of major mesothermal gold deposits, o r
0
>-
I
clusters of deposits, along a small proportion of the total
population of kinematically related (and thereby broadly
- - backbone - - - dangling ············ isolated co-active) faults and shear zones (Cox, 1999). This distribu-
elements elements elements tion indicates that most fluid flow is localized along a small
number of active structures, and, therefore, that the
fau lt/ shear networks that successfully generate maj o r
meso thermal lode gold systems have operated near the per-
colation threshold during ore genesis. Some porphyry-type
b systems, where flow occurs through dense and highly inter-
0
LJ.J
connected fracture networks (e.g., Haynes and Tit! y,
[l_
0.8 1980), may be deposit-scale examples of flow systems well
::::>
()(f) above the percolation threshold.
OLJ.J
Qc._ 0.6 isolated At any instant, hydraulic connectivity in a network is
LL>- dependent upon which parts of the system are actively frac-
ot-
ZLJ.J
0.4 turing (and hence permeable) . For example, as deforma-
ot:
i=(f) tion migrates through a shear system, not all parts of a geo-
()
<( 0.2
metrically connected and kinematically linked network of
rr: faults and shear zones are active. So, the locus of fluid flow
LL
will be transient and migrates with active deformation
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 through the system. In thrust systems, where new thrusts
FRACTION OF TOTAL SITES commonly nucleate progressively deeper into the footwall
OCCUPIED of previously active thrust sheets, the locus of fluid flow will
migrate towards the foreland with time.
FIG. 20. a. Schematic two dimensional representation of a fault/ fracture Particularly in the middle to upper crustal seismogenic
network consisting of isolated e lements, dangling elements, and th e back-
bone structure. Most fl ow is localized along the flow backbone. Dangling
regime, rapid changes in permeability in fault networks on
elements in the upstream (lower, in this case) part of the system feed fluid timescales of seismic slip recurrence can also lead to s d-
to the backbone of the system, whereas dangling elements of the network den changes in the location and architecture of flow back-
in the downstream (upper) part of the system act as fluid discharge sites. b. bones, unless most displacement is also localized on the
Fraction of iso lated, dangling, and backbone sites as a function of total fluid flow backbone.
number of sites for the three-dimensional case of conjugate fractures or
faults inclined at 45o to the bulk flow direction (after Cox and Knackstedt, Self-organization offlow networks
1999).
It was noted earlier that the distribution of m eso thermal
gold deposits along a small proportion of the total popula-
factor will act together with variations in fracture densities tion of kinematically related and co-active faults or shear
and apertures to control flow distribution. zones may indicate that these systems develop most effec-
Several points emerge directly from percolation model- tively in percolation networks that operated close to th eir
ing. Firstly, the result that the percolation threshold is percolation threshold. This raises a question: do some
reached at bulk strains of only a few percent indicates that processes maintain fault/ fracture / shear networks near the
fracture-controlled hydrothermal systems and associated percolation threshold? Such behavior is a manifestation of
ore deposits can develop at very low strains. High-displace- "self-organized criticality," a term used to describe proces es
ment structures and large regional strains are not necessary which hold complex or disordered systems near their critical
to facilitate high fluid fluxes . In this regard, small strains point (e.g., percolation threshold) . Many natural proces es
during the initial stages of changes in plate kinematics may such as slope failure in sandpiles and earthquake rupturing
be important in developing new fracture systems that tap events exhibit self-organized behavior (Bak, 1997).
into previously inaccessible fluid reservoirs. In the seismogenic regime, interseismic fault sealing can
Secondly, for networks just above the percolation thresh- repeatedly drive networks back below the percolation
old, where the backbone is a very small proportion of the threshold after rupture events, so that on the lifetime of the
total fault population, flow is localized on relatively few struc- hydrothermal system the network may oscillate about the
 PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL CONTROL IN HYDROTHERNJAL S~ TEM 21

FLUID OUT

FLUID IN
Fie. 21. Three-eli men ional flow paths assoc iated with flow through part of a network of intersecting fractur or faults
just above the percolation thresho ld . Fluid ente rs the network at the bottom and follows a tortu ous path (s hown in
blac k) to higher u·ucturaJ levels. Three-dime nsional flow near th e pe rcolation threshold produce a point-like distrib-
ution of high flux in map view.

percolation threshold. However, other factor may also lead
to self-organ ization in hydrothermal system .
Th e network modeling describ d above as umed that,
although elements of a percolation network nucleate ran-
domly, all elements grow at the same rate. In cases wh re
fracture sy terns connect to an overpressured fluid re er-
voir, invasion of high-pre ure fluids along fluid-acces ing
elements of the network may pre£ rentially weaken these
elem e nts and dramatically enhance their growth rates rela-
tive to elements isolated from fluid reservoirs . This occurs
through the effects of high fluid pr ssure promoting fail-
ure and reac tion-softening processes. Accordingly, con-
nected elements can slip and grow at much faster rates than
isolated elements. The fluid-driven growth, or "self-genera-
tion" (Sibson, 1996), of percolation networks in response
to inva ion of overpressurized fluid , therefore , provide a
positive£ edback b tween fluid access and fracture growth
rate. This may localize repeated slip and fluid flow on the
flow backbone that forms at th percolation threshold.
Fluid-driven network growth may well lead some hydrother-
mal sy tern to elf-organize near the percolation thre hold.
uch extreme fluid focusing generat high potential for
formation of giant ore deposits.
Ore deposition in percolation networks
In many ca e , ore deposition is controlled by proce e
such as (1) fluid mixing, (2) fluid-rock reaction, (3) phase
separation driven by udden fluid pre ure drop, and (4)
gradients in pressure and temperature (Skinn er, 1997).
Ore depo ition is dependent on structurally contro lled
delivery of fluid to appropriate r action sites. These
processes operate with different effectivene in different
parts of percolation networks.
Isolated elements of percolation n twork have the low-
e t fluid flux and, therefore, have minimal ore potential in
hydrothermal y tern . The ore potential of backbone and
dangling elements depends on the natur of the ore depo-
ition reactions, and whether the site i in the up tream or
downstr am part of the system.
Mo t flow occ urs along the network backbone. Even
though they are high-flux sites, flow backbones are unlikely
to be sit of sub tantial fluid-rock interaction or fluid mix-
22 COX t_]' AL.
ing away from their upstream or downstream terminations.
However, backbone sites do provide potential for ore depo-
sition in response to temperature and pressure gradients.
Backbone elements also have the potential for sudden fluid
pressure drops (and associated phase separation) caused by
co-seismic dilatancy associated with large slip on these struc-
tures in the seismogenic regime. The potential for ore
deposition involving fluid-rock reaction is dependent on
the grain-scale pervasiveness of flow. Especially during flow
along macroscopic fractures, fluid migrating along the flow
backbone has limited interaction with the fracture walls.
However, where flow is controlled by grain-scale dilatancy,
such as in cataclasite or ductile shear zone materials, fluid-
rock reaction can occur along the flow path.
High potential for fluid-rock reac tion is provided in the
downstream parts of percolation networks , where fluids dis-
charge from active structures into th e surrounding, perme-
able rock medium . Fluid discharge from th e downstream
termination of the flow backbone (Fig. 1), or from down-
stream dangling members of the network, promotes fluid-
rock interaction. Similarly, this part of the flow network
generates potential for fluid mixing if deeply derived fluids
discharging from the network interact with shallow-level
fluid reservoirs already present in the discharge regime , as
may be the case for many types of porphyry-type and
epithermal systems.
Potential for ore deposition by fluid mixing reactions
also occurs in the upstream parts of networks. The
upstream regions of flow backbones are domin a ted by
focusing of fluids from dispersed reservoirs and host rocks,
into the permeable backbone network. Mixing of fluids
derived from different reservoirs will be particularly effec-
tive where dangling (fluid feeder) elements of networks
intersect the upstream segments of backbone structures.
Conclusions
Active deformation is necessary to generate and maintain
permeability, and to sustain large-scale fluid flow in many
hydrothermal systems. At upper crustal levels, and in rocks
with low intergranular porosity, flow is controlled by per-
meability associated with grain-scale cataclasis and macro-
scopic fracture growth. At deeper crustal levels, fluid flow in
active shear zones typically is controlled by deformation-
induced , grain-scale microcrack p e rmeability. However,
macroscopic fracture permeability still develops in high
pore fluid factor regimes at elevated temperatures.
The distribution and geometry of fracture-controlled
fluid pathways is governed by fluid pressure and stress state.
High pore fluid factors are important in driving growth of
fracture permeability at all scales. High pore fluid factor
regimes tend to develop above leaking, suprahydrostatic-
pressured fluid reservoirs, and below low-perm eability
domains. Faults and shear zones play a key role in tapping
fluids from deeper level fluid reservoirs.
The highest fluid flux in individual faults or shear zones
is localized in sites with the highest fracture apertures
and/ or fracture density. Thus, both dilational and contrac-
tional bends and jogs on faults and shear zones, as well as
fault termination zones (wing cracks and splays) and fault
intersections, form structural sites with high potential for
localizing fluid flow.
The macroscopic fluid pathways in fracture-controlled
hydrothermal systems are influenced by the evolving con-
nectivity among elements offracture/ fault/ shear networks
during progressive deformation. The most extreme fl ow
localization and greatest potential for ore localizatio n
occurs at the onset of system-wide fluid flow, when the sys-
tem reaches the percolation threshold. Percolation thresh-
olds may be reach ed at bulk strains as low as a few p ercen t.
Systems well above the percolation threshold are associated
with more dispersed fluid flow, and may provide lower
potential for ore formation.
Acknowledgments
This work was funded partly by a grant from the Aus-
tralian Research Council, as well as by support from the
Research School of Earth Scie nces and WMC Resources
Ltd. R. Henley, S. Munroe , P. Nguyen, K. Ruming, R. ib-
son, W. Stone, ]. Streit, and S. Zhang all provided valuable
discussion about ore systems and fluid flow in rock media.
K.A. Foxford is thanked for providing a preprint. The co n-
structive review comments of M. Jebrak and S. Temperley,
as well as the editorial contributions of]. Richards, are also
greatly appreciated.
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Societ)' of Economic Geologists
Rcuiews v. 14, 2001, p. 25-50

Chapter 2

Seismogenic Framework for Hydrothermal Transport and Ore Deposition

RicHARD H. SmsoNt
Department of Geology, University of Otago, P. 0. Box 56, New Zealand

A furth er resul t attending the disturbances of the surface of th e Earth has bee n to produce ren ts
o r fi s ures in th e rocks which have bee n subjected to th ese viole n t moveme n ts, a nd to conve rt
the m in to receptacles of metallic o re acce ible by th e labors of man . The greater part of me tal-
liferous veins o riginated in e norm o u crac ks and crevice , peneu-ating irregul arl y and obliquely
downwards to a n unknown de pth , a nd resembling the ren ts and chasms which are produced by
mode rn earthqua ke .
- W Buckland, 1836 (writing on the "advantageous effect of
disturbing forces in giving origin to mineral veins")

Abstract
Fault mo tion in th e uppe r contin e ntal crust is acco mmodated principally by earthquake rupturing
within a seismogenic zo ne whose base, de pe nding o n compo itio n, ge ne rally li es in the 300° to 450°C
temperature range. Rup ture initiatio n, propagatio n, and te rmin atio n \vi thin this zo ne are affected by
structw-al a nd rh eological irregularities . Sawtooth acc umulatio n a nd relea e of shear su·e o n the sei -
mogenic tructures leads to cycling of both shear a nd mean stress (affecting fluid conte nt) througho ut
the surro unding rock mass, with sig nificant fluid redistributio n througho ut th e afte rshock ph ase follow-
ing large earthquake . tructural perm eabili ty in such regio ns i inu·insically dynamic: episodic creatio n
of perm eabili ty acco mpanyi ng e i mic lip and fractu ring is coun te racted by the development of low-per-
meability fa ul t go uge and hydro thermal ce men ta tio n, so that fl ow systems are modulated by inte rcoupl ed
su-ess and pe rmeabili ty cycling. Because crite ria for all modes of brittl e failure a nd fault res hear de pe nd
o n fluid pre sure a well as tectonic stres , a va riety of mechani m may link fluid redi tributio n to
e pisodic fa ulting and fracturing. Su-ess changes acco mpanyi ng la rge-scale mpturing o n established fa ul ts
redistribu te fluids through subsidi ary fracture netwo rks durin g afte rshock periods, bu t pac kage of ove r-
pressured fluid mig rating thro ugh su·es eel crust may al o create new structural pe rm eabili ty by distrib-
uted brittle failure, ge nera ting eart11qua ke warms.
T he fluid pressure tate at d iffe rent crustal levels i critical to th e for ma tion and preserva tion of void
space. Fluid overpressuring above hydro ta tic values is generally easie r to susta in in compressio nal tec-
to nic regimes, but maximum u t.:'l inabl e overpre sure in any pa rti cular setting de pe nds not o nl y o n th e
inu·insic permeabili ty of th e rock mas but also o n the tecto nic su·ess state and existing fa ult architecture.
Large-scale hyd ro th ermal fl ow tl1rough low-permeabili ty rocks i ofte n channeled within dilatant mesh
su-ucture of inte rlinked shear and ex te n io n fractures. Th ese fault-fracture meshes can fo rm and reacti-
vate o nl y unde r low effective su-ess (o 3' < 0, o r Pr> o 3 ) in th e ab e nce of tl1roughgoing low-cohesio n faul ts
tl1a t are well orie nted for frictio nal reacti vation. High-flux fl ow of tl1is kind can, th e refo re, occur o nly
unde r special structu ral circumstances. In exte n io nal-tran te nsio nal tecto nic regimes, dilatant me he
can be ma in tain ed under hydrostati c fluid pressures in th e shallow cru t to de ptl1 depe nde nt o n rock
te nsile su-ength , definin g tl1e epizo nal environme nt for mine rali zatio n . Howeve r, at all depths within
compressional-tra nspressio nal regimes, develo pmen t of fault-fracture me he involves hydro thermal flu-
id ove rp re sured to near-lithostatic value . In particular, mesozonal lode mineralizati o n requii-es tl1e ac-
cumula ti o n and in te rmitte nt high-flux discharge of su-ongly overpressured fluids in tl1e midcrust, most
comm o nly around the base of th e contine n tal seismogenic zo ne.
Impo rtant precipi tation mechanism linked to intermittent seismic slip include tl1e uctio n-pump mech-
ani m ari ing from ra pid lip tra nsfer ac ross dilatio nal fault j ogs and bend , and va ri o us forms of faul t-valve
ac tion where rup ture u-an ect bo undarie to overpressured portions of the crust. The e mechanisms in-
duce abrupt localized reductio n in fluid pressure at specific structural ite , trigge rin g phase separa tio n
and hydro the rmal precipitatio n througho ut tl1 e postseismic period of readju une nt (aftershock phase) .
Howeve r, re newal of fa ul t-fracture permeabili ty may also lead to episodic mi xing of fluids derived from dif-
fe rent sources. Fo r example, each fa ult-valve di charge may promo te preci pitatio n thro ugh th e mixing of

t E-mail, Rick.S ibson@sto nebow.otago.ac. nz

25
26 RICHARD H. SIBSON

originally deep, hot, overpressured fluids of metamorphic and/ or magmatic origin with colder fluids cir-
culating in the near-surface hydrostatic regime.
Regional episodes of fluid redisu·ibution are likely to accompany major tectonic transitions (e.g., tec-
tonic inversion) because of changes in the stress state and sustainable levels of fluid overpressure, and an
inherited architecture of faults poorly oriented for slip in the new stress field. Evidence of structural
channeling in such settings reveals interesting com pari sons between the flow paths of hydrothermal and
hydrocarbon fluids.

Introduction tectonic stress field (Barton et al., 1995). Thus, processes of

STUDIES of exhumed fault zones provide abundant evidence
for their role as fluid conduits at all crustal levels (McCaig,
1997; Parry, 1998), but from the viewpoint of mineralization
the key problem is to identify the specific conditions that
promote focused, large-flux flow at specific sites (Cox et al.,
2001). A large proportion of hydrothermal mineral deposits
are associated with faults and allied fracture systems that
were active in the upper, seismogenic crust, although it is
notable that the hosting faults are often comparatively low-
displacement features (Knopf, 1929; McKinstry, 1948). Solu-
bility criteria, incremental vein textures, and the need for
rapid transport between different P-T-X environments to
promote instability and localized precipitation suggest that
mineralization generally results from multiple transient
episodes of rapid flow (Henley and Berger, 2000). This, cou-
pled with structural evidence that mineralization was synk-
inematic, developing in the same tectonic stress field as the
hosting faults, has led many workers over the years to postu-
late a relationship between episodes of hydrothermal pre-
cipitation and seismic slip increments (e.g. , Buckland, 1836;
Hulin, 1925; Knopf, 1929; Newhouse, 1942; Robert and
Brown, 1986; Cox, 1995).
Our understanding of the relationship between fault
structure and earthquake activity has improved greatly over
the past three decades through the development of high-
density seismograph networks and improved location tech-
niques (e.g., Hill etal., 1990). Paramount is the recognition
that away from subduction interfaces, earthquakes are gen-
erally confined to the upper half of deforming continental
crust and that earthquake rupturing, involving frictional
reactivation of existing faults, is the predominant means of
accommodating fault slip within the upper seismogenic
crust. Additionally, modern seismotectonic analyses employ-
ing focal mechanism studies have given us a far better pic-
ture of the styles and patterns of faulting that occur in dif-
ferent tectonic settings. Direct evidence of fluid involvement
with shallow crustal earthquakes comes from observations of
substantial postseismic discharge in the vicinity of some
active faults (Muir-Wood and King, 1993) , and recent geo-
chemical studies suggest a very large C0 2 flux through the
San Andreas fault system (Kennedy et al., 1997). In addi-
tion, theoretical and laboratory studies emphasize the cou-
pling of stress and fluid pressure conditions in fault and
fracture formation and in the reactivation of existing struc-
tures, and there is accumulating evidence that active struc-
tural permeability in the crust is controlled by the prevailing
fluid redistribution in the vicinity of faults, if not directly dri-
ven, seem likely to be strongly modulated by stress and per-
meability cycling tied to the earthquake stress cycle (Fig. 1).
Different fluid flow regimes are, therefore, expected to
prevail in intraplate regions, where seismic activity is low, in
comparison with seismically active plate boundaries. In the
former, steady flow systems may develop under a relatively
constant intraplate stress field. In the latter, seismic failure
along major fault systems, with episodic regeneration of
structural permeability coupled to stress cycling in the sur-
rounding crust, leads to cyclical modulation of flow systems
(Sibson, 1994). This contribution discusses dynam ic
processes of fluid redistribution coupled to the earthquake
stress cycle that may induce mineral precipitation at specific
structural sites through dramatic reductions in fluid pressure
and/ or fluid mixing. In terms of basic exploration practice,
it emphasizes the importance of identifying (1) the tectonic
stress regime and mode of faulting, (2) the structural geom-
etry related to fault irregularities, (3) the level in the crust,
and (4) the fluid pressure state at the time of mineralization.
Seismogenic Crust
Earthquakes in the shallow crust arise from frictional
instability with ruptures propagating over part or all of a
fault surface (Scholz, 1998). Earthquake magnitude (M)
increases with rupture dimension (L) and rupture area ( "'
L2), and the amount of slip (IT) averaged over the rupture
surface. Scaling relationships have been established on the
basis of the near-constancy of earthquake stress drops all w-
ing approximate correlations to be made between M, L, and
A and IT (Table 1) . In any active region, the statistical distri-
bution of different sized earthquakes follows a power law
relationship such that earthquake frequency increases by
about a factor of 10 for every unit decrease in magnitude.
Also shown in Table 1 is the relative seismic wave energy
release with respect to an M1 earthquake, estimated from
the Gutenberg-Richter relationship (wave energy increases
by a factor of -32 for every unit increase in magnitude ) . It
follows that, although small earthquakes are highly numer-
ous compared with large ones, the energy released as a
whole by small events tends to be insignificant compar ed
with that released by the largest events in a region .
Continental seismogenic zone
Away from areas of active subduction, where thermal a nd
fluid pressure regimes are strongly perturbed (e.g., H ase-
gawa et al., 1994), microearthquake activity (M < 3) is
 SEISMOCENIC FRAMEWORK FOR ORE DEPOSITION
hydrothermal
self-sealing
FIG. 1. "Delta" diagram illustrating how C)'clical earthquake (EQ) rup-
turin g leads lO intercoupl ed changes in tectoni c stress, perm eability, and
fluid pressure, thereby effecting flu id redistribution and hydroth e rmal
precipitation .
largely confined to the top 10 to 20 km of deforming conti-
nental crust (Fig. 2) in areas of moderate to high heat flow
(60-100 mW/ m 2 ; Sibson, 1983; Hill et al. , 1990). eism icity
deep ns to -25 km in co ld er craton ic crust, as in ea tern
North America, but also shallows to depths of only a few
kilometers in areas of intense geothermal activi ty. Predom-
inant factors affecting seismogen ic depth are inferred to be
heat flow and crustal compo ition: temperature at the con-
tinental s ismic-as i mic transition have been inferred to
vary from -300° to -450° for, re pectively, quartz-domi-
nant and fe ld par-dominant rheologie (Sib on, 1984;
Scholz, 1988). Similarly, Ito (1999) infers a temperature of
350° ± 50°C for the base of the seismogenic zone in south-
west japan. In the Kakkonda geothermal field of northeast
J apan , drilling through a contact aureo le into a late Qua-
ternary granitic pluton (T > 500oC) has allowed direct cor-
relation of the local micro ei micity cut-out at -2 km depth
to the 350oC i oth erm (Muraoka et al. , 1998).
Variations in seismic tyle
Mainshock-afterslwck sequences: Moderate to large tectonic
earthq uakes generally occur as mainshock-aftershock
T ABLE 1. Approximate Correla tio ns be twee n Earthquake 1agnitude, Rupture Parame te rs,
Relative Wave En e rgy Release wilh Respect to a n Ml Earthquake, and Re lative Frequen cy of
Diffe re nt Magnitude Ruptures in Rela tion to th e Average Occurre nce per Year of M7 Ea rthquakes
Magnitude u L
f7 -1m - 30 km - 103 km2
M5 - 10 em -3 km - 10 km 2
M3 - 1 em -300m - 105 m 2
Ml - 1 mm -30m - J03 m2
Abbreviations: M =ea rthquake magnitude, u =ave rage slip, L = rupture dime nsion , A "' L2 =a rea
Note: as tun es co nsta nt sh ear stre drop LIT = 3 MPa ac ross circul a r ruptures (es timated from re lation hip in
Kanamori and And rson, 1975, and Hanks and Kanamori , 1979)
27
equence , ometime with premonitory foreshocks. Recur-
rence intervals between successive mainshock typically
range from decades to many thousands of years, depending
on the level of fau lt activity. Th e larger earthquak tend
to nucleate towards the bottom of the microseismically
defined seismogenic zone (Fig. 2) with the rupture propa-
gating either unilaterally or bilaterally as well a upward ,
typically at around the shear wave velocity of -3 km / s. As a
general rule , on ly M > 6 rupture break through to the
Earth 's surface to produce a surface rupture trace. i mo-
logical and geodetic tudie oupl d with analys of sur-
face fau lt-breaks and precision aftershock location sugge t
that the bulk of slip during rupture is confined to a th in
tabu lar zone of indeterminate thickness. However, after-
hock activity may be distributed through ub tantial vol-
umes of rock, e pecially around the perimeter of th e main-
hock rupture or near rupture irregu laritie (e.g.,
Reasen berg and Ellsworth , 1982). After hock sequences
extend for time period gene rally ranging between months
and years for moderat to large rupture , the level of activ-
ity decaying inversely with time from the mainshock.
Scholz (1982) argued that the typical 10 to 20 km thick-
ness of the seismogenic zone imposes a fundamental length
scale on crustal rupturing (Fig. 2). Small ruptures (M < 6)
confined within the sei mogenic layer follow omewhat dif-
ferent scaling laws from large earthquakes (M > 6) , which
rupture the full depth of th s i moge ni c zone a nd then
extend along strike to total rupture lengths that are many
times the seismogenic thickness (Pacheco et a l. , 1992).
M<Yor fau lt zon s such a the San Andr as fault system also
exhibit ignificant along-strike variations in eism ic style
(Hill et al. , 1990). Background microearthquake activity is
extremely low along the two segments of th San Andreas
Fault, whi ch ruptured hi torically in great (M"" 8) earth-
quakes in 1 57 and 1906, but along segments of the San
Andreas and Calaveras faults that are actively creeping, the
fau lt zone is defined by clust r d microseismicity a a sub-
vertical tabular structure extend ing through most of the
seismogenic zone.
Swarm activity: Earthquake swarms are a variant of eismic
activity where a large number of small earthquake occur
without a di tinct principal hock, the activity waxing and
waning through time a nd sometime migrating. Swarm
tend to be di tributed throughout a substantia l rock vol-
ume-a key distinction from tandard tectonic arth-
Energy release w.r.t. M1 Re lative frequ e ncy
- 109 N/ yr
-10 6 - 100 N/ yr
-103 - 10,000 N/ yr
1 - 1,000,000 / yr
28 RICHARD H. SJBSON

surface
____,. rupture

10

20 •
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 MQH0 '''''''''''''''''''1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

30
km

FIG. 2. Su·ike-parallel lo ngitudin al profil e illustratin g varying se ism ic style alon g th e transition from locked to creep-
in g segments of a major strike-sl ip fault zone (modeled in part on the San Andreas fault) and the relationship of small
and large ruptures (perimeters defined by aftershock concenu-atio ns-fi lled circles) to the continental seis moge ni c zone
defin ed by background microseismicity (open circles). Stars represent h ypoce nters (po ints of rupture initi ation ) for
larger ruptures.

quakes. They are frequently associated with areas of recent fluid overpressure (Fig. 3). A fundamental change in
volcanic or geothermal activity within extensional and shearing processes occurs within continental fault zones
transtensional tectonic regimes. Within the latter, swarms at the onset of greenschist facies metamorphic conditions
are often localized within dilational stepovers. Hi ll (1977) (T > 300°C), marked by the appearance of mylonite series
proposed a mechanical model accounting for swarm char- fault rocks with penetrative L-S fabrics (foliation p lus
acteristics that involves migration of magmatic and/ or stretch lineation) developed by temperature-sensitive crys-
hydrothermal fluids through a distributed honeyco mb tal plastic flow. Flow by dislocation creep sets in for quartz
mesh of interlinked minor shear and extension fractures at temperatures higher than 300 o to 350 °C, and for
(see below). feldspar at temperatures higher than 450°C (Carter and
Tsenn, 1987) . Greenschist mylonitization, however, gener-
Correlation to fault structure and rheology ally involves a mixture of deformation mechanisms with
Studies of exhumed faults suggest that major transcrustal plastic flow of quartz accompanied by feldspar cataclasis,
fault zones are predominantly tabular features in upper perhaps aided by diffusional mechanisms as grain size is
brittle and lower ductile regions of the crust (Fig. 3), flaring reduced by dynamic recrys tallization and/ or cataclasis
out somewhat with increasing depth in the middle to lower (White et al., 1980). The quasi-plastic (QP) flow regime
crust (Hanmer, 1988). Their internal structure is often het- (Sibson, 1983) embraces all these flow mechanisms. H ow-
erogeneous with slip and/ or strain localized on principal ever, flow shear resistance throughout the quasi-plastic
displacement zones that may continue as p lanar features regime is likely bounded by a temperature-depende nt
over considerable distances or anastomoze within a mesh- power law appropriate to dislocation creep, decreasing
like structure (Wallace and Morris, 1986). In the brittle with increasing temperature and depth , so that p e ak
upper crust, principal displacement zones are localized shear resistance occurs in the neighborhood of the
within or, commonly, at one or other of the margins to a FR/ QP transition. Under higher greenschist to amphibo-
fault zone of varying thickness (<-1 km for large displace- lite facies metamorphic conditions in the lower crust (T >
ment strike-slip faults) comprising variably fractured and 500°C)' textures of mylonitic gneisses record more con-
cataclastically deformed material. At deeper ductile levels, tinuous and presumably aseismic shearing deformation
high-strain shear zones anastomoze around lozenges of within ductile shear zones that common ly range from
comparatively low-strain material. A generalized depth pro- hundreds of meters to kilometers in thickness (Hanmer,
gression of dominant fau lt rock types-gouge / breccia 1988) (N.B. The FR/ QP transition corre lated with the
(ofte n clay-rich) ~ cataclasite ~myl onite ~mylonitic base of the seismogenic zone can only loosely be equated
gneiss (Sibson, 1983; Passchier and Trouw, 1996; Snoke et with the ill-defined "brittle-ductile transition," which has
al., 1998)-provides the basis for a simple rheological different connotations for fi eld geologists, seismologists,
model that accounts for the depth of the seismic-aseismic and experimentalists in rock deformation; Rutter, 1986).
transition in quartzo-feldspathic continental crust. Fault rock textures in the vicinity of the FR/ QP transition
Th e predominance of pressure-dependent cataclastic record a mixture of continuous and discontinuous shear-
processes in the upper crust defines a frictional (FR) ing (e.g., mylonitic fabrics interlaced with deforme d
regime where shearing resistance increases with depth pseudotachylytes or hydrotl1ermal fault-veins). Commonly
unless increasing overburden pressure is counteracted by inferred temperatures at the base of the seismogenic zone
 SE!SMOCJ:.r v!C FRAJI!lEWORK FOR ORE Dt-J>OSITION 29

1 km SHEAR RESISTANCE (MPa)

H=2xV 4 •
0 200 300

fls = 0 .75
hydrostatic
profile
(A.v =0.4)
R
'\ \
FA \,
\
\
\
\
ss quartz--\
\

rheology \
-- \
15 \
\
\
\
\

feldspar~
rheology

20

DEPTH
(km)
25
Fie . 3. Ge ne ral rheo logical model and schematic su·e ngt.h profil e fo r a u·anscrustal trike-slip fault. zo ne (SS) in typi-
ca lly he t.e roge neous crust (ho rizo n tal scale = 2 x verti cal scale) . Base o f se ismoge ni c zone is d efin ed by the transition
fro m unstabl e fri ctio nal (FR) slidin g o n p1incipal displ acemen t zones (PDZ) LO distributed qua i-pla Lie (QP) shea ring
flow. Frictio nal fault stre ngth has bee n calculated assuming o ptimal fault ori e ntati on for a friction coeffi cie nL p, = 0.75
unde r hydro tati c fluid press ure (Av = 0.4; co mpa rative stre ngths o f optima l norma l [1 ] a nd reve rse faults [R] at o
shown ). Average fri cti o nal strength through Lh e eismoge nic zon e imposed by heat flow c nstra int n th e San Andreas
fault shown fo r com pari o n.

in continental crust (350° < T < 450°C) accord well with the
recognition of a fundamental cha nge from frictional to
quasi-plastic deforma tion in fault zones occurring some-
where within the greenschist facies environment, depend-
ing on the quartz/ feldspar ratio. Crustal heterogeneity con-
tribute to the m aring-out of the FR/ QP transition zone,
which involve a complex mixture of discontinuous and
continuous shearing proce ses.
~17Ie earthquake shear st1ess cycle
Faulting occurs to relieve accumulated shear stres ( -r) on
faults. Seismological and geodetic stud i s d monstrate that
shear tres adjacent to a major sei mically active fault fo l-
lows an approximate sawtooth oscillation (Fig. 4a) . Periods
of steady linear accumulation of shear str ss (and ela tic
strain ) over interseismic period ranging from decade to
30 RICHARD H. SIBSON

(a) t l EO EO
I
EO
I
Other important stress parameters influencing fluid flow
such as mean stress, 0 , are tied to this basic shear str ss
cycle, although the nature of the coupling depends on the
mode offaulting (Fig. 4b, c). The aftershock phase, conse-
quent on abrupt localized stress change and creation of

log k ~~::~_],: - - - -K~ fresh fracture permeability (Fig. 1) , seems likely to repre-
sent the most intense period of fluid redistribution around
- I I I
.. a seismically active structure.
"Characteristic" earthquakes and structural

(b ) 6 1~m•sev
~~AIIIT ~ t~
I
v
controls on rupturing
Paleoseismic studies along fault zones have demonstrated
that activity along individual fault segments commonly
involves "characteristic" ruptures of about the same dime n-
I I I
I sion and slip, rather than a mixture of different sized earth-
I I I quakes (Schwartz and Coppersmith, 1984). Repeating char-
I I I acteristic earthquakes have also been observed down to the
(c) 6 1 I I microearthquake (M < 3) level in detailed studies of the an

~ORM~~
r
I
I I I
TI ME
FIG. 4. Fluid-pressure cycl in g in relatio n to th e earthquake (EQ) stress
cycl e. a . Sawtooth oscillation of sh ea r stress, '!", a lon g a seismoge nic fault
with inferred fluctuations in fault zo ne permeability, k. b. Coupled varia-
tion in mean stress, cr, alo ng a reverse fault. c. Coupled va riation in mean
stres , cr, alon g a normal fau lt. d. Fluid-press ure cyc lin g acco mpa nyin g
fault-valve action in overpress ured crust, and suction-pump effect within a
dilational fault jog (Ph and P1 equal hydrostatic and lith ostatic fluid pres-
sure leve ls, respectively).
many thousands of years are punctuated by rapid stress
drops during rupturing, with evidence of nonlinear relax-
ation during the postseismic aftershock phase, which for
larger earthquakes may last from months to years. A key
point, therefore, is that the stress state around a fault post-
failure may differ substantially from the prefailure state,
especially if the d egre e of shear stress relief is high.
Whereas the absolute level of shear stress driving faulting at
depth remains contentious, the average shear stress drop
accompanying rupture generally lies in the range 1 < ~'t <
10 MPa (Kanamori and Anderson, 1975) . Amplitude of
stress cycling diminishes with distance from the causative
fault: for larger earthquakes that rupture across the seismo-
genic zone , stress cycling will extend through the adjacent
crust to distances comparable with the depth of the zone
(say, ± 15 km).
Andreas and other major active faults (Bakun and McEvilly,
1984; Nadeau and McEvilly, 1997). Such behavior implies
the existence of structural controls that determine whe re
characteristic ruptures initiate and terminate. A range of
geometrical and rheological irregularities have been pro-
posed as structural controls accounting for characteristic
earthquake behavior, including fault bends (King, 1986) , en
echelon segment stepovers (Segall and Pollard, 1980; Sib-
son, 1986) , and rheological heterogeneity at the base of the
seismogenic zone (Sibson, 1984). As yet, no consensus e ists
on the relative importance of these different controls.
Along strike-slip faults, where microearthquake epicen-
ters can be directly correlated to geometrical irregulari ties
seen in map view, there are clear correlations between after-
shock concentrations and major fault irregularities. Partic-
ularly noticeable is the tendency for intense clustering of
aftershocks within dilational sites, especially dilatio nal
stepovers Uogs) linking en echelon fault segments (Fig. 5).
By contrast, in the case of contractional stepovers, after-
shocks often extend well into the surrounding crust adja-
cent to the stepover (Sibson, 1985a; 1986). Strike-slip ru p-
tures often terminate , or are severely p e rturbed , in the
neighborhood of larger dilational stepovers with sub se-
quent time-dependent slip transfer across the jog (Peltzer
et al. , 1996). Recent advances in Coulomb inte raction
analysis (see review by Harris, 1998), involving modeling of
changes in shear and normal stress throughout the region
around a complex earthquake rupture, have demonstrated
good correlations between areas of enhanced failure poten-
tial (raised shear stress and lowered normal stress) with
observed aftershock distributions (e.g., King et al., 1994).
This technique holds great promise for identifying likely
mineralizing sites around complex fault traces.
In a global study of the distribution of major irregularities
on strike-slip faults, Wesnousky (1988) demonstrated a gen-
eral decrease in the frequency of fault irregularities with
increasing finite displacement, and a corresponding increase
in the maximum size of earthquake ruptures. This recogni-
tion of fault-smoothing with increasing disp lacemen t has
important implications for mineralization: the high degree
 SEISMOGENI C FRAMEWORK FOR ORE DEPOSITION 31

1979

a) \ OYOTELAKE
\ to.(~ M5.9 (a)
{\
dilational \(
jog M:~:
~~
\
.....
\

(b)

c)

dilational
jog

5 -- -~-- --~ cr1

+4
(f) I
1
ern I I
(f) I I
(c) ~ 3 _I_
N 1- I

t
(f) 2 _ I_ _ I_
I 't I I
- - ~ -- _ L--- ~ --- ~
I I I I
I 1-+-+-~k I I
0 H-+-+-+-!-! I!I I I~
I I
45 ° 9,0 °\J/~5 ° 1~0 ° e
I I I I
2 _I _ I_ - - - )

1992
10 km
! • • , . ,,.
LANDERS
M7.3
(d)
FIG. 5. Co ntrastin g aftershock distributions around dilatio nal and con-
tractional j ogs on dextral strike-slip fault ruptures in Cali forni a (star indi-
cate mainshock e pi ce nters, arrowhead indi cate d irection of rupture prop-
aga tion , stippl ing inte nsity re fl ects afte rshock con ce ntra ti o ns ) . a . 1979
M5.9 Coyo te La ke ea rthqu a ke (afte r Rease nbe rg a nd Ellswo rth , 1982) .
b. 1968 M6.4 Borrego Mo unta in ea rthquake (afte r Hamil to n , 1972) .
c. 1992 M7.3 Landers ea rthquake (afte r Hauksson et al. , 1993).

of comp lexity along low-displacement structures renders
them much more favorable as mineralizing sites.
Tectonic Stress and Fluid Pressure Regimes
State of stress in fluid-saturated crust
The tres tate at a point in a continuum under load may
be represented by an axial cro s comprising three orthogo-
nal principal compressive stresses:
(1)
(Fig. 6a). o shea r stress occurs on the principal planes
containing any two of the principal stres es; planes at all
FIG. 6. Basic pro pe rti es o f stress. a. Ax ial cross of th e principa l com-
pressive stresses (stress ellipso id ) defining the sta te of stress at a point.
b. Components of sh ea r (-r) and normal stress (a 11 ) on a plan e containing
a2 and lying at an angle (} to <JI. c. Plot illu tra ting the variation of -rand <J11
as a fun cti on of(} for th e ca e wh e n <JI = 5 a nd a 3 = 1 stress unit, respec-
tively. d. Vari ation of loca l stress fie ld within a buckling layer with respect
to far-field appli ed stress (n.s. = neutral surface) .
oth er orientations h ave resolved compon ents of sh ear
stre s, -r, as well as normal stress ( cr3 < crn < cr1 ). The differ-
ential stress ( cr1 - cr3 ) is a m easure of the "deviatoric" ch ar-
acter of the stress field. Maximum sh ear stre s ( 'rmax = 0.5
(cr1 - cr3 )) a lways lies alo n g planes con taining the cr2 axis
oriented at ±45° to the cr1 direction. Mean stress (which ,
32
because it determines volumetric strain, can be thought of
as the "grasp on the sponge") is
- (0"1 + (}2 + O"g)
0"= 3 (2)
In fluid-saturated crust with internal pore-fluid pressure,
Pr, however, the mechanical response of a rock mass is gov-
erned by the effective principal compressive stresses:
1 1
0"1 = (0"1- Pr) > 0"2 = (0"2- Pr) > O"gl =
(Hubbert and Rubey, 1959).
For the family of planes containing the 0"2
stress is given by
(O"J + O"g) . 28
2
-r =
sm
and the effective normal stress by
where eis the angle between 0"1 and the plane (Fig. 6b, c).
Effective mean stress is then
I I I)
0'1=(0'-Pr)= (O"t+~2+0"s.
''A ndersonian" stress (and fault) regimes
Anderson ( 1951) recognized the existence of three basic
stress regimes within the crust. Given that the Earth's sur-
face is approximately horizontal in most cases, with the
rock-air interface incapable of supporting shear stress, it
follows that stress trajectories near the surface are generally
either vertical or horizontal with the vertical stress, O"y = 0"1,
0"2 , or 0"3 (Fig. 7). Recognizing also that brittle faults gener-
ally form through Coulomb failure along planes containing
the 0"2 axis at e 25 ° to 30 ° to 0"1 (see below), Anderson
(1951) defined three fundamental modes offaulting in the
different stress regimes: steeply dipping normal faults form-
ing in extensional stress regimes ( oy = 0"1); gently dipping
thrust faults forming in compressional stress regimes ( O"y =
0"3 ); and subvertical strike-slip faults forming in wrench
regimes ( O"y = 0"2 ) (Fig. 7). Note, however, that Anderson's
classification is based on fault orientation with respect to
the stress field at the time offault inception.
At depth, stress trajectories may curve as a conse-
quence of horizontal shear tractions developed, for
example, at the base of the brittle upper crust or the
lithosphere (Westaway, 1998). Considerable stress het-
erogeneity may also result from material or structural
heterogeneity within the Earth (e.g., Segall and Pollard,
1980). Indeed, situations may arise where the local stress
field is very different from the far-field stress (Fig. 6d).
Nonetheless, regional studies employing a combination
of focal mechanism and borehole stress analyses have
demonstrated the existence of rather uniform stress
RICHARD f-l. SIBSON
Compressional
Thrust Fault
Strike-Slip or
Wrench Fault
(O"g- Pr) (3)
axis, the shear
(4) Extensional
Normal Fault
(6)
FIG. 7. The three Anderson ian stress regimes, showing the expected
orientations of faults and associated extension fractures at initiation.
provinces, corresponding to one or other of the three
Andersonian regimes, extending over large portions of
the Earth's crust (Zoback, 1992).
Correlation of stress regimes to tectonic setting
Andersonian extensional regimes incorporating normal
fault systems are dominant along divergent plate boundaries
(Yeats et al., 1997). Sets of parallel, predominantly inward-
facing normal faults tend to be symmetrically disposed
about the rift axes along midocean ridges and some conti-
nental rifts (Cowie, 1998), where they are frequently associ-
ated with magmatic intrusion of parallel-striking dikes. In
other regions of distributed continental extension, such as
the Basin and Range province of western North America,
sets of normal faults with consistent facing direction bound
sets of tilting fault blocks undergoing domino rotation, sep-
arated by half-graben sedimentary basins (Fig. 8; Roberts
and Yielding, 1994). In such regions, the fault sets remain
seismically active down to dips of 30° to 35°, at which they
apparently lock up (Jackson and White, 1989). Formation of
a new generation of steep normal faults and their subse-
quent dominoing may then allow the early inactive fault set
to rotate down to still lower dips (Proffett, 1977). Arc-paral-
lel normal faults may, however, also develop in island arc set-
tings, often in association with magmatic activity in back-arc
 SEISMOCENIC FRA NIEWORK FOR ORE Dn"POSJ710N
(a) EXTENSIONAL DOMINO LOCK-UP
\\\\\
-
(b) COMPRESSIONAL DOMINO LOCK-UP
-~-
FIG. 8. Sets of initially Ande rson ian normal and reverse faults undergo-
ing domino rotation to frictional lock up at55° to 60° to cr1 during progres-
sive regiona l exte nsion and contraction , respectively. Light dashed lin es
indica te likely orientations of secondary fault sets fom1in g afte r lock up.
basins and, in the vicinity of the outer rise in subduction sys-
tems, through bending of the subducting slab. ormal fault-
ing a! o develops orthogonally to thrusting in active colli-
sion orogens such as the Himalaya to allow lateral dis ten ion
of the uplifted welt (Armijo eta!., 1986).
Andersonian compressional regimes an d active reverse
faulting ar prin cipally associated with conve rgent plate
boundaries (Yeats eta!. , 1997). In island and mountain arc
systems, interplate motion is primari ly accommodated on
the megathrust at the subduction interface; subsid iary
thrusting may develop in the fore-arc ba in on the ubduc-
tion hanging wall , and on oppo ite-vergent thrusts in the
back-arc. Thrust fau lting likewise dominates in the foreland
and hinterland flanks of collisional orogens. Local areas of
thrusting are also associated with contractional irregulari-
ties on continental transform fau lts. However, isolated
reverse faul t ruptures also occur in intraplate regions such
as the craton ic cru t of ea tern orth America and Au -
tralia. Steeper reverse fau lting tends to characterize for-
m erly rifted cru t undergoing sh ortening (pos itive inver-
sion tectonics), but may also develop in collision-accretion
comp lexes wh ere , as a consequence of progre sive hori-
zontal contraction , sets of early sh allow-dipping thrusts
33
undergo domino teepening to fricti onal lock up a t dips
approaching 60° (Fig. 8).
Comprehen ive reviews of strike- lip fau lt geom etry, prin-
cipally in continental and i land arc environme nts, are pro-
vided by Yeats eta!. (1997) and Woodcock and Schubert
(1994). Continental trik -slip fau lt sy tern occur in a
range of patterns and tectonic setting : (1) as braided sys-
tems of subparallel strike-slip fault d efini ng continental
transforms; (2) a trench-paralle l strike-slip faults con-
tributing to strain partitioning along island and mountain
arcs; (3) as indent-related strike-sli p faults in collisional oro-
gens; (4) as local tran fer tructure in predominantly dip-
slip fau lt sy te rn ; and (5) as distributed trike- lip fau lts,
developed in ei ther parallel or co njugate ts, accommo-
dating crustal deformation over broad area , often with ig-
nificant rotations of crustal blocks about vertical axes (e.g.,
Luyendyk, 1991). In many cases it eem that the orienta-
tion of large-di placement trike-slip faults no longer bears
a ny simple Andersonian relationship to regional cr 1 stre
trajectories (e.g., Mount and Suppe, 1992). Major irregu-
larities induce subsidiary deformation. Thrusting develops
in tl1e vicinity of restraining bend and within contractional
jogs, and normal faulting occurs near releasing bends and
within dilatio nal j ogs. Such irregularities serve a local
amplifi ers of vertical motion within the trike-slip sys tem
but many appear to be comparatively short-lived (Brown et
a!., 1991).
Fluid pres ure regimes in the crust
The pressure, Pc, exerted by flu id aturating p ore a nd
fracture space within the rock mass is of huge importance
to mineralization. Through the principle of effective stre s
(Hubbert an d Rubey, 1959) , fluid pre ure m ay reduce
rock strength and indu ce brittle fa ilure, and a! o plays a
critical role in the creation of void space. At depth, z, within
the Earth, tl1e level of fluid pressure is conveniently defined
with reference to tl1e vertical tre (overburden pressure)
by means of the pore-fluid factor,
(7)
where PR is th e average rock density and g is gravitational
acce leration . Effective overburden pressure may then be
written,
(8)
Where pore and fracture space is saturated with aqueous
fluid and freely interconnected up to the water table (u u-
ally assumed coincident with the Earth 's surface) , the fluid
pressure state is aid to be hydrostatic with A.y = Pwate/ PR "'
0.4 along a linear hydrostatic gradie nt of approxima tely 10
MPa/ km (Fig. 9). In edimen tary basins with impermeabl
horizons (e.g., hale or evaporite formations), however, il is
not uncommon for fluid pressures to exceed hydrostatic
value (A.y > 0.4) at d epths of more than a few kilometer
a nd to approach lithostatic values (Ay ~ 1.0) at g reater
34 RICHARD H. SIBSON

FLUID PRESSURE (MPa) SHEAR RESISTANCE

100 200 300 400
0
= 2650 kgfm3
lrn
p

(/)

5
-
(/)
$;::
a
0
G) \
\ ~
~
-
CJ
\
\ 0
\
\
~

\ ~.-o
%:

10 t5< \
\
\
~
~

1
\
I
I
DEPTH
...... ,.
~

km
-T - 350°C-

15
Av = 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
FIG. 9. Hypoth etical fluid pressure profiles and associated frictional sh ear resistance (normali zed to hydrostatic 'rr.-l
through the FR regim e of an active fault zo ne. Thick dashed lin es (a, b) represent two of a range of smooth progressions
from hydrostatic to near-lithostatic fluid pressures towards the base of the seismoge nic zone; lin e c represents a profile
through a compartmentalized fau lt zone with hydrostatic gradients between each sea lin g horizon (stippl ed). Thin
dashed lines define overpressures at co nstant pore-fluid factor (?..y).

depths. Underpressured zones (A.y < 0.4) also exist in some
sedimentary basins and in vapor-dominated geothermal sys-
tems (Allis, 2000).
More detailed recent studies of fluid pressure distribu-
tions in sedimentary basins have revealed evidence of over-
pressured compartments bounded by sealing surfaces that
may include stratigraphic horizons , tabular zones of
hydrothermal cementation in some cases following isother-
mal surfaces, and impermeable, generally clay-rich fault
seals that may be steep or shallow (Hunt, 1990; Powley,
1990) . Though overpressured to suprahydrostatic values,
vertical pressure gradients inside such sealed compart-
ments generally remain hydrostatic. Hydrocarbon prove-
nance studies coupled with the presence of localized
hydrothermal plumes in the high levels of some overpres-
sured basins (Roberts eta!., 1996; McKenna and Sharp ,
1997), and abnormal diagenetic assemblages localized in
the vicinity offaults (Burley et al., 1989; Bruhn et al., 2000)
provide evidence that bounding seals are breached from
time to time by faulting and fracturing (fault-valve action).
Fluid overpressuring may arise through the following:
(1) compaction, especially in areas of rapid sedimentation
perhaps aided by compressional deformation as in fore-arc
prisms (Davis eta!. , 1983); (2) diagenetic and metamor-
phic dehydration processes aided by organic maturatio ;
(3) igneous intrusion into fluid saturated crust (Fournier,
1999) ; and, perhaps (4) direct linkage to zones of mantl e
degassing, as recently postulated for the San Andreas fault
system (Kennedy et al., 1997). Fluid pressure levels are usu-
ally reckoned to be near-lithostatic (A.y"" 1.0 with P r"" O'y ) in
regions undergoing prograde metamorphism at gree -
schist and higher grades, where mineral deformation
mechanisms contribute to rapid sealing, infilling, and col-
lapse of pore space (Etheridge et al., 1984). As a general
rule , fluid overpressures are easier to sustain in compres-
sional as opposed to extensional regimes because of the
tendency for fault and fracture systems to be shallow dip-
ping in the former, but steeply inclined in the latter (Sibson
and Scott, 1998).
Various dynamic forms of overpressuring have also been
postulated as mechanisms accounting for the apparent
weakness of major seismically active p late boundary faults
such as the San Andreas fault. Rice (1992) suggested a
model where overpressuring is sustained by a continuous
upwards fluid flux through the fault zone, whereas Byerlee
(1993) proposed that fault zones are subdivided into over-
pressured compartments separated by seals, in each of
which the pressure gradient remains hydrostatic, with local
 SETSMOCENIC FRAJ'vl.EWORK FOR ORE DEPOS/T/0 35

fluid redistribution occurring at the time of earthquakes.
Sleep and Blanpied (1994) advanced a model in which
fluid overpressure is regenerated in each seismic cycle
through com paction of fault gouge. Figure 9 illustrates a
range of possible fluid pressure profiles through the ei -
mogenic zone , and their effect in reducing frictional
strength below that expected for a fau lt that is uniformly
hydrostatically pressured ( ee eq. 9). Profile (a) in Figure 9
represents an initial low degree of overpre uring with a
harp transition to near-litho tatic pressures under green-
ch i t conditions near the ba e of the eismogen ic zone;
profil (b) a more progre ive tran ition to near-lithostatic
pressures; and profile (c) a compartmentalized fault zone
with the pressure gradient reverting to hydrostatic within
each compartment.
Faults, Fractures, and Fluid Pressure Levels
Three modes of macroscopic brittle failure-shear frac-
tures (faults), pure extension fracture , and hybrid exten-
ional- h ear fractures-m ay develop in intact, isotropic
rock with predictable orie ntations to th e principal tre
failure may be induced by increasing e ither diffe rentia l
stress or fluid pre ure with the other held fixed , or
through some combination of the e changes.
Criteria for the formation offaults and fractures
Stress/ fluid pressure conditions under which the differ-
ent failure modes develop are illu trated by a composite
Griffith-Coulomb failure e nve lop e for intact, homoge-
neous, and isotropic rock plotted on a Mohr diagram of
shear stress, -r, versus effective normal tre , C5n' = ( (Jn- P r) ,
normalized to rock tensil strength , T (Fig. 10). The condi-
tion for frictional reactivation (resh ear) of a co he ionles
exi ting fault (equivalent to that for a cohesion less aggre-
gate) i also illustrated. For simplicity, the slopes of the lin-
ar portions of the intact failure envelope in the com pre -
sional field and the reshear criterion are both constructed
with lopes of 0.75 , co rre ponding to the average of the
experimentally d etermined range for th e coefficient of
internal friction (0.5 < f.li < l.O;Jaeger and Cook, 1979) and
near the middle ofBye rlee's (1978) range for tatic friction
(0.6 < f.1 < 0.85) 0

axes (Fig. 10) . In a fluid-saturated rock mass, the type of
failure that occurs is greatly affected by fluid pressure
through the law of effective tre (eq. 3). Relevant fai lure
crite ria are listed in Table 2, both in tl1eir standard form in
-r/ C5n' space and, to emphas ize their dependence , as func-
tion of fluid pressure, Pr. For a particular rock type, brittle
Within a particular rock unit, the mode of brittle failure
depends on the balance between tl1e differential str ss ( e51
- C53 ) and rock ten ile tr ngth, T (Secor, 1965) . When ( C51
- e53 ) < 4T, exten ion fractures form in accordance with the
hydraulic fracture criterion along planes perpendicular to
e53 (Fig. 10). When ( e51 - C53 ) > 5.66T, shear fractures (faults)

6T

5T

extensional-
shear failure
~T

0 cr3' T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T 7T
extensional failure
FIG. 10. Compo ite failure enve lo pe for in tact rock (bo ld lin e) plus t.he reshear co ndition for a co hesionless fault
(dashed} pl otted on a Mohr diagram of shear stress, '!, aga inst effective no rm al su·ess, C501 ' , norm ali zed to rock tensi le
strength , T. Slopes of the lin ear portions of th e failure envelope for intact rock and re hea r are both taken a 0.75, co r-
responding respective ly to th e coefficie nts of internal frictio n (J.li} and static friction (J.l,}. Ctiti cal stress circl es are shown
for the three mac roscop ic modes of brittle fa ilure, and for the re h ear of an optimall y o l'i e nted co h es io n less fau lt
(dashed ). Expected orie ntatio ns with re pect to th e prin cipal tre s axes of new-formed shear (sh. ), ex tensional-shear
(e-s) and ex tension fractures (ex t. } are shown in the attached ca rtoo n.
36 RICHARD H. SIBS ON

TABLE 2. Criteria for Diffe rent Modes of Brittle Fai lu re in Intact Roc k
Fa ilure mode 1:/ CJ,' space
(field of appli cation) Pr dependence Orienta tion w.r.t. su·ess field

Extensional 1:2 = 4T(CJ,- Pr) + 4T2

(CJ1 - CJg) < 4T
(Griffi th criterion)

0 ~~(!)
;,_0 !
Extensional-Shear \ ff

4T < (CJ 1 - CJ3) < 5.66T ---.Y-

(Griffith CJ'ite rion ) Pr= CJg +
(8T(CJI- CJg) - (CJI- CJg)2]
16T lt\\ (!
3

Compressional-Shear
( CJ 1 - CJg) > 5.66T
[8T - (CJ1 - CJg) ]
(Coulomb c rite rion ) P r= O'g + 3

for !1; = 0. 75

Res hear of 1: = !l,( CJ, - Pr)

Cohesionless Fault
(0' 1 - O'g) (l - 0.75tan8,.)
(Amon tons Law) p f = O'g - ""--''::-:::;-7-""---c;:-----;;-;-'-'-
0.75(cot8,. + tan8,)

for )1, = 0.75

Note: T = tensi le strength, T, C 2T =coh esive strength, and coe ffi ce nt of inte rn al friction , !1; = 0.75;
res hear condition for a co hesion less fault calcu lated for stati c friction , 11, = 0. 75

form in accordance with the Coulomb criterion along
planes containing the 0'2 axis at initiation angles ei = 27° ±
5o to 0'1 (allowing for the 0.5 < J..L 1 < 1.0 experim ental
range). When 4T < ( 0'1 - 0'3 ) < 5.66T, extensional-sh ear
fractures form along planes also containing the 0'2 axis but
at lower angles ( e< e) to 0'1. Note that only Coulomb shear
discontinuities may develop in a cohesionless aggregate, at
similar orientations to faults forming in intact rock.
Thus, for the standard Andersonian stress states, normal
faults should form with initial dips of 58o to 68 o in exten-
sional tectonic regimes ( O'v = 0'1 ), striking parallel to verti-
cal extension fractures; thrust faults should form in com-
pressional tectonic regimes ( O'v = 0'3 ) at initial dips of 22 o to
32o, possibly in association with subhorizontal extension
fractures; and strike-slip faults should form with subvertical
dips in wrench regimes ( O'y = 0'2), striking at 22o to 32° to
sets of subvertical extension fractures (Fig. 7).
Frictional reactivation of existing faults
Reshear of existing cohesionless faults depends on their
orientation as well as differential stress and fluid pressure lev-
els. The general criterion for frictional res hear of an existing
cohesionless fault with static coefficient of friction, J..L5, is
(9)
which, for faults containing the 0'2 axis and oriented at a
reactivation angle e,. to 0'1, may be rewritten in terms of the
ratio of effective principal stresses as
CY/ _ (O'I-Pr) _ (1 +J..L s coter)
(J' g' - ( 0'3 - p f) - ( 1 - J..l.s tan er) (10)
(Sibson, 1985b). Figure 11 illustrates how this stress ratio
varies with e.- for f..Ls = 0.75 (cf. Fig. 10), reflecting the rela-
tive ease of reshear at different reactivation angles. T he
optimal angle for frictional reactivation (at which the str ss
ratio for reactivation reaches a positive minimum) the n
occurs when e/ = 0.5tan- 1 (1 / J..L5 ) "" 27o. Under this optimal
reshear condition, equation (10) reduces to
for compressional and extensional regimes , respective ly.
These optimal conditions for reshear have special signifi-
cance in that the tectonic stress state in many settings
appears to be governed by the critical stress required for
reactivation of favorabl y oriented faults (Townend and
Zoback, 2000).
As the orientation of an existing fault becomes progres-
sively less favorably oriented for reactivation (either greater
or less than optimal) the ratio of effective stresses required
for reactivation increases, reaching infinity when er = 2er*
(-54° for J..l.5 = 0.75) , the angle offrictionallock up (Sibson,
 SEISMOGENIC FRAMEWORK FOR ORE DEPOSITI ON
15
I
0' !
I
lls = 0.75
0'3
10
Field of 'Severe
Misorientation'
reactivation only
when Pt > 0 3
5 ure conditio ns also represent end-me mber cases for strike-
0
-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
er
Fie . l l. Ratio of grea test to least e ffec tive pt·in cipal stresses ( a 1'I a 3' )
requi red for res hear of a co hesion less fa ult plotted against the reactivation
a ngle (8,.) . 8,* is the op ti m um a ngle for reactivation a t whi ch th e stres
ratio reaches a positive m ini mum . Frictional lock up occurs at 2 8,.*
1985 b) . T his acco unts nicely for th e commonly observed
lock up of n ormal and reverse faults within dominoing sets
at 50° to 60° to vertical and horizontal <J1 directions, respec-
tively (Fig. 8). Res h ear of severely misoriented faults with e,.
> 2(),.* is p ossibl e o nly under special circumstan ces wh en
the tensile overpressure co ndition , <J3' < 0, is met.
Extremely impo rtan t fro m th e viewp oint of m in eraliza-
tio n is that a throughgoing cohesionless fault, favorably ori-
ented for friction al reactivation within the prevailing stress
field , inhibits any o th e r fo rm of brittle failure within th e
adj oi ni ng in tac t r ock m ass (Sibso n , 2000a). Th e ten sile
overp ressu re co ndi tio n ( <J3' < 0) neede d fo r exten sio n al-
sh ear o r pure exten sio n fracturing cann o t be a ttain ed in
th e presen ce of an existing fa ult o rie nte d a t e,. < 2 8,* ,
because reshear will always occur fi rst (Fig. 10). Coh esion-
less faul ts other th an those con tajning the <J2 direction m ay
likewise inhibit brittle failure of intact rock, but the critical
fault orientations in three dimensio ns then d ep end also o n
the value of th e intermediate prin cipal stress.
Brittle failure mode plot
Stress co n d iti o ns fo r th e th ree m od es of brittle failu re
and fo r fau lt reshear (as in Fig. 10) may be tran scribed by
means of the P r-d ep e nd e n t for ms of th e failure crite ri a
listed in Table 2 to plots of differe ntial stress ( <J1 - <J3 ) ver-
su s effec tive ve rti cal stress, <Jv ' = ( <Jv - Pr), for diffe re nt
Andersonian stress regimes (Sibson , 1998). Failure curves
37
fo r intact rock are constructed as a function of in tact tensile
stren gth , T, which , for most sedimentary rocks lies in the
range 1 to 10 MPa, but may reach 20 MPa or m ore for crys-
talline rocks (Lockne r, 1995) . Valu es of <Jy' may the n be
converted to equivale nt d ep th s fo r different values of th e
pore-fluid fac tor, A.y.
In Fi gure 12, brittle failure co nditio n s for optimal res-
h ear and for intac t rock h ave been constructe d for com-
pressio nal ( <Jv = <J3 ) a nd exte n sio n al ( <Jv = <J1 ) tectoni c
regimes wi th T = 5, 10, 15, and 20 MPa. The two se ts offail-
slip faulting wh e re <J3 ~ <Jv = <J2 ~ <J1 . Each fai lure curve
d efin es th e tra n sitio n with increasin g <Jy' from purely
extensio nal fracturing through exten sio n al-shear to co m-
pressional shear failure, th e equivalent depths fo r the tran-
sitions increasin g with rock tensile strength . For example,
in an extensional regim e under hydrostatic fluid pre sures
(Ay "" 0.4), pure exten sio n frac turing fo r T = 10 MPa
extends to depths of -2 km and the transition from exten-
sional-sh ear to compressional-shear failure occurs at depths
of - 3 km. These brittle failure m o d e plots have a broa d
range of implications for the development of hydrothermal
mineralizatio n around faults:
90°
1. It is much easier, in terms of differential stress and/ o r
fluid pressure levels, to develop brittle faults and fractures
within an intact rock m ass in an ex te n sion a l tec tonic
regime than within a compressional regime.
2. For positive <Jy' (Ay < 1.0) , only com pres ion al sh ear
failure can occur in contractional tectonic regimes (except
in cases of extrem e stress h e teroge n eity), wh e reas exten-
sion al and exte nsio nal-sh ear fractures may fo rm in exten-
siona l regimes to d epths d ep e nd e nt o n ro ck te n sile
strength .
3. Processes such as hydro th ermal silicifi cation , by
in cr easin g th e te n sile stre n gth of th e ro ck mass, m ay
increase the depth range over wh ich exte nsio n fracturing
may occur.
4. At high valu es of <Jy ' , brittle structures can only form
by co mpress io nal sh ear failure, but wh e n <Jy' i low, th e
mode of failure becomes extremely sensitive to variations in
ten il e stre n g th refl ecting ch a n ges in rock compe ten ce .
Mixed mode failure then becom e likely within a h eteroge-
neous rock mass.
5. Again, it is apparent that the presen ce of an through-
going cohesion less fau lt that is favo rably oriented for fric-
tional reactivation within the prevailing stress field prevents
attainment of the tensile overpressure conditio n (Pr > <J3 )
n eeded for hyd raulic extension fracturing and extensional-
sh ear failure.
Maximum sustainable overpressure
In low-perm eability rocks the degree of overpressuring i
limited by the formation (or reactivati on ) of fractures and
fau lts that m ay act as flow conduits. Critically important is
the lowes t <J3' (corresponding to the high est Pr and Ay val-
u es) that can be u tained in a particular tectonic environ-
m e nt. Co n sid e r two e nd-m e mbe r situations. Hydrau lic
38 RICHARD H. SIBSON

DIFFERENTIAL STRESS, (cr1 - cr3)

0 240 260 280 300 "-v = 1.2
>
\:)
-20

0
z (km)
0 0
~f
0
(f)
(f)
20
..... ..... ..... 2 4
w ..... ..... ..... 2
0:
1- 40
(f)
' •'. • ' o.ot,in
CoM Cll co~J
2
4 8

_J
<(
()
60
' •' 'Pfr€ es,on;es.
Sstoi\L s res~;e<'l
4 6 12

~9o~.
80 8 16
~l. r..., • ..., 6
1-
«) '?<;»_.... A~Gtll.1,'£: ...... .....
0: 100
w
>
1, 00 ..... 10 20

120 () 1 % ":5\l)% 8 12 24
w
> 140 ~l~ sh. ~~ ~~~'0
sh 14 28
1-
()
w 160
-
ext.
- - cr3
'%Q; ~~- 16 32
LL
LL 180
w
%·, 12 18 36

200 20 40
MPa 0.4 0.6 0.8
hydrJstatic

FIG. 12. Brittle failure mode plots with differential stress (a 1 - a 3 ) plotted aga inst effective vertical stress, cry', for
extens ional (a v = a 1) and compress ion al (av = a 3 ) tectonic regimes. Effective vertical stress can be equated to depth
(right) for different va lu es of the pore-fluid factor, A.y. Dashed lin es represent the optimal res hear cond itions for coh e-
sion less faults , so lid lin es the brittle failure curves for intact rock with the different failure fi elds o utlin ed (shaded por-
tions define the extensiona l-shear (e-s) transition regions between purely extensional fracturing and co mpress io na l
shear fa ilure). lnsets sh ow expected orientations of the resulting brittle structures (abbreviations as in Fig. 10).

extension fracturing with C53' = - T occurs at the lowest pos-
sible e53 ' value for a given tensile strength (Fig. 10) but can
only occur under low differential stress with (C51 - C53 ) < 4T.
Alternatively, if fluid overpressure is limited by the presence
of throughgoing cohesionless faults that are optimally ori-
ented for reactivation, then maximum sustainable over-
pressure is governed by equation (11), and diminishes with
increasing differential stress. Relevant here are the obser-
vations of Barton et a!. ( 1995), who found that the most
permeable fracture systems in a crystalline assemblage
under triaxial stress were those that were optimally ori-
ented for reshear.
In Figure 13, maximum sustainable fluid pressure, A.y, is
plotted against depth for a normal-fault regime ( C5y = C51 )
and for a thrust-fault regime ( C5v = C53 ), again representing
end-member cases for strike-slip faulting. Following the
procedure of Secor (1965), A.y values for hydraulic exten-
sion fracturing at maximum permissible levels of differen-
tial stress, ( C51 - C53 ) = 4T, are plotted against depth for dif-
ferent values ofT in the two regimes. Also shown (from eq.
11) are the A.y values required at different levels of differ-
ential stress for reshear of optimally oriented cohesionless
faults in each regime. Interme diate situations between
these end-members arise when the faults retain some
degree of cohesive strength. Clearly, the presence of
throughgoing cohesionless faults drastically lowers the
maximum fluid overpressure that can be sustained at a par-
ticular depth and the high er the differential stress, the
lower the sustainable overpressure.
Dynamic Structural Permeability
Components of stress-controlled structural permeability
Stress-controlled structures affecting rock permeability
include brittle microcracks , extensional and extensional-
shear fractures, faults, and stylolitic solution seams. Their
characteristic orientations at initiation with respect to a u-i-
axial stress state are illusu-ated in Figure 14, along with some
of the interlinkages that are frequently observed such as
dilational fault jogs, en echelon tension gash shear zones,
and fault-fracture meshes of th e kind proposed by Hill
(1977). Permeability of individual components is, however,
not simply predictable and is also generally time dependent
(Cox et al., 2001; Sibson, 1994). This is especially the case
for faults, where fault permeability relative to the country
rock depends critically on the nature of that rock, and may
also vary with displacem e nt activity, go uge development,
and hydrothermal cementation.
Minor faults developing in initially high porosity sedi-
mentary or volcanic rock may, through grain comminution,
porosity collapse, and alteration to clay-rich assemblages,
form deformation bands that are relatively impermeable
with respect to the wall-rock (Antonellini and Aydin, 1994).
Thus, some inactive faults in sedimentary basins form seal-
 SDSMOCEN IC FRAMEWORK FOR ORE DEPOSITION 39

EXTENSIONAL NORMAL FAULT REGIME COMPRESS IONAL THRUST FAULT REGIM E

(crv=cr1) (crv = cr3)
Av
o ,..-~.,......,......,.."""T'.....,..---.---,,..-~.,...;.....,......,..-r"l

2 2

3 3
I I
4 s0
4 ~
Q.
::::-:
s0
(J)
iii
Cl (J)
(J) iii
5 ?5· 5 iii ?5·
~

6 6

7 7

8 8

9 9
DEPTH
(km)
10 10

FIG. 13. Maximum susta inable fluid pressures, Ay, plotted against depth in compress ional and exte nsi o nal tec tonic
regimes. Bold lines fo rT = 5 and 10 MPa as ume that fluid ove rpressure i limited by the formation of hydrauli c exte n-
sion fractures unde r maximum allowable diffe renti al su·ess, (cr1 - cr3 ) = 4T. Thin lin es a re th e maximum sustainable over-
pressures in th e pre e nce of existing, o ptimally orie nted, coh e i nl e faults under va rio us levels of differenti al stress.
Doubl e-h eaded arrows link u tain able fluid pressure curves for th e different failure mode at th e same differential su·ess
level.

ing barriers to fluid migration but others clearly act a
eros -stratal conduits for fluid flow (Bu rley et al. , 19 9). In
contra t, faults developed in strong, initially low-porosity
rocks tend to enhance local permeability through the mis-
match of opposing walls, by cataclastic brecciation, and by
the development of ub idiary fractures (Brown and
Bruhn , 1996). Studies of exhumed fau lt zones in crystalline
rock ugge t that a low-permeability core of extremely fine-
grain d ultracatacla ite is often flanked by a comparatively
high-permeability damage zone of distributed fractur in g
(Evans et al. , 1997).
Directional permeability
Both macroscopic and micro copic extensional fractur-
ing enhance permeability in the ()1/ ()2 plane provided the
cracks remain uncemen ted (Fig. 14); the effect become
more pronounced as P r 1/> ()3 , with large aperture when P r >
()3 . nder these conditions, extensional shears may likewi e
form gaping conduit for high-flux flow. On the other
hand , flow perpendicular to the ()2/ ()3 plane may b
restricted by styloliti c eam of in oluble clay material in
plane perpendicular to ()1 (Gro hong, 1988). Note, how-
ever, that the common inter ections of all stress-controlled
compon nts of structural permeability lie parallel to the ()2
axis, as do tubular components of permeability such as dila-
tionaljogs a nd fault-fracture intersection . trong direc-
tional permeability in th ()2 dir ction is, therefore ,
expected provided there i adequate three-dimensional
continu ity and interconnectedne s between the various
components of structural permeability. Moreover, r gard-
less of whether fault are low-permeability structures in
highly porous and permeable ho t-rocks, o r comparatively
high-permeability structures disrupting low-poro ity rock ,
d ve lopm ent of conjugate fau lt et inevitab ly lead to
stro ng ()2 directional permeability.
Fault permeability in relation to the earthquake stress cycle
Evidence from geoth ermal fields and experime ntal
deformation under hydroth rmal condition suggests that
fau lt permeability in active hydrothermal environments can
be destroyed over time period that are short compared
with earthquake recurrence in terval (Fou rn ier, 1991 ,
1996; Moore eta!., 1994; Hickman etal., 1995). Permeabil-
ity within eismically active fau lt zones is, thus, inherently
40 RICJ-TARD H. SIBSON
r:
'
' '
'"\.J"V '
I rock volumes. Field studies suggest that Hill-typ e m sh
Fie . 14. Stress-controlled components of structu ral pe rmeabili ty in rela-
tion to a triaxial stress field (shear-sense indi cators define faults [Coulomb
shears ]; exte nsion fractures an d extensio nal-shears: cross-hatched; stylo-
lites: "squiggly" lin es). As drawn, the diagram illustrates possible structural
pe rmeability in vertical sections through an extens io nal regime ( CJy = CJ1);
or, wh en rotated 90°, for a co mpressional regime (CJv = CJ3 ); or, when
treated as a map view, for a strike-slip regime ( CJv = CJ2 ) . Note the common
inte rsection of all stress-controlled components in the CJ2 direction.
dynamic , with faulting , fracturing, micro-cracking, and
brecciation competing with processes of permeability
destruction that include hydrothermal alteration accompa-
nying gouge formation , microcrack healing, hydrothermal
cementation of fractures , and solution-precipitation
(Angevine eta!., 1982; Cox eta!., 2001). In particular,
hydrothermal precipitation is generally promote d by
decreases in fluid pressure; the more abrupt the pressure
drop, the faster such self-sealing will tend to occur (Parry,
1998; Fournier, 1999). Permeability in the vicinity of the
fault zone is, thus, likely to be highest immediately postrup-
ture (Brown and Bruhn, 1996) , diminishing through the
aftershock phase to comparatively low values through the
interseismic period (Fig. 4).
Self-generation of structural permeability by migrating fluids
Because the failure criteria for different modes of brittle
failure (Table 2) all depend strongly on fluid pressure, infil-
tration of pressurized fluids into stressed low-permeability
crust may self-generate structural permeability throughout
the rock mass, the components including reactivated exist-
ing surfaces (bedding, cleavage, fractures, dike contacts,
etc.) and newly formed extension fractures, extensional-
shears, and minor faults. As each individual structure form s
or reactivates, the stress field is locally perturbed, adding to
stress heterogeneity within the evolving fault-fracture sys-
tem. A range of fault-fracture meshes comprising vario us
combinations of structural permeability components (Fig.
14) may then develop (Sibson, 1996). At high CJ3', only shear
fractures can form or reactivate, but wherever the tensile
overpressure condition, CJ3' < 0, is achieved, developing
fault-fracture meshes may also incorporate gaping exte n-
sional and extensional-shear fractures as in Figure 15. In
general, fault-fracture meshes te nd to be highly irregular as
a consequence of h ete rogeneity of material properties,
stress, and fluid pressure within the rock mass, but system-
atic mesh structures m ay develop where the stress fiel d is
symmetrically disposed with respect to competence layering.
Hill (1977) proposed that mesh structures of interlinked
shear and extensional fractures driven by infiltrating
magma or hydrothermal fluid could account for earth-
quake swarm activity distributed throughout substan tial
structures comprising extensional vein systems interlinked
through minor shears (Fig. 16) are common over a broad
range of scales, often serving as important conduits for
hydrothermal and/ or hydrocarbon flow (Sibson, 1996; ib-
son and Scott, 1998).
High-flux flow through fault-fracture meshes
In general, rock permeability increases as Pr ---t CJ3 and CJ3'
decreases (Seront et al., 1998; Cox et al., 2001), increasing
flow rate for a given head gradient. However, in low-perme-
ability rock masses, bulk permeability is dominated by frac-
ture flow. Flow rate is then highly sensitive to fracture a er-
ture, varying as the cube of aperture for a set of parallel
planar fractures (Snow, 1968). Although faults may sig ifi-
cantly enhance bulk permeability, especially postfailure, max-
imum flow rates under a particular h ead gradient will be
achieved at the highest levels of fluid overpressure, with gap-
ing extensional and extensional-shear fractures distributed
throughout a rock volume in some form of fault-fractu re
mesh (Figs. 15 and 16). This requires the tensile overpressure
condition, CJ3' < 0, to be maintained, at least locally, providing
a general condition for high-flux flow in low-permeability
rocks. The higher tl1e tensile strength, the greater tl1e range
of differential stress levels under which extensional and
extensional-shear failure may occur in preference to faulting
(Fig. 12). High-flux flow through fault-fracture meshes is
therefore favored by the presence of high tensile strength
material within the rock mass, provided that the hydrofrac-
ture condition (P f = CJ3 + T) is met for the stronger material.
 SDSMOGEN!C FRAMEWORK FOR ORE DAJ>OS!TION
(a) Extensional Regime Compressional Regime
t hydrotl1ermal cementation (e.g., Nguyen eta!., 1998).
FIG. 15. Cross sections of Hill-type fault-fracture meshes deve loped in
extensional and compressional stress regime :a. in t.he ab e ncc of existing
faults (bolder lin es indi cate eve ntual amalgamation int.o through go in g
fault); b. in corporating existing faults th a t. a re severe ly misoriented for
reactiva tion in th e prevai li ng stre field (after ib on a nd Scott, 1998) .
Attainment of th tensile overpressure condition reg uires
either absolute tensile values of 0"3 (i.e. , 0"3 < 0) or the con-
dition P r > 0"3 to obtain locally. Local reductions in 0"3 may be
brought about by stress field heterogeneity, for example at
fault tip or in dilationaljogs between en echelon fau lt eg-
ments (Segall and Pollard, 19 0; Ohlmacher and Aydin,
1997). Favored localities for mesh development, therefore,
include linkage structures alon g large-displacement fa ult
zones such as dilational jogs, lateral ramps, and tran fer
fau lts. However, in general the condition P r > 0"3 must be
maintained for meshes to continue deforming and acting as
high-permeability tructural conduits. In extensional-
tran tensional regimes, thi condition can be ach ieved
under near-hydro tatic fluid pressure leve ls at shall ow
depths (Fig . 12 and 13), contributin g to the formation of
epizonal mineral deposits in the boiling environment of
asce nding hydroth erma l plumes (Hen ley, 1985; Sillitoe,
1993). At other than hallow depths in extensional-tran ten-
sional settings, significant fluid overpres uring is required
for this condition for gaping extensional and exten ional-
shear fracture to be maintained.
A critical point a! o apparent in Figures 12 and 13 is that
the ten il e overpressure condition allowing high-flux flow
through dilatant fault-fracture meshes can only be achieved
in the absence of throughgoing low-cohesion faults that are
41
we ll oriented for frictiona l reactivation in the prevailing
tre s field. High-flux flow through fault-fracture meshes, as
illustrated in Figure 15, is therefore, to be expected only in
three circumstance : (1) in effectively intact low-permeability
cru t devoid of throughgoing favorably oriented fau lts, for
example in crust recently reconstituted through metamor-
phism (Sibson and Scott, 1998); (2) where existing fau lts
have become severely misoriented in the prevailing stress
field, perhaps through progressive dominoing of an existing
fault set (Fig. 8); and (3) where existing faults regain cohe-
sive trength between uccessive slip increments through
In fact, field evidence suggests that distributed fau lt-frac-
ture meshes are in many ca es precur ors to the develop-
ment of tluoughgoing fau lts which form by the progressive
amalgamation of mesh components into a favorably ori-
ented structure, after which the rest of the mesh system
becomes inactive (Sibson and Scott, 1998). Conditions
favoring high-flux flow at maximum u tainable overpr -
ure are , therefore, likely to be short-lived.
Concentrated flow along individual faults
High-flLLX flow along an individual fault may arise when it
erve a the principal high-level discharge route during
fault-valve action (see below), following the postfailure col-
lap e of a dilatant overpressured fau lt-fracture mesh at
depth . Such behavior is especially likely on load- trength-
ening reverse or reverse-oblique slip fau lts in compres-
sional-transpressional settings, where fau lt-normal stress is
reduced postfailure. However, th progres ive amalgama-
tion of any kind of fault-fracture mesh into a dominant
throughgoing fault (Fig. 15) may also provide transient
cond itions for high-flux flow a long individual faults. In
such circum tances, local flow focusing is likely at dilational
sites arising from minor fault curvature (Brown and Bruhn,
1996) and in areas of str ss h eteroge n eity near fault tips,
especially a they approach dilationaljogs or isolated fault
bends (Segall and Pollard, 1980).
Fluid Redistribution Mechanisms Linked
to the Earthquake Stress Cycle
Interlinkage between changes in tectonic tre , fault-
fracture permeability, and fluid pressure (Fig. 1) give ri e
to a range of potential mechanisms coupling fluid redis-
tribution to the earthquake stress cycle. More than one
mechanism may operate at any time and place, and their
relative importance in different tectonic regimes and at
differ nt crustal levels is far from fully establish d. Taking
special account of the condition for hi gh-flux flow estab-
li h ed above, this review places em phasi on redi t..ribution
mechanisms capable of giving ri e to the focu ed large-
volume flow needed for minera lizatio n . ote, however,
that much of the thinking i ba ed on simple two-dim n-
sion a l geometrical and stress analys i of fau lt enviro n-
ments. The more complex natural environment inevitably
allows for a greater range of three-dimensional structural
controls with high mineralization potential (e.g., Bruhn et
a!. , 1990).
42
(a)
N Martha Mine
former ground surface
cover sediments and rhyolite
Younger andesite
Au-Ag
Quartz
Lodes
FIG. 16. Cross sectio ns thro ugh mineralized fau lt-fracture meshes. a. Extens ional epizo nal mesh , Martha mine, Coro-
mandel, New Zealand (after Morgan , 1924). b. Compressional mesozonalmesh , Perron min e (now Pascalis Nord ), Val
d'Or, Abitibi belt, Quebec (after Ames, 1948).
Cyclical dilatancy pumping
Various forms of shear-stress-dependent grain-scale,
microcrack, and fracture dilatancy directly related to the
earthquake stress cycle (Fig. 4a) have been proposed, both
for the crust adjacent to seismogenic faults , and for mater-
ial within the fault zones themselves (reviewed by Sibson,
1994). Early suggestions of regional microcrack dilatancy
operating at high (>100 MPa) levels of shear stress in the
crust adjacent to active fault zones and capable of large-
scale fluid redistribution (Scholz et al., 1973; Sibson et al.,
1975) have not been substantiated, although the search for
other forms of stress-dependent dilatancy continues
(Cram pin, 1994). Until the stress levels driving faulting and
appropriate constitutive dilatancy laws are more fully estab-
lished, it is not possible to evaluate the contributions of
these various mechanisms to crustal fluid redistribution.
Coupled mean stress (t:.fJ)-shear stress (t:.-r) cycling
In general, tectonic shear stress on fau lts cannot change
without fault-normal stress also changing, thereby altering
the level of mean stress and the fault's frictional strength
(eq. 9; Sibson, 1991) _For dip-slip faults, changes in mean
stress (!:.0) are roughly comparable to the shear stress drop
(generally 1 < t:.-r < 10 MPa, equivalent to changes in
hydraulic head ofO.l to 1.0 km ), but th e coupling is dia-
metrically opposite for reverse and normal faults (Figs. 4b,
c). Neglecting local stress heterogeneity at fault tips, normal
RICHARD H. SIBSON
(b)
s s Perron Mine N
[2j [Zl ti-1~1 IZl
--- 100m
Quartz Dyke
t
Greenstone
Shear zone
faults are load-weakening with average mean stress decreas-
ing during loading only to increase abruptly postfailu re,
whereas reverse faults are load-strengthening, with average
mean stress increasing during loading only to decrea e at
failure. Mean stress cycling around strike-slip faults may lie
anywhere between these two end-member cases, approach-
ing the normal fault and reverse fault situations in transten-
sional and transpressional settings, respectively.
Because of strong 0"2 direc tional p e rmeability along
strike , mean stress cycling in dip-slip fault systems may
induce significant strike-parallel redistribution postfailure,
with lateral movement of fluids away from a failed normal
fault segment but inwards towards a failed reverse fault seg-
ment (Fig. 17). Effects are likely to be most noticeable in
the vicinity of fault tips and overlaps where stress he tero-
geneity allows the condition for high-flux flow to be main-
tained. Such redistribution may be especially importan t in
the case of normal fau lts, which are likely to have a h igh
concentration of associated subvertical fractures in the
near-surface (Sibson, 2000b). Closure of suc h subvertical
cracks from increased horizontal stress postfailure has been
postulated as the cause of the large surface effusions some-
times observed following rupture of normal faults (Muir-
Wood and King, 1993).
Postseismic redistribution around rupture irregularities
Rupturing and slip transfer across fault irregularities leads
to abrupt postfailure changes in mean stress localized
 SEJSMOGf."'NJC FRAMEWORK FOR ORE DEPOSITiON 43

NORMAL FAULT SYSTEM REVERSE FAULT SYSTEM

F IG. 17. Map view of trike-paralle l fluid red istribution around fa il ed segments of normal and reve rs d ip-sli p fa ul ts
as a consequence of th e change in mea n stress accompanying fai lure (L\0').

aro und the irregularitie (Segall and Pollard, 1980), with a wh r r verse fa ul ts refract tlwough fold hinge under con-
tendency for fl uids to b redistributed from areas of raised d itions of strong fluid overpres uring (e.g., Cox, 1995).
to areas of reduced mean stress ( ur and Booker, 1972). In T he internal structure of large d ila tio nalj ogs i generally
strike-slip fa ult yste ms wh re epicen tral concentratio ns can a fa ul t-fracture mesh comprising vari ou combina ti o ns of
be directly correlated in map view to structural irregularities subsid iary fa ults, h eeted array of ex te n sio n ve ins, a nd
o n subverti cal fa ul ts Uog , isola ted be nd , and fa ul t inter- mu ltip ly recemented wall-roc k b recc ias deve lo p e d by
ectio ns; Figs. 5 a n d 18) , th ere i a notable te n de n cy for hydraulic implosion (Sibson , 1985a). In mechanical terms,
aftershocks to clu ter in ar as of inferred mean stress reduc- it a ppears th at di latio n al j ogs an d be nds act as su ctio n
tio n at faul t ti ps and, especially, in dilati o nal jogs and be nd pump (Fig. 4d). Rapid slip transfer during rupture propa-
(Sibson, 1986). Slip tran fe r across dilation alj ogs reduces gation leads to abru pt localized reductions in fluid p ressure
mean stress in the stepover region with compensating lobe below ambien t (hydro tatic?) levels, triggering brecciation
of elevat d m ean stress in th e flanking area , in con tra t to by hydraulic implo ion accompanied by episode of boiling
co n tractional jogs wh re mean stress is increased in th e and m in eral precipitati o n at high level in geo thermal sy -
stepove r regio n bu t lowered in th e fl anking region s (Fig. te rn (Sibson, 1987). Induced suctio ns co ntribu te to rup-
18). Su-u ctural resp onse at isolated faul t bends is affected by tu re perturbation or arre t, pro moting th e time-dep enden t
the direc ti o n of ruptu r pro pagatio n , whi ch dete rmine slip tra n fe r acros dil atio nalj ogs th at h a bee n o b erved
whe ther mean su-ess on the across-bend segment decrease d u ring th e aftersh oc k ph ase as fluid pressures re tore to
(prom o ting dilation ) o r in creases as a ru pture pro pagates background levels (Peltze r et al. , 1996) .
into th e bend . It is in su ch d ilational ite , th rough local From the viewpoin t of th e ex ploratio ni t, th e th ree-
stress h eterogeneity, that the high-fl ux fl ow condition ( CJ3' < dimensional geometry of dilatio nal structures is paramount.
0) is m ost likely to be achieved. Sim p le dil ati on al jog usually develo p app rox ima tely per-
J og su-uctures linking en echelon su-ike- lip fault segm ents pendicular to faul t slip vecto rs (Fig. 14), acting as pipe struc-
have cross-strike dimen io ns ranging up to several kilome- ture of locally enhanced perm eabili ty within fa ul t zones. In
ters. Detailed aftershock studies show that, in at lea t orne suike- li p ystems, larger dilation aljog also erve to localize
instan ces, such su-uctu ral irregulari tie ext nd th ro ugh the magmatic in tru ion , in cluding po rphyrie (To d al and
full d epth of th e sei m ogenic zon e (e .g., Reasenberg and Rich ard , 2001 ). T hi , co upl e d with stro ng locali zed
Ellsworth , 1982). H oweve r, dilational and contracti o nal jogs enh ancement of vertical permeabili ty, may se t up powerful
a! o dev lo p on dip- lip fa ults, th o ugh ge nerally o n a le ser hyd ro thermal systems as in the Salton Sea geotherm al fields
cale. Dilational jog ( ometimes referred to as cymoid loops; of th e southern San Andreas faul t ( ib on , 1987) . Dilational
McKinstry, 1948) are often well develop d on normal faults jogs in dip-slip system tend to enhan ce alo ng- trike perme-
at sh all ow depth , refl ec ting th e compara tive ease of exten- abili ty; and upward fl ow of buoyan t hydro therm al plume
sional fracturing under hyd rostatic fluid pressures in th e epi- may be sig nifi cantly defl ected by gently raking j ogs, which
zonal enviro nmen t (Fig. 12), especially where co mpetence ou tcrop a fa ult overlap (Sibson, 2000b). Expl o ratio nists
layeri ng prom o tes mixed-m ode bri ttl e failure and fau lt should note, however, that compl exities in rupture geome-
refraction ( ib on, 1998). Dilational j ogs m ay also develop try co upled with three-dimensio na l material he terogeneity
44 RICHARD H. SIBSON

(a) 1997), areas of active magmatic intrusion (Fournier, 1999),

CONTRACTIONAL FAULT JOG and the brittle carapace to regions undergoing prograde
metamorphism (Sibson and Scott, 1998). Valve action may
involve localized discharge along established faults extend-
ing through the aftershock period, or distributed discharge
involving self-generation of fault-fracture meshes during
earthquake swarm activity.
Following rupture, fluid discharge along the transie nt
permeability of the rupture zone or zones causes lo cal
reversion towards a hydrostatic fluid pressure gradient. The
accompanying pressure drop promotes hydrothermal self-
sealing, allowing fluid overpressures to rebuild at depth
(Figs. 4d and 19a). Timing of successive failure episodes is,
thus, controlled by the cycling of tectonic shear stress, fluid
pressure, and frictional fault strength throughout the inter-
seismic period. Widespread development of syntecto n ic
fault-veins in exhumed fault zones developed within both
sedimentary and crystalline host rocks, coupled with evi-
(b) Dilational Response at Isolated Fault Bend dence for fluid pressure cycling from fluid inclusion studies
--o-- i _ ->
~ ~~~~~~~~--~------
_:::.::::.----:::;~
..,__
on the vein material (e.g., Robert et al., 1995; Parry, 1998),
suggest that minor valving action involving small fluid roJ-
\ .
rupture nucleation umes is widespread in crustal fault zones. However, the
potential for extreme valving activity clearly relates to the
Contractional Response at Isolated Fault Bend
&A A.4z --.:::.., maximum overpressure that is sustainable in different tec-
----------------~·~··~·~·~·r-~..,_~~--~~~--._
- ..,__ @ ""'""0--..
tonic settings (Fig. 13).
I .
rupture nucleatiOn
(c) Complex Rupture Trace Conditions for extreme valve action: For significant mineral-
ization to develop through fault-valve action , each cycle
rupture nucleation
I contractional
dilational
should ideally involve rapid discharge of large fluid vol-
jog~ umes coupled to a large-amplitude drop in fluid press re.
bend
contractional Because high-flux flow at depth in the crust requires dila-
bend tant fault-fracture meshes, a first requirement is the
absence of throughgoing, low-cohesion faults that are well
FI G. 18. Rupture interaction with structural irregularities on faults . a . oriented for reactivation (Fig. 15). Thus, the greater the
Dilational and contractional jogs (schematic indicates internal structure of degree of misorientation of existing faults in the tectonic
dilational jog) with associated areas of mea n stress decrease and increase. stress field, for example by progressive domino rotation
b. Dilational and contractional response of isolated fault bends. c. Zones (Fig. 8), the greater the likelihood of significant valve-
of contraction and dilatation along a complex rupture trace.
action and fluid pressure cycling. Compressional regimes
capable of sustaining the highest levels of overpressu re
in the rock mass may lead to much more complex dilational (Fig. 13) have the highest potential for large-amplitude
structures in three dimensions than the standard two- fluid pressure cycling (Sibson et al., 1988; Cox, 1995;
dimensional dilationaljog model. Bruhn et al. (1990), for Robert et al., 1995) . Thus, although mesozonal gold-quartz
example, have considered the space problems created by veins occupying fault-fracture meshes may develop in a
rupturing within a normal fault system made up of inter- range of tectonic environments (Sibson and Scott, 1998) ,
linked nonparallel fault segments. the most intense forms of such mineralization tend to be
hosted in the semi-ductile roots of steep reverse fault sys-
Fault-valve action tems in collision-accretion settings (e.g., the Mesozoic
Valving action, involving the postfailure discharge of Mother Lode vein system in the foothills of the Sierra
overpressured fluids through fault-fracture systems, occurs Nevada, California). Such vein systems commonly extend
wherever ruptures breach impermeable barriers bounding over 1 to 2 km vertically, comprising fault-veins develop ed
overpressured portions of the crust. These barriers need on reverse or reverse-oblique faults intermeshed in mutual
not be subhorizontal but may also involve steep sealing cross-cutting relationships with arrays of flat-lying exten ion
faults bounding fluid pressure compartments (Hunt, 1990; veins (Figs. 15 and 16). Mineralization generally occurred
Powley, 1990). Overpressuring may be restricted to the under sub-greenschist to greenschist metamorphic con di-
vicinity of the fault zones themselves or extend into broad tions (10 ± 5 km depth) in compressional-transpressi nal
areas of the surrounding crust (Fig. 19). Settings for differ- tectonic regimes. The compressional stress field served to
ent forms of fault-valve action include overpressured sedi- contain deep-sourced , lithostatically overpressured H 20-
mentary basins (Roberts et al., 1996; McKenna and Sharp, C02 fluids around the base of the seismogenic zone until
 SEISMOGENJC FRAMEWORK FOR ORE DEPOSITION 45

(a)
,.t
1/)
Rising r Increasing Pt

w
1/)
a:
w
~

Fluid Discharge
Decreasing Pt

TIM E

(b) EXTENSIONAL TECTONIC REGIME

VALVING THROUGH FORMA TJON EXTREME VALVE-ACTION ON

OF A FAULT-FRACTURE MESH SEVERELY MISORIENTED FAULTS
Pressu re
~//////////////////////////////////////h ~///////////////////////////////////////-

.s::::.
15..
(j)
0

1.11111111111111111

(c) COMPRESSIONAL TECTONIC REGIME

Pressu re
W//////////////////////////////////////.%
==

.1 \
9;: \
.s::::. 0 \
15.. ~ \
':-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:overpressured-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: (j)
'::· \
0

\\.
-:-:-::-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:- Crust :-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-

FIG. 19. Varieties of fa ult-valve behavior. a. Schematic of ge neral fa ult-va lve cycle, illu u·a tin g coupled cycl in g of shear
stress ('r), fluid pressure <Pr), and frictional fa ult strength ('rr) . b. Distribu ted and locali zed valvi ng in an ex te n ionaltec-
tonic regime. c. Disu·ibuted and locali zed va lving in a compress io nal tectonic regime (d iagramm atic and not to sca le).
46 RJCHAJW H. SIBSON
rupture, followed by focused upwards discharge along the
reverse faults.
Valving action in sedimentary basins: There is accumulating
evidence that varieties offault-valve activity may also occur at
comparatively high levels in overpressured sedimentary
basins, promoting oil and gas as well as hydrothermal fluid
migration. The presence of localized hydrothermal plumes
above overpressured portions of the Gulf Coast basin
(Roberts et al., 1996; McKenna and Sharp, 1997) is sugges-
tive ofvalving action along normal faults, as are abnormal
diagenetic assemblages localized around faults in the North
Sea basin (Burley et al., 1989) . A likely candidate for an
active fault-valve province in an area of compressional tec-
tonics is the east Santa Barbara Channel-Ventura Basin
region in the western Transverse Ranges of California, an
actively contracting and overpressured fold-and-thrust belt
characterized by steep, seismically active reverse faults and
rapidly amplifying folds (Yeats et al., 1988; Shaw and Suppe,
1994). One such fold structure is the Ventura-Rincon anti-
clinorium (Fig. 20), host to a super-giant oilfield. Growth of
this structure has occurred within the last 200,000 years, and
the anticlinal crest is currently uplifting differentially at up
to 10 mm/yr. Oil production from strata as young as Pleis-
tocene suggests that hydrocarbon migration is still ongoing.
This growing structure is flanked by steep, outward-dipping
reverse faults that remain microseismically active with focal
mechanisms defining almost pure reverse dip-slip (Yeats et
a!., 1987). The core of the Ventura Anticline, which is
strongly overpressured with A.y values approaching 0.9 at
depths of 3 krn or so, is likewise disrupted by a mesh of bed-
ding-parallel and cross-stratal reverse-slip faults, most of
which dip at moderate to steep angles (Yeats, 1983).
Figure 20 draws attention to the remarkable similarities
between the internal structure of the Ventura Anticline and
the system of gold-quartz veins hosted by a folded and
cleaved sequence of Ordovician turbidites within the Gar-
den Gully Anticline (Whitelaw, 1918) near Bendigo in the
State of Victoria, Australia. Incremental development of the
vein system provides evidence for episodic large-volume
flow along reverse-slip discontinuities, some of which paral-
lel, and some of which crosscut bedding (Cox et al., 1991).
A reasonable inference, given the similar structural perme-
ability in the two anticlinal structures, is that fluid migration
within the actively growing Ventura Anticline is likewise
episodic and concentrated along active reverse-slip sur-
faces. Migration of overpressured fluids through compara-
ble reverse-fault-cored anticlines in Cook Inlet, Alaska, has
also been recognized by Bruhn eta!. (2000). Despite the
considerable variations in scale and structural level within
the crust, redistribution of overpressured fluids in all of
these cases seems attributable to valving action on moder-
ately-to-steeply dipping reverse-slip discontinuities.
Regional valve-action from changes in stress regime
The dependence of maximum sustainable overpressure
on the stress state and fault architecture (Fig. 13) suggests
that regional changes in the tectonic regime are likely to be
(a) (b)
S N w E
;'~.''''·'''·"'~~'''''''~
~'''''''''''''''''"'''"'''"''''''"'''~
''
'' I I
'
'
' '' II
I
1 km
Frc. 20. a. Reverse faulting, often rooted in bedding shears, defined by
drilling in the core of the growing, fluid-overpressured Ventura anticline
of so uth ern California (after Yeats , 1983). b. Gold-bearing quartz veins
hosted in saddle reef stru ctures and reverse faults rooted in bedding
shears within the Garden Gully Anticline in deformed Ordovician tur-
bidites, Confidence Extended mine , Bendigo, Australia (after Cox et al.,
1991 ; Whitelaw, 1918).
associated with major episodes of fluid redistribution within
the crust. Particularly interesting situations arise during
positive tectonic inversion, where there is an approximately
coaxial change from regional extension to compression,
and during negative inversion where the reverse occur .
During positive inversion, the mean stress increases from
a value less than the vertical stress in the extensional regime
to a value greater than the vertical stress in the compres-
sional regime, thereby boosting fluid pressure levels (Sib-
son, 1995). Maximum sustainable overpressure is also
higher in the compressional regime because inherited nor-
mal faults are poorly oriented for reactivation in the new
stress field. Such scenarios favor the development of
regional fault-valve provinces where compressional reacti-
vation of inherited normal faults leads to extreme valving
action on steep reverse faults. Extreme fault-valve behavior
in such settings will eventually be terminated by the devel-
opment of new, favorably oriented thrusts in the compres-
sional stress field , and is, thus, likely to be comparatively
short lived. The eastern Santa Barbara Channel-Ven tura
Basin region discussed above is one such area of active tec-
tonic inversion where inherited normal and/ or strike-slip
faults developed during Miocene extension have, sine the
Pliocene, been reactivated within an actively contracting
fold-and-thrust belt as steep reverse faults. The changeover
between active extension and shortening took place within
as little as 2 million years (Yeats et al., 1988).
 SE!SJ\IIOGE !C FRAMEWORK FOR ORE DEPOSITION
During negative inver ion, high fluid overpressures
developed and maintained during progressive regional
contraction cannot be sustained in the extensional stre
field because of the decrea e in maximum sustainable ov r-
pressure (Fig. 13). Rapid release of overpres ured fluids
may then take place through elf-generation of extensional
fault-fracture meshes (Fig. 15) , a appears to have occurred
during formation of the Alaska:J uneau gold-bearing quartz
vein system in southeast Ala ka (Miller et al., 1992; Sibson
and Scott, 1998).
During both positive and negative inversion, the speed of
the tectonic tran ition is likely to be a critical factor in
determining the extent of fluid redi tribution and its effec-
tivene in promoting mineralization. The same phenom-
ena may also occur on rather short time-scales in strike- lip
fault systems, where portion of the crust move rapidly from
areas of local tran ten ion to transpression, or vice ver a.
Summary Discussion
Dynamic fluid redistribution within the seismogenic
upper crust involve intercoupled stress and permeability
cycling. Large earthquakes on estab li shed faults induce
fluid redistribution into dilational ites during aftershock
periods, but packages of overpre ured fluid migrating
through stressed crust also self-generate structural perme-
ability by earthquake warm activity involving di tributed
brittle fai lure and reshear. Intermittent ei mic slip in fault-
fracture systems causes locali zed hydrothermal precipita-
tion through a variety of mechani ms. Abrupt reductions in
fluid pressure at specific structural sites may arise from uc-
tion-pump action involving rapid lip tran fer aero s dila-
tional irregularities, or through various forms of fau lt-valve
behavior where ruptures transect boundaries to overpre -
sured portions of th e cru t (Fig. 4d). Such pressure reduc-
tions may induce phase separation and hydroth rmal pre-
cipitation throughout the postseismic (aftershock) period
of readju tment. Episodic renewal of hm lt-fracture perme-
ability may a! o, however, promote mixing of fluids deriv d
from different sources, particularly during valving action.
Originally deep, hot, and overpressured fluid of diage-
netic, metamorphic, or magmatic origin may be di charged
episodically in to co lder fluid circulating within the near-
surface, hydro tatically pre ured regime.
High-flux flow through low-permeabi li ty rocks requir s
dilatant fau lt-fracture meshes, which can form and reacti-
vate only under low effective stre (cr 3' < 0, or P r > cr 3 ) in
the ab ence of throughgoing low-coh esion faults that are
well oriented for frictional reactivation. When present,
uch throughgoing faults limit the degree of overpre ur-
ing and the amplitude of any fluid-pressure drops accom-
panying fault-valve action, lowering the potential for
hydrothermal precipitation from pressure cycling. High-
flux flow accompanied by large amplitud e fluid-pressure
cycling is, therefore, achievable on ly und r special struc-
tural circumstances, for example around existing fault s ts
that have undergone domino-rotation to frictional lock up.
The e condition for pul ed high-flux flow do much to
explain observed relationships between styles of mineral-
47
ization and tectonic setting. Within extensional-transten-
sional tectonic regime , conditions for high-flux flow lead-
ing to epizonal mineralization can be maintained under
hydrostatic fluid pressures in the shall ow crust to depths
dependent on rock tensile strength, but in compressional-
transpressiona l regime , fluid overpressured to around
lithostatic value are n ded for mesozonal mineralization
to develop through fault-valve action in the midcrust.
Extreme valve-action on teep reverse faults is most likely to
develop in areas of positive tectonic inversion, or in colli-
sion-accretion complexes where initially shallow-dipping
thrusts have steep ned to lock up as a consequence of pro-
gre sive horizontal contraction.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to G. Broadbent, S. Cox, L. Miller, H. Poulsen ,
and F. Robert, and to the earthquake researchers of the
.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, especially D. Hill, S.
Hickman , B. Ell worth, and T. Hanks, who over many years
have focu ed my attention on issues of faulting and fluid
flow, and to the course organizers for the opportun ity to
participate. R. Bruhn, D. Hill, and J. Richards provided con-
structive advice on the manu cript and . Read helped with
the figure . This work was funded by the Z Public Good
Science Fund through FRST Contract #C05611.
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Societ)' of Economic Geologists
Reviews v. 14, 2001, fl. 51-74

Chapter 3

Deformation, Fluid Flow, and Ore Genesis in Heterogeneous Rocks, with

Examples and Numerical Models from the Mount Isa District, Australia
ICHOLAS H. S. 0 LNER,t
Economic Geology R esearch Unit, School of Earth Sciences, j ames Cook University, Townsville QW 4811, Australia

ALISON ORD,
CSIRO Division of Exploration and Mining, PO Box 437, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia

RICHARD K. V ALENTA,

Mount !sa Mines Exploration, Brisbane, Australia

AND P HAEDRA U PTO **

CSIR O Division of Exploration and Mining, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia

Abstract

Conside ratio n of the role of rock proper ty varia tion i crucial in a ny analysis of the effects of defo r-
matio n o n fluid fl ow and mineralizatio n. An e mpi rical analysis of an y mineralized terrai n should consider
this fac tor, in additio n to those used in any o ther analysis of geome try and kinema tic , uch as ori enta-
tion , evolutio n of the su·ess and strain field , and the kn own distribution of veins, shear zon es, breccias,
and alte ratio n. The con ce ptual m odel that a rise fro m such an analysis can be enhanced by computer
models. Th e models shown he re are finite d iffe rence models that simula te fluid fl ow in deforming rock
mas es, one for fluid fl ow along p redefin ed rock bo undaries (U nive rsal Distin ct Ele me nt Code, UDEC) ,
and ano the r fo r fluid fl ow thro ugh deforming porous media (Fas t Lagrangian Analysis of Continua,
FLAC). UDEC modeling of the pe rtu rbed stre s field aro und stro nger, lower pe rmeability me ta-intrusive
rocks in th e Mary Kathleen disu·ict and the Hil to n mine of the Mount Isa district, north we t Quee n land,
reproduce the ob e rved locatio n of th e most intense veining and altera tion. FLAC modeling of the Mary
Ka thl een U-REE o re body reproduces the location and geome try of o re shoots and provides an explana-
tio n for focusing of regio nal fluid towards the ore de positio n site . FLAC models of th e giant Moun t Isa
copper deposit reveal that the effect of th e rheological heterogeneity o n fluid fl ow and olute tran port
is a mplified if co nsideratio n is made of whe ther or n o t the rock a re contrac tant o r di la tant, with in-
creasing strain. Multiple wo rking hypo theses can be evalua ted quickl y by such modeling; the refore, the
models can be used in exploration and o re body exte nsio n studies. Furtherm o re, it is sugge ted from our
wo rk that the size and spacing of epigene tic, structu rally controlled ore depo its i related in a fai rly sys-
te ma tic way to the scale and degree of rock pro pe rty va ria tio ns, at least fo r a give n train history. For giant
o re deposits to fo rm , it requi res that the gradien ts in pore p re sure ge nerated at local scales by h etero-
ge neous rock packages must be subordina te to those operating at broader scales .

Introduction n e ti c ore d e posits on major tructural boundaries is well

THIS P APER is primarily concerned with understanding th e
dynamics of fluid flow and rock deforma tion assuming h e t-
erogen eo us rock properties, in order to predict better the
spatial distribution of epigenetic ore deposits in exploration
and expa nsi o n of existing op e ratio n s. Fluid fl ow controls
the dissolution, transport, and concentration of m etals into
epigen e tic o re deposits. The common occurren ce of epige-
t Correspo nd ing auth or: e-m ail, ni ck.olive r@jcu. edu. au
*Prese n t address: MIM Exploration , CPO Box 1042, Brisbane, QLD
400 1, Australi a.
**Present addres : Departme nt of Geology, Un iversity of O tago ,
Dun edi n , New Zealand.
known, and su ch localization is a complex interplay between
rock permeabili ty, rock rheology, fluid properties, and the
applied stress state. Deformation of rock in the presen ce of
fluid can cause a change in the stress state, which in turn
can affect the relationships be tween permeability and pore
fluid pressure, causing fluid advection. Likewise, fluid move-
m ent can affect the bulk stress state of the rock, which in
turn can cause deformation (Ord and Oliver, 1997) .
This pap er al o presents some principles and examples
of computer m e thods use d in hydrodynami c analysis of
d eform ed te rrains. Computer simula tions, constrained as
much as possible by field observations, provide an iterative
m eans to test different models of deformation, fluid flow,

51
52 OL!VERET AL.
and alteration, and to assess the relative importance of var-
ious structural features. Realistic simulations can now be
run on microcomputers with short run times, allowing
consideration of numerous input conditions and iterative
comparison with reality. Detailed cause and effect scenarios
for interrelationships between fluid flow and deformation
cannot be readily defined, and for this reason numerical
modeling is playing an increasingly important role in the
development of new research and practical exploration
strategies. Questions that can be addressed include:
1. What were the relative magnitudes and orientations
of the principal stresses during deformation?
2. Where were the zones of deformation-enhanced per-
meability relative to the large scale geometry?
3. What were the resultant patterns of fluid flow?
4. What was the likely location of mineralization?
Commonly, the structural geology in a given area is well
understood geometrically and temporally. By combining
conventional structural analysis with an understanding of
the spatial and temporal variation of rock and fluid prop-
erties, an analysis of the effects of deformation and fluid
flow on mineralization can be performed. Here, we explore
the range of relationships in which the distribution of rocks
of varying rheological properties influences the develop-
ment and evolution of fluid pathways, and ultimately, epi-
genetic syntectonic orebodies. The work has implications
for all of the categories of ore deposits for which syn- or
late-tectonic origins have been proposed, including
Archean greenstone-hosted gold deposits, orogenic gold
deposits, and many Proterozoic and Phanerozoic Cu and
Cu-Au deposits. Numerical models can assist this process by
attempting to determine the likely size and spacing of ore
deposits formed by epigenetic processes in deforming
crust. Models for deformation of homogeneous materials
generally fail to predict the location of epigenetic ore
deposits, and do not readily describe the redistribution of
ore-forming components in rocks already containing min-
eralization. Deposits in which sulfides are localized in struc-
tural sites, but are regarded as being deformed and remo-
bilized, may also be strongly influenced by the distribution
of rocks of varying strength around them.
Principles of Fluid Flow
Porous media flow and fracture flow are terms used to
describe fluid migration in relatively shallow subsurface
environments involving, for example, basinal fluid flow and
hydrocarbon and contaminant transport (e.g., Domenico
and Schwartz, 1998), and the formation of sediment-hosted
ore deposits (e.g., Carven and Freeze, 1984a, b). This sec-
tion briefly examines to what degree these same principles
can be applied to the understanding of transport and accu-
mulation of metals in deeper crustal environments. The
geological environments we are considering in this paper
are ones in which rock permeabilities are generally low,
fluid is most commonly overpressured, and the role of rock
deformation is prominent or predominant in the hydraulic
gradients that affect fluid flow. More comprehensive details
of these principles are provided by Cox et al. (2001) and
Robert and Poulsen (2001). Although the numerical m od-
els we present are capable of including the effects of topog-
raphy, buoyancy, compaction, etc., on fluid advection, we
focus attention on the interplay of deformation, stress, per-
meability, and rock properties, such as may occur in th e
active core of deforming mountain belts.
Channeled fluid flow through fractures , and flow via a
continuum of grain-scale permeability (porous media flow) ,
are convenient end-member styles of fluid flow, although
there is a complete spectrum between these two types of
flow for most geological scenarios. The governing equations
for fracture flow as opposed to porous media flow are dif-
ferent, although they converge; nevertheless, as yet, no sin-
gle numerical code has been able to address the conve r-
gence realistically for deforming geological materials. In
both cases, fluid flow is strongly affected by heterogeneo us
rocks with different mechanical properties. It is also perti-
nent to note at this stage that the two numerical codes we
present in this paper, UDEC and FLAC, simulate fracture
flow (by discrete element modeling) and porous media flow
(by continuum modeling), respectively. Each type of model,
and each way of thinking, has advantages and disadvantages.
Porous media flow in which fluid flow occurs through
interconnected pore space (or theoretically through inter-
connected fracture networks) occurs in response to
changes in hydraulic head as expressed by Darcy's law
(Etheridge eta!., 1984):
1A = I(. v-1 . VP, (1)
whereJA is the volumetric fluid flux (m 3 / m 2/ s),
Kis the permeability (m2),
v the viscosity (kg/ m / s), and
VP the gradient in hydraulic head (MPa/ m).
The units for flux are given in this form because they can
be equated with estimates of time-integrated fluid flu xes
determined petrologically, using the principle by which the
progress of a reaction as measured by the proportions of
reactant and product minerals is a measure of the to tal
fluid flux (e.g., Ferry and Dipple, 1991). For a given fluid
viscosity, fluid flow is controlled by permeability and gradi-
ents in hydraulic head. In deforming rocks with aqueous
fluids , the head gradients may be largely a function of
deformation and mineral reactions, whereas in shallower
scenarios this VP term may be dominated by the effects of
buoyancy, topographic, or thermal gradients.
There are several important differences between shallow
groundwater flow and that inferred for deeper crustal flu-
ids. Primary porosity is largely irrelevant at depth, because
it is vanishingly small for most crystalline rocks. In crys-
talline rocks, the creation and destruction of secondary
porosity, particularly effective porosity (that available to
contribute to permeability), is dominated by combinatio ns
of: ( 1) mineral reactions that involve a change in volume
 DEFORMATfON, FLUID FLOW, & ORE CL"'NESJ , MT J II, AU. TRALIA
of the olid phase and/ or liberation of volatile previously
bound up in the mineral (Rumble and Spear, 1983; Ferry
and Dipple, 1991); (2) dynamic crack propagation during
deformation (Cox eta!. , 2001); and (3) pressure solution
and dissolution/ precipitation creep resulting from load or
tectonic tres (Durney, 1976; Beach , 1977).
Many model of fluid flow in deforming rocks use
Darcy' law as the basic principle, with the assumption that
the behavior of fluids in rocks at depth can be described
by porous media flow (Ord and Oliver, 1997). This
as umption require that the permeabili ty of rock can be
represe nted by realistic averages of all of the above com-
plex processes. In comparison to hydrogeological studies
in which permeability can be mea ured a nd re lated to
grain size, grain size distribution, pore hape , and wetting
angles, our qualitative to emiquantitative e timates of per-
meability in rocks at depth are frustrati ngly inadequate,
and are the primary limitation on quantification of flu id
flow models. Despite thi limi tation, more realistic under-
standing of permeabilities at depth has b en ac hieved in
recent years through recogniti on of the complex arrays of
processes that affect permeabili ty, a few of which we pre-
sent here.
At high temperatures (>200 °C), mineral reactions can
make a ubstantial contribution to permeability and fluid
flow, because most metamorphic devolatilization reactions
liberate fluid that may result in change in VP and ther fore
fluid flux (Eth eridge e ta!. , 1984). The effect of mineral
reaction on hydra ulic conductivity i difficult to quantify
because wetting an gles and percolation thre hold for rocks
undergoing mineral reaction are different to those pre-
dicted or measured by compaction experiments in the pres-
ence of fluid (e .g., Zhang et al., 1994). Typical prograd e
mineral reactions involve a decrease in the volume of the
solid products and an in crease in the total volume of all the
products ( olid plu releas d volatiles), and, thus, have con-
siderab le potential to create permeability (Rumble and
Spear, 1983). However, such reaction- nhanced perm abil-
ity will most likely only predominate at rela tively low strain
rate ; otherwi e, intragranular plastic deformation and/ or
formation of fluid-filled fracture will predominate (O liver,
1996; Cox eta!., 2001). For example, in a ductile hear zone,
mineral reactions that create fluid overpressure will be
important, but permeability enhanc ment i unlikely to be
dominated by poro ity related to the !:!.V of reaction; rather,
it will be dominated by dynamic proce ses of microcracking
and intracrystalline deformation.
Abundant ve ins in many crustal rocks attest to the flow of
fluid along fracture , and in low-permeability rock at low to
moderate temperatures (<200°C), it is well under tood that
fracture-flow dominate the permeability, for example in
limestones (e.g., Lattman a nd Parizek, 1964) o r fractured
granites (Brace, 1968) . However, to olve expli citly for the
fracture flow requires information on fracture orie ntation,
den ity, connectivity, aperture, hydraulic conductivity, and
smoothne , a very challenging list of requirement . Flow
through fracture i imulated by various rock failure theories
whi ch p ecify the re lationship between fracture , fluid
53
pressure, and tress (e.g., Griffith , Ander on, Riedel, Mohr-
Coulomb theories), and al o by considering fluid flow solu-
tions in paralle l-walled or cylind rical channels (m uch engi-
neering li terature), e pecially laminar flow. The important
equation here is the condition for laminar fl ow between par-
allel-sided smootl1 plates:
(2)
where Q i the instantaneous fluid flux (m/ ) ,
L is the distance between the levels of pressure Pa and Pb,
W i the channel widtl1, and
v the viscosity (modified from Phillips, 1972).
Eq uation (2) contains the basic info rm ation n eed d to
consider the specific geometry of flow ch annels, alth ough
equations for rough (e.g., Brown, 1987) or highly tortuous
ch annelways ( .g., Helge on and Lichtner, 1987) are con-
siderably more complex. The degree ofinterconnectivity of
individual fractures ( ee Sibson , 1996; Cox et al. , 2001) is
also particularly important. By assessing fracture conn ctiv-
ity a nd percolation threshold for asp cific, known frac ture
array (Cox eta!. , 2001), flow modeling can proceed to
demonstrate the localization, for example, of high fluid flux
site and, hence, potential sites for mineralization.
The modeling conund rum and it link to expl oratio n
model i now a pparent- should we include specific frac-
tures in models, or try to repre ent rocks by averages in
which dynamic fracture p ermeabilities are implicit or vary
throughout rock bodie in a sy tematic way? Equation (2)
can be exte nde d to a vo lume of r oc k h avin g several o r
many fractures (Domenico and Schwartz, 1998). If an
appropriate average can b sel cte d for a representative
rock volum e, the permeability of the fractured rock body
can then be approximated by an average, and Darcy's law
may be applied o that the rock can b modeled in a con-
tinuum sense. In order for an ap prox im ation of porou
m ed ia fl ow to h old in fractured rocks, th e repre e ntative
volume of rock under consideration must con tain an aver-
age number of fracture with r pect to th ir abundance,
size , and hydraulic conductivity, a n approximation that i
diffi cult to demonstrate practically. In our porous medium
analogy for fluid flow through fractured rocks in deep-
eated cru tal enviro nm ents presented be low, we must
ass ume tha t the repre entative volume of fractu red rock is
smaller than the size of the finite difference grid elements
(typically 50 x 50 m) , that th e model , therefore , pre ent
reali tic averages of fluid flow and rock propertie , and that
Darcy's law, therefore , a ppli es. This ass umption a lso
requires, for example, that the ave rage perm eabili ty of frac-
tured rocks is characte ristically up to five or six o rd er of
magnitude greater than revealed by in itu te ting of in tact
rock (see ynop is by Dom ni co an d Schwartz, 1998). Thi
approximation has been presented, but i till diffic ult to
con train, in m any modeling tudie (cf. Holylan d a nd
Oj ala, 1997; Ord an d Oliver, 1997) . For exam ple, a 1-mm-
wide open fracture running aero an e entially imperme-
54
able 1 m2-rock face will conduct as much fluid as a porous
material with a permeability of 84 Darcys (e.g., a coarse
unconsolidated sand body near the Earth's surface;
Domenico and Schwartz, 1998) .
A difficulty remains with assessing specific fracture arrays
in gathering sufficient information to adequately account
for the variability of fracture properties in time and space.
This difficulty explains the preference of many authors,
both in petrological and geomechanical simulations, to
attempt to model fluid flow using continuous porous media
simulations in which the details of the fracturing are
embedded within assumptions concerning average rock
properties and permeability (e.g., Dipple and Ferry, 1992;
Hanson, 1992; Ord and Oliver 1997).
Another modeling approach is the discrete element
method in which fluid flow is confined to rock boundaries
or specified joints and fractures (e.g., Holyland and Ojala,
1997; Jiang et al., 1997; some examples below). This
approach focuses on the stress conditions accompanying
deformation, and numerically treats the rock bodies them-
selves as impermeable. The distribution of areas of low
mean and differential stress are then used as a proxy to pre-
dict fluid pathways, rather than the continuum methods in
which it is possible to fully couple deformation and fluid
flow. Although this type of modeling has drawbacks (e.g.,
Darcy's law cannot fully be incorporated) , it is one of few
approaches to date , other than percolation theory, that
allows simulation of fluid flow along specified fracture
arrays. To make a decision concerning the use of any par-
ticular practical or conceptual model of fluid flow in
deforming, mineralized rocks, the following questions must
first be answered:
1. Which type of process dominates the flow system: flow
along specific meso- or macroscale fractures, or flow
through permeable (porous or microfractured) bulk rock?
2. Can the permeability of different fractured rocks in
the area be averaged over a suitably small representative
volume?
3. Are sufficient data available on properties and con-
nectivity of the fractures to warrant a simulation that spec-
ifies the properties of individual fractures?
Deformation and Fluid Flow
The general principles of the interrelationship between
deformation, fluid pressure, and fluid flow have been dealt
with at length in the literature, and are summarized in this
volume by Cox et al. (2001) and Sibson (2001). Pertinent
to this discussion are (a) the law of effective stress:
where O"eff is the effective normal stress acting on a plane,
0"0 is the normal stress, and
Pris the fluid pressure (e.g.,Jaeger, 1969) ,
as depictable on Mohr circle diagrams; and (b) the condi-
tion for tensile failure at high fluid pressures:
OLIVER ET AL.
(4)
where 0"3 is the minimum compressive stress, and
Tis the tensile strength of the rock (Secor, 1965;Jaeger, 1969).
These equations describe the simplest possible relation-
ships between an applied stress and the fluid pressure, in
which high fluid pressures reduce effective stresses and may
lead to rock failure, and, conversely, high applied stresses
may increase the fluid pressure. Although these relation-
ships are superficially simple, they become very complex
when different rock types are included in the analysis, and
when complex deformation histories and geometries a re
considered. For example, deformation of several different
rock types, each with different tensile strengths, will re ult
in variations of 0"3 + T throughout, which will cause local-
ization of the potential conditions for tensile failure at a ny
given time. Continued deformation, which would result in
another distribution of 0"3 , would further modify the area
where tensile failure is possible (Holyland and Ojala, 1997).
Once failure occurs, the fluid pressure changes, causing
effective stress changes, which may lead to further defor-
mation. Some numerical models can simulate this complex
coupling between fluid flow and deformation (see below).
Homogeneous deformation
Although a homogeneous stress field can be imagined
leading to evenly distributed fluid flow, plastic deformation
in frictional materials generally leads to localizatio n of
strain, and hence of fluid flow, owing to tiny perturbatio ns
of the stress field emanating from instabilities (Ord, 1990).
In reality, small irregularities in homogeneous rock bodies
can lead to localization of deformation and of fluid flow.
However, such irregularities will generally be far subordi-
nate to those occurring along the boundaries between rock
bodies, because of the rheological contrasts.
An approach to homogeneous flow in ductilely deform-
ing rocks may occur if the fluid flux is very high relative to
the strain rate (Ord and Oliver, 1997). In such cases the
rock is swamped with fluid and the deformation conditions
are of seco ndary importance (see below). In regional
metamorphic rocks, this situation would be relatively
unusual , but may apply in some cases of contact meta-
morphism , near-surface flow, or intrusion-related flu id
expulsion where fluid fluxes are very high relative to strain
rates. A more common scenario, however, would be the
situation where stress perturbations arising because of the
juxtaposition of two (or more) unalike rocks extend out-
wards into otherwise homogeneous rocks, causing local-
ization of fluid flow (see below) . Again, such localization
(3) will most likely be subordinate in comparison to that devel-
oped immediately around the rock interface that caused
the perturbation .
Heterogeneous Deformation and Fluid Flow
Three main factors apply in the control of fluid flow dur-
ing deformation of heterogeneous rock suites (see also
Oliver et al., 1990): (1) the pore pressure, Pr; (2) gradients
 DJ:.rORMATJON, FLUID FLOW, & ORE GENESIS, MT !SA, AUSTRAU A
in P6 and (3) the orientation and magnitude of the applied
stresses.
The effects of pore pre ure and pore pressure gradients
on fluid flow in deforming rocks are addressed by Cox et
al. (2001) and Sib on (2001) , building on a long history of
study in the field including eminal pap r by Secor (1965),
Kerrich and Allison (1978) , Etheridge eta!. (1984) , Sibson
et al. (1988) , Boulli ret al. (1994) , Valenta et al. (1994) ,
and Cox (1999). In this section, and for there t of the
paper, we focu particular attention on the role of variable
rock properties and boundary condition in influenc ing
the above fac tors.
Rock boundmies and other jJlanes of weakness
Figure 1 hows how failure on an anisotropy is favored at
Pr lower than that required to fracture the bulk rock. Con-
sider a body of rock with a plan e of weakness oriented at
60 o to cr1 . Th e cohe ion and friction angle will, for most
cases, be considerably lower along the pla ne of weakness
than in the rock itself. The Mohr-Coulomb fai lure criterion
for thi plane i different from that of the rock, a hown in
Figure 1. Even though a fracture set may have low perme-
abili ty according to the law of effective stress (eq. 3) , if this
is the only anisotropy in the rock, then failure will occur on
this plane before failure occurs on the bulk rock. For exam-
ple, this process could result in the formation of bedding-
or folia tion-parallel veins in unusual orientations relative to
the infe rred stress field (Reynolds and Lister, 1987; Valenta
eta!., 1994).
Orientation of rock boundaries
Localization of fluid flow and of ore bodies commonly
occurs along misoriented structures (see al o Holyland and
Ojala, 1997; Cox et al. , 2001). Such misorientation (relative
to th e plane of shear for fai lure in homogenous rock) nor-
mally imp lie that the favorable structure is aligned at a rel-
ative ly low a ngle to th e maximum co mpressive stre s.
Hence, th e structure will be in a dilata nt orientation in
which perm ability is enhanced accord ing to the law of
effective stress (eq. 3), and in which tensi le failure m ay be
favored in contrast to shear failure on other pa rts of the
structure. Misorientation of this type may occur in response
to fault bends, fault-tip bend , fault linking, and fault refrac-
tion through diffe re nt rocks (Holyland and Oj ala, 1997;
Cox et al., 2001) . The more general case is one in which
d eformation of rock packages containing layers and/ or
blob of strong rocks in weaker matrix rocks causes local-
ization of stres and strai n , with rock boundarie in ori n-
tations at a hig h a ngl e to the maximum principal com-
pressive stre s being the fir t to show particularly dilatant
behavior (see below).
Perturbation of stress and strain fields across rock boundaries
Regions of substantial dilatancy are required for the d vel-
opment of very large fractures in deep-s a ted lithostatically
pressured rocks. In rocks otherwise deforming in a largely
ductil e manner, dilation and fracturing may occur across
areas of very large strain gradients. Strain incompatibilitie
55
a)
b) shear bulk - - - -
-T 0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T 7T
normal
Pf increase stress
Fie . l. Th e effect of planes of weakn ess o n failure crite•·ia . a . che mati c
rock body with pl a nes of wea kness. b. Mohr circl e repre e nta tion . Mohr
circles are hown with a second fa ilure enve lope th at represents th e
strength of th e rock along a pla ne of wea kn ess. Failure o n an a ni otropy
(a) is favo red a t Pr lower tha n that required to fracture the bulk ro k. o te
th a t for th e fracture e t a, alth o ug h it has low permea bility acco rdin g to
the law of effec tive stress (eq. 3), if this is the o nly anisotropy in th e rock,
the n fa ilure will occur on thi et before failure occurs o n th e bulk rock.
Modified from O liver e t al. (1990).
may arise as a con equence of deformation of highly het-
eroge neous rocks, for example when space problem occur
r suiting from folding at different wavelength in adjacent
layer ( ox et al., 2001) , or when rigid bodies are deformed
in a oft matrix, uch a metagranite in pelite or calc- ilicate
rocks (Oliver et al. , 1990; ee b low). Large fluid-filled cracks
may be generated along rock boundarie , giving rise to large
variation in P rand, hence, a t.rong hydraulic driving force.
The large fluid pressure gradi nt may allow spalling of the
stronger rock into the di latant zone created by the strain vari-
ation, thus, triggering brecciation and providing potential
sites for mineralization (e.g. , Phillips, 1972) . The required
amounts of overpressuring lead ing to fracture , and conse-
quent underpre sure leading to spalling and brecciation, will
b far more readily attained along such boundaries than in
more homogeneou rock bodie .
In general, it is difficult to separate an observed bulk
strain gradient from an inferred stress gradient, even
though the latter i harder to quantify. Strong bodie within
weaker material tend to act a stress guide . Within the
tronger body, and in specific areas around it, both the ori-
entation and magnitude of the principal tre e change rel-
ative to the far-field or app li ed stresses (Edwards, 1951;
56 OLIVERET AL.
SU"6mgard, 1973; Hobbs et al., 1976, figs. 1.6, 1.7;Jaeger and
Cook, 1979; Oliver et al. , 1990; Ojala et al., 1993; Ord and
Oliver, 1997). Similarly, local stress varies significantly
around openings or planes of weakness, such as cracks,
faults, tunnels, etc., an effect that has been well documented
in the mining engineering literature (see Jaeger and Cook,
1979 and references therein), and has equal application in
geology (e.g., Etheridge et al., 1984). These local variations
in stress can lead to failure in orientations and magnitudes
not predicted by simple analysis of the average far-fie ld
stresses away from the perturbation (Jiang et al., 1997).
Nwnerical Models
In recent years, numerical models for deformation and
fluid flow have been used to retrospectively demonstrate
reasons for fluid flow localization around rigid bodies and
related ore deposits (Oliver et al. , 1990, 1999), to explain
broad variations in fluid flow in metamorphic environ-
ments (Ord and Oliver, 1997), and to take results from
known geometric relationships around ore deposits and
apply these to exploration in the surrounding areas (Oj ala
et al. , 1993; Holyland and Ojala, 1997; Mair et al., 2000).
The concepts are based primarily on analogue (e .g.,
Stromgard, 1973), finite element, and finite difference
models of the state of stress within and around strong bod-
ies in a weak matrix, which allow for the prediction of areas
that may undergo tensile or shear failure. Such modeling,
however, is not a requirement for understanding the prin-
ciples of fluid flow in heterogeneous rocks. The models are
an aid to the logical process of identifying and characteriz-
ing key controls on fluid flow, and the process of con-
structing and modifying a series of numerical models is
akin to a risk analysis and refinement of exploration crite-
ria. Knowledge of the principles alone can lead to greatly
improved strategies for extension of operating mines and
exploration for structurally controlled ore deposits.
UDEC
Two commercially available numerical codes have been
used by us and by colleagues in recent years for modeling
of fluid flow in deforming rock masses, and examples of
both are presented here. The first of these, UDEC (Uni-
versal Distinct Element Code; Lemos et al., 1985; Starfield
and Cundall, 1988), is a two-dimensional, finite difference
model that does not fu lly couple deformation and fluid
flow throughout the rock mass. A two-dimensional body of
rock is treated as a group of separate, fully deformable
blocks that interact at edge and corner contacts. Internal
deformation of blocks is simulated using time-stepping
finite difference calculations, with specified block internal
properties. Constitutive properties of contacts can also be
specified. Fluid flow through block interiors is not simu-
lated. Rather, UDEC models stress distributions ("stress
mapping") in rock masses deformed at low bulk strains
(<5% bulk shortening), and emphasizes fluid flow along
predefined fractures, faults, joints, and rock interfaces
(Holyland and Ojala, 1997). A three-dimensional version is
available (3DEC), but is not presented here.
UDEC is id eal for modeling rocks that show predomi-
nantly brittle behavior and fluid flow channelized along
near-planar fractures. These fractures or interfaces between
rocks have their properties specifically defined in the mod-
els, so the fracture properties and the input geometry, thus,
control the fluid flow to a large degree. UDEC uses a n
explicit calculation procedure. By this method, each calcu-
lation cycle covers a small enough time step that it is not
necessary to consider the spatial and temporal interdepen-
dence of variables in the model. This removes the need for
manipulation of large matrices, and allows simulation of
modest strains. However, small timesteps are required to
maintain model stability, and UDEC has problems with
complex grids and block overlap. Hence, the models can
only be run to relatively small total strains, because there is
no capacity for re-gridding during model runs which would
alleviate this problem. Its utility is, thus, restricted unless it
can be demonstrated from the geology that the configura-
tion of rocks and deformation fields at the time of fl id
flow did not change greatly (i.e., did not accumulate large
strains), and details of these assumptions for some scenar-
ios have been presented by Holyland and Ojala (199 7).
Within these provisos, models of stress distribution, derived
from UDEC modeling, have been used to constrain paleo-
orefield fluid flow, even in rocks showing brittle-ductile
behavior. It is particularly useful if it can be demonstrated
that the bulk of fluid flow was along meso- to macro-scale
fractures, because UDEC treats the intervening rock mass
between the fractures as essentially impermeable. In th is
regard it is not fully coupled even though the fluid obeys
Darcy's law in the fractures, and this is the model's m ain
limitation. However, it has some utility in rock masses that
contain micro-, meso-, and macro-scale fractures, because
the stress distribution in the rock bodies between the spec-
ified fractures can also be viewed as having the potential to
develop fracture-re lated permeability if the stress condi-
tions are suitable (see below) .Jiang et al. (1997) use UDEC
in scenarios in which the geometry and evolution of chan-
nelways are specified and varied, and this analysis includes
appraisal of fluid flow rates and conduit width, critical in
specific localization of mineral deposits (Helgeson and
Lichtner, 1987).
FLAG
FLAC (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua; Cundall and
Board, 1988) is a finite difference code for modeling
deforming porous media; that is, it treats rock masses as
though they are continua represented by average values of
mechanical, fluid flow, and heat transport properties. Fluid
flow in FLAC is more completely coupled with the deform-
ing rock mass than is the case with UDEC. Unlike UDEC,
FLAC can handle large strains, rotations, and displacem nts
both in two or three dimensions, although complex simu la-
tions using FLAC30 require long run times. We have favo red
FLAC in recent years because most of the deposit a nd
regional scenarios we have been considering involve fluid
flow during ductile and brittle-ductile deformation in which
flow occurs in rock bodies, as well as along rock boundaries.
 DEFORMATION, FLUID FLOW, & ORE GENESIS, MT ISA , A USTRALJA
In thi model, the fluid obeys Darcy's law such that fluid
flow is a function primarily of gradients in hydraulic head
and permeability (eq. 1). Permeability can be fixed for
given rock type or allowed to change a a function of the
deformation. In hydrogeological stud ies of clastic sed i-
ments dominated by primary porosity (space between
clasts), porosity-permeability relationships are dominated
by expre ion that focu on grain shap s, size distributions,
and pore space shapes (Domenico and Schwartz, 1998).
Such approximations are inappropriate for rocks in which
pore space is dominated by secondary porosity, and in par-
ticular, dynamic porosity that arises from deformation. In
FlAC, the porosity ha two components, one being a FlAG-
defined porosity that is rock-type dependent but strain
independent; the second is deformation related, being
re lated directly to the volum e change occurring during
deformation (Ord and Oliver, 1997) . The volume change
during deformation (and the linked porosity change) is
conceptualized by the dilation angle (Fig. 2). The increase
in pore volume during plastic deformation arises from the
sliding of irregular urface pa teach other, such a along
grain boundarie and fracture urface (Brace, 1968; Ord,
1991). The a umption i then made that this deformation-
indu ced dilatancy is duplicated at broader scales with in
specified volumes of rock, generally corre ponding to dif-
ferent rock types. Common rocks such a sandstones and
marbles have dilation angles on the order of +5 ° to +10 °,
whereas some strong rocks (e.g., gabbro, karn) may have
larger angles, and, le commonly, highly porou lime tone
and similar rocks may have negative dilation angles. Dila-
tion angles may change during deformation; fo r example,
decreases may occur due to gradual sealing of deformation-
induced porosity by the reaction products of protracted
fluid / rock interaction, such as vein infill or alteration zone
(see below).
Vo lum e change due to deformation of dilatant rocks
re ult in pore pressure change , causing changes in the
hydrauli c head and, hence, fluid flow according to Darcy's
law. Change in effective stress owing to volume change can
al o lead to plastic deformation, wh ich leads back to
changes in volume. Fe dback b tween fluid flow and defor-
mation, thus, continues. These fundamental principles are
easiest to appreciate in thecae of inten ely altered ductile
sh ar zones, where micro- cale dilatancy, coupled with
locali zed shear, cause repeated fluid pressure changes
leading to concentrated ingre and flow of fluid along the
sh ar zone ( ox et al., 2001; Robert and Poulsen , 2001).
In the remaining sections, we use combination of
mapped fi ld or mine relations, and either DEC or FlAC
m od e ls, to demonstrate the principle of fluid flow that
have led to ore accumulation.
Examples
UDEC stress modeling of the Mary Kathleen fold belt
Geologic background: Our fir t model is ba ed on the geol-
ogy of the Mary Kathleen fold belt in the central Mount Isa
block (O liver and Wall, 1987; Oliver et al. , 1990; Oliver,
57
a)
FIG. 2. imp lified micro tructura l interpretations of the dilation angle
of a material, for gran ular porous media (a), and for mate rial with per-
meability dominated by microcracks (b) , showing how shea ring ca n result
in in crea es in volum e and potential for fluid inflow. For granu lar mate-
rial , the poro ity ge ne rated by deformation may dominate over the pri-
mary intrinsic porosity, as depicted. In the FLAC models presented in the
text, the deformation-related porosity term is characte ristically predomi-
nant over intrinsic porosity. Adapted from Ord and Oliver (1997).
1995). Here, competent, low permeability meta dol erite
and metagranite bodie were surrounded by weak calc- ili-
cate rock during yo-metamorphic fluid flow. Fluid flow in
those rocks of the -1760-Ma-old Corella Formation
occurred at 1550 to 1500 Ma during the Isan orogeny, an d
was strongly concentrated around th metadolerite- calc- il-
icate interfaces. The distribution of a lteration and veins
uggests that the metado l rites act d as tre guide for
deformation and fluid flow (Fig. 3a, b). The abundant brit-
tle and brittle-ductile structures within the e alteration
zones are atyp ical of normal amphibolite-facies rocks, and
are more charac teristic of d formation at much shallower
levels in the crust. However, vein cro scutting relationship ,
textural observations, and P-T data confirm that the large
majority of alteration produ cts and veins d eve loped near
the peak of regional amphibolite-facie metamorphism
(Oliver, 1995). Mineralization (Cu, Au, U-REE ) in the belt
is wide pread and patially related to the alteration. How-
ever, it is fairly co n iste ntly of low tonnage, and with a few
exception , uneconomic for metals. Links have recently
been drawn between this belt and the Cloncurry Belt some
40 to 60 km further east, where much richer Cu-Au miner-
alization occur (Oliver et al. , 1999).
Alteration and minor mineralization is found near the
boundarie of the meta-intru ive rocks and the me tased i-
ments, characteri tically forming calcite vein networks (±
chalcopyrite) surrounded by irregular or h ear-related
a lbi tic a lteration zones (Fig. 3b). Large ve in cry tal of
clinopyroxene , amph ibol , and calcite, locally up to meter
scale , uggest that there were substantial dilations during
vein formation .
58 OLIVERETAL.

a)

c)

/ ' ' '

/ / /
/ ' ' '
/ / /
/ ' ' '
/ / /
/ ' ' '
/ / /
/ ' ' '
/ / /
30 MPa
/ ' ' '
/ / /
/ ' ' '
/ / /
/ ' ' '
/ / /.

' '

5 MPa
200m

200m
FIG. 3. Geology and UDEC modeling of the Mary Kathleen fold belt. a. Schematic three-dimensional geology of the
Mary Kathleen fold belt showing how distribution of infiltrated, altered rocks (shaded) was controlled by deformation
(E-W shortening) of competent metadolerite bodies in calc-si li cate host rocks (adapted from Oliver, 1995). b. Some
detail in map view of the distribution of alteration products and the inferred maximum principal stress direction dur-
ing shorteni ng deformation (modified from Oliver et al. , 1990). c. Conceptual input for two-dimensional , plan-view
UDEC model showing applied stresses on a competent metadolerite body within weaker calc-sili cate rock (rock prop-
erties from Oliver et al., 1990); latera l boundaries remain planar during model deformation but are free to change
length and move E-W; no fluid flow occurs. d. Contoured effective mean stress (MPa) generated afte1· -5 percent E-W
shortening. ote correspo ndence of zones oflow effective mean stress (shaded) with field occurrences ofimense alter-
atio n and ve inin g (i .e., a "stress gu ide" effect).
 DEFORMATION, FL UID FLOW & ORE Ct."NES!S, J\1/T !SA, A USTRALIA
Model construction and parameters: Although everal geo-
metric situations can be applied to specifi c mapped alter-
ation zones (Fig. 3a) , the overall patterns of fluid flow may
be modeled by deformation of a tabular m ta-intrusive
body surrounded by meta ediments, and ubject to short-
en ing orthogonal to the elongate boundaries of the tabu-
lar body (Oliver et al. , 1990). Our fir t approach is to use
UDEC to determine whether there is a good correlation
betwe n the distribution of the altered rocks and the stress
field operating over mall deformation increments (Fig. 3
c, d). Phy ical propertie of rocks were obtained from the
tabulations of Birch ( 1966) , and all rocks were modeled as
Coulomb materials. Ro ck propertie are presented in
Oliver eta!. (1990) and are similar to those given in Table
1; data for the model metadolerite are those for Sudbury
diabase, and the metasediment i ba ed on a mixture of
Framingham chist, Idaho Spring Formation chi t, and
Cockseyvi lle marble (Oliver eta!. , 1990). The calculated
Young's modulus ratio of Sudbury diabase to this meta ed-
imentary aggregate is 2.4, consistent with the strain hadow
patterns ob erved around the meta-intrusive bodie in the
Mary Kathleen fo ld belt. Deformation in both bodie wa
taken as elastic-plastic, and the applied stresses in the X and
Y directions ( a 1 and a 2 ) were 30 MPa and 5 MPa (300 bar
and 50 bars) , respectively. The total area is divided into 200
finite-difference triangles (sub-blocks) , with the appropri-
ate propertie applied to the metadolerite, the metasedi-
ments, and the boundary between the two rocks (O liver et
al., 1990). The finite-difference triangles interact during
the imulation , from which an array of mean and differen-
tial stresse is computed at intervals during the run. The
methods are generally the same as tho e pre en ted by Holy-
land and Ojala (1997).
Model result , implications for exploration, and limitations:
The model shows good corre lation with the observed di -
tribution of alteration products, and suggests that low mean
(and differential) stresses were important for focusing flu-
ids. However, we cannot a sess the realism of the magnitude
of the generated stresses because of limitation of model
inputs. The model shown wa run without fluids, and there-
fore the effective stres shown has arisen by our application
of low confining pressures on the block boundaries (Fig.
3c), to simulate artificially a total mean confining pre ure
of 350 MPa (low pressure amphibo lite facies) and an
app li ed differential stress (assumed) in the horizontal
dimension of 25 MPa. The model i , thu , not fully cou-
pled, nor thre dimen ional, so we cannot portray realistic
flow vectors because Darcy' law (eq. 1) and th law of effec-
tive stress in the presence of fluid (eq. 3), are not incorpo-
rated. Despite these model restriction , the extreme varia-
tion in rheology of the mapp d rock types produces (a)
large gradients in differential and mean stre s (Oliver et al. ,
1990) , and (b) zones of high inferred fracture permeabil-
ity in orientations that would normally not be considered
uitable for dilation, particularly along the walls of the
intrusive bodie aligned north-south, at right angle to the
maximum compre sive far-field stress.
59
T ABLE 1. Mate rial ProperLies for th e FLAC Models
Presented in Figure 4
Mau·ix Block
hear modulus (GPa) 1.0 5.0
Bulk modulus (GPa) 1.67 g_ gg
Den ity (kg/ m3) 2,700 2,700
Cohesio n (MPa) 10.0 10.0
Friction an gle go• go•
Dilation angle 100 100
Pe rmeability (m2) 10e14 5e1g
In an applied sense, the results of th modeling allow u
to equate a regional deformation with the localization of
alteration products, rather than requiring a specific defor-
mation phase or change in the stress field , or other defor-
mation condition . eco ndly, the model show that the
tres guide effect is sufficiently well corre lated with the
shape and size of the more competent, less permeable bod-
ie , that exploration for large deposits is more likely to be
succe ful when the tress guides are large . In the Mary
Kathleen fold belt, thi ituation corre pond to 10-km-scale
metagranite+ skarn bodies, rather than the smaller meta-
dolerite bodie depicted in Figure 3. The Mary Kathie n U-
REE depo it, for example, is localized on such an interface
(see below). Finally, the models suggest that all of the
observed ve in and pod geometries (Fig. 3a) can be ratio-
nalized a being a product of ea t-we t hortening, includ-
ing steeply dipping, north rly oriented altered h ear zone
along interfaces between the two rock type . The effect of
the different rock propertie may be ufficiently strong to
p ermit favorable low tres condition for rock failure and
fluid flow in location and orientations that would not read-
ily be predicted from an inspection of the geo metric con-
figuration relative to the horten ing fie ld.
A saturated, continuum model for the Mary Kathleen fold belt
The limitations of DEC do not readily allow us to test
conceptual ideas regarding fluid flow in general. In thi ec-
tion, we briefly present numerical models that as i t with an
under tanding of how variable trains and fluid fluxe
might influence the patterns predicted in Figure 3. DEC
cannot fu lly couple deformation with fluid flow through
the rock rna es, o what i the effect of fluid flow on the
deformation patterns? And what is the effect of having ver-
tical gradients in initial fluid pressure distribution, a would
be expected for deforming, metamorphic rocks?
Model construction and parameters: Figure 4 how orne
simp le two-dimensional cro - ection mode l , which ini-
tially are 5 km wide and 5 km deep, and contain a rectan-
gu lar block, 2 km wide, 1 km deep, and centrally p laced.
Becau e of our fluid pres ure param eter and boundary
conditions (see below), similar results would pertain if the
larger block were made 20 by 20 km, o that we could sim-
u late the amp hibolite faci s depth pertaining in the Mary
Kathleen fold belt. Elastic con tants and p lastic Mohr-
Coulomb properties have been el cted for representative
60 OLm"'RET AL.

- - 5km - -
a)

c) d)

b) t t
0

~j). 1~1 \~~

~

~ ~~
~~ t~ \\

~~ ~ j\ I~
~~~~~
'f
2

II. ~t Jl~ 3km

~
" ~

!~ ~
~1 f~1~11
. ~ ~ ~·
~
"~·~
2 3km
0
30°/o £, 30°/o £,
10°/o £ , low fluid flux low fluid flux high fluid flux
FIG. 4. FlAC model of the effects ofdiffere ntfluid flux rates and total strain s o n the pattern of fluid flow a nd defor-
mation in a two-dimensional cross-section of heterogeneous rocks. a. The conceptual model for inpu t into FlAC is
based loosely on the geometry of rocks in the Mary Kathleen fo ld belt (Fig. 3) , but co uld easily be app li ed to any situa-
tion of competent roc ks embedded within weaker surro unds. Initia l cond itio ns (Tab le 1) are: (1) two rock ty pes, the
ce ntral block havin g low permeability and moderate strength, and th e surroundin g rock having low stre ngth and mod-
erate permeability; (2) a lith ostati c fluid pressure g rad ient (giving overa ll upwards flow; (3) the lith ostatic fluid pres-
sure gradient is always e nforced alon g the lateral boundaries and at the base of the model to ensure fluid flow for the
duration of the model; (4) lateral boundaries are free to move horizo ntally and vertically but must remain planar, sim-
ulating a ge neral shorten ing stra in ; (5) the base can shorten but must remain planar, and the free top surface is open
to potential hydrostatic conditions. Rock property data are given in Orcl a nd Oliver (1997). b. FlAC finite difference
model in two dimensions of instantaneous fluid flow vectors after ap proximately 10 perce nt sh orten in g (£) of the o rig-
in al block, showing the subtle effects of the central block on the fluid flow vecto rs body, for a situ ation with 1 fluid flow
step per deformation step (eq uati ng to "typical" regio nal metamorp hi c fluid fluxes). c. Same parameters except at 30
percent shorten in g, a nd in comparison to (b), note the stro ng fluid focusing and the development of a region of sub-
lith ostatic fluid pressure cond iti ons co rrespon ding to the draw-clown vectors in tl1 e top center of the model. d. Same
cond itio ns as for (c) , but with 100 fluid fl ow steps per deformation step, equatin g to fluid fluxes similar to those in con-
tact a ureoles and metasomatic shear zo nes, showin g h ow the high fluid fluxes can dampen the effect of the deforma-
tion. Note that the draw-clown effect shown in (c) is also swamped by the very hi gh upward fluid fluxes. Adapted from
Orcl and Oliver (1997).

rock types from Birch (1966; Table 1). The bulk modulus
for the elastic fluid in all models is 2 CPa and th e fluid den-
sity is 1,000 kg/ m 3 for fully saturated fluid flow. The mate-
rials follow a non-associated Coulomb constitutive law (Ord
and Oliver, 1997) with individual rock bodies having spec-
ified values of cohesion, friction angle, and dilation angle
(Table 1). In this example all properties for each rock stay
constant throughout the experiment; some properties are
allowed to vary in the Mount Isa model prese nted below.
The finite difference sectors within the models are initially
100m across, and as little as a third of this after deforma-
tion. Thirty to one hundred meters is, thus , our represen-
tative volume across which we assume average fracture-
related permeability and rock properties . Hence, these
models are only pertinent to the flow of fluid at broader
scales than this, although the same principles would apply
to local, more specific situations.
Each model is brought to equilibrium under gravity prior
to horizontal compression under plane strain conditio ns.
The out-of-plane stress is incorporated in the calculations.
In order to attain these conditions, the base of the m odel
is fixed vertically but is free to deform in a horizontal d irec-
tion, the sides of the model are constrained to be planar
during deformation but are free to move horizontally and
 DEFORMATION, FL UID FLOW, & ORE GENESIS, MT JSA, AUSTRALIA
to extend vertically, and the top urface is free to deform in
any manner (Fig. 4a). The fluid pres ure throughout each
model is initialized to lithostatic conditions prior to begin-
ning the experiment, giving an overall upward flow due to
buoyancy, but is con trained to remain at these conditions
only at the edges of the model for the duration of the
experiment. The vertical stre i also initialized to litho-
static conditions, and with Poisson 's Ratio approximately
on quarter, the horizontal stres es are initialized to one
third the vertical principal stre s, prior to hortening.
For this model and the Mount Isa model presented
below, gravity (10 m/s 2 ) is applied , and the model is
brought to an initial force-equilibrium state before being
com pre sed horizontally at a rate of 0.2 length units per
time step, which for a model5,000 units wide (500 sectors)
resu lts in a horizontal shortening of 4 percent every 1,000
step . Fluid flow hi tories can be tabulated for individual
points, or plotted for the entire grid, but here we have used
vectors of instantaneous fluid flow to provide the best visu-
alization (Fig. 4).
R esults and implications: Comparison b tween Figure 4b
and 4c show that incr asing strain at a constant fluid flux
rate has the effect of focusing fluid flow more strongly. This
scenario i not particularly applicable to predominantly
brittle situations, where faulting can focus fluid at relatively
low strain (Cox eta!. , 2001) , but does appear to be impor-
tant in more ductile rocks such as those modeled here.
Comparison ofFigure 4c and 4d shows that fluid pays little
attention to rock heterogeneities if fluxes are very high rel-
ative to deformation rates. Such a scenario would not be
particularly useful for concentration of mass into an ore
accumulation, but it may be useful in the dissolution and
transport phases of a hydrothermal cycle during which it
would be de irable for fluid to scour as much rock as pos-
sible. By comparison with the real geology (Fig. 3a, b) , we
can , therefore , surmise that at the pre ent level of expo-
sure, the stre s guide effect, was particularly important, and
the vo lumetric fluid flux was sufficiently high to cause sub-
tantial alteration , but not so high as to swamp the effects
of the heterogeneous deformation. Difference between
the shapes of the metadolerite block in Figure 4c and 4d
testify as to how the fluid-coupl ing via Darcy's law can feed
back to the tress state ufficiently that the strain pattern is
changed; however, this appears to be a second-order effect
for the materials modeled.
FLAG modeling of the Mary Kathleen U-REE ore deposit
Geological background: Modeling of a pecific ore geome-
try was applied in numerical studies of the Mary Kathleen
ore deposit (Oliver, 1995; Oliver eta!. , 1999). Thi unusual
deposit (12 million tonnes at 0.12 % U 30 8 , 6-7 % REE),
ho ted by a garnet-pyroxene skarn, was mined from 1956
until 1982, and is located 55 km east of Mount I a and
approximately 65 km west of Ernest Henry. The ho t gar-
net-pyroxene karn formed during an early phase of gran-
ite intrusion (1740 Ma) into the Corella Formation (Page,
1983). The orebody was formed late during the Isan
61
oroge ny at 1550 to 1500 Ma, during D 2 and/ or D 3 (Page,
1983) . One model appeal to pro tore preconcentration of
U-REE in the skarns during granite intrusion (Maas et al. ,
1988) , whereas another propo es more distal mass sources
(Oliver et al., 1999). In both cases, the focusing mechanism
for the pre ent ore distribution is thought to be related to
fluid focusing during the Isan orogeny.
Allanite-uraninite-garnet ore shoots form an irregular
vein array that steepens westwards as the large Mary Kath-
leen shear zone is approached (Fig. 5). The hear zone ha
a clear west-block-up movement sense defined by strati-
graphic marker and shear- ense indicators. The veins,
thus, do not represent deformed planar markers, because
their overall curvature would otherwise give an east-block-
up movement sense . Rather, it would appear that the
change in orientation is a function of distance away from
the shear zone, and so may be re lated to the coupling of
shear with britt! fracturing in the adjacent rocks, becau e
field relationships also point towards a likely synchronicity
of mineralization and shearing (Oliver et al. , 1999).
Model construction, pammeters, limitations: To test the
extent to which vein localization and geometry wa related
to adjacent shearing, numerical modeling was applied to a
geometry in which a hard karn body was coupled with a
soft shear zone at the time of ore genesis (Fig. 5). The start-
ing conditions w chose were based on an understanding
of the regional and local kinematic (Fig. Sa) , such that a
broader ea t-west hortening was locally modified by west-
block-up shearing in the late stages of the D 2 deformation.
Rock property data are presented in Table 2. The bound-
ary condition were similar to those for Figure 4, except
that both the bottom and top boundaries were allowed to
change shape to accommodate the more complex kine-
matic . A lithostatic fluid pressure condition was imposed
for the duration of the runs, based on the assumption that
ufficient fluid was available from the progress of regional
metamorphic reactions and / or late syntectonic granites.
We did not run models with differ nt fluid pre ure condi-
tions , nor did we change the rock propertie during the
runs. Also, the total strain at the end of th run (Fig. 5c)
were considerably les than inferred from the geology-the
200m west-block-up model di placement is much less than
the calculated >2 km di placement from the geology
(Oliver eta!., 1999).
R esult and explomtion implications: Both UDEC (Oliver
1995) and FLAC models (Fig. 5d, e) produce a heteroge-
neous stres fie ld in vertical section in which the orienta-
tion and magnitude of the tresse changes systematically
across the host skarn body, mimicking to some degree the
measured orientations of most ore veins (Fig. 5b). To a fir t
approximation, this suggests that deformation-coupling
between the shear zone and the adjacent strong skarn body
was the primary mechanical control on ore deposition ,
both spatially and with respect to ore shoot orientation .
The response of the skarn to tl1e immediately adjacent high
strain zone was to deform via tensile and shear fai lure on a
62 OLIVER ET AL.

a) E b) M ary
Kathleen
W Shear
Zone

· · Wonga
Belt

. 2 km •• ·

Axial surface
100 m
of Mary Kathleen
Syncline

c)

14 .4
3 /'---Depth
'-.r- (km)

14 .8

0.0 0.4 0 .8
distance (km)
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

FIG. 5. Geo logy and FLAC model of the Mary Kathleen U-REE
D Aty1eld 1n shear(plast1c) ~
deposit, adap ted from Ol iver eta!. (1999). a. Regional cross section Elastic, y1eld 1n shear 1n past ~
showing butu'ess effect ofWonga Belt against the Mary Kathleen fo ld
belt, based in part on Holcombe et al. (1992). Because of this 10-km- • At y1eld In tenSIOn/
sca le buttressing, the broader Isan orogeny D2 E-W shortening is per-
turbed in th e vicini ty of the Mary Kathleen Shear Zone suc h that the
local strain field is heterogeneous and in cludes a sign ifi ca n t compo-
nent of west-block-up shear. b. Cross section of geo logy showing ore
shoots in host skarn , progressively steepening down and to the west as
e) w E

"
.....
the Mary Kathleen Shear Zone is approach ed. c. Conceptual model
used as geometric inpu t into the FLAC modeling, sh owin g the K 200m
resolved components of the regional shortening as an imposed hori- K
zontal east to west velocity on the eastern boundary, and an inclined
west to east and up ve locity for the western boundary, based on our K
inferences from (a) and (b). The Figure sh ows the geometric starting

......
cond iti on and 2 snaps hots of the numerical modeling (m idd le and
end of the run ), showin g weaker shear zone rocks to the west, hard "' ....
....
skarn in the middle (hosting later ore veins) , and moderate-strength
and -pe rm eability calc-sili cate rocks and amphibo lite to the east (rock
properties given in Table 2) . d. Summary of resu lts for e nlargement
"'
of the final run , showing curved lin es of the trajectory of 0'1, varying in
a fashion simil ar to th e variatio n in the geometry of the ore shoots,
"' Jf
and vari ation in the failure mode , which is a rough approximation of
the ore grades at broad scale. These co rre latio ns vindi cate o ur inte r-
Jf ! ....
pretation that ore shoots formed by coup lin g of the shear zo ne with
the hard skarn body during deformation. e. Instantaneous fluid flow
vectors at the final model stages, showing that fluid may have been
drawn fro m west of th e skarns towards the areas of tensile fa ilure
within the skarns, and that the calc-s ili cate rocks to the east may not
have allowed easy fluid access into the skarns.
 DEFORMATION, FL UID FLO~V, & ORE GENESIS, M T !SA, AUSTRALIA
TABLE 2. Mate rial Properties for FLAC Models Prese nted in Figure 5
Marble H rnfel /
(we t o f MKSZ ) amphiboli te
hea r modulus (CPa) 1.0 4. 0
Bulk modu lus (C Pa) 1.67 6.67
De nsity (kg/ m3) 2,700 2,700
Co hesio n (MPa ) 10 50
Fricti o n a ngle 15°
100
20°
so
Di latio n a ngle
Pe rm eabili ty (m2) 2e-1 6 Je-1 6
MKSZ = Mary Kath lee n shea r zo ne
set of planes systematically re lated to th e tre s fi ld gen r-
a te d by this couplin g of hard rock again t soft rock. T h i
effect has e nabled fluid to be drawn in toward the skarn
fro m the west, and to a le r exten t fro m the east (Fig. 5e).
At the bottom western side of th e karn body, the correla-
tion between th e stress fie ld and the o bse rved vein ori e n-
tatio n is no t so good , and this could be a functio n of the rel-
a tive ly low hear trains we h ave imposed for the modeling,
in compari on to reali ty. Alternatively, ore h oots near the
shear zon e may h ave been deformed an d rotated towards
more vertical orientatio ns by th e shearing, possib ly by
expansion of the sh ear zon e with time.
At ore-field scale, th ese model predictions would be use-
fu l in con tro llin g orebody exten ion plan ning, because th e
par ts of th e skarn away from th e m ai n sh ear zo n e ar e
unlikely to bear good grad es u nle s oth er shear zone were
fo u nd. Th e mode li ng also confirm th at the ore sh oots
were not preexisting veins th at were deformed by th e Mary
Kathl ee n sh ear zone. In local explo ra tio n , large karn bod-
ie adj acent to large sh ear zones would clearly be possible
targets, and in regio nal expl oratio n, there ul ts confirm the
pro pen ity for localization of ore depo its along boundaries
betwe e n th e h ardest an d softe t rocks availa ble in th e
regio nal setting ( ee below). Altho ugh th is last observatio n
is h ardly urpri ing, the models al o provide a mechan i m
for d rawing fl uid from the su rrounding rocks into the vicin-
ity of th e skarns. T h e pro tore m odel fo r ore body formation
(Page , 1983a; Maas et al. , 1988) appeal to preco ncentra-
tion ofU-REE in the karn ·, but th e model does n ot clearly
explain the low £ cl signature and LREE-en rich menl of the
orebody (Maa et al. , 19 ; Oliver tal. , 1999) . T h e alter-
n ative mod e l p rese n te d h ere p ro p os s external fl uid
ingres fro m o urce we t of the Mary Kathleen shear zone,
which would help to explain these geochemical signatu re .
UDE tress mapping of the H ilton Pb-Zn-(Cu) ore deposit
Geological setting: T he Hil ton Pb-Zn ore depo it is o n e of
a fa mily of well-kn own gia nt sedi me n t-hoste d base m e tal
ulfide depo its in th e western Mount Isa district. Situa ted
som e 40 km north of Mount I a, it differs fro m that deposit
in h aving far less co pper. H oweve r, th e lower grad es a nd
restricted distribu tion of copper has allowed Valenta (1994)
and Valen ta et al. (1994) to d efin e and refin e a tructural
m od e l for syntecton ic cop per m ineralizatio n wh ic h a! o
applie at Mount Isa (see below) . Rocks in th e H ilton a rea
are part of th e - 1670-Ma-old Moun t I a Group of the We t-
63
e rn Su ccession of th e Mo u nt Isa block. Mineralization
occurs within impure dolomitic silts ton es of th e U rquhart
Ska rn Sh ale. The truc tu ral hi tory of th e area comp rises early
14.9
th rusting (D 1 ) , regional north-tre nd ing fo lding (D 2 ) , and
24.8 la te faul ting a nd develo pm e nt of fold zon e in various ori-
2,700 en tations (D 3-D 5 ) . Rocks in th e Hil ton area lie o n the west
500 li mb of a la rge cale D 2 an ticl ine, con tain a weak but p ene-
30° trative s2cl eavage, and h ave undergo n e inten e fa ulting
25°
1e-1 6 and block rotation a ociated with th e D 2 to D 5 deform a-
tion episodes (Valen ta, 1994).
Mineralization in the Hilton area can be divided into two
broad types: (1 ) stratiform lead-zinc mineralization occurring
in numerous lenses associated with su·ongly pyritic shales; and
(2) tran gressive copper min eralization occurring wi thin
lead-zinc orebodie and crosscutting dolerite dike in the
Hilton area, generally associated with defo rm ed zone that
clearly postdate lead-zin c min eralizatio n. Relatio nship
between copper mineral ization and structural feature have
shown tha t copper min e ralization occurred m ainly during
th e D 2 and D 3 deform a ti on e pi od es, associated with la te-
rage fl u id circulation o n the m aj or faul t zon es in th e area
(Valen ta, 1994) . In th e Hilton mine, the copper-rich zone is
as ociated with an area of high train wi thin the three hang-
ing-wall lead-zin c orebodies wh ere th yare cut by a vertical
extensio nal fault adj acent to a precopper dike (Fig. 6a).
Model construction and parameters: Th e mode l used in thi
study simulates beh avior of rocks in th e Hil ton mine block
du ring yntectonic copper mineralization (i.e., late D 2-early
D 3). Modeling i performed o n an ea t-west ve rtical ectio n,
in o rd er to test th e re lative con tribu tio n of frac tu re an d
bou ndary geo metry and sulfide-dolerite-sh ale rh eological
co ntrast to fluid flow and coppe r mine rali zatio n p attern s
inferred fro m fie ld observatio ns.
h ear zon es separa te the rock alo ng m o t contacts. The
two large t bo unding h ear zo ne are tee ply west-dipping,
and rep re e nt th e Paroo fault zone on the we t ide and the
Barkly hear zon e on the eas t. Six minor sh ear zon es, with
slightly stronger m ech anical p ropertie , occur be tween the
bo u n ding sh ear zon e . Th e e rep re e nt min or be dding-
parallel sh ear zon es, and a l o e r ve a co ntac ts be tween
shale and lead-zinc ore . Shearing also occur o n th e hang-
ing-wall of th e dike (Fig. 6a). Values of bulk modulu , shear
m odulu s, d e n sity, co h io n , fricti o n an gle, and ten sil e
tren g th have been e tima ted ba ed o n data rep orte d in
Bi rch (1966) , a nd are shown in Table 3. Dike rocks are con-
sidered to be the strongest, foll owed by barren shales. Lead-
zinc orebodie are th e weake t mode llitl1ology. E timates
of normal tiffness, shear stiffne s, co hesion , frictio n angle,
and ten il e stre ngth fo r m aj o r and minor fa ult a re al o
shown in Table 3. Low shear stiffn es e have been estimated
for fa ul ts in th e mod I, base d o n th e fact th a t fa ults at
Hil ton a re commo nly wid e zon es of mylo nitizatio n , poly-
clinal fo lding, and catacla i (Vale n ta, 1994) rath er th an
simple rough join ts . Values of cohesion and te nsile strength
h ave been e t a t zero for th e same reason .
T h e co nstitu tive mod e l for inte rnal d efo rmatio n of
blocks is ela tic/ plastic, with Mo hr-Coulomb failure. Vein
64 OLIVER ET AL.

Pb-Zn lenses
a)
~·-------- 200m --------~•~
b) (9 in rea lity)
w E w
Paroo shale
Fault shear
Zone

20 MPa

do lerite
dyke

Zone

lenses

c) d) 3000 cycles

--
200m

F IG. 6. Geology an d num erical mode lin g of co upled d efo rma ti on and coppe r min eralizatio n at th e Hi lto n mine. a.
Cross sectio n of geology, showing interactio n of Paroo a nd Barkly fa ul t zon es with a package ofl ayered rocks (lead-zin c
o re and sh ale) , a nd a n east-dippin g dike that pred ates copper min erali zati on. b. Input geometry fo r U DEC models,
with E-W shorte ni ng a nd ini tial hyd rostatic fl ui d pressure gradi e nt, and a n imposed E-W fa r-fte ld di ffere n tial stress of
20 MPa; rock and contact p roperties are li sted in Tab le 3. c. Two-dim ensio nal stress fie ld afte r 1,000 cycles. If th e m ini-
mum stress is not shown th en its magn itude is less than th e li ne width ; note vari ation in stress o ri e ntatio n and magni-
tudes arou nd the dike. d . Stress fie ld after 3,000 cycles: note th e overa ll lowerin g of stresses co mpared to 1,000 cycles as
strain is accum ul ated ; also note zo nes of ve ry low d iffe re nti al stress deve loped n ear wh ere th e dike tips intersect the
Pa roo fa u lt, whi ch is a zo ne of in te nse alte rati o n in th e min e. e. Co ntours o f mea n stress a t1 ,000 cycles, equ iva le nt to
(c). f. Co n tours of mea n stress at 3,000 cycles, eq uiva le nt to (d ). No te co rres po nde nce of o re zo nes with zo nes of low
mean stress at 1,000 cycl es. At 3,000 cycles, high mean stresses co rrespo nd with low effective stress and low differe ntial
stress aroun d the dike tips a nd where the dikes intersect the lead-zin c o re bodies. I ntense alteratio n of d ikes a nd fa ult
zo nes is fou nd in these locatio ns in th e min e (see tex t). Adapted in part fro m Vale nta (1994).
 DEFORMATION, FLUID FLOW, & ORE GENESIS, MT. !SA, AUSTRALIA 65

e) w 1000 cycles, mean stress E

7

10

15

20

0 25 50 100 25
metres MPa .

f) w
2
5

10

15

o____~2~
5 ----5~o~------~
1oo
metres MPa
66
TABLE 3. Material Properties for the UDEC Model Presented in Figure 6
Shale
Density (kg/ m 3) 2,850
Bulk modulus (Pa) 40e9
Shear modulus (Pa) 20e9
Tensile strength (Pa) 3e6
Cohesion (Pa) 4e6
Friction angle (tan f) 0.6
Normal stiffness (Pa)
Shear stiffness (Pa)
Initial aperture (m)
Residual aperture (m)
and shear zone orientations (Valenta, 1994) show that 0"1
was roughly subhorizontal and east-west at this time, and cr3
was subvertical. A horizontal compressive stress of 20 MPa
was applied on the side boundaries, whereas stress on the
top and bottom boundaries was set at 0 MPa. As for the
Mary Kathleen fold belt UDEC model (Fig. 3), stresses this
low were used to simulate the effect of high pore pressures
within the blocks, according to the Law of Effective Stress
(eq. 3). Each timestep in the model corresponds to approx-
imately .0025 percent bulk shortening; 3,000 timesteps,
thus, equates to only 7.5 percent shortening.
Results: During model runs, the maximum principal stress
is rotated into perturbed orientations around the dike, and
a zone of generally low to moderate differential stress and
high mean stress develops adjacent to the dike at early
stages (Fig. 6c, e). This zone developed as a result of the rhe-
ological contrast between dike rocks, and the shales and Pb-
Zn orebodies. It is likely that increased fracture permeabil-
ity and the low differential stress may have drawn fluid into
the dike, even though the mean stress was higher than that
in the surrounding rocks. At later stages in the model (Fig.
6f), mean stress drops but remains relatively high at the dike
tips, whereas the differential stress is lowered even further
(Fig. 6d). These model outputs are all consistent with the
intensity of alteration observed in the dike, and support the
inference that the perturbed stress field within and around
the dike has allowed high permeability even though the
dike has accumulated high mean stresses.
Copper mineralization is also strongly spatially associated
with the intersection between the Paroo fault zone and the
dike-east-dipping fault system (i.e., the upper dike tip, Fig.
6f). In the mine, there is a major zone of in tense veining in
this area. This observation requires a combination of high
fluid pressure and low differential stress, or a local reori-
entation of the principal stresses. The UDEC model shows
this is a zone of high mean stress but very low differential
stress (Fig. 6e). If fluid pressures were high enough, it
would be possible to form veins perpendicular to the max-
imum principal stress in this zone.
Implications: The implications are as follows:
l. Large volumes of fluid must be focused into the east-
OLIVERET AL.
Lead-zinc Major Minor
suLfides Dike faults faults
3,500 2,850
30e9 50e9
15e9 25e9
l.5e6 4e6 0 0
2e6 4e6 0 0
0.4774 0.7 0.4 0.5
2.5e9 3.5e9
le2 2e2
0.05 o.os
0.005 0.003
dipping fault/dike system. The models have shown that cr1
rotated into a steep east-plunging orientation, parallel to
the dike margins (Figs. 6c, d), inferred to be a function of
the greater strength of the dike. The resultant low normal
stresses on joints in this zone will cause dilatancy and an
increase in joint aperture, leading in turn to fluid focusing
in the dike area.
2. Fluid must be focused into the intersection between
the Paroo fault zone and the Dyke Trace fault zone. T he
models show that this is a zone of large variation in m ean
and differential stress. Zones of high and low stress migrate
and sometimes reverse during the evolution of individual
model runs (R.K. Valenta, unpub. data). This would favor
alternate fluid inflow and outflow, accelerating the alter-
ation and mineralization process by repeated fluid infil-
tration.
3. Fluid must migrate into the orebody horizons. The
area around the dike displays high mean stresses and low
differential stresses relative to the rest of the model. A
result of this will be that fluid migration outside the major
shear zones should be predominantly into the orebody
zones. Permeability gradients are provided by the rheolog-
ical contrast between the orebodies and interlayered sh ales,
which causes brittle behavior in the shales.
The models of both Hilton and the Mary Kathleen fold
belt indicate that variations in mean and differential stress
of up to an order of magnitude can be expected in a
faulted, lithologically heterogeneous pile. This has major
implications for syndeformational fluid circulation
processes at various scales. Principal stresses can be reori-
ented by up to 90° from a given far-field stress. This obser-
vation also has implications for fluid flow, and places a cau-
tionary note on acceptance of regional stress orientations
based on measurement of local vein geometries.
Model limitations: There are a number of problems asso-
ciated with blind acceptance of models of the type pre-
sented in this paper. These include edge effects, zone gen-
eration effects, and problems with input parameters. We
are not trying to recreate the whole deformation history,
but only the stress patterns associated with a short tim slice
during Cu mineralization. In this regard, we are uncertain
 DEFORMATION, FLUID FLOW, & ORE GENES!., MT!. fl., AUSTJ?f\L!A
if th e fau lting alon g th e contacts resulted in sufficient geo-
metric changes that the stress field was trongly p rturbed.
Minimal offsets are shown in Figure 6c to 6f because large
offsets and high strains cause block overlap and crashing of
the program.
It can be seen in a ll stress plots that the least principal
stress decreases dramatically near the upper and lower
boundaries of the model, and that the corners bend in
toward the end of the run (Fig. 6d). Both the e effects
arise because of the low confining pressure on the top a nd
bottom boundaries whic h were implemented to artificially
simulate high fluid pressures (and low effective stresses).
The best way to avoid th ese problems is to make the dimen-
sions of the block much greater than the area of interest.
In most of the plots pre en ted in Figure 6, it can be seen
that edge effects do not extend into the area of in terest. In
some cases (e.g., Fig. 6f) it can be seen that model-gener-
ated stress build-ups or shear zones appear outside th
bounding fau lts. These initiate on discontinuities in the
finite difference zones, produced by irregular block geome-
tries. It is difficult to avoid this problem, and the effects are
generally minor.
The fluid flow code in UDEC is limi ted by th e fact that
fluid flow can on ly occur along block contacts, and flow i
not allowed through block contacts with a normal stress of
zero. The latter constraint severely limi ts the usefulnes of
the code for simul ation of fluid flow in models involving
localized dilation. Neverthele s, an attempt has been made
to infer fluid flow patterns by comb ining model-generated
flow with inferences from stress and permeability patterns.
FLA C modeling of the regional context of the
Mount !sa copper deposits
Geological setting: Perkins ( 1984) and Swager (1985)
caused controversy when they published data a nd model
for syntectonic origins for the sedim ent-hosted Mount lsa
copper deposits, but these models are now widely accepted.
In detail , as at Hilton, the local structural controls are very
complex, and although the general paragene i of copper
overprinting preexisting I ad-zinc orebodies is apparent,
the relationships are obscured by the size of the copper ore-
bodies, the intensity of the urrounding si li ca-dolomite
alteration, and a spatial offset from the lead-zinc ores .
Another con trover y concerns the source of the copper,
with the most recent model (Heinri ch et al. , 1995; Waring
et al. , 1998) preferring regional sources rather than remo-
bilization from preexisting stratiform Pb-Zn-Cu ore. At 1 to
50 km scale, the deposit is situ ated at the complex interface
betwee n the Mount Isa Group hales, of low metamorphic
grade, and a complex basement comprising the Eastern
Creek Volcanics (upper greenschist to amphibolite facies)
and the o lder Kalkadoon-Leichhardt block, exposed to the
ea t (Fig. 7a) . Chalcopyrite mineralization and related il-
ica-dolomite a lteration formed during the Isan orogeny,
under greenschist facies conditions, and involved meta-
morphic, basinal, and/ or meteoric flu id sources (Heinrich
et al., 1995) . The copper orebodies are hosted pre domi-
nantly by the Urquhart Sh a les, and lie adjacent to but
67
deeper than the lead-zin c or bodies (Fig. 7a). The copper
deposits it adj acent to the Paroo fault, the sam e fault sys-
tem that extend northward to th e Hilton mine. Copper
deposits do not extend westwards of the fault.
Model construction and parameters: Unlik at th e Hilton
mine, we are not testing specific local co ntrols on copper
mineralization; rather, we a re con cerned with the broad
regional controls that may h ave led to focusing of coppe r
into th e present site. The conceptual model we are propos-
ing involves east-west hortening of the h ost seque n ce dur-
ing the Isan orogeny, a nd fluid flow via regional deforma-
tion-enhanced permeability. In this regard our models a re
a test of the physical aspects of the H e inri ch et a!. ( 1995)
model, which involve syntectoni c extraction and con cen-
tration of fluid and mass from exte rnal sources into the pre-
sent location of the orebodie in the Mount lsa Group.
A simplifi d geometric model was developed for a pre-
deformation half-graben geometry with the Eastern Cree k
Volcanics sitting within Kalkadoon Base m ent rocks (O'Dea
eta!. , 1996; Betts and Lister, 2001) , all of which are overlain
by the Mount Isa Group and a cover sequ ence of and-
stones, which h ave si n ce been ewded (Fig. 7b). The
bounding fault of the h alf-graben is th e Paroo faul t, which
inverts during sh ortening. In reality, th fault i a complex
fau lt zone with a protracted movement history (Fig. 7a) . In
models presented here, the fault acts purely as a bounding
fau lt rather than a conduit or fluid aq ui tard. The model
are pu hed with a constant velocity from the left (we t) with
this boundary able to move vertically but co nstrained to
remain vertical. The ba e i fixed vertically but is allowed to
move horizontally. The eastern boundary i fixed in the
horizontal direction but allowed to move vertically. The top
boundary is allowed to move in any direction. The e model
constraints correlate with th e inference from the geology
that th Kalkadoon-Leichhardt ba eme nt below and to the
ea t acted as a rigid buttress during the l san orogeny
(O'Dea eta!. , 1996; Betts and Li ter, 2001).
An e la tic-plastic rheology, ba ed on a non-associated
Mohr-Cou lomb yield criterion and flow law, was used to
describe the mechanical behavior of all rock types in the
models, and fluid flow obeys Darcy's law, as for the earl ier
FLAC models described. Rock properties are presented in
Table 4. Fluid pressure in the model were all owed to vary
from hydrostatic to greater than lithostatic, with an initial
hydrostatic fluid pressure regime. Un like in the Mary Kath-
leen models, all boundaries except the top are impermeable
to fluid, and fluid is perm itt d to recharge from the surface.
This a pect of the model corresponds to the sha ll ow geo-
logic setting, the likely low permeability and fluid produc-
tivity of the ba ementrocks, and the likelihood that hallow
fluid sources (basinal, meteoric) were present during defor-
mation in add iti on to tho e produced during low rade
regional metamorphism of the Eastern Creek Volcanics and
the Mount lsa Group (Waring et al. , 1998) . The FLAC mod-
els calculate pore pres ures and the instantaneous fluid flow
vector . We have al o calcu lated the total amount of fluid
that goe into or out of a ce ll during the run time of th e
 OLNERETAL.
68

Paroo-
Mt lsa b)
a ) 6 Fault Zone

w~ : : :: :··~E
· ·· . : :: : MtlsaGp. :::~
E
~; w
' ' cover - sandstone
Mt.lsa Grou

16 km

c) d)
E W E

10 km 10 km

FIG. 7. Geology and FLAC simulations of the district around the Mount lsa copper deposit. a. Simplified cross sec-
tion of the western Mount Isa terrain , showing position of copper ore bodies in thickened and fau lted western rift mar-
gin, sitting above basement blocks. Approximate exposure level shown by horizontal line; ECV; Eastern Creek Vol-
canics. Adapted from Goleby et al. (1996) and Betts and Lister (2001). b. Starting geometry of the models, and boundary
conditions for model runs (see text). c, d. Deformed grid and instantaneous fluid flow vectors after 25 percent short-
ening for a model with no change in material properties during model run (Table 4). e. Corresponding zonation of
areas of inflow and outflow relate to differences in degree of volumetric strain (dilation) within the deforming rock
bodies. Note how shear zone deformation occurs in several locations in the Mount Isa Group, wh ich would not (under
these model conditions) be favorable for localization of copper ore in only the present location (see text). f, g.
Deformed grid and instantaneous fluid flow vectors after 25 percent shortening for a model in which the dilation angle
of the Eastern Creek Volcan ics decreases from +5 to -5° during the model run (see text) . h . Co rrespondin g locali za-
tion of outflow from the Eastern Creek Volcanics, and inflow into the Mount Isa Group, in a scenario that simulates the
localization leading to the present ore body disposition. Fluid movement is concentrated in the center of the model ,
where th e half-graben has thickened and inverted. Fluid has moved out of the Eastern Creek Volcanics, where they are
most deformed , and into the Mount Isa Group directly above the region of the half graben wh ich is most thickened. i.
Pore pressure profiles at different degrees of shortening (without erosion) through the western edge of the half-graben
in the second model. As the Eastern Creek Volcanics in the half-graben contract, due to its increasingly negative dila-
tion angle, the pore pressure increases to be nearly lithostatic near the base, strongly driving fluid upwards into the
overlying rocks. Downwards flow is inhibited by the low permeability of the basement rocks (Table 4).
 DEFORMATION, FLUID FLOW, & ORE GENESIS, MT. !SA, AUSTRALIA 69

e) Copper
ore bodies

outflow

no
net flow

inflow
10 km
f) g)
w ______._,._,._~- E

I I 1

10 km 10 km
h) Copper i) Pore Pressure (1 os Ma)
orebodies

outflow 5
Depth
(km)

10 c. 20% shortening

no
net flow
'o:: c. 26% shortening
15
"

'' Uthostatlc pore

inflow
' pressure gradient
Hydrostatic pore
pressure gradient

10km
70
TABLE 4. Material Properties for the FLAC Model Presented in Figure 7
Bulk Shear
Density modulus modulus
(kg/ m 3 ) (Pa) (Pa)
Cover 2,700 2.7e10 7e9
MIG 2,700 2.3e10 l.lelO
ECV 2,700 2.7e10 7e9
Basement 2,700 4.4e10 3e10
1 In the second model, the dilation angle is a linear function of the amount of plastic su·ain , ranging from +5° initially to -5° after 25 % shorten-
ing deformation (see text for details)
ECV = Eastern Creek Volcanics; MIG = Mount Isa Group
model. In these two-dimensional models, a net inflow into
a cell means that more fluid is moving into that cell from
the surrounding cells, and a net outflow means that fluid is
moving from that cell into the surrounding cells (there is
no consideration of fluid movement in the third dimen-
sion). This calculation provides a useful visualization of the
two-dimensional time-integrated fluid flow, to complement
the images of instantaneous fluid flow vectors.
Results and implications: It is outside the scope of this
paper to describe all of the 20 model permutations that
were run. However, of key significance in comparison to the
other models is that we have allowed certain rock properties
to vary during deformation, in particular to simulate the
effects of reaction softening or hardening, and permeabil-
ity changes accompanying alteration and syn-tectonic fluid-
rock interaction. The model presented above for fluid flow
at the Mary Kathleen U-REE deposit contained no provision
for change of rock properties as a function of time/ strain.
The first model for Mount Isa follows the same principle, as
a benchmark for the subsequent models (Fig. 7c-e). In the
second model, the dilation angle of the Eastern Creek Vol-
canics was made a function of the amount of plastic strain
(Fig. 7f-h). As deformation takes place, the dilation angle
decreases until it becomes negative and the material is then
contractant rather than dilatant. We have inserted this func-
tion to simulate the effect of pore space collapse and fluid
pressure build up in the Eastern Creek Volcanics as plastic
deformation and mineral reactions progressively occlude
the porosity. This effect will be greater in these rocks as they
are buried deeper in the pile, where secondary porosity
reduction by deformation and mineral reactions would have
proceeded to a greater degree than in overlying rocks,
enhanced also by the reactivity of the mafic rocks in contact
with basinal fluids (Heinrich eta!., 1995).
Modell (no change in parameters during run): When the
model geomeu-y is shortened by 25 percent using FLAC, the
response of the basin is to invert and thicken with deforma-
tion concentrated into conjugate shear zones whose loca-
tion is controlled by the geometry of the basin within the
stronger basement rocks (Fig. 7c). The boundary between
the half-graben and the basement steepens as the basin
inverts. Fluid flow is coupled to the deformation as
described earlier and fluid moves into or out of the shear
OLIVER ET AL.
Tensile
strength Cohesion Friction Dilation Permeability
(Pa) (Pa) angle angle (m 2)
1.2e6 2.7e7 28° 50 1e-13
1.6e6 6.7e6 42° 100 1e-12
1.2e6 2.7e7 28° 50! 1e-13
1.3e7 6.6e7 31 ° 50 1e-16
zones where the largest change in volume takes place (Fig.
7d, e). Within the Mount Isa Group, the shears are well
defined, whereas within the half-graben, the material is
thickened rather than forming discrete shear zones, this pat-
tern developing as a function of the different rock proper-
ties and their geometric arrangement during shortening.
Most of the fluid movement occurs within the Mount Isa
Group, the unit with the highest permeability and dilation
angle. Generally, flow is into the shear zones where the
largest volume increase has taken place. Calculation of net
fluid flow within the grid shows that fluid is moving from the
surrounding material into the shear zones (Fig. 7e).
Because of the dilatant nature of the Mount Isa Group and
the localization of deformation within the co~ugate shears
in this rock type, volume increase occurs in these shears.
The increase in volume pulls in fluid from the surrounding
material. However, the model fails to explain the localiza-
tion of fluid flow in the area corresponding to the copper
deposits; that is, there is insufficient focusing to explain the
ve1-y high tonnage and grade of the ore bodies at these loca-
tions. Also, the model does not explain the geochemical sig-
nature of the ore-forming fluids which indicates interaction
with the Eastern Creek Volcanics (Waring et al., 1998) .
Model 2 (dilation angle in Eastern Creek Volcanics decreases as
a function of strain): Having scavenged the necessary ore com-
ponents from one rock unit (e.g., copper from the Eastern
Creek Volcanics), fluid must then be focused in some way as
it moves into a different environment where chemical, pore
pressure, or thermal conditions cause it to precipitate met-
als. As deformation in this model proceeds, pore space in the
plastically deforming regions of the Eastern Creek Volcanics
is progressively destroyed (the dilation angle decreases lin-
early with percentage strain), the pore fluid becomes over-
pressured, and fluid moves upward into the deforming
regions of the Mount Isa Group where volume increase with
deformation is occurring. Because of the inverted basin
geomeu-y, a large amount of fluid from the Eastern Creek
Volcanics, thus, flows into a small region of the Moun t Isa
Group (Fig. 7g, h), simulating the desired conditions for
generation of the copper ore deposits. Significant fluid flow
occurred from the Eastern Creek Volcanics into the Mount
Isa Group, near the Paroo fault (Fig. 7a), mimicking the pat-
tern determined from the geochemical and isotopic studies
(Heinrich etal., 1995;Waringetal., 1998).
 DEFORMATION, FL UID FLOW, & ORE GENESIS, MT. !SA, AUSTRALIA
The geometry of the focusing structures wa provided by
the interaction between the deformation and the preexi r-
ing configuration of the different rock bodie , which any
stress modeling would provide, but the effectiveness of the
focusing (and, hence, the abili ty to produce a giant or -
body) wa simulated in the model by our in terpretation of
the relationship between dilation and d formation in the
Ea tern Creek Volcan ic in comparison to the Mount Isa
Group. The evolution of pore pre ure with time in this
model (Fig. 7i) show the type of pattern one would expect
in a compacting sedimentary basin affected by an initial vari-
able di tribution of rocks with different rheology and per-
meability. Upflow is favored, particularly at higher train
when the fluid pressure in the Eastern Creek Volcanics
approaches lithostatic, whereas the ove rlying Mount Isa
Group continues dilating and maintains near hydro tatic
condition due to hydrodynamic interconnection with over-
lying units and the surface. Although downflow would be
po sible from the Eastern Creek Volcanics into the lower
basement because of the reverse fluid pressure gradient, thi
is not favored becau e of the very low permeability and
greater cohesion of these underlying rocks.
The modeling provide an explanation for how syntec-
tonic copper orebodie could be localized in the vicinity of
former basin-bounding faults, thus, explaining superposi-
tion of copper on syn-sedimentary or diagenetic lead-zinc
ore bodies. In the case of the lead-zinc deposit , basinal
architecture wou ld have been paramount in providing the
appropriate conditions for ore deposition (Betts and Lis-
ter, 2001) . For the copper deposits, the geometric require-
ments would seem to be a localization in the area of great-
est thickening, adjacent to a former half-graben bounding
fault. Our first model (Fig. 7d, e) provides for regional fluid
movement within the Mount I a Group , which may have
been a necessary component of the dissolution and trans-
port phase of copper mineralization. However, the neces-
sary focusing mechanism is not provided by the real or
FLAG-simulated geometry alone, nor would it be by a sim-
ple stress mapping approach (i.e., with UDEC modeling).
An additional necessary criterion i one in wh ich some of
the properties of the Eastern Creek Volcanics (such as dila-
tion angle) change during deformation so that fluid is both
driven upwards and focused into the present location of
the ores (Fig. 7g, h). In combination, these models would
satisfy the regional geochemical model which appeals to
interaction of evolved ba ina! brines with Mount Isa Group
sediments, the Eastern Creek Volcanic , and a metamor-
phic fluid ource (Waring et al., 1998).
Discussion
An empirical approach may be used by exploration geol-
ogists when dealing with target selection in areas of strongly
heterogeneous rocks, and it also forms the ba i for elec-
tion of parameters and geometry in any numerical simula-
tion. uch an approach would concentrate on the follow-
ing: ( 1) determining the likely orientation of the stres field
during fluid flow and mineralization; (2) identifying rock
boundarie and ran king these according to perceived dif-
71
ference in rheology between adjacent rocks; (3) ranking
rock boundaries according to orientation relative to the
inferr d stress field; and ( 4) condu cting an analysis of the
degree of interconnectivity of the indicated and prioritized
rock boundaries according to the principles outlined in
this volume by ib on (1996, 2001) and Cox et al. (2001).
Once the geometry and in£ rred kinematics of the study
area are established, a sumptions must be made regarding
boundary conditions for input into the numerical model .
We have found thi process of boundary condition defini-
tion to be the most difficult, but scientifi cally the most
rewarding, of all of the processes of model construction,
because it forces us to face the fundamental conditions of
the geology that will not generally be revealed by an empir-
ical, map-based analy i . Critical factor are the ass umptions
regarding fluid pres ure boundary cond itions, and the pos-
sible hap changes and movements permitted for the
model boundaries. Generally, it will only be pos ible to con-
strain these factors through a good knowledge of the geo-
logical problem. For example, the Mount Isa model (Fig.
7) has assumed initial hydro tatic conditions with hydraulic
interconnection to the surface, based on the known pre-
deformational history of the Mount Isa basin. In contra t,
the Mary Kathleen orebody formed during the regional
metamorphism, at depth of around 15 km, o it would not
be reasonable to assume initial hydrostatic cond iti ons
becau e the metamorphi m was likely to have elevated fluid
pre sures to near-litho tatic value , and the pos ibility of ini-
tial hydraulic interconnection to the urface i remote. In
most cases, we have consid red the local kinematic frame-
work and g om try in relation to the broader pattern (e.g.,
Fig. 5a) , crucial in any analysis that moves from regional to
local scales. Testing these dif£ r nt cenario i a vital part
of the modeling, because it stimulates and focu es thought
processes towards realistic outcome . Multiple working
h ypothe e can be constructed that equate to different,
testable exploration models.
An understanding of the seal and magnitude of rheo-
logical variabili ty also provid sa way of determining the
likely spacing, and to some extent the size, of ore deposits
whose localization is primarily controlled by the action of
fluid flow during deformation (i.e., syntectonic epigenetic
ores). For a given strain, th scales over which zone of
anomalous stress develop around rheological h etero-
geneities are related mainly to the difference in material
properties of the different rocks involved , as well as the spe-
cific g ometry of the rock . For simp! models, the scale of
fluid flow perturbation induced by deformation i on the
order of the size of the rheological and / or permeability
heterogeneity. If more complicated situation are intro-
duced into the model , the fluid flow pattern will be corre-
spondingly complicated (Ord and Oliver, 1997). In Figure
4, 5, and 6, perturbation in the vicinity of the stronger rock
bodies give rise to lateral and local downwards fluid flow,
becau e the lateral gradient in mean stress s and , h nee ,
fluid pre ure , is simi lar in magnitude to vertical buoyancy-
related fluid pressure grad ients; that is, the deformation-
induced component of flow i at lea t as important as the
72 OUVERETAL.
fluid buoyancy. The scale of the fluid flow perturbation is
related to the scale of the rock heterogeneity in all models.
For structurally controlled ores, this implies that the spac-
ing and abundance of small, moderate, and large mineral-
ization targets could be predicted by an analysis of the geo-
metric configuration of rock bodies whose rheological
properties can be adequately surmised.
Orebodies formed in deforming rocks are commonly
located at sites of the greatest rheological and permeability
contrast in the regional system, and in many cases the size
of the deposit reflects the scale of operation of the fluid
flow system. A requirement for large ore deposit genesis is,
thus, that there are mechanisms or parameters of the sys-
tem whereby local fluid flow perturbations are subordinate
to an overall flow pattern. Otherwise, insufficient source
rocks may be accessed for metal dissolution, or there may
be insufficient focusing to concentrate much ore precipi-
tation (Fig. 7d, e). Complex rock geometry at all scales will
tend towards forcing a highly tortuous fluid flow with mul-
tiple focii. Rocks that show strain-dependent permeability
changes will act as good sources or sinks for fluid flow.
Broad gradients produced by buoyancy, topography, or
fluid overpressure will enhance long distance fluid flow as
long as the local perturbations occur over lesser magni-
tudes. Small fluid fluxes enhance the tendency for flow
localization, but conversely, very large fluid fluxes will
swamp the effect of rock heterogeneity, and the latter cir-
cumstance is ideal for metal dissolution from large rock vol-
umes. To emphasize these points, the giant Mount Isa cop-
per orebody lies on the boundary between upper
amphibolite facies and lower greenschist facies rocks (Fig.
7), and the Paroo/ Mount Isa fault system almost certainly
represents both a major rheological boundary and one of
the major features controlling the regional fluid flow pat-
tern, with rheological/permeability contrast occurring at
the 10-km scale. In contrast, fluid flow in the similar-aged
Mary Kathleen fold belt 50 km to the east (Oliver et al.,
1990) involved channelized fluid flow on the 100m to 1 krn
scale, focused around structural heterogeneities of the
same scale. As a consequence, mineralization in the latter
belt occurs at hundreds of locations but does not form
large orebodies. The most notable exception, the modest-
sized Mary Kathleen U-REE syn-metamorphic orebody,
occurs on the largest rheological boundary in the entire
belt, the Mary Kathleen shear zone (Oliver et al., 1999). In
the Cloncurry district even further east, syntectonic iron-
stone-hosted Cu-Au deposits such as Ernest Henry, Starra-
Selwyn, and Osborne, all show strong structural controls
(Laing, 1993), although fluid sources are inferred to be
mostly from crystallizing magmas (Williams, 1998; Mark,
1999). Although data are incomplete and the degree of
direct control of ore localization by proximity to specific
granite types is uncertain, the size and spacing of these
deposits may also be a function of the spacing and rheo-
logical variability of rock types involved in the deformation.
Ongoing modeling work is directed towards gaining a
greater understanding, largely from geological inferences,
of the ways in which rock properties change with deforma-
tion. An improved understanding of how reaction- and
deformation-enhanced permeability and softening/ hard-
ening relationships affect fluid flow, will lead to great
improvements in the utility of the numerical modeling
approach. The overall aim of adding quantitative numeri-
cal models to the science of geology will ultimately benefit
all who are concerned with the ways in which large ore
deposits were constructed.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank G. Lister and P. Betts for infor-
mation pertaining to the Mount Isa reconstructions , R.
Holcombe, P. Pearson, and Z. Jiang for assistance with the
Mary Kathleen work, B. Mutton at the Hilton mine, and B.
Hobbs, Y Zhang, P. Gow, and M. Couthard for assistance
with the modeling aspects. The field and mine compone nt
of the research was supported and funded by Mount lsa
Mines Ltd, Monash University, AGSO (then BMR) , Uni-
versity of Queensland, and the Australian Research Coun-
cil through its Large Grant scheme. We would also like to
thank A. Boullier, an anonymous reviewer, and the superb
editorial skills of]. Richards, for greatly contributing to
improvement of the manuscript.
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Zha ng, ., Cox, .F., a nd Pa terso n, M.. , 1994, T he influe nce of room te m-
pera ture d efo rm a ti o n o n po ros ity a nd pe rm eabiliL)' in ca lcite aggre-
gates: j o urnal of Geo physical Research , v. 99, p. 15,761-1 5,778.
Society of Economic Geologists
Reviews v. 14, 2001, p. 75-1 09

Chapter 4

U tility of Magnetic and Gravity Data in Evaluating Regional Controls on

Mineralization: Examples from the Western United States
T. G. H ILD E BRAND ,t
U. S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 989, 3 45 Middlefield R oad, M enlo Park, California 94025

BYRON B ERGER,
U. S. Geological Survey, M ail Stop 964, Denver Federal Center; Denver, Colorado 80225

R. C. j ACHE S, D S TEVE L UDI GTON

U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 989, 345 Middlefield R oad, Menlo Park, California 94025

Abstract

Interacting fractures enhance and local ize permeability in the Earth 's cru t and are, th erefore , impo r-
tant pheno mena in localizing m agmatic and hydrothe rmal systems. The abili ty to ide ntify wh e re such in-
terac tio ns are pre en t is useful in evaluating likely areas of mine ralized rock, particularly in cove red te r-
rain . Regardless of map scale, the inte rp retati on of gravity and magne tic data can defin e deep-seated
crustal fractures a nd fa ults tha t may have guided emplace men t of ign eous rocks and large ore deposits.
H ere we emph asize recuni ng regio nal-scale structu ral relatio nships mainly from the wes te rn United
States based on the interpretatio n of po tential-field data, which can elucida te area of past and prese nt
fluid flow in the crust.
In particular, we explore the utili ty of regional gravity and magne tic data to a id in unde r tanding the
distributio n of large Me ozoic a nd Cenozoic o re de posits (pti marily e pith ermal and pluton-re la ted pre-
cio us and base metal deposits, and sed iment-hosted gold deposits) in the western Un ited Sta tes
cordille ra. On the broade t cale, most ore deposits lie wi thi n areas charac tedzed by low magne tiza tio n.
T he Me ozoic Mo ther Lode gold belt displays characteristic geo phy ical signatures (regio nal gravi ty high,
regio nal low-to-moderate backgro und magnetic fie ld ano maly, lo ng cu rvi linear magnetic high ) tha t
migh t serve as an expl o rati o n guide. Geo physical lineame nts characterize th e Idaho-Mo ntana po rph yry
belt a nd th e La Caridad-Mineral Pa rk belt (from northern Mexico to western Arizo na) and, thus, indi-
cate deep-seated con tro l for th ese mine ral be lts. At a more local cale, in evada, geophy ical data de-
fin e dee p-rooted faul ts and magmatic zo nes that correspo nd to patterns of epithe rmal p recious-metal de-
posits, a nd th at may re late to th e Carlin gold tre nd and the Battle Mo un tain-Eure ka min eral belt. One
recu rring su·uctu ral model evolvi ng fro m this tudy is that minerali zation in the western ni ted States
may be localized alo ng trike-slip fa ult zo nes where pull-apart ba ins or releasing be nd provi ded the in-
creased fracture permeabili ty for the migra ting o re-forming fluids (e.g. , th e Bu tte, To mbstone, Bagdad ,
and Battle Mo unta in disu·icts).
Ma ny de posits d iscussed in the paper a ppear, at lea t in part, to be as ociated wi th reactiva ted older
fa ul ts as well as with fa ul ting conte mpo raneous with o re depositio n . We conclude that at a local scale,
su·uctu ral e leme n ts work togetl1er to localize mine ral deposits witl1in regional zo nes or belts. Perhap the
greatest uti li ty of regional geophy ical data is the ide ntificatio n of structu ral relationships tl1at he lp nar-
row the study area, where mo re in tensive multidiscipli nary team studies can be carried o ut in a concerted
effort to evaluate th e mineral poten tial.

Introduction ing primary structu res related to mineralization (e.g., in ter-

AT ALL MAP scales, th e fore m ost role of th e geophysicist in
mineral exploration is to p rovide geological information in
three dimensions, particularly in areas covered by younger
rocks. At local scales (deposit and district studies) , high-res-
olution magnetic and gravity data ar clearly useful in defin-
t Co rresponding au tl1or: e-mail, tom @usgs.gov
secting faul ts, kimberlite dikes, a nd folds). At regio nal
scales, geophysical data help elucidate the geological frame-
work, mainly by defining m aj or compositio nal bo undarie
or structural zone that may be favorable environ for min-
eralization. Here we review and investigate th e utili ty of grav-
ity and magn etic data in un der tanding the distribution of
large ore deposits primarily at regio nal scales, concen trating
on e pi th erm al and porphyry p recio us- a nd base-me tal

75
76 HIWENBRAND ET AL.
deposits, and sediment-hosted gold deposits in the western
United States.
The view that geophysical data provide structural and
lithological information essential in mineral investigations is
evidenced in the allocation of monetary resources by gov-
ernments to carry out national data collection programs to
encourage exploration. For example, mineral exploration
in Australia over the past four decades has relied heavily on
national geophysical databases (primarily magnetic data col-
lected at a 1.6-km flight-line spacing, and gravity data col-
lected at an average spacing of 11 km;Jaques eta!., 1997).
This data collection period resulted in the discovery of a
number of major ore deposits , some world class, such as
Olympic Dam (copper-gold-uranium), Kambalda (nickel),
Argyle (diamonds), and Century (zinc-lead). The success of
this collection of geological and geophysical data spawned
the 1990 National Geoscience Mapping Accord which incor-
porated the acquisition of aeromagnetic data at a line spac-
ing of 0.4 km in selected areas of Australia. The high num-
ber of new exploration licenses in surveyed areas
demonstrates the utility of detailed geophysical data in min-
eral exploration, particularly in covered areas (Robson and
Lewis, 1997). In Canada, aeromagnetic and gravity data
were acquired mostly by the Geological Survey of Canada
(GSC) through a 50-year-long national program, in which
consistent and high-quality survey specifications were main-
tained (Teskey eta!. , 1993). Canadian aeromagnetic anom-
aly maps are used extensively in exploration and geological
mapping by private, academic, and government agencies.
Other countries have observed the exemplary, cost-effective
geophysical programs of Australia and Canada and have ini-
tiated their own surveys (e.g., Botswana, Finland, Green-
land, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Namibia, Norway, Sweden,
Thailand, and Zimbabwe).
In order to investigate the usefulness of geophysical data
to determine regional structures and their relationship to
the distribution of ore deposits in the western United States,
we adopt several working hypotheses, ideas that have
appeared frequently in the literature. Implicit throughout
our study are the following assumptions: (l) deep-seated
fault systems at both regional and local scales can localize
igneous activity, major ore deposits, ore districts, and min-
eral belts by providing plumbing systems for intrusions, ore-
forming fluids , and heat entering the crust; (2) these fault
systems are susceptible to repeated reactivation through
geological time; and (3) intersecting fault systems are espe-
cially favorable for ore deposits. In particular, we examine
the main utility of regional geophysical data in aiding the
definition of zones or lineaments representing these reacti-
vated fracture or fault systems. Examples of structures char-
acterized by fracture systems that penetrate the crust and
possibly the upper mantle include major fault zones (e.g.,
transform and/ or shear zones), intrusive zones, failed rifts,
and relicts of tectonic plate margins.
Geophysical studies at scales 1:24,000 or greater are not
emphasized here. Rather, we focus on geophysical studies
leading to generalized ore deposit relationships or empiri-
cal information useful in evaluating mineral potential at
regional scales (1:50,000 or less). As we explore the utility of
potential-field data from regional to local scales
(-1:5,000,000-1:50,000; i.e., from lower to greater data res-
olution), the amount of geological information derive d
from the potential-field data clearly increases, and, thus, the
benefits of using potential-field data in mineral investigatio n
studies significantly increase.
We emphasize recurring geological structural relation-
ships that may apply to many classes of deposits. One com-
mon relationship evolving from the present study is that
many ore deposit types are present along major strike-slip
fault zones within magmatic arc environments (Fig. 1).
Other empirical relationships such as ore deposit districts
lying at the intersection of major crustal boundaries are also
discussed.
Potential-Field Data and Methods
Magnetic data and method
The western United States aeromagnetic data set is based
on a patchwork of over 300 surveys (line spacings ranging
from 0.4-8 km; Fig. 2 and inset), acquired to address a wide
variety of objectives over a period of nearly 40 years (Hilden-
brand eta!., 2000) . During the past twelve years, the U.S.
Geological Survey recompiled these individual data sets by
continuing all the data to a common reference level of0.305
km above the ground, and by carefully merging the 1-km-
gridded data from each aeromagnetic survey with adjacent
data. Some surveys were made with line spacings or altitudes
that were far too large to properly resolve shallow magnetic
sources. For example, over some parts of the area, the only
existing data are those collected for the National Uranium
Resource Evaluation (NURE) Program atflightline spacings
of 5 km or greater, which are generally too wide to properly
characterize isolated sources lying at depths much shallower
than 5 km. Nevertheless, the data in Figure 2 are shown
below to be of adequate quality to provide new insights on
structures important to mineral investigations.
Several excellent reviews of the magnetic method have
been published byReford (1980) , Grant (1985a, b), Hinze
(1985), Blakely (1995), Gunn and Dentith (1997), and
Reeves et a!. ( 1997). We give a brief outline of the me thod
with which the reader can understand the basics of aero-
magnetic interpretations. The magnetic method, one of the
oldest geophysical exploration techniques, is based on map-
ping the subsurface distribution of magnetic minerals con-
taining iron oxide minerals (e.g., magnetite) and iron sul-
fide minerals (e.g., pyrrhotite). The principle of magne tism
of rocks has been used in mineral exploration since 1640,
when a mining compass located iron ore bodies in Sweden.
Because oxides and sulfides of iron are associated with many
different types of mineral deposits, the magnetic m thod
continues to be a viable approach to directly focus mineral
exploration efforts (Grant, 1985a, b). Magnetic measure-
ments also contribute indirectly to unraveling the geological
setting of ore deposits.
The most effective platform from which to measure the
magnetic field is an aircraft, making the magnetic m ethod
 UTILITY OF MA GNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: EXAMPLES FROM WE TERN U.
110°
115°
0 Epithermal
b. Sediment-
hosted gold
11\'Low sulfi de
~ Thrust fault- Sawteeth on
P,::;·.:· :J Sedimentary basin upper plate
c:J Magmatic center
~ Zone of metamOrphism
FI G. l. Map o f th e wes te rn U nited States co rdi ll e ra, showin g o re
deposits supe rimpo ed o n major tectonic eleme nts and Laram ide igneou
zo nes, sedime ntary basin s, a nd me tamorphic be lts . Th e western United
ta tes is divided into fo ur ge nera lized geo logical provin ces (boundarie
sh own as heavy so li d a nd d as hed li nes) : Pacifi c ma rg in , Magmati c arc,
Co rdi lleran Fold and Thrust belt, and th e Rocky Mountain foreland . The
smallest and larges t po t:Ju rassic depo it ymbol repre e nt gro values of
about 20 millio n and 60 b illi on, respectively. Interm ediate ize o f ym-
bols are based linearly o n de posit gross values lying be twee n th ese extreme
va lue . Th e sho rt dash ed lin e in no rth e rn ta h shows a segme nt of the
bo undary be twee n th e Archea n basem e nt to the no rth a nd Pro te rozo ic
baseme nt to the so uth. It should be noted that altho ugh Jurassic accre tio n
and magmatism resulted in complex geological te rran es alo ng the Pacifi c
coastal states, during the Lara mide these regions ex perienced downwa rp-
ing and ba in develo pm e nt. B = Butte and C = Ca nn ivan Gu lch d eposits
(Mo nta na ) ; BD = Bagdad a nd TS = To mbsto ne de po its (Arizo na); T =
T ho mpson ree k deposit (Idaho ) . (Modifi ed from Mill er et al. , 1992. )
77
o ne of th e m os t cost-effective approach es in 3D min eral
exploration studies. Altho ugh airborne geophy ic has held
a prominent po ition in mineral applicatio n over the pa t
50 years, many triking tec hn o logical advances have taken
place during the pa t 10 years, as evide nc d by the substan-
tial increase in survey coverage dUling the 1990 (e.g., Den-
ham, 1997). Fur th rmo re, advances in spatial control using
the Global Positio ning Sys tem (GPS) h ave reduced survey
costs a nd in creased da ta accuracy (Reeves e t al. , 1997) .
Moreover, new visualization software e nhances the expres-
sion of subtle geological features with unprecedented clar-
ity, such tha t they are intuitively identifiabl e by no nspecial-
i ts. Th e increased effective usage of aeromagne tic data can
also be a ttribute d to a combina tio n of fas te r compute rs,
imp roved inversio n software, a nd geographi c info rma tion
sy tern (GIS) .
Knowledge of magn e tic prop erties of minerals i critical
in understanding the magne tic response of crustal sources.
The volume percen tage, geometry, and history of magne tite
grains are generally of greatest importan ce in cru tal m ag-
n etic studi e . Alth oug h pyrite is n o nmagn etic, h e m a ti te,
pyrrho tite, and alloys of iro n can also b impo rtant in some
mineral studies (e.g. , pyrrho tite in massive sulfide deposits;
pyrrh otite can be ro ughly o n -tenth as magne tic as m ag-
n etite). Individual dipoles representing magn etic grains can
coal see into a distribution of dipole m oment p er unit vol-
ume defining magne tizatio n. To tal magne ti zation of rocks is
the vector urn of two components: induced magn e tization
(which i pro po rtio nal in magnitude and generally parallel
to the Earth 's ambient field ), and reman e nt magn tization
(which has a direction and intensity dependent on the o ri-
gin and geological histo ry of th e roc k). T h e inte nsity of
indu ced m agn etizatio n is rela ted to the inte nsity of th e
ambient field through a constan t of propo rtionali ty known
as th m agn e tic su ceptibili ty, a unitless con stant that is
de termined by th e physical p roperties of the magnetic rock.
Rocks have widely varying magne tic pro perties. Typical
values of su sceptibili ty and rem an e nt m agn e ti zatio n fo r
co mmo n rock types are provid d by Clark (1966, 1997a, b)
and Carmichael (1982). At regional cales, m agne tic highs
are commo nly as ociated with large masse of igneou rock
and wi th crystalline base me n t. Magne tic low ofte n occur
over areas of thick edimen tary basin and altered basement
rock (where magnetite is altered to h ma tite , fo r example).
Mafic ign eou rocks can be very magn e tic, wh e reas fe lsic
ign eous, metamorp h ic, and particularly sedimen tary rocks
generally have weaker magn ti c expres ion . Intrusive rocks
commo nly h ave a lowe r re m a n ent m agn etizati o n and
high er u ce ptibil ity th a n x tru sive rock with the arn e
chemical compositio n . The e stateme nts o n m agne tic p ro p-
ertie h o uld be viewed as a g n e ral guidelin e with m a ny
exceptio n .
T h e magn tic pro pe rti e of rock a re not o nly ti e d to
their original ch emistry but also to many fac to rs related to
th eir hi tory (Grant, 1985a, b). For exampl e, the m agn e tic
respo nse observed in magne tic an omaly maps is influe nced
by the geome try and depth of th e magne tic o urces, their
orien tatio n wi th re pect to m agn e tic north, and the inclina-
78 HIWENBRAND Jc.1 AL.

550

400

250

100

-50

-200

-350

-500

Flc. 2. Reduced-to-pole (RTP) aeromagnetic anomaly map of the western Un ited States. Many Mesozoic-Cenozoic plu-
tonic and volcanic rocks are sufficiently magnetic to be expressed in this map. Assuming induced magnetization is more
dominant than remanent magnetization , the RTP transformation reduces anomaly asymmetry (due to the inclined mag-
netic field) by roughly centering the anomalies over t11eir sources (Blakely, 1995). Inset shows tl1e highly variable flightline
spacings of tl1e many surveys forming the patchwork coverage, and highlights tl1e overall poor data resolution. Black lines
show selected major magnetization boundaries (see Fig. 7) within structural zones discussed in the text. Symbols as in Fig-
ure 1. BD = Bagdad deposit, Arizona.

tion of the ambient field at the latitud e of their location. Gravity data and method
The degree of oxidation, alteration, weathering, and meta-
morphism also affect the rock's magnetic properties. All Simpson et al. (1986),Jachens et al. (1989), Simpson and
these factors combine to generate a complex picture of Jachens (1989), and Blakely (1995) provide excellent reviews
crustal magnetic properties, particularly near ore deposits of the gravity method and discuss major density-defined
where highly variable mineralogies and thermal histories of domains in the western United States. The gravity method
associated rocks are frequently observed. characterizes lateral density variations. It depends on reduc-
 UTIUTY OF MAGNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: EXAMPLES FROM WESTERN U.S.
ing gravity measurements made at the Earth's surface to
enhance the expression of geological targets by removal of
predictable effects. For example, to derive the complete
Bouguer gravity anomaly, corrections are made that relate to
the total mass, rotation, and ellipsoidal shape of the Earth, to
the elevation of the gravity station, and to the attraction of
nearby topographic or bathymetric relief. Bouguer gravity
anomaly maps traditionally have been used to provide a geo-
logical picture of the subsurface over land areas (Simpson et
al., 1986) . At regional scales, however, the Bouguer gravity
map displays broad anomalies inversely correlated with
regional topography. These anomalies are caused by deep-
seated masses that isostatically support the topographic
loads. To remove the effects of these loads, the isostatic resid-
ual gravity anomaly is determined by subtracting an isostatic
regional field from the Bouguer gravity anomaly. This
regional field is commonly calculated using an Airy-Heiska-
nen model for local compensation (Simpson e t al., 1986) .
Using the topographic data to define the surface load and
assuming that a 30-krn-thick crust has a 300 kg/ m 3 density
contrast with the mantle lead to the residual isostatic anom-
aly field shown in Figure 3. From these data, the gravity lows
a sociated with the low-density sedimentary and volcanic
basins in the Basin and Range Province have been removed
using a modeling procedure described byJachens and Mor-
ing (1990) and Saltus andJachens (1995) .
The gravity data (402,384 stations) were taken from the
Department of Defence (DOD) database (Fig. 4) . All data
were tied to the IGS -71 gravity datum and reduced to com-
plete Bouguer-anomaly values using a reduction density of
2,670 kg/ m3 and the 1967 formula for the theoretical grav-
ity. The spacing of gravity stations is variable within the study
area. For example, in areas of poor coverage (e.g., eastern
Oregon or northern Arizona), data resolution is only one
station per 40 krn 2 or poorer, but in areas of dense coverage
(e.g., southern evada and California) one station per 1 to
2 km 2 is commonly observed. Within the study area, the
average spacing is 1 station per 6 krn2.
Densi ty is a bulk property that varies considerably less
than rock magnetization. Sedimentary rocks have low den-
sities (generally <2,600 kg/ m3) and, thus, result in pro-
nounced gravity lows. Crystalline rocks with typical average
densities of 2,750 kg/ m 3 generally produce gravity highs,
except when intruded by felsic pluton (densities of about
2,670 kg/ m3). Prominent gravity highs are generally attrib-
uted to mafic crystalline rocks.
Filtering techniques
An arsenal of interpretive methods exists for potential-
field enhancement and modeling (Blakely, 1995; Leaman,
1998). Modeling studies help determine the subsurface con-
figuration in the di tribution of density and magnetization.
The interpreter applies all other available geoscience data
(e.g., geology, geoch emical data, other geophysical data,
and physical property data) in order to narrow the possible
quantitative solutions characterizing the modeled ources.
Although modeling sources is b eyond the scope of this
review, it is the critical last phase in any detailed mineral
79
study. Here we emphasize data enhancement technique .
Filters are applied to potential-field data to enhance partic-
ular anomaly characteristics, such as wavelength or trend.
For example, we apply wavelength filters to enhance the
expre sion of major crustal structures, shaded-relief maps to
highlight the trend of shallow sources, and gradient meth-
ods to define magnetization and density boundaries.
Long-wavelength structures: Part of the geophysicist's goal in
mineral inve tigations is to characterize major geological
terranes or boundaries that extend deep into the crust. A
simple transformation of the reduced-to-pole (RTP) mag-
netic field (see Fig. 2 caption) to the magnetic potential
(also known as the pseudogravity transformation; Baranov,
1957; Fig. 5) helps alleviate the difficulty of identifying and
isolating broad regional magnetic features partially masked
by high-amplitude, shallow-sourced anomalies and by mag-
netic dipole edge effects. Thus, short-wavelength magnetic
anomalies in Figure 2 related to source with shallow roots
are largely absent in Figure 5.
The magnetic potential and residual isostatic gravity
anomaly maps are composed of anomalies from a variety of
sources that range in size and depth. This superposition of
anomalies can result in interpretational ambiguities. For
example, broad wavelength anomalies (roughly >400 km;
Fig . 3 and 5) overwhelm the contributions of some impor-
tant short-wavelength features. In order to de-emphasize
both long wavelength (related to source extending laterally
for several hundred kilometers) and short wavelength
anomalies (related to shallow, relatively thin sources resid-
ing in the upper crust), a match filter (Syberg, 1972) was
applied to highlight intermediate wavelength features (Figs.
6 and 7) . The responses from middle-crustal sources lying at
depths roughly greater than 5 krn are enhanced. ote that
the separation of anomalies based on rough depth estimates
is not complete because, for example, broad sources within
the shallow crust associated with intense anomalies will be
represented in Figures 6 and 7. The regional anomalies of
interest here appear on the intermediate-wavelength maps
(Figs. 6 and 7) and are observable in the unfiltered data
(Figs. 2 and 3). However, enhancing these intermediate
wavelengths isolates the magnetic and gravity anomalies
most likely related to major crustal sources (i.e., those that
are relatively thick, deep-rooted, and limited to widths of
less than a few hundred kilometers). This enhancement,
thus, focuses and greatly simplifies our study of regional
controls on mineral deposits.
Magnetization and density boundaries: Three general types of
geophysically defined boundaries are commonly considered:
1. An edge of a large crustal block with relatively uniform
density or magnetization properties that may be expressed
as a large isola ted potential-field anomaly (e.g., flanks of a
linear zone of pluton ) .
2. A linear source with a depth extent much greater than
its width, expressed essentially as a narrow band on a geo-
physical map (e.g., a dike).
3. An edge formed by numerous sources and expre sed
as an alignment of anomalies of varying intensity and size
80 HILDENBRAND ET AL.

44° 32

24

16

8
40°
0

-8

-16

36° -24

-32

Fi e. 3. Isostatic residual gravity anomalies in the western United States. In the Basin and Range Province, the anom-
alies prim arily refl ect density variations in pre-Cenozoic basement. The gravity effects of the sedimentary a nd volcanic
cover deposits in the Basin and Range Province have been removed using the procedure described byJachens and Mor-
ing (1990). These sedimentary and volcanic cover deposits obscure the gravity effects of the basement and are related to
tectoni c and volcanic processes accompanying widespread Cenozoic extension. Symbols as in Figure 1.

(e.g., a major fault abruptly terminating various geophysical
terranes).
To emphasize magnetization boundaries, the magnetic
potential is shown as a shaded relief map in Figure 8. The
magnetic potential coupled with ilie shaded-relief filter pro-
vides a wealth of information on the regional structural
grain of the western United States.
An area in soutl1ern Arizona is used to illustrate two o ilier
approaches to define boundaries. Maxima in ilie horizontal
gradient of ilie gravity field or ilie magnetic potential occur
near steep boundaries separating contrasting densities or
magnetizations, respectively (Fig. 9). The locations of high
horizontal gradients are automatically determined and
drawn with the aid of a computer in the first approach
(Blakely and Simpson, 1986). Such gradient maxima are
 UTILITY OF MAGNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: EXAMPLES FROM WJ:,"ST't,'RN U.S. 81

FIG. 4. Gravity stations in western United States.

hown on Figures 6 and 9a (alignment of very small black tri-
angles and crosses, respectively). The terrace method, the
second boundary enhancement technique, is a lithological
or structural mapping tool that defines interpreted rock-unit
boundaries on the ba i of local curvature of the gravity field
or the magnetic potential (Grauch and Cordell, 1987;
Cordell and McCafferty, 1989). Terracing utilizes the loca-
tions of horizontal gradient maxima by imply teepening
the anomaly curve at maxima locations to resemble a step
function. In other words, a terraced map contains mathe-
matically derived terranes (areas of con tant den ity or mag-
netization) separated by hard-edged boundaries that resem-
ble lithological or sn·uctural boundaries on a geological map.
Figure 9b shows a terraced gravity map of southern Arizona.
Short-wavelength structures: The expression of near-surface
source can b enhanced u ing measured (McMullan and
McLellan, 1997) or calculated gradients (Blakely, 1995; e.g.,
vertical and horizontal gradient maps or shaded-relief maps;
Fig. 8). Here we also u e another approach to sharpen the
effects of near-surface ource . In a small area in southeast
Arizona (Fig. 9a), the magnetic data analytically are upward
continued a small interval (0.4 km) to generate a region al
field (i.e., calculating the magnetic field as if it was m a-
sured 0.4 km above th actual measurement surface). This
regional field or low-frequency-passed field (b caus the
measur ment surface is farther from the sources) is then
subtracted from the unfiltered data et to detive are idual
or high-frequ ncy-passed field. The unfiltered and residual
82 HILDENBRAND ET AL.

MPU
0

44° 140
+ +
105

* 0 70

* 35
0

40° * *'* 0
+ *IJ0
*1:0 -35
0 * ** I
oo
+ 1 -70

~ -105

-140
36° + +

+ +

1
Fie . 5. Magnetic potential map. The transformation of th e magnetic fi eld to the magnetic potential emphasizes sources
of large vertical extent by elimin atin g many of the effects of shallow sources. U nits are arbitrary magnetic potential units
(mpu) , dimensionally amperes. Symbols as in Figure 1.

magnetic data (Fig. 1Oa, b) illustrate the effectiveness of this
approach in highlighting subtle geological information.
These magnetic data and the terraced gravity data (Fig.
10d) reveal many linear features probably representing
faults . From a close inspection of Figure 10, one can infer
new faults, intersecting faults , and caldera boundaries, and
extend mapped faults.
Broad geophysical patterns: Simplistic interpretational meth-
ods can invert regional geophysical data to define a single sur-
face separating major changes in density or magnetization.
Although the isostatic gravity correction used to generate
Figure 3 accounts for locally compensated surface loads
owing to topography, it fails to consider the possibility of
subcrustal masses that compensate for large geological bod-
ies residing in the crust (e.g., sedimentary basins and intru-
sive zones generally wider than 100 km). Cordell e t al.
(1991) considered the decompensative anomaly to account
for these large geological bodies with no surface topo-
graphic manifestations. By isolating the gravity effects of
sources within different zones of the lithosphere, Cordell et
 UTILITY OF MAGNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: EXAMPLES FROM WESTERN U.S. 83

16

12

-4

-8

Fie. 6. Intermediate-wavelength isostatic residual gravity anomaly map. A match fi lter was applied to the isostatic resid-
ual gravity anomaly shown in Figure 3 to remove the effects of both very broad regional ( hallow a nd deep ) a nd local
(shallow) gravity sources. The enh anced anomalies in this Figure are interpreted as expressin g major regio nal masses
extending to substantial crustal depths. A heavy white line shows th e frontal thrust belt (Fig. 1). Because this thrust belt
separates thin-skinned thrust fau lts to th e east from deep-seated thrust fau lts to th e west, the deep-rooted stru ctures
related to th e Rocky Mountain Foreland probably lie we t of the thrust belt and may be related to mineral de posit clus-
ters in western Montana and northern Utah (Fig. 1). To emphasize den ity boundaries, location of horizon tal gradie nt
maxima of the intermediate-wavelength isostatic residual field are high lighted by very small black triangles. Symbols as in
Figure l. BH = Bingham deposit in Utah.

a!. (1991) developed a scheme to approximate lithospheric
thickness. Following their interpretational scheme, Hilden-
brand et a!. (2000) calculated the lithospheric thickness in
the western United States (Fig. 11a), as uming a density con-
trast of -50 kg/ m 3 across the lithosph ere-a thenosphere
boundary. Because many simplifying a sumptions are neces-
sary, the absolute values of the calculated thicknesses are
highly unconstrained. evertheless, our estimated asthenos-
phere depths compare reasonably well with values based on
seismic velocitie (Iyer and Hitchcock, 1989). Within th e
84 HILDENBRAND ET AL.

44° 16

12

0
40°
-4

-8

-12

-16
36°

FIG. 7. Intermediate-wave le ngth magnetic potential map. A match filter was applied to the magnetic potential data
shown in Figure 5 to remove the effects of both very broad regional (shal low and deep) and local (shall ow) crustal mag-
netic sources. T hus, the enh anced anomalies in this Figure are in terpreted as expressing major regional magnetic sources
extendin g to substantial crustal depths. To emphasize magnetization boundaries (abrupt latera l changes in magn etic
properties), locations of selected horizontal-gradient maxima of the inte rmed iate-wave length magnetic potential are hi gh-
lighted by the white dashed lines (black lin es in Fig. 2) in areas of structural zones discussed in the text. BD = Bagdad
deposit, Arizona. Symbols as in Figure l.

Pacific coastal states, the overestimates in lithospheric thick-
n ess base d on gravity data are probably rela ted to lower-
crustal dense sources, which are not compensated for in the
calculations. Elsewhere, the results shown in Figure ll a
seem useful in understanding relative changes in lithos-
pheric thickness.
To calculate changes in the thickness of the magn e tic
lithosphe re, we assume uniform lithosph eric magnetic
properties using the interpretive scheme of Cordell and
H en derson ( 1968). The bottom of the magnetic lithosp here
is usually assumed to occur at the depth of the Curie point
isotherm , the temperature level at which minerals in rocks
lose their magnetic properties (roughly 550°C for mag-
n etite). In the inversion process, the thickness of a single
magn etic-potential layer is calculated assuming the proper-
ties of the layer and the depth of either the top or bottom of
 UTILITY OF MAGNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: nJ<AMPLES FROM WESTERN U.S. 5

FIG. 8. Shaded-relie f map of the magn etic potential shown in Figure 5. Such a map highlights magnetic lin eaments.
Illumin ation direction is from the north . Symbols as in Figure 1.

th e lay r. We a ume that the magnetic li thosphere is uni-
formly magne tized and its top lies at an average depth of 0. 7
km. Clearly, rock magnetization varies consid rably in the
we tern United State , where rocks range from high ly mag-
netic ophiolite and serpentinite to weakly magnetized meta-
morphosed and altered rocks. Thus, the a umption of uni-
form magn e tic properties is expe cte d to lead to poorly
constrained results. Becau e the calculated value are poorly
constrained (Fig. 11 b), only re lative changes in the thick-
n e s should be consid red and interpreted as major
changes in the bulk magnetic properties of the lithosphere.
Nevertheless, remarkable correlations exist between gravity-
defined li thospheric thickness and the calculated th ickne
of the magnetic portion oflithosph re (Fig. 11). Such thick-
ne s calculation primarily h ighlight regions where major
lateral change in the bulk density an d magnetic propertie
of the li thosphere are likely to be present.
Mineralized Areas in the Western United States
Deposit type
The ore deposits and d i tricts portrayed in Figure 1 are
slightly modified and updated from the database of known
deposits reported in Long et al. (1998). T h e gross values
86 HILDENBRAND ET AL.

(a) Magnetic-anomaly map of southern Arizona

(b) Terraced isostatic gravity map of southern Arizona

FIG. 9. a. Magnetic-anomaly map of southern Arizona. To emphasize magnetization boundaries, locations of horizon-
tal gradient maxima of the RTP magnetic field (Fig. 2) are highlighted by the small black crosses. b . Terraced residual iso-
static gravity anomaly map of southern Arizona. Terracing enhances density boundaries. In both maps, the northwest and
northeast structural grains are apparent. White dashed rectangles define areas shown in Figures 10 and 16. Ore-deposit
symbols are circles for pluton-related and squares for epithermal deposit types. BD =Bagdad deposit; TS =Tombstone
deposit. Arrows in the Tombstone and Bagdad districts highlight northeast and northwest geophysical features shown at
larger scales in Figures 10 and 16, respectively.
 UTJUTY OF J\1AGNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: EXAMPLE FROM WESTERN U. . 87

3 1°40"

31°20"
75 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 12 16 nT

a. Magnetic field b. Residual magnetic field

c. Isostatic gravity d. Terraced gravity

o~==--==~20~--==--~40KM

Fie. 10. a. Magnetic-anomaly map of the Tomb tone area in southeast Arizona (location shown in Fig. 9; 1.6 km flight-
line spacing flown at 300m above terrain). b. Residual magnetic-anomaly map created by ubtracting an u pward contin-
ued (0.4 km) regional field from the RTP magnetic field (Fig. 2) . Small black dots in a and b highligh t magnetization
boundaries based on horizontal gradient analysis. c. I ostatic gravity anomaly map ho,vi ng basement features. Black dots
show gravity stations. d. Terraced isostatic map. Caldera boundaries (heavy dashed lin es) taken from Lipman and
Hagstrum (1992) and Moore (1993). Most depo its (e.g., Tomb tone depo it, TS) appear to be located near geophysical
anomalies reflecting inferred fault zones, intersecting faults zones, and calderas. The e structures may have interacted to
increase permeabili ty allowing magmas to be channeled into the hallow cru t. Ore depo it ymbols are circle for pluton-
related and squares for epithermal deposit types. Two inferred fau lt zones are highlighted \vith arrow . DC= Dragoon
caldera; PTC =Parker and Turkey Canyo n calderas, TC =Tomb tone caldera. Solid lines depict mapped faults (taken
from Wilson et al., 1977).
88 HILDJ:.' NBRAND ET AL.

(l)o @
+ + 0 +
48° +
D oo
8
0 CUD+

45
40
+ +

0 250 ~

(a) Estimated thickness of lithosphere (b) Estimated thickness of the magnetic

based on the inversion of gravity data part of lithosphere
FIG. 11. a. Lithospheri c thickness obtained by inversion of a de rived gravity fi e ld (following Cordell et a l. , 1991 )
assum ed to represe nt mass effects d eeper than th e Moho. Symbols as in Figure l. Seismically determin ed estim ates of
lithosp heri c thi ckn ess are shown "'~th numbers from P-wave models and Mth numbers within ellipses from S-wave models
(Iyer a nd Hitchcock, 1989). b. Thickness of the magnetic portion of the lithosphere is based on th e inversion of magn etic
data. Because many simplifyin g assumptions are necessa ry (e.g., uniform magne tization) in making this inversion , th e
poorly constrained data shown here are only useful in understandin g re lative changes in lithosph eric thickness or bulk
magne ti c prope rties. Symbols as in Figure l.

used to determine the size of the symbols in Figure 1 and
subsequent figures are based on a compilation of past pro-
duction and remaining reserves for those deposits and dis-
tricts (Long et al., 1998). The largest symbols represent
gross values, based on current metal prices, of roughly $60
billion; an example is the porphyry copper deposit at Bing-
ham Canyon, Utah. Porphyry copper deposits are the
largest, most valuable type of metallic mineral deposit in the
American cordillera. The smallest symbols represent gross
values of about $20 million; there are numerous examples
of deposits of this size among all five classes of deposit con-
sidered in this study.
For this analysis, we have grouped the deposits in to five
classes: epithermal, pluton-related, sediment-hosted gold,
low-sulfide gold-quartz vein, and distal-disseminated silver-
gold deposits. Deposits belonging to the first three classes
are primarily of Laramide to Holocene age, along with a few
Jurassic porphyry-related deposits. The age of sediment-
hosted (Carlin-type) deposits in the Great Basin is a matter
of continuing debate; although there is a growing con ens us
 UTILITY OF MAGNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: EXAMPLES FROM WESTERN U.S.
that most deposits are middle Tertiary (Hofstra et al., 1999) ,
some may be as o ld as jurassic. The low-sulfide gold-quartz
vein deposits, primarily in California's Mother Lode district,
are Cretaceous in age. Deposit types of the epithermal class
include hot-spring gold-silver, quartz-alunite vein, and
quartz-adularia vein (including Comstock, Creede, and
Sado subtypes; Cox and Singer, 1986). The e deposits are
commonly hosted in volcanic rocks and are generally asso-
ciated with subvolcanic intru ive activity; they are most abun-
dant in the Great Basin. Deposit types in the pluton-related
class include porphyry copper (including copper-molybde-
num and copper-go ld , as well as skarn-related copper),
skarn gold, skarn lead-zinc, polymetallic replacement, and
polymetallic vein deposits. These deposit types are com-
monly associated with mesozonal-to-epizonal, intermediate-
to-felsic plutons, found throughout the cordillera. The dis-
tal-disseminated ilver-gold deposits include both those
defined originally by Cox (1992) and the gold-rich deposits
discussed by Theodore (1998). Althou gh in specific
instances these deposits may be difficult to distinguish from
sediment-hosted gold depo its, they are believed to be fun-
damentally a produ ct of igneous activity. Sediment-hosted
gold deposits lack a demonstrated magmatic affiliation,
although opinion is far from unanimous on this point. In
the United States, they are geographically limited to a small
area in north east Nevada and adjacent parts of Utah and
Idaho, and are unknown in areas with many porphyry-
related deposits such as southern Arizona. Low-sulfide gold-
quartz veins are included in this study because of their clear
association with prominent geophysical features . Unlike the
other deposit types, the veins in the Mother Lode occur in a
long linear belt that is closely coincident in time and space
with Mesozoic accretion along the western cordilleran mar-
gin. The veins, mainly in shear zones in volcanic and vol-
cano-sedime ntary ro cks , formed during subsequent
regional metamorphism that accompanied the intrusion of
the major part of the Sierra evada batholith exposed a few
tens of kilometers to the east of the depo its.
DejJosit distribution
The complex geological evolution of the western United
State provide d favorable environments for the episodic
concentration of metals over the past 3 b.y., but here we
focus on Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits and their rela-
tionship to regional g ophysical feature . A fundamental
problem enco untered in conducting any geophysical-ore
deposit study in the we tern United States is defining a rea-
sonable represe ntation of the distribution of mineral
deposits. The geophy ical data sets, in general, present a
continuous image of the distribution of den ity and magne-
tization. In co ntrast, most known ore deposits are discrete
entitie generally confined to area of exposed bedrock.
Because most of the we tern United States is covered by sed-
imentary and volcanic rocks, many covered areas must con-
ceal undiscovered mineral deposits. Therefore, the popula-
tion ofk.nown deposits provide an incomplete information
base with which to interpret the interrelationships between
geophysical features and deposits. Nevertheless, we assume
89
here that the present distribution of known ore deposits is
representative of the actual distribution of both known and
undiscovered deposits on a regional scale.
Another problem in understanding the regional controls
for mineralization is that the Mesozoic and Cenozoic metal-
logeny of the western United States is related to continu-
ously evolving magmatic, suatigraphic, and tectonic systems.
We limit our discussion to particular deposit types, primarily
those formed from Laramide time (80-40 Ma) to the
Holocene (Fig. 1). Even for this limited s t of deposit typ s
and ages, our discussion will not be comprehensive owing to
the large volum of deposit data and to the xpanse of the
study area. The e data nevertheles reveal orne intere ting
examples of relation hips between mineral depo its a nd
inferre d regional crustal features in the western Un ited
tate .
During Laramide time, a calc-alka line magmatic arc
related to subduction along the Pacific Coast hifted east-
ward owing to an acceleration and change in direction of
plate motion. The subducting plate apparently flattened
(dip -20°), resulting in uplift and magmatism as far inboard
as 1,500 km from the trench (Lipman et al., 1972; Coney,
1978). Associated northeast-southwest-directed regional
compression accompanied emplacement of plutons and
porphyry and vein deposits throughout the region from
Idal1o to Arizona (Hutchinson and Albers, 1992).
From 80 to 55 Ma, calc-alkaline magmatism and related
mineralization occurred primarily in the northern and
southern cordillera (e.g., porphyry copper deposits near
Butte, Montana, a nd porph yry copper and polymetallic
deposits of Arizona, re pectively), although deposits are
also scattered throughout the southwe tern United States
to the Rocky Mountain front (Fig. 1). From 55 to 40 Ma,
additional magmatic activity occurred in the northern
Cordillera (e.g., the Thunder Mountain district in Idaho) .
Although the shallowing subduction plate hingeline ini-
tially moved eastward, the dip of the plate later steepened,
resulting in a southwestward retr at of the hingeline
(-40-22 Ma; Coney, 1978). One of the world's largest cop-
per deposits, the 36 Ma Bingham porphyry copper deposit
in Utah, formed during this period of steepen ing subduc-
tion (James, 1978). From late Tertiary to Quaternary (22-0
Ma) most epithermal districts formed during and after the
transition from a compressional to extensional tectonic
regime, which led to th e formation of the Great Basin. Dur-
ing this transition, the mo t important epithermal deposits
in western vada were formed in near-surface volcanic
rocks (Ludington et al., 1993).
The absence of deposits in certain geological terranes i
apparent. For example, the Colorado Plateau lacks impor-
tant metallic hydrothermal mineral deposits, perhaps due to
overthickened crust that impeded magmatism (Coney,
1976). In post-Laramide time , the Columbia River flood
basalts have likely concealed o lder mineral deposits in Ore-
gon and Washington. In southern evada in an area
roughly betwee n 36o and 37o known as the "amagmatic
corridor," mineralized rocks, Cretaceous plutons, and Ter-
tiary volcanic rocks are rare (see Stewart, 1980).
90 HILDENBRAND ET AL.
Relationships of Geophysical Structures
and Deposit Patterns
Comparisons of the spatial distribution of mineralized
systems and the locations of geophysically defined lithotec-
tonic crustal features have contributed to a better under-
standing of deep-seated regional controls on mineral con-
centrations (e.g., Gunn eta!., 1997a, b;Jaques eta!., 1997;
Leclair eta!., 1997; Moore eta!. , 1998). For example,
Kutina and Hildenbrand (1987) noted that some ore
deposits in the western United States conspicuously cluster
within pronounced gravity lows or near the flanks of promi-
nent gravity highs. Their regional study concluded that the
interpretation of gravity data to characterize the regional
mass distribution in the crust constitutes a useful explo-
ration tool for defining low-density felsic intrusions and tec-
tonic zones possibly related to the regional controls on
mineralization. Grauch et al. (1995) identified a relation-
ship between a basement gravity lineament and the Battle
Mountain-Eureka mineral belt in Nevada. They suggested
that the gravity lineament expresses a boundary separating
major crustal blocks, possibly reflecting a Jurassic or pre-
Jurassic fault. This boundary would have subsequently influ-
enced the localization of hydrothermal activity. Blakely et
a!. ( 1991) carried out a statistical proximity study of sedi-
ment-hosted gold and distal-disseminated silver-gold
deposits in Nevada to gravity-defined boundaries, and pro-
posed that these deposits are preferentially located near
prominent crustal boundaries. Hildenbrand eta!. (2000)
expanded on these earlier regional geophysical studies uti-
lizing upgraded magnetic and gravity databases and fil-
tered-anomaly maps of the western United States. Here we
review the results of these earlier studies and provide some
additional insights.
To investigate the regional controls on mineral deposits,
we first discuss the broad relationships between geophysical
features and the structural geology important to the local-
ization of some deposits. Then we turn to specific linear
arrays and clusters of deposits to discuss possible deep-
seated, regional controls on ore deposition. Here, the geo-
physical data indicate that the pull-apart structural model
may be related to the localization of many deposits regard-
less of their type or age. Lastly, the utility of high-resolution
potential-field data is highlighted in detailed ore-deposit
studies. In particular, we demonstrate the ability of geophys-
ical data to help focus exploration in complex geological
regimes by defining deep-crustal fracture systems or intru-
sive zones, which represent potentially favorable environs
for mineralization.
Overall deposit patterns in the western United States
(scale - 1:5, 000, 000)
Regional geophysical patterns: On the broadest scale, the cal-
culated thicknesses of gravity-defined lithosphere and mag-
netic lithosphere are thinnest in regions of high heat flow,
such as the Great Basin and Yellowstone National Park
(Morgan and Gosnold , 1989). In contrast, a zone of low
heat flow, extending from eastern Utah northward into
Wyoming, is characterized by thick gravity-defined lithos-
phere and magnetic lithosphere.
The apparent coincidence of thin gravity-defined lithos-
phere (Fig. lla) and magnetic lithosphere (Fig. llb) may
simply result from shallow asthenosphere leading to higher
heat flow and, thus, a shallow Curie point isotherm. Thin
magnetic basement produces low regional magnetic inten-
sities (Blakely, 1988). Thin lithosphere might also be associ-
ated with voluminous magmatism and consequent
hydrothermal alteration, possibly leading to the destruction
of magnetic properties (e.g., alteration of magnetite to
hematite or pyrite). Interestingly, mineral deposits tend to
be located in areas of thinner magnetic lithosphere.
Although correlation of regionally thin gravity-defi ed
lithosphere and magnetic lithosphere may be reasonable,
their correlation with post:Jurassic mineral deposits is enig-
matic, especially because the lithospheric thickness at vari-
ous times of prior mineralization may have been sig ifi-
cantly different from its thickness today. For example, many
metallic deposits were formed during the Mesozoic to late
Tertiary subduction of the Farallon plate beneath N r th
America. By the Late Cretaceous, back-arc tectonism h ad
resulted in a thick crust through overthrusting over a large
region (50-60-km thickness; Miller eta!., 1992) . Begin ing
in the Eocene in eastern Nevada, the ductile lower crust
began to extend through delamination (Zoback et al.,
1981), and the crust had been thinned 30 to 50 percent by
the early late Miocene. From the Eocene to the Mioce ne ,
rapid delamination in the ductile lithosphere was appar-
ently manifested in the brittle crust by strike-slip faulting
(Berger et al., 1998; Bourne et al., 1998; B. Berger, U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, unpub. data, 2000; Drew and Berger, in
press) . This style offaulting, for example along the Carlin
and Getchell mineral trends, accompanied delamina tion
due to traction forces across the brittle-ductile transition.
Extensional faulting did not dominate the surficial land-
scape of the region until approximately 20 to 18 Main the
southern Basin and Range, and as late as 11 to 10 Main the
northern Basin and Range.
Mineral deposits were formed during all stages of thi tec-
tonic evolution. During the Late Cretaceous to early Eocene
period of overthickened crust in the western United States,
a number of world-class mining districts were formed. Dur-
ing the uppermost Late Cretaceous and earliest Tertiary, the
polymetallic veins and porphyry copper deposits at Butte,
Montana, were emplaced (Snee eta!., 1999) , whereas most
porphyry copper deposits of Arizona and New Mexico were
formed in the Paleocene to earliest Eocene (Titley, 1995).
As the crust began to thin , the giant Carlin-style gold
deposits in north-central Nevada probably formed d u ring
the Eocene to early Oligocene(?) (e.g., Hallet al. , 1997;
Hofstra eta!., 1999). By the middle Miocene the crust was
considerably thinner and the world-class Comstock Lode
and Goldfield epithermal deposits formed in western
Nevada (cf. Seedorff, 1991). The net result is that most west-
ern United States ore deposits (Fig. 1) tend to be now
located within broad regions characterized by inferred thin-
ner magnetic lithosphere (Fig. 11 b) and low magnetic
 UTILITY OF MAGNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: EXAMPLES FROM WESTERN U.S.
potential (Fig. 7). However, like the crust, the lithosphere
thickness changed during the course of the Cenozoic; con-
sequently, proposing a general genetic relationship between
mineralization and thin lithosphere is problematic. Perhaps
in some local areas where gravity-defined lithosphere and
magnetic lithosphere are currently characterized by small-
to-intermediate thicknesses, deep faults related to mineral-
ization were reactivated during extension (i.e., existing
faults related to mineralization po sibly facilitated and local-
ized later extension). Clearly, areas largely unaffected by
magmatism since Precambrian time and presently charac-
terized by thick lithosphere (Fig. lla) are nearly devoid of
post:Jurassic mineralized systems, such as the Colorado
Plateau, central Wyoming, and central Montana.
Such speculations at continental scales based on the inter-
pretation of magnetic and gravity data may be useful in lim-
iting mineral exploration to very large regions (e.g., po ibly
restricting exploration to southern Arizona and eliminating
large regions in northern Arizona). For the type of deposits
being considered here , more fruitful studies to limit the
area in evaluating mineral potential are likely when a do er
inspection of the regional geophysical data is carried out,
even at scales of 1:5,000,000. For example, the magnetic
data show that 90 percent of the deposits considered here
correlate with low intensities (<0.0 mpu) in the intermedi-
ate-wavelength magnetic potential (Fig. 7), although the
ratio of the area of negative magnetic potential values to
total area is about 67 percent (Hildenbrand et al., 2000).
200 km J
Fie. 12. Bo ugue r gravi ty map of south-ce mral Australia. Note tha t the Olym pic Dam deposit is located at the intersec-
tio n of 2 maj o r gravity lin eamen ts. (Take n from O 'Driscoll, 1990; reprinted with permi ion of th e Ausu-alasian Institute
of Minin g and Me tallu rgy)
91
Thus, regional magnetic lows may be a useful indicator of
favorable geological environments for mineral occurrence.
Thi tendency for deposits to be associated with magnetic
potential lows in the western United States warrants addi-
tional study. In Canada, regional magnetic lows are also
important in mineral exploration becau e greenstone belts,
the location of many ore depo its, are deficient in magnetite
(Grant, 1985a, b).
Intersection of regional structures: Geophy ical lineaments
defined at regional scales are also useful in mineral explo-
ration. Billingsley and Locke (1941), Lowell (1974), Sillitoe
(1975), and Kutina and Hildenbrand (19 7) proposed an
influence of crustal lineament intersections in the distribu-
tion of mineral deposits. A classical example in southern Au -
tralia is the giant Olympic Dam depo it (Fig. 12) located at
the intersection of major gravity discontinuities (O 'Driscoll,
1990). In reviewing the geological framework of the O lympic
Dam deposit, Woodall (1993, p. 9) states, "We need to be
more aware of the effects of deep basement shears. Deep
structures penetrate the Earth's crust and upper mantle and
may act as the plumbing sy tern for fluid and heat entering
the lithosphere. Empirical evidence indicates that such
structures control many of the giant mineral deposits ... "
An analog in northern Utah may be deep-bas ment frac-
tures associated with the cluster of ore deposits at Bingham,
one of the world's largest copper districts. East-west gravity
and magnetic trends east of Bingham (Erick on, 1976) on
Figures 6 to 8 delineate features paralleling the east-west-
25°S
OLYMPIC
DAM
92 HILDENBRAND ET AL.
trending Archean-Proterozoic boundary (Fig. 1). Near Bing-
ham, north-northeast-trending gravity anomalies roughly
follow the boundary (frontal thrust belt, Fig. 6) between car-
bonate platformal rocks to the east (characterized by thin-
skinned thrust faults) and Paleozoic miogeoclinal slope-
facies rocks to the west (characterized by deep-seated thrust
faults; Miller et al., 1992). This region of intersecting geo-
physical features also includes northwest-trending gravity
and magnetic lineaments of unknown geological origin
(Figs. 6 and 7). Billingsley and Locke (1941) named this
area the "Salt Lake crossroads" (Fig. 1) , where ancient inter-
secting fracture systems may have cut the crust and acted as
channelways for plutons and metal-bearing fluids. Whatever
the specific origins of mineral clusters, their correspon-
dence with linear magnetic and gravity features (Figs. 6 and
7) supports an origin related to deep-seated structural dis-
continuities. Below, we review how the diverse structural ele-
ments work together to localize mineral deposits.
Mineral belts (scale - 1:500,000)
Linear arrays of deposits, generally called "belts" or
"trends," have long been the focus of study by economic
geologists. For example, Card and Poulsen (1998) , in study-
ing the mineral deposits of the Superior Province of the
Canadian Shield, describe numerous clearly defined belts
characterized by deposits of diverse metal associations and
genetic types. Many Superior Province gold deposits tend to
cluster near large faults and shear zones, sometimes
referred to as deformation corridors or tectonic zones due
to their relationship to intensely deformed rock in zones
several kilometers wide (see figs. 2.25, 2.50, and 2.52 in Card
and Poulsen, 1998). Also, most the gold deposits of Victoria,
Australia, lie along linear structural zones within a 70-km-
wide belt in the Lachlan fold belt (Maher et al. , 2000; Van-
derBerg eta!. , 2000) .
Several mineral belts in the western United States are
explored here with respect to their relationships to geo-
physical lineaments at scales of roughly 1:500,000.
Mother Lode gold belt: Brittle-ductile meso zonal hydrother-
mal gold deposits are localized in major fault zones near
sutured plate margins, and regional geophysical data are
helpful in defining such favorable areas. For example, a
group of low-sulfide gold-quartz vein deposits, commonly
termed "Mother Lode" deposits (star symbols in NE Cali-
fornia, Fig. 1) , are hosted mostly by metamorphic rocks in
a series of accreted volcanic arc and other oceanic terranes
in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada and the adja-
cent Klamath Mountains, California (Landefeld, 1990;
Hutchinson and Albers, 1992). A few districts occur in
Mesozoic plutons that intrude the metamorphic rocks and
are part of the Sierra Nevada batholith, primarily exposed
a few tens of kilome ters to the east. The Mother Lode
deposits in the Sierra Nevada are closely associated with
regional-scale, curvilinear fault zones (Melones, Bear
Mountains, and related fault zones tens to hundreds of kilo-
meters long; Landefeld, 1990; Ashley, 1991), some of which
may be reactivated suture zones first developed during
accretion of the volcanic arc terranes. Gold may have been
leached and transported during high-temperature Meso-
zoic metamorphism, and precipitated in quartz veins in
greenschist-grade metamorphic rocks and syndeformation
intrusions.
The Mother Lode districts correlate with geophysical fea-
tures at both regional and sub-regional scales. They lie along
a well-defined north-northwest-trending gravity high (Figs.
3, 6, and 13b) caused by mafic metavolcanic and dense Cre-
taceous plutons of the western Sierra Nevada batholith.
These igneous rocks likely intruded slabs of dense accreted
oceanic crust, from which they may have inherited their
dense mafic character (Jachens and Griscom, 1985). Mag-
netically, the districts generally lie within a region of low-to-
moderate magnetic field strength typical of only slightly
magnetic rocks, but near long, narrow, high-amplitude
curvilinear magnetic highs (Figs. 2 and 13a). The long, nar-
row magnetic highs are caused by tabular bodies of serpen-
tinite which lie along and define many of tl1e regional-scale
Late Jurassic fault zones that are associated with tl1e deposits
(Henderson et al. , 1966; U.S. Geological Survey, 1969,
1976). The low-to-moderate background magnetic fie ld
strength over the metamorphic terranes hosting the ore dis-
tricts is consistent with the metamorphic grade of the host
rocks because greenschist metamorphism normally destroys
the magnetite in these rocks (Grant, 1985a; Clark, 1997b).
The predominant lithologies of the host rock include: (l)
harzburgite, pyroxenite, and dunite; (2) basaltic pillow lava
and breccia; (3) basaltic-andesitic lava; (4) debris flow and
turbidite deposits derived from the basaltic-andesitic lava;
(5) epiclastic conglomerate, mixed volcaniclastic-epiclastic
wacke, sandstone, and siltstone; (6) hemipelagic organic ,
carbon-rich argillite; and (7) mafic dikes (Landefeld, 1990).
Greenschist facies metamorphism is characteristic of low-sul-
fide gold deposit environments worldwide (e.g., Kerr ich,
1999), thus, providing a direct logical link between the
Mother Lode deposits and their associated regional m ag-
netic signature. In the Canadian Superior Province ,
Archean greenstone belts have characteristic magnetic sig-
natures (Grant, 1985b) similar to those over theM ther
Lode belt-namely, regional lows interrupted with lin ear,
local, high-amplitude anomalies. Grant (l985b) pointed out
that favorable ore environs within these greenstone belts are
related to permeable tectonic zones sometimes character-
ized by linear magnetic features , where the quantity of mag-
netite has been enhanced (e.g. , through serpentinization)
or diminished (e.g., through hydrothermal alteration ). An
example is the group of gold and base me tal deposits along
the 400-km-long Porcupine-Destor-Quetico fault system in
Ontario and Quebec.
As described above , the Mother Lode districts h ave a
characteristic three-part geophysical signature consisting of
a regional gravity high , a regional low-to-moderate back-
ground magnetic field anomaly, and long curvilinear mag-
netic highs. Hildenbrand et al. (2000) suggested that these
characteristics may serve as an exploration guide for similar
deposits in n earby areas, especially areas where oce anic
crust is likely to exist or might have existed in the past. Of
particular interest in Figure 13b are the gravity highs imme-
 UTILITY OF MAGNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: EXAMPLE FROM WESTERN U.S. 93

122° 120°

15.0

400

10.0

200

5.0

0.0

-5.0

a. RTP magnetic field b. Filtered isostatic gravity

FIG. 13. RTP magnetic-anomaly fie ld (a) and intermediate-wavelength, residual isostatic grm~ty anomaly field (b) over
the Mother Lode gold belt in the western foothills of the Sierra 1 evada, California. The Me ozoic Mother Lode gold belt
displays characteristic geophysical signatures (regional gravity high , regional low-to-moderate background magnetic fie ld
anomaly, long cu1-vilinear magnetic high ) that might serve as an exploration guide. The Mother Lode de posits are closely
associated "~th regional-scale, curvilin ea r fault zones, some of which may be reactivated suture zones first developed dur-
ing accretion of the volcanic arc terranes. Black lines show faults (taken from Jenn ings et al., 1977). tars locate deposits
of th e Mother Lode.

diately west of the Mother Lode gold belt (also west of lesser-
valued gold depo its not shown in Fig. 13). Here, accreted
volcanic arc terranes similar to those hosting the Mother
Lode deposits descend beneath younger sedimentary rocks
of the Great Valley and are like ly intruded by Cretaceou
p lutons. Detailed examination of the local magnetic field
over the ea tern margin of the Great Valley for areas of low
background magnetic field interrupted by linear magnetic
highs could be an effective means of focusing a search for
buried Mother Lode type deposits.
Magmatic-hydrothermal mineral (porphyry) dejJosit trends: Mag-
matic-hydrothermal mineral deposits (e.g., porphyry copper
deposits) are frequently localized along major strike- lip
fau lt zones within magmatic-arc environments ( ishiwaki,
1981; Drew and B rger, in press). An explanation is that
trike-slip fault zone provide localized zones of high per-
meability, thereby allowing the necessary focusing of mag-
matism and fluid flow to form hydrothermal ore deposits.
Releasing bend or extensional stepovers along trike-sli p
fau lt zones (Dooley and McClay, 1998) commonly localize
magmas in the shallow crust. A schematic model illustrating
the possible relationships between m ineral d posits, faul ts,
grabens, and intrusions is shown in Figure 14. The exten-
sional stepover model may be important in understanding
the structural setting of many deposits in western United
States (Berger et al. , 1998; B. Berger, U. . Geological Survey,
unpub. data, 2000.
In applying such a model, geophysical data are useful for
defining the deep-seated regional fracture zones important
to the int.ru ion of magmas in the crust and the delineation
of near- urface volcanic feature such as dikes or caldera .
Of particular importance are intersecting fracture trends
where p rmeability may be enhanced. For example, Hen! y
and Adams (1992), in investigating li near trends of epith r-
mal gold deposits in the Drummond Basin, Australia, sug-
gest that m ineralization i related to local pull-apart basins
94 HILDENBRAND ET AL.

Hinge of releasing bend

b Intrusion in hinge C Intrusion within

of releasing bend pull-apart basin

Intrusive Center

!/:
,
: r-<,.~---
.,_.l)aS~-
~" ----
,v.
''
:/
:- tt
Magma

FIG. 14. a. Schematic model of a duplex of faults that make up a pull-apart graben or basin (releasing bend) between
two interacting en echelon right-lateral strike-slip faults; cross-basin strike-slip fau lts accommodate strain across the bend
when extension terminates (after Dooley and McClay, 1998). b. Form of igneous intrusions in a hinge zone into the pull-
apart basin. The composite intrusive bodies tend to take the form of a vertically elongated cylinder (B. Berger, U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, unpub. data, 2000). c. Form of igneous intrusions within the center of the pull-apart structure (B. Berger,
U.S. Geological Survey, unpub. data, 2000) .

along linear reactivated strike-slip fault zones (identified in
high-resolution aeromagnetic data). To illustrate the utility
of the pull-apart basin model and of geophysical data in the
application of this model in studying magmatic-hydrother-
mal mineral deposits in the western United States, we pro-
vide three examples related to two porphyry-copper deposit
trends: the zone of porphyry deposits in the Idaho-Montana
porphyry belt, and in southern Arizona (Fig. 1).
Example 1: A zone of northeast-trending magnetic fea-
tures from east-central Idaho across Montana to the Cana-
dian border (Figs. 7 and 8) contains a number of porphyry
molybdenum deposits including Cannivan Gulch and
Thompson Creek (Fig. 1). This alignment of deposits
defines the Idaho-Montana porphyry belt of Rostad ( 1978),
itself within the much longer, 1,500-km-long, Great Falls tec-
tonic zone (O'Neill and Lopez, 1985; Fig. 1).
The zone of northeast-trending magnetic lineaments is
coincident with a zone of strike-slip faults, including the set
that may have localized the Late Cretaceous Boulder
Batholith and the early Tertiary Butte mining district (Fig.
15; O'Neill and Lopez, 1985). Schmidt eta!. (1990) pro-
posed that the Boulder Batholith was emplaced within a
local pull-apart basin between two east-westerly transfer
faults active as the regional thrust front pushed east (Fig.
15a). When extension within the pull-apart could no longer
accommodate strain in response to the regional east-west
maximum principal stresses, northeast-striking, right-lateral
strike-slip faults developed. Applying the structural model of
Figure 14, we propose that an extensional stepover between
two en echelon strike-slip faults controlled the emplace-
ment of mineralization-related intrusions at Butte (Fig.
15b). The Butte district stepover appears to be located
where a reactivated, northwest-striking, Proterozoic fa It sys-
tem (Schmidt eta!., 1990) caused the primary en echelon
northeast-striking faults to elastically interact and the reby
form linking faults (Fig. 15b; Fig 14). Ore-bearing veins at
Butte occur along the northeast-striking, northwest-striking,
and stepover faults.
Example 2: In southern Arizona, several porphyry copper
deposits are localized along northwest-striking, right-lateral
 UTILITY OF MA GNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: EXAMPLES FROM WESTERN U.S. 95

(a)

90

75

60

45

30

15

-15

-30

-45

-60

-75

-90

-105

-120

Continental porphyry
(b) copper deposit
....
No.2
....... . , •• ......... __ _

Boundary of the proposed

Butte extensional stepover
Fie. 15. a. Residual RTP magnetic anomaly map of the Boulder bath olith area, Mo ntana. The e residual data were gen-
erated by subtracting an upward continued (1 .0 km ) regional fi eld from the data in Figu re 2. Pluton-related and epithe r-
mal deposits are shown as whi te circles and quares, respectively. Faults (narrow black lines) and the boundary of the Butte
quartz monzonite plu to n (magen ta dashed line) , largely representing the boundary of the Boulder bath olith, are taken
from Smedes et al. (1988). H eavy black lin es show the propo ed model of emplace ment of the batholi th (located near B
in Fig. 1) in the pull-apart region dudng compressio nal tectoni cs due to east-no rtheast segmentation of th e advan cing
th rust sheet (Schmidt et al. , 1990). b. Pattern of fa ults in the Butte mining district (after Sales, 1913) within th e Boulder
batholith demonstrating the localization of porphyry-style coppe r depo its in a releasin g bend along a right-lateral strike-
slip fault (highlighted with a1·rows).
96 H!Wt.'NBRAND ET AL.

fault zones where they step right due to interactions with

reactivated, older northeast-striking fault zones (B. Berger,
U.S. Geological Survey, unpub. data, 2000; Drew and
Berger, in press). These important northwest structural
zones, which are reflected in the magnetic and gravity data
(Figs. 6-10), may delineate the primary fault zones along
which porphyry copper deposits can be localized. The
northwest-trending geophysical anomalies, locally inter-
rupted by northeast-trending features, coincide with the
650-km-long zone of copper-bearing plutons (Fig. 1)
extending from northern Mexico to west-central Arizona,
sometimes called the "La Caridad-Mineral Park belt"
(Evernden and Kistler, 1970).
Another example of the control of stepovers on the local-
ization of magmatic activity (Fig. 14) may be the Tombstone
volcanic center. We suggest that the pattern of faults and veins
in the Tombstone mining district (Butler et al., 1938) imply
that it is localized at the intersection of northwest- and north-
northeast-trending fault zones expressed in the geophysical
data as lineaments adjacent to a circular magnetic feature
defining the Tombstone caldera (Figs. 9 and 10; cf. Moore,
1993). Fold, fault, and polymetallic vein and replacement (a) Magnetic field
mineralization patterns within the Tombstone district indi-
cate north-south compression at the time of Late Cretaceous
mineralization, which implies that the geophysical features
reflect fractures with favorable orientations for reactivation.
Example 3: The Bagdad region underscores the impor-
tance of antecedent structures to the localization of magmas
34'35"
and related ore deposits, and how a close inspection of geo-
physical data can help in predicting such situations. Promi-
nent regional northeast-trending magnetic boundaries cross
this region (Figs. 2 and 7). One such boundary (Figs. 9 and
16) separates a region of magnetic highs to the southeast
from magnetic lows to the northwest (e.g., the low associ-
ated with the Proterozoic Lawler Peak granite; cf. Anderson 34'30"
et al., 1956). The Bagdad deposit lies in the region of inter-
secting northwest- and northeast-trending magnetic bound-
aries or zones, coinciding in part with features in tl1e poorly
resolved gravity data. As at Tombstone, the orientation of
Laramide regional stresses (N-S to NW-SE) favored princi-
pal displacement along northwest-striking, right-lateral - 1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 mGal
faults and the reactivation of northeast-striking faults such as 0;....,~~.....;:,5~~~,;10. KM
the Proterozoic faulting observed in the geophysical data
(cf. Davis, 1981). Dike swarms (Anderson et al., 1956) delin- (b) Terraced gravity
eate the surface expression of the fault zones (Fig. 16).
FIG. 16. a. Reduced-to-pole magnetic-anomaly map in the regio of the
Applying the structural model in Figure 14, we propose that Bagdad mineral district. The site of the old Bagdad shaft is indicated by the
the mechanical interaction of the two fault trends resulted letters BD. Survey specifi cations are 1.6 km fli ghtlin e spacings a nd 150 m
in the development of a releasing or extensional bend along above terrain. Small white circl es highlight magnetization boundaries
the northwest-striking fault zone. For fractures that intersect based on horizontal gradient analysis. Black solid lin es are interpreted mag-
at high angles, tensile forces are greatest at the intersections. netization boundaries (the two heavier lin es are inferred major tectonic
zones high li g hted in Fig. 9). b. Terraced isostatic basement gravity field
Thus permeability is also higher, and such intersections help over the Bagdad deposit (wh ite ring). Although the gravity coverage is poor
to localize the emplacement of magmas such as the (statio ns lo cated with white circles), several interpreted northeas t and
Laramide stock that hosts the 72.6 ± 2.3 Ma Bagdad por- northwest gravity lineaments (black lin es) correlate \vith magnetic bound-
phyry copper deposit and related polymetallic veins. Analo- aries. Of particular interest are tl1e intersections of magnetic and gravity
boundaries. Black dashed lin es and the area highlighted with hor izontal
gous intersections of geophysical features may be seen at
lin es locate mapped faults a nd the Proterozoic Lawler Peak granite, respec-
several other localities in Figure 16. tively (taken from Wilson et al., 1977). White lin es depict dike swanns near
Epithermal deposit trends: In Figures 17 to 20, the interme- the Bagdad deposit (Anderson et al., 1956).
diate wavelength magnetic potential and gravity data and
 UTILITY OF MAGNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: EXAJ\1PU:i FROM 'v\fE STERN U.S. 97

-2

-4

FIG. 17. Inte rm ediate-wavelength iso tatic re idual gravity anomaly map in the region of important ore depo it trend
in evada. The blocky a ppearance of the anoma lies is due to the application of a terrace filte1~ which e nh ance lithol ogic
or su·uctural boundarie across which density varies (as explain ed in the text). H eavy black Jin es show interpreted major
den ity boundaries based on maxima of horizontal gradient magnitudes shown in Figure 18. These boundaries define
zones of dense cn.•stal blocks labeled A to C. Other gravity lin eame nts are shown as light-we ight black lin es. The Protero-
zoic edge of the craton (87Sr/ 86Sr = 0.706) and the bounda•·ies of the Walker Lane tectonic zone are shown as dashed
white and black lin es, respectively. Dotted lin e how the Pine ut (P ' )Fault (O idow et al. , 1989). BT = Big Ten Peak
caldera; MJ = Mt.Jelferson caldera; RM = Rou nd Mountain; SG =Shoshone granite. Symbols as in Figure 1.

their horizontal gradient magnitude are hown together
with the ore depo its in parts of evada and surrounding
regions. Using maxima of horizontal gradient magnitudes
(Figs. 17 and 20), Hildenbrand et al. (2000) defined crustal
blocks characterized by major changes in density (Fig. 17)
and magnetization (Fig. 19). Other secondary lineaments
are shown in these Figures. The attempt of Hildenbrand et
al. (2000) to define primary and secondary linear geophys-
ical features is subjective and not well constrained. For
example, although dense regional bodie labeled A, B, and
C in Figure 17 are shown as separate identities, these bod-
ie might be interconnected at depth along secondary
boundaries.
Ludington et al. (1993) described the distribution of
epithermal deposits a displaying a crescent-shaped pattern
covering western and northern evada (black square , Fig.
17). There appears to be a rough correlation of the e depo its
with regional gravity highs (features A and B, Fig. 17). In the
southwe tern arm of the coincident epithermal-depo it ere -
cent and gravity high (feature A), a prominent magnetic-high
zone (featureD, Fig. 19) suggests that orne of the sources of
th e gravity anomalies are dense and magnetic igneous intru-
sions, probably of Mesozoic age (Stewart, 1980). Of particular
interest are the northwest-striking magnetic and gravity fea-
tures (Figs. 8, 18, and 20) aligned within the Walker Lane tec-
tonic zone (Figs. 17 and 19) , a broad northwest-trending zone
98
40°
38°
FIG. 18. Horizontal gradient magnitudes of the inte rmediate-wavelength isostatic residual gravity anomaly data shown
in Figure 17. Maximum magnitudes (light gray shades) define boundaries separating regions of contrasting densities.
Symbols as in Figure l.
of diverse topography and strike-slip faults (Stewart, 1988).
The northwest strike of the Pine Nut fault (exposed along the
eastern flank of the Wassuk Range near Walker Lake; Fig. 17),
Cretaceous dikes, and shapes of some plutons in the Walker
Lane imply that deep-seated northwest-striking and related
faults controlled the emplacement of plutons in the Mesozoic
back-arc. Blakely (1988) noted that the width of the north-
west-trending zone of magnetic highs in western Nevada
extends farther northeast than the generally accepted struc-
tural boundary of the Walker Lane. Hildenbrand et al. (2000)
pointed out that a related gravity high also extends northeast
of the Walker Lane.
The geology (e.g., Shawe, 1995, 1999) along the north-
eastern edge of these northwest-trending regional geophys-
ical features indicates that Late Cretaceous intrusions (e.g.,
the Shoshone Granite in the Toquima Range) and mineral-
ization were localized in a region of northwest-trending
HIWENBRAND ET AL.
mGal/krn
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
strike-slip faults (Fig. 21). Similarly striking lateral fault
zones, reflected in the magnetic data, bound the late
Oligocene to early Miocene Big Ten Peak and Mount J effer-
son calderas. Hildenbrand et al. (2000) proposed that the
calderas may be accommodating extensional strain between
these en echelon, strike-slip fault zones analogous to the
emplacement of granites into pull-apart structures (Fig. 14).
Another important relationship is the one between vein-
bearing fractures and the regional principal stresses.
Caldera-associated mineralization as at Round Mountain is
often localized along fractures related to the principal
regional faults , in this case parallel to northwest-striking,
strike-slip faults (Shawe, 1995, 1999), indicating the impor-
tance of the regional stress field to ore deposition. H ilden-
brand et al. (2000) also pointed out that the correspon-
dence of the northeastern extent of Tertiary epithe rmal
mineralization and the boundaries of geophysically inferred
 UTJLfl'Y OF MAGNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: EXAMPLES FROM WESTERN U.S. 99

-2

-6

-10

-14

-18

FIG. 19. Intermediate-wavelength magnetic potential map in the region of important ore deposit trends in evada.
Heavy black line show interpreted major magnetization boundaries based on maxima of horizontal-gradient magnitudes
shown in Figure 20. These boundaries define zones of magnetic crustal blocks labeled D and E. Other magnetic lin ea-
ments are shown as light-weight black lin es. The Proterozoic edge of the craton (87Srj86Sr = 0.706) and the boundaries of
the Walker Lane belt are shown as dashed white and black lin es, respectively. Dotted line shows the Pine Nut (P ) fault
(Oidlow eta!., 1989). BT = Big Ten Peak caldera; MJ = Mt.Jefferson caldera; RM = Round Mountain; G = hoshone gran-
ite. Small squares defme the map area shown in Figures 21 and 22. Symbols as in Figure 1.

Mesozoic intrusions (feature A in Fig. 17) supports a
hypothesis that there is a relationship between Tertiary
epithermal deposits and reactivated antecedent structures,
and further emphasizes the importance of deep-seated frac-
ture systems to the localization of mineral deposits.
The northern part of the epithermal deposit crescent is
characterized by low magnetic potential inten ities occur-
ring in a northeast-trending, 500-km-long zone (Fig. 19),
and an abrupt change from northwest to a more northerly
direction of mountain ranges (see fig. 3 in Stewart, 1980) .
Hildenbrand et al. (2000) proposed that the northeast-
trending magnetic low is a region characterized primarily by
upper-crustal, unaltered igneous rocks with magnetizations
of low amplitude and normal polarity. They suggested that
this northeast-trending zone of magnetic low reflects a
maJor lithospheric irregularity, possibly the remnant of a
segment in the subducting plate that was propagated into
the overriding plate. Recent interpretation of seismic data
(Vander Lee and Nolet, 1997) indicates that the subducted
Farallon plate is segmented and that one of the boundaries
is roughly coincident with this trend of magnetic lows.
There are numerous northeast-trending faults, dikes, and
mineralized veins within this zone that underscore its struc-
tural importance (MacKenzie and Bookstrom, 1976; Henry
and Boden, 1998).
Magnetic feature E strikes obliquely to the Carlin and Bat-
tle Mountain-Eureka mineral trends (Fig. 19) , although its
western margin closely coincides with the western boundary
100 HILDENBRAND ET AL.

FIG. 20. Horizontal-gradient magnitudes of the intermediate-wavelength magnetic potential shown in Figure 19. Max-
imum magnitudes (light gray shades) define bounda,;es separating regions of contrasting magnetization. Symbols as in
Figure 1.

of gravity feature C (Fig. 17). This north-northwest-trending
positive magnetic anomaly is coincident with highly mag-
netic mafic rocks in the northern Nevada rift (Blakely and
Jachens, 1991; Zoback et al., 1994). Middle Miocene dikes
and flows within the northern Nevada rift indicate that the
rift post-dates the Eocene mineral deposits within the Battle
Mountain-Eureka and Carlin trends (discussed below).
However, the young rift zone parallels the western boundary
of the dense crustal feature C and, thus, appears to have
formed along reactivated older structures. Epithermal
deposits (15.5-15.0 Ma) follow the northern Nevada rift sys-
tem extending roughly 300 km from the Oregon border to
central Nevada (Fig. 19). John and Wallace (2000) suggest
that faulting, mafic magmatism, and high heat flow related
to rifting led to precious metal mineralization by enhancing
permeability and fluid flow along the rift.
Battle Mountain-Eureka and Carlin deposit trends: Because
many important gold deposits in Nevada lie along linear
belts, numerous investigations have focused on understand-
ing the geological controls that led to these linear trends.
The Battle Mountain-Eureka trend, for example, lies near
the boundary separating Jess dense crustal rocks to the
southwest from dense rocks to the northeast (Figs. 17 and
18; Blakely et al., 1991; Grauch eta!. , 1995, 1998). Although
the trend of the southern part of this mineral belt generally
follows inferred geophysical boundaries (Figs. 17 and 19),
its northern part appears to be oblique (~ 10°) to the
regional geophysical trend.
In contrast, the well-defined Carlin trend of sediment-
hosted gold deposits, paralleling and approximately 75 km
east of the Battle Mountain-Eureka trend, does not possess a
clear gravity or magnetic expression. On the intermediate
wavelength gravity anomaly map (Fig. 17), the combination
of removing the gravity effects of basins and de-emphasizing
the effects of upper crustal and broad regional mass sources
highlights a density boundary that roughly parallels and lies
 UTiLITY OF MAGNETiC AND GRAViTY DATA: EXAMPLES FROM WESTERN U.S. 101

60

-60

-120

FIG. 21. Magnetic-anomaly fi eld over the Round Mountain and Manhattan min eral districts, evada (area located in
Fig. 19) . Four northwest-st.-iking fau lts (black or white dotted line) mapped by Shawe (1999) and Ke ith (1987) fl ank the
Mt.Jefferson , Manhattan , and Big Ten Peak calderas (long dashed lin es) , uggesti ng a structural relationship. Black lines
are inferred magnetization boundaries (based o n interpretations of de,;vative maps) , indicatin g a northwest- and no rth-
east-u·end in g tructural grain. Epithermal deposits hown as sq uares. The Round Mountain and Manhattan mineral dis-
tricts spa ti all y corre late with northwest-trend in g magnetic lin eaments. In the Ro und Mountain mineral district, local
northwest-striking faults have been mapped by Shawc (1999). The Mesozoic Baxter pring intrusion upports the con-
clusion tha t the northwest-trending zones of gravity and magnetic highs (Figs. 17 and 20) refl ect th e extension of the
Mesozoic gran itoid rocks northeast of the Walker Lane tectonic zone.

east of the Carlin trend. This gravity boundary continue far-
ther southeast to approximately latitude N39°40', where it
abruptly change direction to the southwest, inter ecting the
Batt! Mountain-Eureka trend near latitude 39°05'. A few
Carlin-style gold de posits and other deposit types occur
along this proposed gravity lineament representing the east-
ern boundary of feature C in Figure 17.
The correspondence betwe n the lliptical pattern of
Carlin-style gold deposits and the interpreted boundaries
defining a dense crustal zone (feature C, Fig. 17) i too clo e
to be dismissed as wholly fortuitous. In orne locations, off-
set of the boundarie defining the dense crustal block (fea-
ture C) from the alignment of deposits along the Battle
Mountain-Eureka and Carlin tre nds may be due to poor
data conu·ol in removing the gravity effects of basin from
the gravity field (errors of several kilometers are po sible;
ee J ache ns and Moring, 1990). The offsets associated with
these two ore deposit u·ends are troublesome but explain-
able. Three explanatio ns are feasible if one accepts that the
intermediate-wavelength geophys ical an omalies en hance
the effects of deep crustal mass sources, whereas depo its
may be localized in shallow geological features which can be
laterally offset from their deeper roots. First, the cru stal
block boundaries may have a variable dip and thus only
appear to be offset from the mineral u·ends. Second, north-
west-striking strike-slip faults (e.g., Tosdal and utt, 1999) in
the overlying brittle crust formed due to extension during
delamination of the overthickened, early Cenozoic crust by
102 HIWENBRAND ET AL.
traction forces within the transition zone between the strong
brittle crust and the underlying weaker ductile zone (Berger
et al., 1998; Bourne et al., 1998; B. Berger, U.S. Geological
Survey, unpub. data, 2000; Drew and Berger, in press). How-
ever, over long time scales the slip rate in the brittle zone is
equivalent to the deformation rate (cf. Bourne et al., 1998),
so the differential strain may result in a structural offset
between shallow crustal regions and their deeper roots.
Third, rigid local bodies in the upper crust may act as obsta-
cles to upward fracture propagation and divert the strain
features around them, analogous to a knot in a piece of
wood under stress.
The source producing the positive gravity anomaly
defined as feature C in Figure 17 may be related to both
dense carbonate rock and igneous intrusions (Grauch,
1998). Grauch et al. ( 1998) suggested that the density and
resistivity boundaries associated with the Carlin and Battle
Mountain-Eureka trends represent deep-penetrating
crustal faults, possibly related to the rifted Precambrian
continental margin, and that these faults later focused the
circulation of hydrothermal fluids derived during increased
Tertiary heat transfer. A recent study of feldspar Pb isotope
compositions in Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary granitic
rocks supports this interpretation. Along the Carlin trend,
Wooden et al. (1998) define a northwest-trending Pb iso-
tope province boundary separating high 208Pb j 20 4 Pb on
the northeast from lower values on the southwest. Another
Ph-province boundary is located near the 87Srj 86Sr = 0.706
line (Figs. 17 and 19) and may reflect the Proterozoic cra-
ton margin in Nevada. Wooden et al. (1998) proposed that
the Ph-isotope boundaries define Proterozoic crustal-scale
faults. Subsequent tectonism may have reactivated these old
northwest-trending structures. The episodic reactivation of
deep-rooted faults as expressed in the gravity data (Figs. 17
and 18) can explain the alignment of ore deposits of vary-
ing ages and origins. Thus, the Carlin and Battle Mountain-
Eureka trends probably formed along antecedent Protero-
zoic faults.
Battle Mountain mining district: In the northern area of
the Battle Mountain-Eureka trend, Cretaceous and Ter-
tiary porphyry deposits of the Battle Mountain Mining Dis-
trict (BMMD) are generally associated with plutons
reflected as magnetic highs (Fig. 22). On the basis of gra-
dient analyses of the magnetic and gravity data, three
northwest- to north-northwest-trending zones or bound-
aries are defined. One geophysical zone represents the
western boundary of the northern Nevada rift. In the Bat-
tle Mountain mining district, Doebrich and Theodore
(1996) also defined two similar northwest-trending struc-
tural zones on the basis of topographic and magnetic lin-
ear features and on the elongations and alignments of
mineral systems and dikes. The western two northwest-
striking geophysically defined zones bound Battle Moun-
tain and Buffalo Mountain. Because these mountain
ranges have northeastern and southwestern topographic
expressions following the geophysical zones, the sources of
the geophysical zones appear to have influenced mountain
building. Quaternary and late Tertiary faults identified
from a reconnaissance photogeologic map of Nevada
(Dohrenwend et al., 1996) generally terminate or abruptly
change strike at all three of these northwest-trending struc-
tural zones. Of particular interest is that most deposits lie
in the area between the two western northwest-trending
structural zones. The age of these two zones may be Juras-
sic or older because dikes and faults along the southern
boundary of a Jurassic pluton at Buffalo Mountain (Neff,
1966; Fig. 22) follow one of these zones. Doebrich and
Theodore (1996) previously suggested that these north-
west-trending structural zones may be related to the shat-
tered hinges of broad, regional-scale Jurassic folds.
We propose that there was northwest-trending strike-slip
faulting in the Battle Mountain region during the late
Eocene, possibly related to forces imposed on the brittle
crust by rapid extension in the lower crust. The two in ter-
preted northwest-trending structures bounding Battle
Mountain were probably reactivated with right-lateral
motion leading to roughly east-west extension (Fig. 22).
Apparently, the northwest faults interacted elastically
because, based on fault patterns and dike trends, the area
between them displays interlinked dilational structures and
shears typical of pull-apart structures. Dikes tend to follow
the northwest-striking structural zones but strike largely
north-south in the region between them. Faults tre nd
north-south from the southern northwest-striking strike-slip
fault, and then bend to the northwest to merge with or run
parallel to the northern northwest-striking strike-slip fault.
That the linking faults make up an interactive system of ten-
sile and shear faults is known also from the mapping of
veins and faults in underground mines (cf. Roberts and
Arnold, 1965). We propose that the Battle Mountain min-
eral deposits formed in an extensional regime between
northwest-trending faults with right-lateral motion. Thus,
the fracture permeability for the ore-forming fluids could
have developed in an extensional stepover (Fig. 14) with a
structural pattern similar to the dike and fault patterns at
Battle Mountain.
Mineral deposits (scale -1:50,000)
Compared to the regional geophysical data discussed thus
far, high-resolution magnetic and gravity data provide,
unquestionably, the greatest information on primary struc-
tures needed in evaluating mineral potential. Consequently,
national programs to systematically collect detailed or high-
resolution potential-field data over large regions have
evolved in several countries. At deposit-scales, Grant (1985a,
b), Hoover et al. ( 1992), and Gunn and Dentith ( 1997)
have provided discussions of characteristic geophysical
expressions of several types of deposits.
Numerous excellent examples exist in the literature that
highlight the utility of geophysical studies based on high-
resolution potential-field data (see several examples in
Gubins, 1997). A notable example relates to the gold
deposits of the Tennant Creek gold field, Northern Terri-
tory, Australia, which are scattered throughout an area of
about 2,000 mi2. Ivanac (1954) showed the importance of
magnetic data in locating these hidden gold-copper-his-
 UTILITY OF MAGNETIC AND GRAVITY DATA: EXAMPLES FROM WEST.t'RN U. . 103

160

120

80

40

-40

-80

0 10 KM
llllii-=:===::::J +

........

Fie. 22. (Top) Magnetic anomaly field over the region of the Battle Mountain mining district (area located in Fig. 19).
Battle Mountain mining district is highlighted with heavy dash lin e. The three n orthwest-trending stippl ed areas are
inferred structural zones based on gradient analyse of the magnetic and gravity data. Black square defines area hown in
Figure 24; symbols as in Figure I. Black lines are Quaternary and late Tertiary faults taken from a reconnaissance photo-
geologic map of evada (Dohrenwend eta!., 1996). (Bottom) Red and black lines show dikes and faults , respectively, at
Buffalo Mountain (Neff, 1966) and Battle Mountain (Roberts and Arnold, 1965) . Cyan lines are interpreted magnetiza-
tion boundaries based on gradient analyses.
104 HILDENBRAND ET AL.
muth deposits (which grade from 5-1,000 g Au/ t) in a
magnetite- and hematite-rich ironstone. Many other Aus-
tralian studies at district and ore-deposit scales demon-
strate the utility of geophysical interpretations to describe
deposits in a structural-stratigraphic context (e.g., Whiting,
1986; Isles et al., 1989; Edwards et al., 1990; Gunn and
Dentith, 1997; Gunn et al., 1997a, b; Willocks et al., 1999).
We discuss two examples: one from Australia and one from
the western United States.
Arunta block, Northern Territory: Whiting's (1986) classical
mineral study of the Arunta block clearly demonstrates the
utility of quality magnetic data (250 m line spacing and 80
m above ground) in compiling a geological map for a cov-
ered area with a precision that compares to that of maps of
exposed areas produced by conventional mapping tech-
niques. The ability to map accurately a concealed geologi-
cal unit or parameter uniformly over a large area makes
aeromagnetic mapping a viable interpretive tool to charac-
terize structures and lithology over a wide range of scales.
Whiting's study benefited from a voluminous amount of
detailed physical property data and nearby limited expo-
sures of targeted geological units. The measured map;netic
property data provided invaluable insights on the relation-
ship of anomaly patterns and specific rock types, which
were used to generate the detailed structural and lithologi-
cal map shown in Figure 23. Economic concentrations of
Ag-Pb-Zn and Cu-Au occur along prominent elongate mag-
netic anomalies expressing hidden parasitic folds control-
ling mineralization.
Elder Creek porphyry copper deposit: In the Battle Mountain
mining district (Fig. 22), the 37-Ma porphyritic monzo-
granite intrusion related to the Elder Creek porphyry cop-
per system is clearly expressed in the magnetic data (Fig.
24). The central magnetic lows coincide with the heavily
potassium-silicate-altered quartz stockworks. The abun-
dance of pyrrhotite in the surrounding hornfels results in
prominent magnetic highs. Perhaps nearby magnetic highs
express concealed skarns or dikes of economic significance.
Conclusions and Summary
Several recurring structural relationships have been
highlighted throughout this review of the utility of geo-
physics in defining structures important in mineral studies.
The main relationships include: (1) deep-seated faults, at
both regional and local scales reflected as geophysical lin-
eaments, can localize igneous activity, major ore deposits
and districts, and mineral belts; (2) these fault systems may
be reactivated episodically throughout geological time; and
(3) intersecting crustal fault systems are especially favorable
for ore deposition. Thus, magnetic and gravity data help
elucidate the regional geological framework or structural
setting and can contribute in locating favorable environ-
ments for hydrothermal mineralization.
The amount of geological information derived from the
potential-field data clearly increases from regional to local
scales, and thus the benefits of using potential-field data in
mineral investigation studies significantly increases. At local
scales, structural elements defined by high-resolution geo-
physical data appear to work together to localize mineral
deposits, for example, along folds (e.g., Arunta Inlier; Wh it-
ing, 1986). Each mineralized zone or district appears to be
associated with a different geological history and with a dif-
ferent structural fabric associated with mineralization.
Thus, the greatest utility of geophysical data at eitl1er local
or regional scales is in the interpretation of structural rela-
tionships that help narrow an exploration area, particularly
in covered terrains, so that more intensive interdisciplinary
studies can be carried out in the effective evaluation of min-
eral potential.
In the present study, the broad application of potential-
field geophysics has led to new insights and reconfirme d
previous interpretations of the origin of ore deposits in the
western conterminous United States. One recurring stru c-
tural model evolving from this geophysical study is that
mineralization in the western United States is common ly
localized along strike-slip fault zones where pull-apa rt
basins or releasing bends provided the increased fracture
permeability for the migration of ore-forming fluids. The
Butte, Tombstone, Bagdad, and Battle Mountain districts
may be related to igneous activity and mineralization within
releasing bends in strike-slip faults (Fig. 14) . Other struc-
tural relationships have been highlighted:
1. Many deposits lie within regions characterized by low
total magnetization (Hildenbrand et al., 2000). This rela-
tionship warrants further study.
2. The Mother Lode gold belt closely follows a well-
defined north-northwest-trending gravity high reflec ting
dense mafic metavolcanic and plutonic rocks (Hilden-
brand et al., 2000).
3. Gravity and magnetic maps emphasizing regi onal
crustal structures in Arizona, Montana, and Utah support
previous observations that linear geophysical zones define
deep structures apparently related to alignments of ore
deposits (e.g., Idaho-Montana porphyry belt) and ore-
deposit clusters (e.g., near Bingham, Utah).
4. In southwestern Nevada, the pattern of epithermal
deposits (generally younger than 20 Ma) and inferred plu-
tons extends northeastward beyond the border of the north-
west-trending Walker Lane tectonic zone and mapped eso-
zoic plutons. The correspondence between the northeast
edge of the pattern of epithermal deposits and geophysically
inferred Mesozoic plutons supports the hypothesis that a
relationship exists between Tertiary epithermal activity and
antecedent, reactivated structures. Further, it emphasizes the
importance of deep-seated fracture systems to the localiza-
tion of mineral deposits (Hildenbrand et al., 2000).
5. In north-central Nevada, an interpreted dense crustal
block has a western boundary that correlates with the north-
west-trending Battle Mountain-Eureka trend (suppor ting
previous interpretations by Grauch et al., 1998) , and an east-
ern boundary that roughly parallels the Carlin gold trend.
Both the Carlin and Battle Mountain-Eureka belts may have
formed along Proterozoic faults episodically reactivated dur-
ing active subduction of the Farallon plate beneath North
America. These episodic reactivations of old, deep-rooted
 UTILITY OF MAGNETI C AND GRAVITY DATA: r:XAMPLES FROM WESTERN U.S. 105

r•...• . •.,.
I ..
136~5' 136'20' 136'Z5'

D Adelaideon ~ Gneissic Suite C:J Basement depth contours

JERVOIS SCHISTS r::::::J Magnetic metasediments ...-- Faun, Interpreted horizontal movement
Magnetite quartzite INTRUSIVES .,_..; Fault, Interpreted vertical movement
~ (including lode horizons
Q Granite, granodiorite ___.- Dike INTERPRETATION MAP
and BIF)
" " Quartz sericite schist [;ill Gabbro, amphibolite ~ Adelaidean unconformity JERVOIS, N.T
@ Mine or prospect
D u~~~~:i~!~s - Ultramafic
~ Axial plane of fold
0 5Km

•o,z,J )I( AntiformX Synform

FIG . 23. Geological map ofthe j ervois area, An1nta Inli er, orthern Territory, Australia, based on the interpretation of
aeromagnetic data with the assista nce of geological and rock property data (take n from Whiting, 1986; published with the
permission of the Geological Society of Australia). The magnetic signatures of scattered outcrops of magnetite-quartz
rocks (associated with the lode horizon) are conti nued into covered regions as intense linear magneti ano malies. The
resulting geological map reveals parasitic folds structurally controlling mineralization , highligh ting the importance of geo-
logical mapping ba ed on the synthesis of geophy ical, geological, and rock-property data.

fau lt , as expressed in the gravity data, help explain the
alignment of ore deposits of varying age and origins.
6. The Battle Mountain mineral district may be related
to an extensional stepover between northwest-striking,
right-lateral faults.
In other regions, where the geology and o rigin of ore
deposits may be le swell known, mineral tudies leading to
similar geophysical relationships wou ld be a useful early
pha e in exploration planning. The above geophysical rela-
tionships with ore deposit patterns in the western nited
States shou ld nut be viewed as defining specific targets.
Rather they provide a regional geological framework within
which to he lp predict generally favorable environments for
mineralization.
Siting new exploration targets requires a careful analysis
of geological, geochem ical, and geophysical data a t local
scale in favorab le area defined by regional tudies. A pre-
dicted growth in the con umption of many comm od ities
leads to the conclusion th at greater succe s rate by
prospectors in the exploration of covered terranes are
needed (Skinner, 1993). Skinner states (1993, p. 5), "The
106 HILDJJ"'NBRAND ET AL.

+ +

.·tO
·>-
·~
I
I
\
\
\
40°40' + + \ +
# \
\
\
\
\
\
2 KM
0 ''
-10 -5 0 5 nT
Flc. 24. Residual magnetic field over the Elder Creek porphyry copper system , Battle Mount.o'lin mining district (area
located in Figure 22) . The zonation related to the pluton is clearly expressed in the magnetic data. The boundaries of
exposed porphyritic monzogranite (wh ite lines) and the outer limits of the quartz stockworks (long dashed line) and
biotite hornfels (solid black lines) are taken from Gostyayeva et al. (1996). A short-dashed lin e shows the approximate
boundary of Quaternary sediment covering the eastern part of the map area (Rain es et al. , 1996). These residual mag-
netic data were generated by subtracting an upward continued (50 m) regional fi eld from the data in Figure 22.

greatest challenge lies in the finding of buried ore bodies
and the solution to the challenge is vested in our scientific
understanding of the way the crust is put together and our
ability to overcome the technological difficulties of map-
ping and sampling the crust in the third dimension. "
High-resolution geophysical maps reduce the uncer-
tainty in identifying favorable environs for mineral
deposits. In mineral investigations at all map scales, the
interpretation of potential-field data clearly will continue to
play a major role by defining geology in three dimensions,
if magnetic and gravity data of adequate resolution are
available to meet the challenge.
Acknowledgments
This study has greatly benefited from reviews by T.
Theodore, M. Duffett, C. Finn, and J.P. Richards. D. Moore,
P. Gunn, and M. Pilkington kindly provided very useful ref-
erences discussing the utility of geophysical data in mineral
studies outside the United States. Communications ·th R.
Ashley, D. Cox, T. Grauch, and D. John contributed impor-
tant information on various aspects of the tectonic history,
mineral deposits, or structural development of the western
United States. Battle Mountain Gold Company kindly fur-
nished the high-resolution magnetic data over the Elder
Creek deposit (Fig. 24).
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Reviews v. 14, 2001, p. 111- 155

Ch ap ter 5

Vein Formation and Deformation in Greenston e Gold Deposits

FRAN OIS ROBERTt
Ban-ick Gold Corporation, 7257 Dunver, Verdun, Quebec, Canada H 4H 2H 6

0
1 K. H OWARD POULSE
34 WalfoTd Way, epean, Ontario, Canada K2E 6B6

Abstract

Ve ins are commo n compo ne nts of green ton e gold deposits. Th eir a naly i i o ne key aspect in un-
derstanding th e eque nce of even ts leadin g to th e fo rma tio n or defo rmati o n of gold depo its. Th i analy-
sis is essential fo r the de termina tio n of contro ls o n min eralizati on and ore-for ming processes, a nd for the
pred ictio n of th e geome u-y a nd plunges of deposits and o re bodie . Many gree nstone gold districts have
expe ri enced a comm o n structural evolutio n : D 1 thin kin-style sho rte n ing a nd D 2 th ick skin-style hort-
e ning are la rgely respo nsible fo r th e structural trend and penetrative fa bric in a district, whe reas D 3 a nd
D 4 transcurre nt defo rmatio n are largely focused alo ng preexisting maj o r fa ul t zo ne . A maj o rity of green-
stone gold deposits co nsists of quartz-carbo nate veins in o r adjace nt to high-angle rever e, a nd less com-
mo nly tra n curre nt, shear zo nes, viewed as splays or subsidiarie of maj o r, complex, b It-scale fau lt zo nes.
In other depo its, ve ins simply overprin t gold mineralizatio n a nd provide impo rta nt info rma tio n about
the posto re defo rmati o n history.
T h ree main types of vein occu r in greenstone gold de posits a nd each records mall incremen ts of bu lk
strain . La minated fau lt-fi ll ve ins fo rm by lip alo ng the central parts of ac tive shear zo ne in low-a ngle di-
latio nal be nds, or less commo nly by extensio nal o pening of fo liatio n planes. Extensio nal and oblique-ex-
te nsio n vein form within o r adj ace n t to shear zo ne , at high a ngles to fo liation and elo ngatio n li neatio n .
They re present o pen ing a nd fil ling of extensio na l and hybrid extensio nal- hear fractures, respectively. In
mo re competen t host roc ks, exten ional veins can for m arrays of en ech elo n planar or igmo idal veins,
o r of stacked planar vein , and can al o combine in to mu ltiple sets to fo rm tockwork and breccia bod-
ie . Multiple types and sets of a urife ro u vei ns commo nly combine to fo rm variably complex vein ne t-
work , e pecia ll y in la rge de posits. The e vein ne twork record depo it-scale bulk incre me ntal strain , with
axes of elo ngatio n and horte ning that can be compared with th ose of the main defo rmatio n incremen ts
in th e district as a further way of con u-ain ing their timing of fo rma tio n . The forma tio n of vein ne two rk
in many di tricts is compa tible with D2 , and in a number of other with D 3 , reflecting th eir fo rma tio n in
co nu-ac ti o nal o r tra n current defo rmatio n regimes, likely involvi ng ubh orizontal compre sional stress
under high flu id pressure .
Vein in many disu-icts also systema tically di play evidence of overprinting defo rmatio n, in the form of
fo lds, bo ud ins, striated vein ma rgin , and a number of internal vein textures such as recrystallized q uartz
and stylolites. O verp rinting deformation i a natural conseque nce of vein fo rmatio n in active hear zo nes,
bu t it can also re ult fro m overpt·inting of veins by a yo unger increme nt of t·egio nal deformatio n . T his can
lead to local shear zo ne reacti va tio n o r wholesale fo lding o r boud inage of a depo it. The confide nt dete r-
mina tion of the structural tim ing of ve ins in de po its i critical but challe nging, a nd i at the cen ter of d i-
ve rge nces of interpretation of the origin of many greensto ne gold deposits. A number of gu ide lin es are
offered to help d istinguish pre-o rogenic vein and de posits from tho e \vi th yn- to po to rogenic timing.

Introduction and Scope
GEOLOGIST h ave lo n g n o ted th e clo e p a tial associatio n
be twe en gold d ep osits in green sto ne belts and structures
such as faults, sh ear zones, and folds, as refl ected by many of
the contributions in ewhouse (1942) and anadian Insti-
tute of Minin g a nd Me ta llurgy (1948). Altho ugh th ere is
wide acceptance that tructures like sh ear zones, folds, and
t Correspond ing author: e-ma il, froben@ba rrick.com
boudin are important loci of gree nstone gold deposits a t
som e cale, the re is no strong consensus on the geological
significan ce of this as ociation ( .g., Ma on and Helmstaedt,
1992; Hutchinson, 1993) . Many of th e conflicting ge ne tic
interp re tations of gold deposits in greenstone belts, espe-
cially large complex deposits, stem in part from diverging
inte rpre tations of th e structural timing of mineralizatio n
(i. e., timing relative to their host structures). T he contrast-
ing interpretations of the H m lo depo it by Pan and Fleet
(1992) and by Kuhns et al. (1994), and of the Campbell Red

111
112 ROBERT AND POULSt,'N

Lake deposit by Andrews et al. (1986) and Penczak and particularly Poulsen and Robert (1989) and Robert et al.
Mason ( 1997), serve to illustrate this point. (1994). The next section addresses the effects of deforma-
Veins are common in greenstone gold deposits, in many tion of veins in relation to geological structures such as
cases forming a major portion of the ore, but overprinting folds , shear zones, and mega-boudins. This leads to a third
it in others (e.g., Tourigny et al., 1993; Robert, 1997). Veins, section discussing the problem of distinguishing syn-tec-
like unconformities and igneous intrusions, are also useful tonic veins from pre- or posttectonic veins. Key controls on
in separating deformation predating their formation from localization, shapes, and orientation of ore bodies are also
subsequent increments of strain. The analysis of veins in considered throughout the text. The subject is approached
multiply deformed metamorphic rocks can be valuable in from the perspective of the questions and problems facing
deciphering the sequence of events leading to the forma- geologists exploring for, or studying, greenstone gold
tion or deformation of gold deposits. Furthermore, their deposits. Although features discussed range from the scale
position, orientation, and timing relative to other strain fea- of the district to that of the thin section, outcrop-scale fea-
tures such as shear zones, folds, and boudinaged compe- tures are emphasized for the most part.
tent rock units , are factors of direct interest in mineral
exploration. In cases where veins and deposits can be Structure of Greenstone Gold Districts
linked dynamically to an evolving structure, there are many Recurring lithologic and structural features of gold
practical consequences concerning the predictability of deposits and districts, and their evolution have been
their locations and orientations. In cases where deposits reviewed by Card et al. (1989), Vearncombe et al. (1989),
have simply been overprinted by regional deformation giv- Groves and Foster (1991), Card (1992), Hodgson (1993),
ing the guise of a relationship to major structures, the task Kerrich and Cassidy (1994), Groves et al. (1995), Groves et
is to look through the deformation to deduce other causes al. (1998), McCuaig and Kerrich (1998), and Hagemann
for gold localization. and Cassidy (2000). This section summarizes key aspects of
There are several modern reviews of structural features the geology of greenstone gold districts to provide a frame-
of gold deposits and districts (Bursnall, 1989; Eisenlohr et work for discussing and analyzing veins in a more regional
al., 1989; Vearncombe et al., 1989; Mason and Helmstaedt, context.
1992; McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998). Similarly, the geometric
and kinematic features of shear zones, so commonly associ- Lithologic composition of districts
ated with gold deposits, have also been extensively reviewed Greenstone belts consist of elongate units of metavolcanic
(e.g., Ramsay, 1980a; Poulsen, 1986; Bursnall, 1989; Han- rocks alternating with generally subordinate metasedimen-
mer and Passchier, 1991). However, there are compara- tary rocks (Fig. 1) , all metamorphosed at greenschist to
tively few recent reviews emphasizing the structural charac- lower amphibolite facies (e.g., Card, 1992). Mafic metavol-
teristics, significance, and controls on formation of veins in canic rocks dominate most districts, with locally significant
greenstone gold deposits (e.g., Hodgson, 1989; Poulsen ultramafic rocks and minor volumes of felsic metavolcanic
and Robert, 1989;Jebrak, 1992; Vearncombe, 1993). rocks. Synvolcanic sills, dikes, and subvolcanic plutons
The main objective of this contribution is to examine intrude metavolcanic rocks.
structural aspects of veins in greenstone gold deposits, with Metasedimentary successions also commonly occur in
focus on the controls on vein formation , and on how veins greenstone gold districts (Fig. 1; e.g., Card eta!., 1989). These
can be used in assessing the timing of gold mineralization successions comprise older "flysh-like" graywacke-mudstone
with respect to other geological events. The review also turbidite sequences (Fig. 2), and younger "molasse-like," allu-
serves as a basis for deciding among alternative processes vial-fluvial accumulations of polymictic conglomerate, aren-
responsible for vein formation . In the absence of conclusive ite, and mudstone (Figs. 3 and 4). Alluvial-fluvial sedimentary
geochronological constraints, this interpretation is critically successions unconformably overly volcanic rocks and the
dependent on the field criteria used to decide whether one older turbidite sequences, and represent an important time
is examining features associated with vein formation or marker in the evolution of the greenstone belts (Card, 1992) .
with vein deformation. Alluvial-fluvial sedimentary rocks are disuibuted along major
This paper combines aspects of a review with those of a fault zones, where they occur as tectonic slices or as preserved
discussion, and includes application of the structural con- synclinal keels. Examples include the Timiskaming-type sedi-
cepts based on the authors' experience. Illustrations largely mentary units of the Superior province (Card, 1992) and the
come from examples with which the authors are familiar, Missi type of the Trans-Hudson orogen (Stauffer, 1990) in
and a number of deposits and districts are used repeatedly Canada, the Tarkwaian Group in the West-African greenstone
throughout the text as examples. After a brief review of key belts (Milesi et al., 1992), and the Merougil Formation and
structural features of gold districts and deposits, the paper Jones Creek Conglomerate in the Eastern Goldfields ofWest-
is organized in three main sections. The first section covers ern Australia (Krapez et al., 1997; Nelson, 1997a). In the
vein formation and analysis; it introduces selected relevant southern Superior Province, Timiskaming-type sedimentary
theoretical concepts of vein formation, followed by a review units are temporally associated with alkalic magmatism in the
of the different types of veins, their structural characteris- form of quartz monzonite to syenite stocks and dikes, and
tics, and how they combine to form deposit-scale networks. their locally preserved extrusive equivalents (Corfu e t al.,
This section largely builds on previous work by the authors, 1991; Corfu, 1993).
 VEIN FORMATION & DEFORMATION IN GREENSTONE Au DEPOSI TS 113

+
N
I

50 km

~ GRANITOID ROCK [:=J VOLCANIC ROCK STYLES OF GOLD DEPOSITS

' , ', ',

' ' '
MAFIC INTRUSION Em SEDIMENTARY ROCK
• QUARTZ-CARBONATE VEIN

_& DISSEMINATED-STOCKWORK
~ PROTEROZOIC COVER / MAJOR FAULT • GOLD-RICH VMS

LLCF =Larder Lake- Cadillac Fault Zone PDF =Porcupine - Destor Fault Zone Q SULFIDE-RICH VEIN

FIG. l. Simplified geological map of the Abitibi greenstone belt howing the d istribution of major fault zo nes and sig-
nificant gold di tricts and deposits. Modified from Robert and Poulsen (1997) .

['7.'7.1 GREYWACKE, MUDSTONE±

t:.:::;:.;j MINOR CONGLOMERATE, BIF

l"'7'l GREYWACKE, MUDSTONE

L:_:_j
-
0
SHEAR ZONE

FELSIC SYN- TO LATE-TECTONIC

INTRUSION
••
•
0
GOLD DEPOSIT, OCCURRENCE
QUARTZ-TOURMALI NE-CARBONATE
VEIN TYPE
QUARTZ-CARBONATE VEIN TYPE

D VOLCANIC ROCK Q FELSIC SYN-VOLCANIC INTRUSION ... DISSEMINATED-STOCKWORK TYPE

FIG. 2. Geo logical map of the Va l d 'Or district, Ab itibi , showing the di Lribution of different type of gold depo its in
the district. Modified from Robe rt et al. (1995).
114 ROBn'RT AND POULSEN
• e GOLD DEPOSiT..
__,..- FAULT, SHEAR ZONE
B GRANITOID INTRUSION
EI§l ~~~:.~:g:~NGLOMERATE
D GREYWACKE. MUDSTONE
D VOLCANIC ROCK ~
FIG. 3. Simplified geological map of the Rice Lake district, Manitoba,
showing the distribution of gold deposits, faults, Timiskaming-type sedi-
mentary rocks, and intrusions. Modified from Poulsen et al. (1996).
Multiple generations of mafic to felsic intrusions, ranging
from batholiths to dikes, were emplaced throughout the
evolution of the greenstone belts (see Card, 1992; Kerrich
and Cassidy, 1994; Cassidy et al., 1998). Of these, felsic por-
phyry and lamprophyre dikes are particularly common fea-
tures of greenstone gold deposits and districts (Wyman and
Kerrich, 1989; Hodgson, 1993).
Structural evolution of districts
Greenstone gold districts and deposits occur along
crustal-scale, first-order fault zones at boundaries between
contrasting lithological domains (e.g., Eisenlohr et al., 1989;
Hodgson, 1993). Examples include the Boulder-Lefroyfault
in Western Australia, the Porcupine-Destor and Larder
Lake-Cadillac fault zones in the Abitibi belt (Figs. 1 and 2),
the Wanipigow and Manigotogan fault zones in the Rice
Lake district, Manitoba (Fig. 3), and the McLennan tectonic
zone in the La Ronge district, Saskatchewan (Fig. 4). These
major high-angle faults are commonly characterized by
anastomosing shear zones, intense LS fabric (i.e., strong lin-
eation an foliation) development and doubly plunging
folds, overprinting crenulation cleavages, and asymmetric
folds. They display evidence of complex, long-lived histories,
involving significant shortening accompanied by some com-
ponent of high-angle reverse displacement, and overprint-
ing by strike-slip displacements (McCuaig and Kerrich,
1998). Along these faults, many districts are located at sites
of structural complications such as bends and duplexes
(McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998) and intersections with cross
faults (Hodgson and Troop, 1988; Vearncombe, 1998).
The dominant structural grain of many districts is subpar-
allel to the first-order faults and is defined by moderately to
steeply dipping supracrustal units , regional folds, and
numerous high-angle shear zones (Fig. 2). In detail, how-
ever, the structure of most gold districts is characterized by
the existence of multiple generations of metamorphic fab-
1- GREYWACKE
2- JASPER
3- STAR LAKE
4- JOLU
10 km
/
• GOLD DEPOSIT
SHEAR ZONE. FAULT
~ SYNTECTONIC
~ FELSIC INTRUSION
r71 ARKOSE, CONGLOM .
L2J (Timiskaming-type)
D MAFIC VOLCANIC
ROCK
D PELITIC GNEISS
FIG. 4. Simplified geo logical map of the central part of the La onge
gold belt, Saskatchewan , showing the distribution of gold deposits, fau lts,
Timiskaming-type sedimentary rocks, and intrusions. Modified from
Poulsen et al. (2000).
rics, folds, and shear zones, indicating the presence of sev-
eral recognizable increments of deformation. Structural
analysis of gold districts is complicated by the highly h tero-
geneous nature of the deformation and by the domainal
development of structural fabrics (e.g., Hodgson and
Hamilton, 1989). However, three recurring principal incre-
ments of penetrative deformation can commonly be identi-
fied (Table 1) , even though the specific terminology u ed by
different authors varies from district to district (e.g., Hubert,
1990; Card, 1992; Mih~si et al., 1992; Abraham and Spooner,
1995; Bleeker and Parrish , 1996; Nelson, 1997b; S ager,
1997; Heather, 1998). Despite variations in their relative
importance from place to place, these three overprinting
increments of deformation account for the bulk of the struc-
tural geometry of most gold districts.
D 1 structural features include isolated, upright to recum-
bent folds with only local axial-plane cleavage (Fig. 5), and
localized layer-parallel penetrative foliation (Hubert 1990;
Lewry et al., 1990; Milesi et al., 1992; Swager, 1997; H eather,
1998). Low-angle thrusts are also well-documented effects of
D 1 in some districts , for example in the Kalgoorlie-Kam-
 VEIN FORJWATION & Dr:rORMAT!ON IN GREENSTONE Au DEPOSITS 115

TABLE I. Comm o n Deformatio n In cre ments in Cold Districts and Related tructures
In crement Structures Regim e
Local evide nce of ea rly ets of folds o r of nclear-possibl e exte nsio n?
tilting of vo lcanic units
Localized fo liation and cl eavage "Thin-skinn ed " sho rte ning
Tight to isoclinal, recumbe nt folds
Local thrust fa ul ts
Unconfo rmity De positi on of alluvial-fluvial edim entary rocks Up lift and e rosio n
D2 Pene u-ative subverti cal fo liation and mo tly "Thick- kin ned " sho rte ning
down-dip e longa tio n lin ea ti o ns
Upright, tight to isoclinal fo ld
Mode rately to teeply clipping reve rse shea r zon e
Locali zed crenulatio n cl eavages Transcurre nt defonn ati o n
Asymm etri folds with stee p plunges Reactivation of preexistin g tructure
T1-anscurrent shear zo nes

•
N
I

TRAJECTORIES OF
FOLIATION AND FOLDS

S3, F3 Larder Lake-Cadillac

S2, F2 FauH Zone

S1 , F1 10 km

FIG. 5. chemati c re prese ntation of u-aj ecto ri es of the main tructu ral fabrics and folds across th e Val d'Or district.
Modified from Ro b rt ( 1990) .

balda area in Western Australia (Swager and Griffin, 1990)
and in the Barberton Green tone belt in South Africa
(Vearncombe eta!., 1989). However, it i common ly the case
that the fu ll significance of the D 1 increment of deforma-
tion is difficu lt to establish becaus of overprinting by
younger tructures. In a number of districts , the major D 1
tructure (folds and thrusts faults) trend at moderate to
high angle to the dominant structural grain in the district
(e.g. , the Rice Lake, Kalgoorlie-Kambalda, and oranda
area ; Hubert, 1990; Swager and Griffin, 1990; Pou lsen et
a!. , 1996). D 1 can be regarded as a period of thin-skinned
thrusting and r lated i oclinal folding. In a few districts, D 1
fold are also documented to overprint pre x.isting folds or
previou ly tilted volcanic units, reflecting the pre ence of an
earlier deformation event lacking as ociated penetrative fab-
rics and labeled D 0 in Table 1 (Hodg on and Hamilton,
1989; Bleeker and Parrish, 1996; Swager, 1997).
In many districts, the unconformities at the base of allu-
vial-fluvial (Timiskaming-type) sedimentary units truncate D1
folds (Hubert, 1990; Bleeker and Parrish, 1996) and thru ts
( wager, 1997) , indicating that sedimentation po tdate the
D 1 increment of deformation (Card , 1992; Table 1). Thee
alluvial-fluvial sedimentary units are commonly overprinted
by tight to isoclinal upright folds and by a r gional p neu·a-
tive fo liation (Hodg on and Hamilton, 1989; Hubert, 1990;
Swager, 1997) commonly ascribed to D2 .
D2 accounts for the mo t prominent regional penetrative
fo liation, S2 , parall l to th e structural trend of the d istricts
(Table 1; Fig. 5). S2 fo li atio n i typically subvertical and axial
planar to upright, tight to isoclinal, be lt-paralle l F 2 folds
(e .g. , wager, 1997; H eather, 199 ) . It commonly contains
an elongation lin eation, L 2 , with variable but most com-
monly down-dip plunges (e.g. , Robert, 1990). In most cases,
S2 record horizontal sh ortening aero the di trict with
accompanying subvertical to ubhorizontal elongation in
the S2 plane. Moderate- to high-angle, reverse to reverse-
obliqu e shear zone are common in gold districts (Hodg-
on, 1993). They are products of D2, either as newly formed
structures or a reactivated earlier tructures, such as D 1
thrusts steepened on the limb ofF2 folds (Swager, 1997) . D2
116 ROBA"'RT AND POULSEN
reverse to reverse-oblique shear zones are subparallel to the
regional structural trends and in some cases form conjugate
pairs, recording deformation consistent with D 2 (e.g.,
Robert, 1990) , which can be regarded as an increment of
thick-skinned shortening across the greenstone belt.
D3 is characterized by steeply plunging asymmetric folds
and vertical axial planar crenulation cleavages overprinting
S2 and D 2 shear zones. It may involve strike-slip reactivation
of preexisting shear zones and, in some cases, formation of
new strike-slip shear zones (Table 1; Hodgson and Hamilton,
1989; Hubert, 1990; Robert, 1990; Poulsen et al., 1996; Swa-
ger, 1997). En echelon folds, present in the Kalgoorlie-Kam-
balda area, have also been ascribed to D 3 (Swager, 1997). In
some districts, D3 structures are best developed in the vicin-
ity of first-order shear zones, and present only in specific
areas, reflecting a domainal distribution (Fig. 5). This third
increment of deformation generally records an episode of
late transcurrent deformation, resulting largely in strike-slip
reactivation of preexisting major shear zones (Card, 1992).
In several districts, subsequent deformation increments
have also been documented, involving development of dis-
crete faults and kink bands oblique to the structural trend
of the district, as well as further strike-slip reactivation of
earlier structures (McRitchie, 1971; Hubert, 1990; Swager,
1997; Heather, 1998). These features commonly have little
effect on the geometry and the structure of the gold dis-
tricts and are not considered further here.
In summary, it appears that most gold districts have expe-
rienced a similar structural evolution (Table 1) , involving
early, thin-skinned low-angle thrusting (D 1), followed by
thick-skinned shortening (D 2 ), evolving into transcurrent
deformation (D 3 ). In some districts at least, major D 1 struc-
tures lie at a moderate to high angle to the regional D 2
structural trend, indicating significant differences in direc-
tions of crustal shortening between D 1 and D 2 (e.g. ,
Poulsen et al. , 1996; Swager, 1997).
High-angle shear zones are an integral structural compo-
nent of gold districts. They can be grouped into crustal-scale
first-order structures, and smaller higher-order shear zones,
which form three-dimensional arrays of intersecting and
splaying structures (e.g., Eisenlohr et al. , 1989; McCuaig and
Kerrich, 1998; Nguyen et al. , 1998). First-order crustal-scale
shear zones attain lengths of hundreds of kilometers and
are up to a kilometer wide. They are typically parallel to the
structural grain of the district. They are probably the
longest-lived structures and have undergone complex defor-
mation histories (e.g., Hodgson and Hamilton, 1989). Sec-
ond-order shear zones extend for a few to several tens of
kilometers and reach widths of several tens of meters,
whereas the more abundant third-order shear zones are less
than a few kilometers long and up to several meters wide.
Second-order shear zones are generally subparallel to the
structural grain of the districts and third-order shear zones
are more typically oblique (in strike or dip).
The internal structure of first- and second-order shear
zones is dominated by an intense foliation and variably
developed elongation lineation parallel to the regional
penetrative S2 and L 2 (e.g. , Daigneault and Archambault,
1990; Robert, 1990) . This observation suggests the bulk of
the deformation in these shear zones took place during D 2.
The common overprinting of first- and second-order sh ar
zones by crenulation cleavages and asymmetric folds
reflects their reactivation during D 3 strike-slip deformation.
Third-order shear zones may form conjugate sets of reverse
or strike-slip shear zones (e.g., Robert, 1990; Poulsen et al. ,
1996; Nguyen et al, 1998) , consistent with their formation
during either D 2 or D3 .
Gold deposits
Where gold districts are distributed near first-order shear
zones, it is well established that the majority of the deposits
are actually hosted in higher-order shear structur es
(McCuaig and Kerrich , 1998). This pattern of shear zone
and deposit occurrence is well illustrated in the Val d'Or
and La Ronge districts (Figs. 2 and 4). The reasons for this
distribution of mineralization remain unclear, but the pres-
ence of gold-related alteration and some gold mineral iza-
tion in shear zones of all orders suggest that they were inter-
connected in three dimensions at some stage in the
evolution of the districts.
In a large proportion of gold deposits in greensto ne
belts, ore consists of quartz-carbonate veins with a variable
component of wall-rock sulfides. Single veins to complex
vein networks commonly are found in and adjacent to brit-
tle-ductile to ductile shear zones in a variety of host rocks,
and deposits are vertically extensive (often over 2 km; e.g. ,
Hodgson, 1993). The Sigma-Lamaque deposit at Val d 'Or
(Figs. 6 and 7), the San Antonio deposit at Rice Lake (Fig.
8) , and the deposits of the Star Lake district (Fig. 9) illus-
trate the range of complexity and nature of deposit-scale
....................'ftml••"'''"'''"'"
. . . . . . . . . .. . . .
. . .. . ....
.. .. .. . . ...
...... . ...
. .. . . . . . ...
.. .. . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
.. 1'! ' .
>• 500m ,: :
D
[]
PORPHYRITIC DIORITE
MAFIC FLOWS
; ; ; TONALITE
FELDSPAR PORPHYRY
--
.............
::.~~~-
SHEAR ZON E
QUARTZ-FELDSPAR
D MAFIC VOLCANICLASTIC
ROCKS PORPHYRY ""-1-7 S2 FOLIATION
Ftc. 6. Simplified geological map of the Sigma-Lamaque de posit, Val
d 'Or distri ct. Modifi ed from Robe rt (1990) .
 VEIN FORMAT!ON & DEFORMAT!ON IN GR&"NSTONE Au DEPO IT 117

SIGMA MINE LAMAQUE MAIN MINE

N s NNE SSW

SHEAR ZONE &

FAULT-FILL VEI N

100m
8

200m

A c
FIG. 7. Cross secti ons through diffe rent parts o f th e igma-Lamaque deposit, Val d 'Or d istrict; th e cross sections are
loca ted in Figure 6. Mod ifi ed fro m Robert (1 990 ). A. ectio n th rough th e igma mine. B. ection through th e Lamaque
Main min e. C. ecti on thro ugh th e La maque No. 2 mine.

vein and sh ear zon e networks. Mineralized structures are
d o minan tly m od e ra te- to high-a n gle reve rse to rever e-
o bliqu e sh ear zo n es (Fig. 7) , alth o u gh strik - lip sh ear
zo nes h ost a small number of deposits (Vearncombe e t al. ,
1989; McCuaig and Kerrich , 1998). Quartz-carbo na te vein
gold dep osits are commonly in terpreted to have form ed in
compres io nal e tting , at de pths correspo nding to the brit-
tle-ductil e tran sition in th e crust (Fig . 10; Sibso n e t a l. ,
1988). In som e cases, however, rath e r th a n occ urrin g in
as ociation wi th through-going sh ear zones, mine ralization
i h os ted in fractured compe tent units tha t h ave ac te d as
fluid condui ts (Groves e t al. , 1995). This is the case a t the
Mount Ch a rlo tte d po it in Kalgoo rlie (Rid l y a nd Me n-
gler, 2000) and in part at the an Anton io deposit (Fig. 8) ,
wh ere mine ralizatio n is h os te d in discre te stru ctu res or
stockworks confin ed to compe tent units within differe nti-
118 ROBERT AND POULSEN

sw NE
SAN ANTONIO DEPOSIT
~? ~: : ·: : ·: ::.::: ·. :-

• ~~~j~~~~}
N
I

400m
HARE'S ISLAND FM .
•
N
I

~ SANDST~NE, CONGLOM.
~ (Ttmtskarmng-type)

1777/l
GABBRO SILL
--- LATE FAULT

SHEAR ZONE&
100m

~ (San Antonio Mine Unft) FAULT-FILL VEIN

• SERICITE SCHIST STOCKWORK ZONE

D VOLCANIC UNITS ·············· DIKE

Flc . 8. Geology of th e San Antonio deposit, Ri ce Lake district. Modified from Poulsen e t al. (1996, 2000) . A. Surface
map of the San Anto nio mine area . B. Cross section through the San Antonio deposit; line of section shown in A. C. Geo-
logic plan of level 7.

ated sills. In sedimentary rocks, the gold deposits can also
be hosted in folds, typically in association with reverse struc-
tures (Hodgson , 1993), as illustrated in Figure 10.
There are several structural styles of quartz vein orebod-
ies, including breccias and vein stockworks predominantly
within competent host rocks, continuous laminated quartz
veins in brittle-ductile shear zones, and thin , discontinuous,
highly attenuated veins in ductile shear zones (McCuaig
and Kerrich, 1998). These variations in structural styles of
quartz vein orebodies have been interpreted to represent
different erosion levels of vertically extensive, crustal-scale
"orogenic" systems, in which these different vein styles
formed synchronously (Colvine, 1989; Groves et al. , 1995;
Groves et al. , 1998; McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998). However,
the existence of deposits containing more than one age of
quartz veins within the same district, for example at Val
d 'Or (Robert, 1994) and at Kalgoorlie (Clout et al. , 1990) ,
complicates such an interpretation.
Additional ore styles, also located in or near shear zones,
are present in go ld deposits in greenstone belts. These
include disseminated sulfide rep lacement zones , veinlet
stockwork zones , sulfide-rich veins , and massive sulfide
lenses (e.g., Robert and Poulsen, 1997). Some ofthese ore
styles are unlikely to be related genetically to quartz veins
on the basis of their timing, metal suites, and associa ted
alteration (e.g. , massive sulfide lenses and sulfide-rich
veins). However, some deposits of disseminated-replace-
ment and stockwork veinlet styles have more uncertai ori-
gins. In some cases they have been ascribed to the deeper
parts of orogenic systems (e.g. , Groves et al., 1995) a din
others to totally different genetic types of deposits (Robert
and Poulsen, 1997). These complications and diverg nces
of opinion reflect different interpretations of the timin g of
mineralization relative to its host structure. onethe less,
veins are present in nearly all variations in greenstone gold
deposits , and can be used as structural markers to place
constraints on the timing of ore relative to its host truc-
ture , and to place it in the context of the structural evolu-
tion of its host district.
Veins and Their Analysis
This section examines the characteristics of veins com-
monly found in greenstone gold deposits and provides a
basis fo r their structural analysis. After a review of theoreti-
cal concepts of fracture dilation and vein formation , con-
sideratio n is given to vein classification. This is followe d by
a review of structural and textural ch aracteristics of differ-
ent types of veins and vein arrays, leading to a discussion of
 VEIN FORMATION & DEFORlv!ATION JN GREEN. TONE Au DEPOSITS 119

STAR LAKE
+ +
Section of Drill hole
DISTRICT
N N
Fig. 9c
I
a_,
I I

1 km
SE NW

GOLD DEPOSITS
1- Decade
2- Jolu (Rod)
3- Rush
4- Blindman
Drill hole
5-21 Zone
A 6- Tamar

~ . GRANODIORITE ~ GOLD DEPOSIT MYLONITIC

SHEAR ZONE

[ .] DIORITE / SHEAR ZONE

D' GABBRO _./' DIKE

50 m
D VOLCANIC ROCKS
D GRANITE
c
FIG. 9. Star Lake disu-ict, La Ron ge be lt. M difi ed from Poulsen et al. (l 986b, 2000). A. implified geological map of
the district. B. Geological map of the 21 Zone (Star Lake) deposit. C. Cro ection through the 21 Zone deposit; lin e of
section shown in B.

tructural analysis in gold deposits and di tricts. Although

mineralized veins are emp has ized, much of the material
presented applies equally to barren ve in that overprint
mineralization .
Theoretical concepts of vein formation and analysis SULFIDE
BODY
Veins and fmcttm dilation: The term "vein" is used here in =BRITTLE-
its strict sense to designate the hydrothermal material fill- DUCTILE
ing the pace between separated fracture walls ( .g., Ram- ZONE
VOLCANIC
say and Huber, 1987) . In a number of cases, esp cially his- ROCKS
torically, a di tinction has been made between fis ure veins,
those filling the space between eparated fracture wall ,
a nd replacement veins, those resulting from metasomatic
wall-rock replacement a long fracture without dilation
(e .g., Cooke, 1946; Hodgson, 1989) . Figure llA illustrates BIF GRANITOID SH EAR ZONE

uch a replacement vein, across which there is no dilation FIG. 10. chemati cross-sectional representation of the com mon
and no off et of preexisting markers. Rep lacement vein geo metry a nd structural settin g of qu artz vein network in green tone
are not considered fur th er in thi pap er becau e they do belts. Modified from Poulsen et al. (2000).
120
A Geologic
Markers
c
FIG. 11. Geometric aspects of fracture dilation leading to vein formation, appli cable both to cases of dilation of pre-
existing fractures and of newly formed fractures. A. Replacement vei n developed along a fracture. B. Orthogonal exten-
sion of a fracture . C. Oblique extension of a fracture. D. Oblique extension resulting from shear displacement along a
non-planar fracture. See text for discussion.
not convey any specific structural information, but the
reader is referred to Hodgson ( 1989) for a treatment of this
topic.
From a conceptual point of view, different schemes of
fracture dilation can lead to formation of veins (Fig.
liB- D). Dilation can take place by orthogonal opening of
the fracture walls, as marked by the lack of shear displace-
ment of wall-rock markers and the alignment of mineral
fibers perpendicular to the fracture walls (Fig. liB). Dila-
tion can also take place by oblique opening, indicated
both by the offset of the markers and by oblique alignment
of fibrous minerals (Fig. li C). An identical offset of wall-
rock markers could result from an appropriate amount of
shear displacement along the fracture followed by orthog-
onal opening. In such a case, however, fibrous minerals
would be found to be perpendicular to the vein as in Fig-
ure liB. Shear displacement along a planar fracture does
not normally lead to its dilation (Fig. liD). However, it is
well known that dilation offractures with this movement is
theoretically possible where there are favorably oriented
curves or jogs. In geometric terms, dilation in such a jog is
actually a special case of oblique extension with only a
small angle between the vein and the direction of opening
(Fig. liD).
The dilation schemes shown in Figure 11 apply equally to
cases where a preexisting fracture, even a lithologic contact
or a foliation plane, has been subsequently dilated, and to
cases where both the formation and dilation of a fracture
are part of a continuous process. Geologists have tradition-
ally dealt with the interpretations of veins formed by dila-
tion of fractures with two complementary approaches, dis-
ROBERT AND POULSEN
ORTHOGONAL
EXTENSION
8
Vein, with
mineral fibers
OBLIQUE
EXTENSION
I
cussed in the next two sections. One involves a dynamic
analysis, linking the dilation of fractures to the causative
stresses that create them (e.g., Moritz and Crocket, 1990;
Cox, 1995; Nguyen et al, 1998; Ridley and Mengler, 2000).
The other approach, adopted in this paper, considers the
dilation of veins as a contribution to the overall strain in the
host rocks (e.g., Ramsay, 1967; Robert and Brown, 1986;
Dube eta!., 1989; Tourigny et al., 1989; Robert et al., 1994).
The predictive capacity of dynamic analysis of veins is well
illustrated by the contributions of Cox et al. (2001) and ib-
son (2001) in this volume. In this particular paper, however,
we emphasize the relationsh ips between veins and strai , as
well as stress. One advantage of this approach to green-
stone gold deposits is that they occur in environm nts
where, in addition to veins, one commonly encounters
many other manifestations of strain in rocks including foli-
ation, lineation, shear zones, fo lds, and boudinaged com-
petent units. Linking veins to such structures provides a
broader framework for their analysis.
Relationships between rock fracturing, stress axes, fluid pressure,
and vein formation: In numerous cases, the developme t of
fractures, tl1eir opening, and their filling (to form veins) can
be demonstrated to be part of a continuous process. T is is
well established in the case of extensional fiber veins (Ram-
say and Huber, 1987) , for laminated veins associated vith
small shear fractures (Labaume et al., 1991; Petit eta!., 1999;
Koehn and Passchier, 2000), and for a number of auriferous
veins (e.g., Boullier and Robert, 1992) . Principles governing
rock fracturing, therefore, provide an appropriate frame-
work for discussing fracture and vein formation, their rela-
tionship to stress axes, and the important role of fluid pres-
 VEIN FORMATION & DEFORllt/ATION IN GREENSTONE Au DEPOSITS
sure. Only key concepts are reviewed here, becau e the
topic is covered more extensively in other chapters of this
volume (Cox et al., 2001; Sibson, 2001). The reader can also
refer to the reviews of Cox eta!. ( 1987), Kerrich ( 1989) , and
Sib on (1990a) , among other .
The Mohr-Coulomb theory of rock failure predicts the
formation of exten ional, ex ten ional-shear, and shear
fracture in meaningful directions relative to stress axes,
depending on the magnitudes of tres and fluid pressure
(Fig. 12A). Becau e it acts equally in all directions, fluid
pressure (P r) counteracts normal stresses such that the
effective normal stress acting on a plane is defined as CJ11 '
= CJ11 - Pr. Fracturing of a rock mass is governed by the
effective principal stresses, defined as CJ1 2 3' = CJ1 2 3 - Pr
(Fig. 12A). ' ' ' '
Shear fractures develop at -30° to CJ1 (i.e. , along planes
offering minimal shear resistance; Fig. 12B) when the accu-
mulating hear stre s acting on a plane ('r) exceeds the
shear re istance of the rock, at a minimum value of differ-
ential stre s. Condition for hear fracturing are expressed
by the equations -r ~ C + J1C511 ' and CJ1' - CJ3' > -6T (where C
=cohesive strength, J1 = coefficient of friction, and T = ten-
ile strength of the rock; see Sibson, 1990a). An increase in
fluid pressure reduces the effective normal stress acting on
the plane, but not the shear tress, thereby facilitating shear
fracturing of the rock. Departure from the predicted ori-
entations of shear fractures are expected in case where the
host rock has a marked layer anisotropy, such as bedding or
penetrative foliation , depending on the orientation of the
layer relative to the principal stress axes (Peacock and
Sanderson, 1992).
Extensional fractures typically develop parallel to CJ1 (Fig.
12B when CJ3 ' equals or exceeds the tensile str ngth of the
rock. This situation is only possible under conditions oflow
differential stres , where CJ3' ~ -T and CJ/- CJ3' ~ 4T. Exten-
sional fracturing can, thus, only occur at negative values of
CJ3' (Fig. 12A), a condition only possible through elevated
fluid pressur in the inferred compressional environments
of formation of green tone gold deposits (see Sib on eta!.,
1988; Me uaig and Kerrich , 1998). Extensional fai lure by
hydraulic fracturing takes place when P r ~ CJ3 + T.
Extensional-shear fractures are hybrid between exten-
ional and shear fractures. They develop at an angle of less
than 30° to CJ1 (Fig. 12B), at negative values of CJ3 ' (Fig.
12A), and under the following conditions of differential
stress (Sibson, 1990a): 4T ~ ( CJ/- CJ3') ~ -6T.
Ba ed on the e three modes of fracturing, one can pre-
dict the formation of three corre ponding types of veins
(Fig. 12C). These vei n s are here designated extensional,
oblique-extension, and fault-fill vein , and can be catego-
rized by comparing the direction of their inferred opening
vectors to the orientation of their walls (Fig. 12C). The
re ult is a continuous spectrum in which opening or dis-
placement vectors range from perpendicular to subparallel
to the vein walls (Fig. 12C). By definition, the opening vec-
tor of extensional veins is perpendicular to the walls of the
veins, whereas in the case of oblique-extension veins, the
opening vector is oblique to the walls. In shear veins, the
121
opening vector corresponds to the relative di placement of
the walls and i subparallel to the vein. A number of studies
of gold-qu artz vein depo its in deformed terranes have
shown the existence of veins that correspond to these three
different types (e.g., Robert, 1990; Cox, 1995; guyen eta!.,
1998). The orientations of the ve ins produced will be
highly dependent on the orientation of the principal tress
axes and on the prevailing stress field. Extensional veins are
predicted to be ubhorizontal in compressional stress field
(Fig. 12C) , but ubvertical in transcurrent and extensional
regimes (e.g., Sibson, 1990a). Similarly, fault-fill veins are
predicted to form at dips of -30° in compre sional stress
regime , -60 o in extensional regimes, and subvertical in
transcurrent regimes.
Gold-quartz veins in green tone belts are interpreted to
have formed dominantly under compressional regimes,
with a significant number of fault-fill vein associated with
high-angle reverse structures (e.g. , McCuaig and Kerrich ,
1998). Under such condition s, subhorizon tal exten ional
veins likely form as hydraulic fractures at mid-crustal levels
on ly where fluid pressure equals or slig htly exceeds litho-
static pressures, represented by CJ3 in this case (Etheridge,
1983; Sibson eta!., 1988; Cox eta!., 2001). The association
of fault-fill veins with high-angle reverse shear zone departs
from their predicted shall ow dips in compressional
regimes. This can be explained by the fact that, under con-
ditions of high fluid pressures, preexisting high-angle struc-
tures and lithologic contacts are reactivated preferentially
to the formation of new appropriately oriented, low-angle
reverse faults (Sibson eta!. , 1988). Finally, under lithostatic
fluid pre ure and very low differential stresses, orthogonal
dilation of planes of weakness other than tho e oriented
perpendicular to CJ3 is theoretically possible, including sub-
vertical foliation in high-angl shear zones, a proposed by
Kerrich and Allison (1978), and Kerrich (1989).
Consideration of veins as a component of bulh strain: Another
approach to analysis of veins in greenstone terranes is to
con ider that the development of exten ional, oblique-
extension, and fault-fill veins constitutes one or more incre-
ments of bulk train in a rock mass and, therefore, can be
analyzed with reference to external axes of strain (Fig. 13A;
e.g., Ramsay, 1982).
Thi approach allows for consideration of the dilation of
preexisting fractures, as well a of new fractures formed by
failure while the bulk train accumulated, and it require a
less genetic terminology for de cribing tl1e veins, as used in
Figure 12C. It also allows for a com pari on of axe of bulk
strain indicated by the veins with tho e indicated by other
manifestations of strain in their host rocks, such as folia-
tion, elongation lineations, shear zones, folds, and boudi-
naged competent units. This approach provides a useful
framework for the interpretation of the evolution, timing,
and possible controls of the veins, as well as for con idering
the effect of superimposed deformation.
The opening of veins of diver e orientation can re ult in
net dilation of the host rock in one or more directions (Fig.
13A). Unless counterbalanced by metasomatic volume loss
122 ROBERT AND POULSEN

Shear fracturing
(faulting)

Extensional shear

f'actu';\
effect of increasing

'":L;n\'- :-:-:-:-:-:-
A T

I
0'3 cr3
+ . ..
+ ..

cr1-..[J2]
I
.... . . . . . . . . .
•

•
•

. . . . ...
0

•
•

0
0

• • • •

• • •
• • •

• • • •
0
.

•
•
cr;-[JJ]B ..
.
:-:-
• •
~
-~· . -: .

• •
-

••
·

Extensional Extensional-shear Shear fracturing

8 fracturing fracturing (faulting)

dX dX dX

+ + +

c Extension
vein
Oblique-extension
vein
Fault-fill
vein

FIG. 12. Relationships between stress and fluid pressure conditions, rocks fracturing , and vein formation. A. Mohr
representation ofsu·ess state conditions required for extensional, oblique-extension, and shear fracturing of intact rocks,
and the effects of fluid pressure on effective stresses and fracturing (adapted from Sibson, 1990). The inset shows the
angu lar relationships between the effective principal stress axes (a/, a 3'), effective normal stress (an') , and shear su·ess
( r) . B. Illusu·ation of the angular relationships of the three types of rock fractures and the principal stress directions. C.
Illustration of three types of veins expected to result from formation and opening of fractures in intact rocks, and of the
axes of incremental strain represented by the formation of such veins.
 li7c.I N FORMATION & DEFORMATIO JN GREENST01 E Att DEPO I T. 123

dX
dX

~=0 ~-o
dZ
dZ
Oblique-
extension
vein

Extension
vein

Open ing
vector

A vein B Alteration

FIG. 13. A . lsome u-ic block di agram illusu-alin g h w d ilalio n of ex ten ion, oblique-exte nsion , and fau lt-fi ll ve ins migh t
co ntribute to the bu lk train of a rock ma . As ill usu·ated, vein di latio n contributes to exte nsion o n ly in th e dX d irec-
tio n but i compe nsated by unid irection al volu me loss alo ng dZ. B. Isom etric block di agram of an idea l me h of fault-fi ll,
o bli qu e-exte nsion , and exte nsio n veins. Th e shea r sense on the shea r zo nes and the ope ni ng vectors in th e veins are
compatible with a ingle increment of plan e, coaxia l u-ain with no net volum e cha nge.

in th e surrounding rock, this might re ult in a ne t volum e Vein , h oweve r, may be o nly o ne manife tation of d iscon-
increa e fo r th e bulk rock (Ramsay and Wood, 1973). For tinuous strain in th e bu lk rock, and may be accompani ed
exampl e , th e Sig m a de p osit (Fi g. 7) co n tain s a pp roxi- by the d eve lo pm e nt of sh ear zones (Fig. 13B) wh ich ,
mately 100 sig nifi cant ubhorizontal quartz ve in , on aver- de pending o n o rien tation , need not h ave dila ted (H odg-
age 25 em thick, plus mo re abundant bu t less well-recorded o n , 1989) . Such a me h of sh ear zo ne ca n, ind ep endent
thinner veins, di tributed over a vertical interval of 2,000 m
(Ro be rt a nd Brown , 1986; M. Crevie r, pe rs. commun .,
2000 ). T he ve ins are, thus, estimated to con tribute to aver-
tical dila tio n of th e ro k mas o n the order of 1 to 2 p e r-
dX
ce nt, even th o ugh th ey are di co n tinu o usly di tribu te d .
Neve rth eless, conside ratio ns of volum e cha nge asid e , th e Non-dilating fracture
vein-related dil ation involved in many gold depo its i small (may shear)
compared to that indicated by observatio n of other fea tures
in surrounding rocks. Shap fabrics in deform ed co nglom-
erate o r pillow basalt in gree nsto n e be lts commo nly indi-
cate shortening or exte nsio n exceeding 100 percent. Thi i
o n e of th e rea o ns wh y di la tio n of ve ins can be trea te d
effectively a an incremen t of train (Etheridge et aL, 1984).
Som e of the preexisting fracture and planes of weakn ess
in a d forming rock mass, such as lith o logic co ntacts and
foliatio n plan e , are m ore favorab ly oriented for dilation
th a n othe rs. Fo r a given two-dime nsio nal strain (Fig. 14) ,
fractures with poles in the fie ld of predicted elongation are
ex pected to dil a te , unlike those with p oles in the fi eld of
sho rtening. For fractures with pole in the h o rtening sec-
to r, dilation is o nly po ible at favora bly o riented bend or
j ogs a lo n g th e fractu re pla n e if it is activa ted as ash ar,
FIELD OF SHORTENING FIELD OF ELONGATION
accord ing to th e case illustrated in Figure 11D. The three- - Fractures dilate - Fractures may shear
dimensional disu-ibution of fracture orie nta tio ns favorable - Competent layers buckle - Competent layers boudinage
fo r d ila tio n is d eterm ined by the shape of the tra in ellip-
FIG. 14. Su-ain ellipse showin g the expec ted sectors of length e nin g and
soid and is gove rn ed by th e arne prin ciple that apply to sho rte ni ng d uri ng incre me ntal horizon tal sho rten ing and ve rtical elon ga-
the develo pme n t of bo udin and fo lds during progressive tio n, as well a the orie nta tio n o f preexisting fractures for which dilation is
deformation (Flin n, 1962; Chapter 4 in Ramsay, 1967) . expected .
124 ROBERT AND POULSEN
of contributions from vein dilation, contribute discontinu-
ously to bulk strain (Ramsay and Huber, 1987), as can other
more familiar and more continuous geological features like
penetrative rock foliation and lineation.
There are several advantages to analyzing veins in terms
of incremental strain axes in greenstone belts, because sev-
eral factors complicate the reconstruction of their causative
stresses. The stress approach is only viable where there has
been very limited post-vein strain and tilting, something not
always possible to ascertain in multiply deformed terranes
such as greenstone belts. Layer anisotropy, omnipresent in
gold districts and deposits, imparts significant refraction of
strain axes across layers of conU"asting competencies (e.g.,
Treagus, 1983; Hodgson, 1989). This effect will result, for
example, in significant changes in orientation of exten-
sional veins across different layers (Fig. 15), which poses a
significant challenge to the reconstruction of external
stress axes responsible for vein formation. Finally, the strain
approach allows for the analysis of veins formed by dilation
of preexisting fractures, whose orientation may bear no
genetic relationships to the stress field at the time of vein
formation (Ramsay, 1967).
Classification of Veins
A classification scheme for veins and vein arrays provides
a useful framework for their proper identification, for
assessment of their structural significance, and for struc-
tural analysis. In the context of greenstone gold deposits,
veins have been classified on the basis of either the nature
of their host fracture (e.g., McKinstry, 1948; Ramsay, 1967;
Hodgson, 1989; Poulsen and Robert, 1989; Cox, 1991) or
of their internal structure and texture (e.g., Hodgson,
1989;Jebrak, 1992; Vearncombe, 1993). The internal struc-
ture and texture of the veins generally reflects the nature of
their host fracture or structure (e.g., shear versus exten-
sional fractures) and the mechanisms responsible for their
dilation.
The practical classification of veins adopted here (Table
2) is based on the host structure, geometry, and internal
features of the veins, all aspects that are generally observ-
able in the field. It is a hybrid classification in the sense that
it considers both individual veins and sets of intimately asso-
ciated veins, such as vein arrays and stockworks. Building
on the classifications of Hodgson (1989), Poulsen and
Robert (1989), Robert (1990), Sibson (1990a), and Cox
(1991), veins and vein groups are distinguished in this
paper as fault-fill veins, extensional (and oblique-exten-
sion) veins, extensional vein arrays, vein stockworks, and
breccia veins (Table 2).
Fault-fill veins, as their name indicates, typically occupy
faults and the central parts of shear zones (Fig. 12C), where
they may be parallel or slightly oblique to their host struc-
ture (Fig. 16; Hodgson , 1989). The term fault-fill vein is
preferred over shear vein because it is commonly unclear if
these veins actually formed as a result of movement along a
shear fracture (Fig. 11D) , or as a result of extensional open-
ing of preexisting shear fractures or foliation planes (Ker-
rich, 1989; Cox, 1991) . Extensional veins occur as planar
FIG. 15. Refractio n of extens ional ve ins across the contact betwee n a
feldspar porphyry dike (left) and folded banded iron form ation (right).
Note the difference in orientation of the opening vectors (white arrows)
between the two rock types. Section view, Victory mine, Western Austra li a.
veins in low-strain rocks outside shear zones especially in
competent units, as arrays of en echelon sigmoidal or pla-
nar veins within shear zones where they commonly fri ge
fault-fill veins, or as arrays of stacked planar veins in co m-
petent layers. Extensional veins typically lie at a high angle
to both local foliation and lineation (Fig. 16). Oblique-
extension veins are grouped with extensional veins in this
paper, in the light of close similarities in their internal fea-
tures and formation mechanisms. Vein stockworks consist
of multiple three-dimensional sets of veins, most typically of
extensional or oblique-extension types, and are best devel-
oped in competent lithologic units. Breccia veins (breccias
with a hydrothermal matrix) are commonly associated with
faults and shear zones, where they cut competent litho! gic
units. Intense stockwork development can also lead to
development of breccia zones. The setting, geometric
arrangements, internal features, and formation of thes dif-
ferent types of veins are examined in detail in the following
sections.
Fault-fill veins
Fault-fill veins are by far the most common type in gold
deposits and are the source of most of the vein-type ore
extracted from these deposits. Fault-fill veins are cha rac-
terized by the presence of laminated quartz, of slicken-
sides and slickenlines, and of foliated wall-rock slivers.
They form elongate lenses within their host structures
and, thus, define oreshoots with plunges corresponding
to their long axes. Fault-fill veins are commonly hosted by
brittle-ductile to ductile shear zones, and the reader is
referred to Ramsay (1980a), Poulsen ( 1986), Bur nail
(1989), and Hanmer and Passchier (1991) for reviews of
the geometry, internal characteristics, and kinematic
interpretation of such structures.
 VEIN FORMATION & DEFORMA TION IN GREENSTONE Au DEPOSiTS 125

TABLE 2. Classifi catio n a nd Main Cha racteristics of Diffe re nt Types of Veins and Ve in Arrays
Ve in type lme rna l features tructu ral site Geome try
Fault-fill ve in Lamin ated structure Shea r zone or fault, especially Para ll el o r slightly oblique
Fo li ated wall-rock sliver at be nds and dilati onalj ogs to host stru cture
Slip surfaces Fold limbs, thrusts Le nticular veins commo n
Fi bers at low angle to vein walls
Extensio nal ve in Ime rnal laye rin g Ou ts ide shear zones Planar veins at moderate
(o blique- Ope n-space fillin g AC j o in ts in fo lds angle LO shear zon e
extensio n ve in ) Min e ra l fibers at high (modera te) At high (modera te) angles Pe rpendicular (oblique)
a ngle to vein walls to compe te nt uni ts to fo ld hinge
Roc k b•·idges
Ma sive quartz
Ex te nsional Inte rn al layering: multipl e hea r zone En ec helo n pla nar to
ve in array openin gs Compe tent layers sigm oidal veins
Stacked plan ar veins
At a high angle to foli atio n
o r compete nt laye r
Vein stockwo rk Two or more oblique to No n- pecific but comm on at Tabular to ciga r- ·haped
orthogona l ve in sets o f vein inte1 ectio n zones
exte nsio nal o r oblique Prefe rentially develo ped in
ex tensio n veins co mpe temlitho logic uni ts
Breccia tex tu re deve loped in
inte nse stockworks
Breccia ve in :
I . Jigsaw puzzle l. Angular wa ll-roc k cl asts, no I. Al o ng faul ts Parall el to host structure
(im p losio n ) ro tatio n, hydro th e rm al ma trix
breccia
2. Fault breccia 2. Ve in and wall-rock clasts with 2. Fault o r hear zo ne;
rotati on and abra ion, co mpo ne n t o f fault-fill ve in
hydrothenn al mat•·ix

/
EXTENSION
VEIN

F IG. 16. Comm o n geome tric arrange me nts of fa ult-fill and exte nsional ve in in hea r zo nes, a nd th e ir relati onship to
in cre mental axes of sho rtenin g (dZ) a nd elongati on (dX ). A. Fault-fill veins in th e ce ntral part o f a reve rse shea r zone
showing conflictin g crosscutting relati onships with planar extensio nal veins ex te nding outside th e shea r zo ne . B. Array
of e n echelon sigmo idal ex te nsio nal ve ins within shear zones. C. Arrays of stac ked pl anar ex te nsional veins within shea r
zo nes; tJ1 ese arrays ca n also d eve lop in compete nt layers such a dikes.
126 ROBERT AND POULSEN

Geometric arrangements: Most fault-fill veins form mineral-
ized lenticular bodies in discrete faults or, more commonly,
in the central parts of shear zones. Several fault-fill veins,
separated by barren segments, may occur along strike or
down dip within a single structure (Fig. 16A). Within shear
zones, fault-fill veins are either parallel or at low angles to
the shear zone boundaries, respectively distinguished as
central and oblique types by Hodgson (1989); they are also
at a low angle to the shear zone foliation. Fault-fill veins can
also be associated with folds (in dilationaljogs along limb-
thrusts crossing bedding and along bedding on fold limbs,
corresponding to neck and leg reefs, respectively; Hodg-
son, 1989), as well as saddle reefs in fold hinges (Hodgson,
1989; Cox eta!, 1991).
A majority of fault-fill veins occur in moderately to
steeply dipping structures (>45 o; Figs. 7-9), as reflected by
their dips in cross section (e.g., Colvine, 1989; Foster, 1989;
Groves et al. , 1995). A relatively small number offault-fill
veins also occur in shallowly to moderately dipping struc-
tures, such as those at Grass Valley, California (Sibson,
1990b), and Victory, Australia (Clark et al. , 1986).
Internal features: Internally, fau lt-fill veins commonly con-
sist oflaminated quartz (Figs. 17 and 18A-C; Hodgson, 1989;
Poulsen and Robert, 1989;Jebrak, 1992). Individual quartz
bands or laminae are commonly separated by slivers of foli-
ated wall rock (Fig. 18B, C) or by millimeter-thick septa likely
derived from the wall rocks. They can also be separated by
slip surfaces enhanced by the presence of hydrothermal min-
erals such as tourmaline, sericite, or chlorite (Fig. 18D, E). In
other cases, the laminated character of the veins is only
defined by subtle differences in the color and texture of
quartz. Individual laminae within fault-fill veins are generally
parallel or subparallel to the vein margins.
Laminated fault-fill veins range from sheeted veinlet
zones, in which the proportion of the wall-rock compon nt
is approximately equal to or greater than that of the vein
component, to book-textured or ribbon-textured vein in
which the vein component dominates (Hodgson, 1989). In a
number of fault-fill veins hosted by shear zones, observed
variations in vein to wall-rock ratio and in vein morphology
define a lateral or vertical zonation (Fig. 16). Fault-fill veins,
near their lateral and vertical terminations, grade into iso-
lated veinlets separated from each other by significant thick-
nesses of wall rock. Such isolated veinlets are relatively com-
mon in barren segments of shear zones between fully
developed fault-fill veins. Moving laterally towards the central
part of the fault-fill veins, individual veinlets increase in abun-
dance and are more closely spaced, defining what can be
regarded as a sheeted vein let zone (Fig. 17). These veinlets
are parallel or subparallel to the foliation in the host shear
zone, and their dimensions are similar to those of individual

LAMINATED SHEETED VEINLET ISOLATED VEINLETS

FAULT-FILL VEIN ZONE

A
LAMINATED
FAULT- FILL VEIN FOLIATION

VEIN LETS
8 50 em

FIG. 17. Characteristics of fau lt-fil l veins in shear zones. A. Schematic representation of lateral zoning in the propor-
tion of vein to wall rock along a shear zone. B. Line drawing, plan view, of a fault-fill vein illustrating how individual vein-
lets amalgamate lO form larger laminated quartz lenses (Sigma mine, Val cl'Or).
 \fEIN FORMAT!O & DEFORMATION IN GREENSTONE Au DEPOSITS 127

FtC. 18. Characteristics of fau lt-fill ve ins. A. Laminated fau lt-fi ll vein, plan view. Internal quartz lamin ae are separated
by dark (tourmalin e-rich ) sem i-continuous to di continuou wa ll-rock se pta (1) and lip urface (2). ome of the indi-
vid ual quartz lam in ae have a breccia texture (3) , whereas others have a massive texture (4) . o te also how so me of the
quartz lam inae have developed by reopen in g of an exi tingve in (4). igma deposit, Val d ' Ot~ plan view. Vein i 1m thick.
B. Laminated fau lt-fill vein containin g u·ongly fo liated slivers of wall rock (da rk) . Pamour deposit, Timmins, down-d ip
view. H ammer for scale. C. Laminated fau lt-fi ll vein. Rod main zone,Jolu deposit, La Ronge, cross section view. Hamm er
fo r scale. D. Laminated fau lt-fi ll vein in which individual quartz lam in ae are separated by discrete slip surface , lined with
fine-grained tounnali ne (1). Note also the igmoidalnantre of the lateral terminations of individual quartz laminae (2) .
igma deposit, Val d'Or, obliq ue view. Wood blocks are -25 em long. Courtesy of the Geological urvey of Ca nada, photo
no. 1999-015 . E. Laminated fault-fill ve in in which indh~dua l quartz laminae are eparated by d iscrete slip surfaces
coated with to urm alin e (1). Note how a subhorizontal extensional vein in the ha ngi ng wall truncate the external part
of the fau lt-fi ll vein (2), to merge with slip surfaces well within the vein. Lu cie n Beli veau deposit, Val d'Or, cross sec tio n
view. H ammer at bottom right for scale . F. Stepped quartz and tourma lin e fiber ( licken lin e ) along a lip urface within
a fa ult-fi ll ve in, clearly indicating that mineral precipitation accompan ied reverse sli p a lo ng th e fau lt-fi ll ve in. Lucie n
Beliveau depo it, Val d'Or. Reprinted with permission of Economic Geology; Rob n , 1996, fig. 3. G. Fault breccia on th e
margin of a laminated fau lt-fill vein. The breccia cons ists of angu lar clasts of altered wa ll rocks (dark) in a hydroth e rmal
matrix of quartz (whi te) . Paramaque deposit, Val d'Or, Plan view. cale bar in centim eters.
128 ROBERT AND POULSEN

laminae comprising fault-fill veins. The central parts of fault-

fill veins are dominated by quartz laminae with subordinate
proportions of wall-rock slivers, which commonly become
thoroughly altered and completely replaced by hydrother-
mal minerals (e.g., Robert and Brown, 1986). It is important,
ELONGATION/
in a drilling program, to recognize whether such lateral zon- MINERAL
ing is present in fault-fill veins because relatively abundant LIN EATION
foliation-parallel veinlets may indicate the off-hole proximity
of thicker fault-fill veins. The central or thicker parts of fault-
fill veins can commonly result from the merging and juxta-
position of numerous quartz veinlets (Fig. 17B) due either to
reopening of existing veins (Fig. 18A), or to the formation of
new veinlets immediately adjacent to or overlapping with
existing ones. Accordingly, the incorporation of wall-rock
slivers within the veins is generally considered to be a natural
consequence of their incremental growth (e.g., Robert and
Brown, 1986; Moritz and Crocket, 1990).
Striated fault surfaces, or slickensides, are also commonly
observed along wall-rock slivers or along the interfaces
between individual quartz laminae within fault-fill veins (Fig.
18F; Hodgson, 1989). In some cases, hydrothermal minerals STRIAT IONS ON
SLIP SURFACE
such as quartz, tourmaline, or calcite define the striae, or
slickenlines. Such striae are termed slickenfibers and they
clearly indicate that vein development was accompanied by
slip along the veins. In some other instances, steps defined by
the slickenfibers further indicate the sense of movement
(Fig. 18F). Such vein structures are exactly tl1ose expected to
form in fault-fill veins as defined above. Finally, in other rela- FIG. 19. Schematic representation of the geometric relation ships
tively rare instances, dilational jogs are also observed along among structural elements of shear zones, the veins they contain, and the
fault-fill veins, consistent with reverse movements (fig. 16e in corresponding incremental strain axes. Lineations and su·iations on slip
Robert, 1990; fig. 3c in Nguyen eta!., 1998). Such dilational surfaces within fault-fill veins are subparallel to the movement direction
jogs not only indicate that vein development is accompanied (white arrow); long axes of fault-fill veins and lines of intersecti o n of
extensional veins are perpend icu lar to the movement direction. Sec text
by slip, but they also indicate the sense of movement. It is not for discussion. Adapted from Poulsen (1986).
clear at present if such dilational jogs along fault-fill veins are
truly rare features, or if tl1ey are common but not recognized
because they occur at scales exceeding those of vein expo- cases foliated) and vein material, enclosed in a hydrothermal
sures in outcrops or within stopes. matrix dominated by quartz (Fig. 18G). The existence of
Where present within laminated fault-fill veins, slicken- fault breccia within fault-fill veins indicates active slip during
lines or slickenfibers commonly show consistent rakes within mineralization. It further indicates seismic slip during vein
single veins or sets of veins within a deposit (e.g., Robert and formation, in contrast to the more ductile flow commonly
Brown, 1986). Furthermore, where complete datasets exist, recorded in the host shear zone (e.g., Robert eta!., 1995) .
slickenlines indicate the same direction of movement as the
elongation lineation in the host shear zone (e.g., Robert, Dilation mechanisms: Several detailed studies provide good
1990; Nguyen eta!., 1998). Where stepped slickenfibers or evidence for formation of the fault-fill veins during active
dilational jogs are observed, they indicate the same sense of slip along their host structure, based on structural features
movement as that deduced for the host shear zones (Fig. 19). described above (e.g., Robert and Brown, 1986; Dube e ta!.,
There seems to be good compatibility in direction and sense 1989; Nguyen eta!., 1998). It is also well documented that
of shear between discrete slip events within the veins and a majority of these veins have formed during active reverse
ductile flow in the host shear zone, indicating that both are slip (e.g., Vearncombe et al., 1989; Hodgson, 1993;
part of tl1e same progressive deformation event (e.g., Robert McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998). However, the mechanisms for
and Brown, 1986; Nguyen eta!., 1998). However, such com- dilation and opening of these veins are not firmly estab-
patibility is not expected in cases where slickenlines are pro- lished. Two mechanisms are most commonly proposed to
duced during postore reactivation of fault-fill veins and their explain the formation offault-fill veins. In the first, dilation
host shear zones. occurs at releasing bends and jogs at a low angle to a shear
Some fault-fill veins, or individual laminae within them, fracture or fault during slip (Fig. liD; McKinstry, 1948; Sib-
consist largely offault breccia and cataclasite (e.g., Nguyen et son, 1990a). This process may be recorded by crack-seal
a!., 1998). These breccias are composed of rotated angular textures parallel to the jog and inclusion trails and mineral
clasts of variable sizes, made up of altered wall rocks (in some fibers parallel to the slip direction (Ramsay and Huber,
 VeiN FORMA T!ON & DEFORMA T!ON IN CREE STONE Au DJ:.J>OS!T.
1983; Labaume eta!, 1991; Koehn and Passchier, 2000).
The econd mechanism, designated crack-seal-slip, involves
dilation re ulting from repeated episodes of orthogonal or
oblique extension of a shear fracture, alternating with
episodes of slip along the fracture Qebrak, 1992; Petit e t al. ,
1999). The presence ofdilationaljogs (fig. 3c in guyen et
a!., 1998) and of fo liation-paralle l ve ins with orthogonal
mineral fibers (fig. 8 in Robert and Brown, 1986) indicates
that both mechanisms can operate to form fault-fill veins.
Other, less com m on ly invoked dilation mechanisms are
reviewed in Hodgson (1989).
Associated ore shoots: Ore shoots are common characteris-
tic of fau lt-fill veins in lode gold depo its in shear zones,
and determination of their plunge i a daily concern of
exp loration and mine geo logists. Ore shoots can be
defined by the elongate shape of fault-fill ve in s, by the
increased grade and/ or vein thickness at shear zone bends
or vein and shear zone intersections (Fig. 19), and by inter-
section of shear zones with ch emically (e.g. , banded iron
formation) or rheologically (e.g., competent dike) favor-
able layers (Poulsen and Robert, 1989). The plunges of ore
shoots in fault-fill veins are generally predictable, because
they bear pecific geometric relationships to some struc-
tural elements of the vein , ho t hear zone, or entire vein
network. Ore shoots at splays and shear zone intersections
arc perpendicular to the movement direction, which is also
parallel to the intersection of extensional veins with the
sh ear zones (Fig. 19). Ore hoots re ulting from repeated
slip at dilational bends or jogs also tend to be perpendicu-
lar to the movement direction and their orientation is
clearly related to shear zone kinematic . Ore shoots can
also be parallel to the slip direction along the host hear
zone , as pointed out by Vearncombe eta!. (1989), particu-
la rly if the veins are significantly overprinted by strain dur-
ing continued, postdepositional shear movement.
Other types of ore shoots are controlled by the orienta-
tion of the hear zones relative to intersected layers rather
than by kinematics (Poulsen and Robert, 1989). This is the
case of ore shoots at the inter ection between the shear
zones and chemically or rheologically favorable layers: the
plunge of the resulting ore sh oots is parallel to the lin e of
inter ection. In addition , shear zones are commonly
deflected where they crosscut contrasting lith ologies; the
resulting bends and jogs may become the site of ore shoots
who e plunge wi ll again be parallel to that of the intersec-
tion between the shear zone and the lithologic contacts.
Extensional veins and vein arrays
Extensional and oblique-extension veins, singly or in
arrays, are relatively common in gold deposits, where they
preferentially, but not exclusively, develop in competent
rocks. In a large number of deposits, they are auriferous
and can be shown to be of the same age as the more signif-
icant fault-fill veins (see below). However, extensional veins
have limi ted economic significance: they form orebodies
only in rare case where their grades and abundance justify
bulk mining or where their grades and dimensions justify
129
elective mining, such as at the Sigma-Lamaque deposit at
Val d 'Or (Robert and Brown, 1986). In other deposits,
extensional veins overprint the ore and may be barren or
mineralized (Hodg on, 1989). Extensional veins an occur
within brittle-ductile shear zones, where they form arrays of
sigmoidal or planar ve in s (Fig. 16B, C) and where they
commonly f1inge fault-fill veins (see below). They also com-
monly occur in low-strain rock outside shear zones, where
they are planar and more ex ten ive (Fig. 16A). Finally,
ex tensional veins also occur as arrays of stacked planar
veins in extended competent layer (Fig . 15 and 16C) and
in a ociation with folds (Hodgson, 1989). Oblique-exten-
sion veins are generally planar and occur as link between
extensional or fault-fill veins or as conjugate sets in compe-
tent layers (see below).
Geometric arrangements: Exten ional veins can occur in
three main geometric settings and arrangements relative to
shear zones (Table 2; Hodg on, 1989). They can occur as
array of en echelon ve in s, planar or sigmoidal in shape
(Figs. 15B and 20A, B), which define brittle-ductile shear
zones in their own right, even in ab ence of well-developed
foliation and lin eation (Beach, 1975; Rickard and Rixon,
1983; Ramsay and Huber, 1987). In such arrays, the indi-
vidual veins are generally small, less than 10 em thick, and
lie at a high angle to the foliation and lineation in the host
shear zone if present (Figs. 16B). En echelo n arrays of sig-
moidal extensional vei ns can occ ur as the si ngle vein type
within the shear zone (Fig. 20B). They can also fringe fau lt-
fill vein pre ent in the sh ear zone (fig. 7i in Burrows eta!. ,
1989; Moritz and Crocket, 1990; fig. 7 in Cox eta!. , 1995) ,
lead in g to formation of so-called centipede veins (Hodg-
son, 1989). The sigmoid al shapes a nd the orientation of
vein tip with re pect to array boundaries are indicative of
the sense of shear in this case (Fig. 16B; Beach, 1975; Ram-
say and Huber, 1983).
Extensional veins al o form arrays of stacked planar veins
in competent layers such as dikes (Fig. 15) , preexisting
veins, altered portions of sh ear zones, or specific lithologic
units (Hodgson, 1989). The e veins, common ly termed lad-
der veins (Hodgson , 1989), are typically short and occur at
high angles to the host layer and to tl1e foliation if present
(Figs. 15, 16C, and 20C), reflecting the predicted refraction
of the strain axes within the competent layer (Treagus,
1983). Such arrays of stacked planar veins record extension
of the layer.
Extensional veins may occur a isolated tabu lar vein
extending away from shear zones and fault-fill veins in le s
deformed rocks (Figs. 16A and 20D). The e are not com-
monplace but are well developed in a few districts around
the world, for example at Val d 'Or (Robert, 1990) and Tim-
mins (M01itz and Crocke t, 1990). These tabular veins range
in thickness from a few centimeters up to a few meters, and
they extend for several tens to a few hundreds of meters
away from sh ear zones and fault-fill veins (Fig. 20D). For
example, tl1e no. 1 extensional vein of the Donalda deposit,
in the Noranda disu·ict in the Abitibi belt, covers an area in
exces of 0.5 km 2 (Riverin eta!., 1990).
130 ROBERT AND POULSn'N

FIG. 20. Characteristics of extensional veins and vein arrays . A. Sigmoidal extension veins surrounded by bleached
alteration haloes. Note the presence of tourmaline fibers (black) within the vein. Perron deposit, Val d'Or, cross section
view. Pen for scale. B. Array of sigmoidal extension veins in granodiorite. The shape of the veins and the orientation of
the vein tips relative to the left-dipping envelope of the array indicate a reverse component of vertical movement. Perron
deposit, Val d 'Or, cross section view. C. Array of small planar extensional veins (also termed ladder veins) developed
within a competent, tourmalinized shear zone (black) in mafic volcanic rocks. Val d'Or. Compass for scale. D. Small hor-
izontal extensiona l vein , showing regular planar wall, as well as open-space filling internal textures defined by sma ll cal-
cite crystals (white) attached to both walls. Sigma deposit, Val d 'Or, cross section view. Hammer for scale. E. Subhori-
zontal extensional shear vein. Note how the opening vector (arrows) is indicated by matching bends along the vein walls.
Internal tourmaline fibers (black) also track a simi lar opening vector. Sigma deposit, Val d 'Or, cross section view. Ham-
mer for scale. F. Subhorizontal extensional vein with well-developed subvertical tourmaline fibers (black). The vein
shows evidence of multiple opening and filling episodes, including a posttourmalin e fiber reopening in the center of
the vein. The opening vector indicated by matching irregularities along the vein walls (arrows) is parallel to that indi-
cated by tourma lin e fibers. Sigma deposit, Val d'Or, cross section view. Hammer for scale. G. Subhorizontal oblique-
extension vein with well-deve loped subvertical tourma lin e fibers (black). Sigma deposit, Val d 'Or, cross section view.
Hammer for scale. Courtesy of the Geological Survey of Canada, photo no. 1999-015\T. H. Close-up view of crack-seal
bands (arrow) highlighted by black tourmalin e, near the hanging wall contact of a subhorizonta l extensional ve in in gra-
nodiorite. Perron deposit, Val d 'Or, cross section view. Pen for scale.
 VDN FORMATiON & DEFORNJATiON i N GREENSTONE Au DEPOSITS
Extensional veins as ociated with folds can form perpen-
dicular to nearby fold axes, occupying AC joint po ition
(i.e., joints perpendicular to fold axi; Hobb et al. , 1976) ,
or parallel to axial plane foliation in fold hinges, forming
sheeted veinlet zones similar to those associated with fau lt-
fill veins (see above) . In both cases, the veins form arrays
having long axes parallel to fo ld axes.
A majority of extensional vein in greenstone gold
deposits, b they isolated or part of en echelon arrays, have
shallow dips (Fig. 20B, D) , as illu trated by the Sigma-
Lamaque gold deposit (Fig. 7). Thi 01ientation is consistent
with their formation in a compressional tectonic regime
(Figs. 10 and 12C; Sib on et al., 19 ; McCuaig and Kerrich,
1998) . Example of both shall owly dipping and ubvertical
(Fig. 20C) exten ional vein are known in stacked planar
arrays, reflecting their formation in both com pres ional and
in transcurrent (or extensional) regime , respectively.
Oblique-extension veins (Fig. 20E) typically do not form
vein array . In orne cases, they occur as link structure
between segments of fault-fill vein ; i.e., in dilationaljog
(Fig. llD) or extensional veins ( guyen et al., 1998). In
other case , they form c01~ugate sets in competent layers,
recording layer-parallel ex te nsion (Robert, 1990; see
below). Sets of oblique-extension veins are also exp cted to
form by dilation of preexisting fracture along a direction
not perpendicular to them (Fig. llC).
Internal features: Ex ten ional and oblique-extension vein
are relatively easy to identify becau e they have many diag-
nostic attributes, including internal structure and texture
indicative of their opening vector. In general, exten ional
(and oblique-extension) vein have parallel and planar walls,
at lea tat the me o co pic scale (Fig. 20C, D) , in contrast with
the irregular outlines of fau lt-fill veins (Figs.16B and 18E).
Irregularities or deflections of the vein walls are relatively
common and can be matched across the vein, giving a good
indication of the open ing vector. This is well illustrated in
Figure 20E and F, where matching walls of the vein indicate
moderately plunging and subvertical opening vector ,
respectively. In addition, the open ing vector of extensional
vein i al o indicated by off: et of geological markers such as
lithological contacts or preexi ting veinlets (Fig. llB).
Common features of extensional and oblique-extension
veins include internal compositional layering, ma sive
quartz, open-space filling textures, mineral fiber , crack-
eal textures, and rock bridges (Table 2). Internal layering
parallel to vein walls i a common characteri tic of exten-
sional and oblique-extension veins (Hodgson, 1989) . The
presence of internal laye ring indicates that the veins result
from multiple epi odes of opening and mineral precipita-
tion (Fig. 20F, G). Mesoscopic internal textures and struc-
ture commonly observed within individual layers in a ve in
include rna sive homogeneous filling (bull quartz or buck
quartz), open-space filling and crustiform textures, mineral
fibers , and crack-seal textures (Hodg on, 1989; Yearn-
comb , 1993). Individual layers comprising a vein may dif-
fer from one another in mineral proportion and in tex-
tures and tructure (Fig. 20F).
131
Open-space filling texture are characterized by euhedral
or radiating aggregates of crystals of hydrothermal mineral
such as carbonate, pyrite, tourmaline, and cheelite, attached
to the walls of the veins (Fig. 20D) or to individual layers.
The precipitation of continuous monomineralic layers in
open paces produces cru tiform banding, present in a mall
number of go ld depo its in greenstone belts (Hodg on,
1989). Mineral fibers are not uncommon in extensional
v ins: they consist of highly elongate minerals showing a con-
stant preferred orientation within a vein or within a layer
(Fig. 20F, G). They r pr sent crystal that grew progr ively
as the fracture opened and that generally track the direction
of opening of the veins (Durney and Ram ay, 1973; Cox and
Etheridge, 1983) . Potential mechani m of fiber growth of
this type are reviewed by Ramsay and Huber (1983). The
exten ional veins illustrated in Figure 20E and F provid
good example of mineral fibers that indicate an opening
direction consistent with that indicated by matching vein
walls. Crack- eal texture (Ram ay 1980b) can be ob erved at
the micro copic to mesoscopic scale in many extensional
veins (Fig. 20H). Such textures record multiple episodes of
fracturing along the vein walls, incorporating thin bands of
wall-rock inclusions. The rate of op ning of an xtensional
fracture relative to the rate of mineral precipitation is a key
factor in determining th internal structure of individual lay-
er v.rithin extensional veins (Cox, 1991; Foxford etal., 1991).
According to Foxford et al. ( 1991), crack-seal textures form
when the rate of mineral precipitation exceeds that of frac-
ture separation, whereas mineral fibers form when it equals
the rate of fractures paration, and open-space texture form
when it is exceeded by the rate of fracture separation. All
three types of tructure can form in a single layer, reflecting
variations in rates of dilation versus rates of mineral precipi-
tation (Boulli er and Robert, 1992).
Rock bridges (Fig. 21; icholson and Pollard, 1985; Fox-
ford et al. , 1991 , 2000) are relatively com mon features in
extensional veins, but not in oblique-extension veins. They
consist of planar to sigmoidal lab of wall rock partially or
completely enclosed within exten ional ve in , or eparating
individual, overlapping, en echelon exten ional veins. Rock
bridges are generally oriented at low to moderate angles to
the vein wall . Rock bridges and en echelon exten ional
veins are natural con equence of the propagation and dila-
tion of ex ten ional fractures and can be regarded a diag-
no tic of extensional veins (Nicholson and Pollard, 1985) .
Propagation of an ex ten ional fracture induce rotation of
tl1 local principal stress axes at the fracture tips, re ulting
in tl1e development of smaller en echelon ex ten ional veins
(Fig. 21A, B). As the en echelon ex ten ional veins dilate ,
the rock segment eparating them , or rock bridges, will
break and become slabs of wall rocks partially enclosed
within tl1e veins (Fig. 21C).
Associated ore shoots: Diver e types of ore hoots are associ-
ated with extensional veins and vein arrays. Inter ections of
extensional and fau lt-fill vein are commonly the sites of
e levated go ld concentration (e.g., Robert and Brown,
1986). Such ites define high-grade ore hoots within fault-
132 ROBERT AND POULSEN
a which they are associated, defining another type of ore
b tend to be restricted to specific folded layers and will form
0 Cavity-fill texture
• Fibrous texture
A Bridge stub
FIG. 21. Rock bridges in extensional ve ins. A. Block diagram showing
how rock bridges between en eche lon segments of an extensiona l vein
become incorporated within it as a resu lt of growth of the segments (mod-
ified from Foxford et al. , 1991). B. Overlapping subh orizontal extensional
veins separated by rock bridges. Sigma deposit, Val d ' Or, cross section
view. Hammer for sca le. C. Large subhorizontal extensional vein conta in-
ing broken rock bridges (arrow). Perron deposit, Val d'Or, cross section
view. Hammer for scale.
fill veins, the plunges of which are parallel to the lines of
intersection between the two vein types. In the Val d 'Or dis-
trict, extensive subhorizontal extensional veins form elon-
gate tabular bodies in plan view (Robert, 1990). Their long
axes are parallel to the fault-fill veins and shear zones with
shoot. Extensional veins associated with fold hinges, as sets
of parallel veins in either AC or axial planar orientations,
bodies with long axes parallel to those of the folds.
Stockwork zones and breccia bodies
A number of gold orebodies in greenstone belts consist
of stockwork zones and breccia bodies (Groves eta!., 1995;
McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998). Stockworks are defined here
to consist of two or more intersecting vein sets. They are
best developed in competent host rocks and they are highly
variable in their morphology and internal complexities.
Hydrothermal breccias and breccia veins are typically devel-
oped within shear zones (especially brittle ones; Hagemann
eta!., 1992) or where they intersect competent host rocks,
in common spatial association with fault-fill veins.
Geometry and internal features: Vein stockworks range from
being internally well organized, with two or three well-
defined vein orientations (Fig. 22A, B), to complex ne t-
works of randomly oriented veins and veinlets (Fig. 22C;
Table 2). The Mount Charlotte deposit in Western Australia
is an example of an organized stockwork (Ridley and Men-
gler, 2000), whereas the stockwork ore bodies of the San
Antonio deposit in the Canadian Superior province repre-
sent a more complex example (Poulsen eta!., 1986a; Lau,
1988). Intense stockwork veining results in disaggregation
of the host rocks into angular blocks showing no evidence
of rotation (Fig. 23C), cemented by quartz and other
hydrothermal minerals. Such intense stockwork develop-
ment produces zones with the appearance of hydrothermal
breccias (Fig. 23C). Organized stockworks can consists of
nearly orthogonal sets of extensional veins, as at Mount
Charlotte (Ridley and Mengler, 2000), or of c01~ugate sets
of oblique-extension veins, as at the Louvicourt Goldfield
deposit at Val d'Or (Fig. 24; Robert, 1990). Conflicting
crosscutting relationships are commonly observed between
veins of the different sets indicating their contemporane-
ous development (Ridley and Mengler, 2000). The overall
morphology of stockwork zones is variable and ranges from
cigar-shaped (e.g., at Louvicourt Goldfield ) to elongate tab-
ular bodies (e.g., at Mount Charlotte). The following exam-
ples illustrate the diversity in morphology and internal
geometry of stockwork ore bodies.
Cigar-shaped stockworks of the A and B ore zones at the
Louvicourt Goldfield deposit at Val d'Or are confined to a
subvertical, east-west striking gabbroic sill, cut by a feldspar
porphyry dike (Fig. 23A). The stockwork bodies plunge 25°
to 30o W; they extend down-plunge as much as 200 m but
are on ly 15 to 20m high and approximate ly 10m wide .
They consist of two conjugate sets of oblique-extension
veins (Figs. 22A, 23C) intersecting in a line parallel to their
 VEIN FORMATION & DEFORMA'TJON IN GREt'NSTONE Au DEPOSITS 133

FIG. 22. Characteristi cs o f stockwo rks and breccia zones. A. Stockwo rk zone comprised o f two oblique sets of shall owly
dippin g ex te nsio nal shear ve ins developed in a gabbro sill; the pho to cove rs th e upper left half of the cigar-shape o re-
body shown in Figure 23C. Lo uvico urt Goldfie ld d epo it, Val d ' 01~ cross secti on view. Fie ld o f vi ew - 4 m. B. Stockwo rk
co mpo ed of two o rthogonal sets of exte nsio nal veins grading into a breccia tex ture in th e upper left part of th e ph oto-
graph . Sa n Anto nio d eposit, Ri ce Lake, secti on view. Field of view-3 m. C. Breccia zone in the ce ntral part of a stock-
wo rk, with cl asts of alte red wall rocks in a quartz-carbonate mau·ix, gradin g outwa rd in two omewhat irregular ets of
o rth ogonal ve ins. San Anto ni o de posit, Ri ce Lake, cross secti on view. H amme r fo r scale. Courtesy of th e Geological Sur-
vey o f Canada, ph oto no. 1999-01 6F. D. Extensio nal quartz veins definin g a slab-like breccia/ stockwo rk body o f on e dom-
in ant se t of ve ins (right-dippin g), pa rall el to th e mylo nitic foli atio n of th e host sh ea r zone, and a less well-d veloped set
of left-dippin g vein (a rrow), cutting across the fo liatio n. Star Lake deposit, La Ro nge, cro s sec ti o n vi ew. H amm ers for
scale. Th e inset shows a sketch from a polished sectio n of a qu artz-pyrite vein cuttin g at a high angle to th e foliation. E.
Jigsaw pu zzle breccia in a feldspar po rphyry dike, con istin g of bl eached angula r wall-rock fragments in a fin e-grain ed ,
blac k to urm aline mau·ix. Sigma de posit, Val d 'Or, cross sectio n view. H amme r fo r sca le. Reprin ted with pe rmiss io n of
Economic Geology; Robe rt and Brown, 1986, fi g. 7a. F. Well-deve loped breccia ve in frin ged by two oblique sets of ex te n-
sional ve ins. Victo ry de posit, Weste rn Australia, cross secti on view. Field notebook for sca le.

overall plunge. The two sets of veins commonly merge with
one another and show conflicting crosscutting relation-
ships (Robert, 1990) . Mineral fibers and the matching of
markers and/ or irregularities in walls across veins in both
vein sets indicate that their opening vector was steeply
plunging to the east, p erpendicular to the plunge of the
stockwork (Fig. 23C). The localized conjugate sets of
oblique-extension veins may have formed in incipient
necks of megaboudins resulting from subvertical elonga-
tion of the host sill (Fig. 23D; Robert, 1990).
The stockwork zones of the San Antonio deposit at Rice
Lake (Fig. 8) are somewhat more complex (Fig. 22B, C;
134 ROBc'RT AND POULSEN

LOUVICOURT GOLDFIELD

. . . . STOC~ORKZONE v v
LEVEL225

v
v v B ~one
v
~I •
N
I

h:J/\1 FELDSPAR PORPHYRY

B GABBRO

I v v v I VOLCANIC ROCK
v 50m
I v
A
WEST B ZONE LONGITUDINAL SECTION EAST
LEVEL ~I
225 -----+-------li~===::;;;;iiiiiiiiijo;;:;;:.~~-
1

375 - - - - - l - - - - - = =:::;; === =-L---

I 1

525 ......-::J'L---.L..J '---i--=- _ _ _ _ _ _ L__

I I
675 l --
----=--=-=--7------_j _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
B
1 I sam I
B ZONE CROSS-SECTION
NORTH SOUTH

OBLIQUE
EXTENSION
VEIN

- dZ_,..

1m
L______J

c D
FIG. 23. Geology of the Louvi court Go ldfie ld deposit, Val d'Or. Adapted from Robert (1990) . A. Plan view oflevel225
(from Sauve, 1985). B. Longitudinal section through Lhe Zone B orebody (from Sauve, 1985). C. Line drawing of a cross
section view of th e Zone B orebody, showing th e developmem of conjugate seLS of obl ique-extension ve ins. The open-
ing vectors of the two ve in sets a re indi cated, as we ll as the in creme ntal axes of elongation and shortening. D. Schematic
section showin g how th e cot'\iugate seLS of ob li que-extension veins can accommodate subve rtical exte nsio n and incipi-
ent boud inage of th e host competent gabbro sill.

Poulsen eta!. , 1986a; Lau , 1988) . They form steeply dip-
ping, sh allowly plunging elongate tabular bodies arranged
in an en ech elon fashion within a moderately dipping gab-
broic sill (Fig. 8B, C). They attain a thickness of 10 m, are up
to 150 m high , and extend up to 500 m along their axis of
plunge, which corresponds to the line of intersection of the
tabular stockwork bodies with the h ost sill. The core of the
stockwork bodies consist of an inner central quartz vein par-
allel to the stockwork, com monly surround ed by a central
breccia zone which is composed of angular, altered wall-rock
fragments cemented by vein quartz , albite, and ankerite
(Fig. 22C). The fringes of the stockworks consist of two sets
 VEIN FORMATION & DEFORJ\IIATION IN GREENSTONE Au DA"POSITS 135

Fie. 24. Features of vein inte t ections. A. ubhorizontal exten ional vein cutting a steeply dipping fau lt-fi ll ve in, but
itself truncated by a slip surface close to the right margin of the fault-fill vein. Sigma deposit, Val d 'Or, cross section view.
Field of view-2m. B. Subhorizontal extensional ve in merging with a teeply dipping fault-fill vein. The ex tension al vein
cuts the inte nse foliation in the shear zone ho ting the fau lt-fi ll vein (left), but is itse lf on ly slightly buckled , record in g a
small amount of sho rte nin g of the competent vein. Sigma deposit, Val d 'Or, cross sectio n view. Ham me r for scale. C. ig-
moidal extens iona l vein a oc iated witl1 tile down-dip termination of a fau lt-fi ll vein (dippin g moderate ly to tl1 e right).
Tote how the extensional ve ins are deve loped on ly in the hanging wall of tl1e down-dip termination, and tl1 e locali zed
development of fo liation in tl1e footwall. Lucien Beliveau deposit, Val d 'Or, cross section view. H ammer for cale. D. Lin e
drawing of the area hown in Figure 24C.

of inte rsecting steep and flat extensional veins (Fig. 22B).
The flat extensional ve ins common ly display sigmoidal
shape and make an angle of 45° to the tockwork zone as a
whole. The origin of the stockwork at the San Antonio
mine i enigmatic but the fact that they occupy plane mak-
ing a dihedral angle of 45o to the host sill suggests they may
have formed as extensional me he by shear alo ng the sill
margin . This possibility is corroborated by the existence of
foliated sericite-carbonate schists at those margin (Fig. 8C).
Hydrothermal breccia and breccia veins are thought to
result from repeated individual increments of fragmenta-
tion , driven by a combination of structural and hydraulic
processes, and infilling by hydroth ermal material (Sibson,
1986;Jebrak, 1997) .Jig aw puzzle and fault breccia are two
common types of hydrothermal breccias or breccia veins
as ociated with , or a a component of, fau lt-fill veins (Table
2). The reader is refe rred to J ebrak (1997) for a more
extensive discussion of breccias in vein-type deposits. Jigsaw
puzzle or mosaic breccias, also referred to as implosion
breccias (Sib on, 1986), consist of angu lar wall-rock frag-
men ts, showing no evidence of rotation or large cale trans-
lation, set in a matrix of hydrothermal min erals suc h as
quartz and tourmaline (Fig. 22E, F). The proportion of
hydrothermal matrix may be relatively mall (Fig. 22E) or
may exceed that of wall-rock fragments , in which case the
jig aw puzzle n ature of the breccias may be partly ob cured
(Fig. 22F). These breccias are interpreted to indi cate dila-
tion at specific structural site related to discrete lip events
along fau lts and to result from hyd raulic fracturing related
to sudd en fluid pre sure drop fo ll owing lip (Sibson ,
1986) . They have been documen ted to occur a t low-angle
d il ational bend a long sh ear zon s in som e gold de posit
(e.g., Nguyen et al. , 1998). The fringes of such breccia vein
record their incipient development and show fractures of
diverse orientations. They re emble the "crackle breccias"
better known from porphyry-type deposits (Jebrak, 1997).
The 21 Zone depo it in the Star Lake district (Fig. 9) pro-
vide an example of a hybrid breccia and fault-fill vein ore-
body. It is hosted by a subvertical mylon itic shear zone (Fig.
9B, C) and plunges southwestward, at a moderate angle to
136 ROBERT AND POULS~'N
the shear zone's northeast-plunging elongation lineation
(Poulsen, 1986; see also Robert et al., 1994). The ore zone
is up to 20m wide, 100m high, and extends at least 250m
down plunge. It consists of a mosaic quartz breccia body
containing slab-shaped blocks of mylonitic host rocks,
defined by extensional veins mostly parallel to but also at a
high angle to the foliation (Fig. 22D), and locally accompa-
nied by discrete through-going laminated quartz veins. Dis-
cordant extensional vein segments clearly cut the mylonitic
foliation (Fig. 22D), indicating that the breccia vein formed
very late in the development of the shear zone. The slab-
like character of the mosaic breccia may be attributed to
the fact that the preexisting mylonitic foliation creates an
inherent anisotropy during late dilation of the rock.
In contrast to the above examples, fault breccias consist
of angular clasts of single or varied composition, showing
evidence of rotation, translation, and attrition, set in a
matrix of hydrothermal minerals (Fig. 18G). They are anal-
ogous to attrition breccias described by Sibson (1986),
except for the presence of a hydrothermal matrix, indicat-
ing that hydrothermal precipitation accompanied slip and
fault brecciation along the host structure.
Inasmuch as the opening of a single planar extensional
vein can lead to a unidirectional increment of dilation,
stockwork and breccia veins, particularly those of irregular
shape, appear to accommodate simultaneous multi-direc-
tional extension (Fig. 22B, C, E; see also Ridley and Men-
gler, 2000).
Associated ore shoots: Owing to the diversity of their settings
and geometries, several types of ore shoots are defined by
stockwork zones. In some cases, as at the Louvicourt Gold-
field deposit, the long axes of the stockwork bodies corre-
spond to the line of intersection between their main con-
stituent veins (Fig. 23), and may correspond to the axes of
boudins of the host competent layer (Robert, 1990). In
cases where overall tabular stockwork bodies are confined
to a specific lithologic unit, as at the San Antonio deposit,
the long axes of the stockwork bodies correspond to the
line of intersection of the stockworks with their enclosing
host unit. In contrast, the stockworks at the Mount Char-
lotte deposit have pipe-like shapes and subvertical plunges,
defined by fault-bounded blocks of their competent host
unit (Ridley and Mengler, 2000).
Relationships among vein sets
In most greenstone gold deposits, multiple types and sets
of veins are present. They are commonly spatially associated
with one another, but are not necessarily temporally related.
There are only a few specific cases of closely genetically
related vein sets, such as arrays of extensional veins near the
terminations of fault-fill veins (see below). In structural
analysis, it is critical to distinguish veins formed during the
same strain increment from those formed during successive
increments. The temporal relations between different vein
sets are best established by careful examination of relation-
ships at vein intersections (Fig. 24). A number of recurring
situations in gold deposits are described below.
Different vein sets display systematic crosscutting relationships:
Systematic crosscutting of one vein set by another simply
indicates that the veins are of different ages and that a sys-
tematic vein chronology can be established between them.
This can provide important information about the struc-
tural evolution of a deposit. It is common, but not always
the case, for systematically crosscutting vein sets to display
differences in vein or alteration mineral assemblages. It is
also expected that, for example along a given shear zon e,
veins of different ages will show different degrees of over-
printing deformation (e.g., Robert and Brown, 1986).
This situation is illustrated by the San Antonio depo it
which, in addition to the stockwork zones described above,
also comprises a set of fault-fill veins in reverse-sinistral
shear zones striking at a high angle to the host sill (Fig. 8C).
Both the stockworks and fault-fill veins consist of quartz-
ankerite-albite-pyrite, fringed by sericite-carbonate alter-
ation selvages. However, fault-fill veins systematically cross-
cut and offset the stockwork zones where they intersec t
(Lau, 1988), indicating that the two types have developed
at different times in the structural evolution of the deposit.
Different vein sets display conflicting crosscutting relationships:
Conflicting crosscutting relationships are relatively com-
mon among different vein sets within deposits or within
stockwork zones (e.g., Robert and Brown, 1986; Ridley and
Mengler, 2000). They can take the form of an extensional
vein cutting across a fault-fill vein at one location and the
opposite at another location. They can also take the form
of an extensional vein cutting across some quartz laminae
in a fault-fill vein, but itself being truncated by a slip surface
within the fault-fill vein (Fig. 24A). These types of conflict-
ing crosscutting relationships among two types of veins
indicate that they are broadly contemporaneous, and fur-
ther indicate their cyclic, sequential development. Because
conflicting relationships are not necessarily exposed at the
same location within a deposit, it is important not to base
interpretations of age relationships among veins on a single
or small number of non-representative observations. Fur-
thermore, crosscutting relationships among veins represent
the final products of their incremental development, and
not necessarily their crosscutting relationships at different
stages in their incremental development (see below). Simi-
larities of vein or alteration assemblages between crosscut-
ting vein sets suggest that they have formed from the same
fluids and are potentially contemporaneous.
Wiins of one set merge with veins of another set: In a number of
cases, veins of two distinct sets merge with one another (e .. ,
Moritz and Crocket, 1990). In some deposits of the Val d'Or
district, for example, extensional veins merge with specific
lamina within a fault-fill vein (Fig. 24B; Robert, 1990). The
extensional vein may merge with a lamina on the edge of
the fault-fill vein, or with a lamina well within the center of
the vein, cutting across outer laminae (Fig. 18E). This type
of merging relationship suggests contemporaneous dev 1-
opment of the two vein types, especially if they have the
same vein and alteration mineral assemblages.
 ~1N FORMATION & DEFORMATION IN GREENSTONE Au DtJ>OS!TS
Kinematically related fra cture/vein sets: There are special
cases where the generation of two types of fractures, and of
veins by analogy, are intimately genetically related. Because
of stress concentration due to the attenuation of displace-
ment at the tips of propagating shear fractures, extensional
fractures (also termed wing cracks) will develop at their lat-
eral and frontal terminations (Pollard and Segall, 1987;
Scholz, 1989; see also Cox et al., 2001). As shown in Figure
25 for the case of a reverse fault, extensional fractures will
develop in the footwall of the up-dip termination of the
fau lt, and in the hanging wall of its down-dip termination
(Fig. 24C, D). Arrays of planar to sigmoid al extensional
veins can also develop at lateral fault terminations. The
same geometric configuration can be expected with fault-
fill and extensional veins, and examples are not uncom-
mon in gold deposits. The extensional veins shown in Fig-
ure 20B represent an array develope d at the lateral
termination of a reverse fault. The co ncentrations of sub-
horizontal extensional veins at the up-dip termination of
reverse shear zones at the Lamaque Main mine (Fig. 7C)
are also interpreted as wing cracks at a fault termination.
The dynamics of vein d evelopment at the tips of faults
has implications for interpreting resulting crosscutting rela-
tionships between intersecting vein sets. Figure 24C and D
illustrates an example of extensional ve ins distributed at
the down-dip termination of a reverse fault-fill vein, at a
fixed time in the development of the host fault. The sig-
moidal shape of the extensional veins is compatible with,
and indicative of, reverse movement along the host fault.
Down-dip propagation of this fault will result in the trunca-
tion a nd offset of ex isti ng extensional veins by the fau lt or
any fault-fill vein it contains. It can also be accompanied by
the formation of n ew extensional veins farther down dip.
REVERSE
FAULT-FILL
VEIN
FIG. 25. Diagram showin g the expected arrangements of exte nsio nal
fractures around fronta l and lateral tips of reverse fau lts or shear fractures.
Adapted from Scho lz (1989).
137
The end-result of this dynamic process is that, at any loca-
tion along a fault or fault-fill vein other than its termina-
tion, extensional veins will be cut by the fault or the fault-fi ll
vein, alth ough in fact they deve lop synchronously. These
relationships are illustrated in Figure 24C: the largest
extensional vein is clearly truncated by the fau lt-fill vei n ,
whereas other smaller extensional veins are not, and occur
beyond the down-dip termination of the fault-fill vein. The
truncated extensional vein probably formed at an earli er
stage at which the fault-fill vein had not yet propagated to
its current position. Similarly, if the fault-fill vein were to
propagate farther downward, it would truncate and offset
all extensional ve ins present at the point of observation.
This can easily result in incorrect interpretation of age rela-
tionships among the two vein sets. However, identical vein
and alteration mineral assemblages of different vein sets
and a continuous alteration halo around both vein types (as
seen in Fig. 24C, D) may be used as a first indication that
the veins are broadly contemporaneous.
Analysis of vein networhs
Many gold deposits, esp ecially larger ones, are composed
of vein ne tworks, which combine several vein ets and types.
This might include multiple sets offault-fill veins and their
host shear zones commonly as conjugate pairs, extensional
veins as en eche lon arrays or p lanar veins o utside shear
zones, and stockwork veins (Robert, 1990; guyen et al. ,
1998). Co ntemporaneous vein sets can be used to deter-
mine the axes of the deposit-scale incremental strain (Figs.
13, 26) . In the cases of vein sets of multiple ages, incremen-
tal strain axes at different stages in the structural evolution
of the deposit can also be constrained.
Determining some or all of the incremental bulk strain
axes of ve in networks provides a framework for predicting
the possible plunges of ore bodies within a given structure.
For example, vein ore bodies within shear zones or within
competent layers commonly plunge parallel to the axis of
intermediate incremental train, dY, or rarely perpendicu-
lar to it. As discussed below, the incremental bulk strain
axes of vein networks can also be used to test the structural
timing of the deposit by comparison with the finite strain in
the host rocks, as recorded by folds, boudins, shear zones,
and regional foliation and lineation.
Strain axes of gold deposit networks can be determined
in a way similar to the reconstruction of the three principal
stress axes from faults and shear zones, a nd from exte n-
sional veins and vein arrays (Beach, 1975; Angelier, 1979;
Rickard and Rixon, 1983; Ramsay and Huber 1987). Geo-
metric relationships between different types ofveins and
vein arrays and incremental strain axes are shown in Figure
19 for the case of plane strain (i.e., no change along theY
axis). The intermediate incremental strain axis, dY, lies at
goo to the slip direction in the plane of the fault-fill vein or
shear zone and parallels the long axes of planar and sig-
moidal extensional veins in en echelon arrays (Fig. 19). In
the case of conjugate sets offault-fill veins or oblique-exten-
sion veins, dY is parallel to the line of intersection between
the two sets, and the axes of incremental shortening, dZ,
138 ROBERT AND POULSEN
---- ---dZ
EXTENSION___J
VEIN
FIG . 26. Relationships between conjugate shear zones, fault-fill and
extensional veins, and incremental bulk strain axes, based on the geomet-
ric and structural features of the vein network at the Sigma-Lamaque
deposit (Fig. 7). Adapted from Robert (1990).
and incremental elongation, dX, lie in the bisecting angles
of the shortening and extending sectors, respectively (Fig.
26). The axis of incremental elongation, dX, is perpendic-
ular to planar extensional veins external to shear zones,
which, therefore, should contain dY and the axis of incre-
mental shortening, dZ. As a first approximation, dX can
also be regarded as being perpendicular to extensional
ve ins in en echelon arrays (Ramsay, 1982; Ramsay and
Huber, 1987). Examples of determination of deposit-scale
incremental strain axes (or stress axes in some cases) can
be found in Dube eta!. (1989), Robert (1990), Robert eta!.
(1994), and Nguyen eta!. (1998).
The Sigma-Lamaque deposit in the Val d 'Or district (Fig.
2) serves to illustrate how deposit-scale incremental strain
axes can be determined from a vein network and compared
with the main increments of deformation in the district.
The deposit consists of an extensive network of quartz-tour-
maline veins, extending over 3 km 2 on surface and to a
depth of 1.8 km (Fig. 7). It is developed in andesitic vol-
canic rocks intruded by coeval subvolcanic porphyritic dior-
ite bodies, cut by a swarm of feldspar porphyry dikes and
younger diorite-tonalite stocks. Volcanic contacts in the
area are subvertical and strike east-west, parallel to axial
planes of tight to isoclinal F 2 folds and to variably devel-
oped regional s2 foliation, which contains a down-dip elon-
gation lineation (Robert, 1990). Quartz-tourmaline veins
and the regional S2 foliation overprint all these rock types.
The vein network is associated with conjugate reverse-
(oblique) shear zones, intersecting along a line plunging
shallowly to the west and containing elongation lineations
raking steeply east. The network consists mainly of lami-
nated fault-fill veins within the conjugate shear zones, con-
taining sli ckenlines raking steeply east (parallel to shear
zone lineation), and of subhorizontal extensional veins dip-
ping shallowly to the west and extending outside the shear
zones into less strained rocks (Robert and Brown, 19 6;
Robert, 1990). All these vein sets are interpreted to be con-
temporaneous on the basis of conflicting crosscutting and
merging relationships (e.g., Robert and Brown, 1986). Th e
key geometric and structural elements of the vein network
are represented in Figure 26, along with the interprete d
axes of incremental strain recorded by the development of
the vein network. Following the principles outlined above,
the incremental elongation direction, dX, is determined to
be subvertical (actually plunging steeply east), the shorten-
ing direction, dZ, to be horizontal and north-south, and th e
intermediate direction, dY (along which there is no change
in length), to plunge shallowly to the west. As discusse d
below, there is a good correspondence between the incre-
mental axes of the vein network with those of the regional
D2 increment of d eformation (Robert, 1990).
In the stockwork zones of the Louvicourt Goldfield
deposit, hosted in a subvertical, east-west gabbro sill (Fig.
23), the line of intersection between conjugate sets of
oblique-extension veins defines an intermediate incremen-
tal strain axis, dY, plunging shallowly to the west (-25 °).
The corresponding axis of incremental elongation plunges
steeply to the east (-65 °), whereas the axis of incremental
shortening is subhorizontal (north-south; Fig. 23C). T h e
development of the vein stockworks at Louvicourt Gold-
fie ld can be interpreted to accommodate localized ho ri-
zontal shortening and subvertical elongation in necks of
incipient boudins within the subvertically extending si ll
(Fig. 23C; Robert, 1990).
In a number of deposits, the formation of contempora-
neous vein sets cannot be accounted for by considering
strain in only two dimensions, and requires consideration of
strain in three dimensions (Dube et al. , 1989; Ridley and
Mengler, 2000). This is particularly the case for deposits con-
fined to single competent layers: because of strain refraction
in three dimensions, the axes of bulk incremental strain
within the layer may depart from those external to the layer,
especially if th e layer is oblique to one of the external axes
of strain (Treagus, 1983). The Norbeau deposit in the
Abitibi (Dube eta!., 1989) and the Mount Charlotte depo it
in Western Australia (Ridley and Mengler, 2000) provide
examples of such departures from the two-dimensional case.
The methods of analyses of such cases are beyond the scop e
of this paper, but they have been discussed in Dube eta!.
(1989) and Robert eta!. (1994).
Vein Deformation and Superimposed Strain
This section reviews the effects of superimposed defor-
mation on veins, with a brief consideration of the effects of
deformation on other styles of gold mineralization.
Because of their formation in active structures, veins in
faults and shear zones nearly universally show some evi-
dence of superimposed strain (Boullier and Robert, 1992;
Mason and Helmstaedt, 1992; McCuaig and Kerrich , 1998).
In structural analysis of veins, it is critical to determine
whether deformation features of veins result from th ir
incremental development in active structures (in which
 VEIN FORMATION & DUORMATION IN GREJ:,'NSTONE Au DEPOSITS
case they may provide important information on the con-
ditions of vein formation; McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998) , or
from superimposed deformation. The distinction between
the two ca es is commonly challenging, and is at the root of
many divergences of interpretations of the structural tim-
ing of greenstone gold deposits.
There is little literature specifically discussing the effects
of superimposed su-ain on vein-type gold deposits in green-
stone belts other than a few paper discussing deformation
features related to vein development in active shear zones
(McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998). The material presented here
is an application of the basic principle of structural geol-
ogy to the analysis of deformed auriferous veins, drawing
for example on the work of Talbot (1970, 1982) , and Ram-
say and Huber (1983, 1987) on veins and dikes. It also
draws heavily on we ll-established principles of structural
analysis of deformed rocks in general (Ramsay, 1967, 1982;
Talbot, 1970, 1982; Ram ay and Huber, 1983, 1987) a well
as on the experience of the authors. Geologic structures
and relationships ob ervable at the cale of the hand-speci-
mens, the outcrop, or the stope are emphasized.
Theoretical considerations
Veins and dikes are well known markers of superimposed
strain (Talbot, 1970, 1982). Their behavior during overprint-
ing deformation depends mainly on two factors: their com-
petence with respect to their ho ts (Berger, 1971 ; Ramsay,
1982; Talbot, 1982) , and their orientations with respect to
external axes of hortening and extension (Talbot, 1970,
1982). Where there i no competence contrast between veins
or dikes and their hosts, they will deform homogeneously
with the enclosing rocks. Where more competent than their
host rocks, they will form buckle or boudins depending on
their orientation with respect to strain axes (Figs. 14 and
27A; see also fig. 2.14 in Ramsay and Huber, 1983). Where
less competent, strong internal foliation and outward point-
ing cusps will develop in veins and dikes (Talbot and Souk-
o utis, 1992), with the cusps being parallel with or perpendic-
ular to the foliation. Veins or dike do e to the direction of
zero finite elongation in tl1e rock (i.e., near the angle divid-
ing tho e buckled from those boudinaged; Fig. 14) may show
different geometries. Competent layers may appear to be
undeformed or may display boudinaged buckle or buckled
boudins (Ramsay, 1967). Inasmuch as the direction of zero
finite elongation for most su-ains is close to that of maximum
shear train (Ramsay, 1967), it is likely that incompetent
veins or dikes in tl1i orientation would be most susceptible
to lateral slip parallel to their walls. Characterized by oblique
internal foliation, such incompetent veins and dike can
become incipient shear zones (Berger, 1971 ).
Quartz veins tend to be more competent than their hosts
over a range of metamorphic conditions (Talbot, 1970). In
a greenstone belt environment, quartz veins can be
expected to be more competent th an greenschist-grade
intrusive and volcanic rocks of intermediate to ultramafic
compo iti on, as well as fine-grained clastic sedimentary
rock . As a result, quartz veins are generally expected to
deform into buckles and boudins (Fig. 27A). Howevet~ it is
139
possible that some host rock , such as feldspar-rich por-
phyry dikes (except where sericitized) wh ich are commonly
associated with gold deposits, may be as competent or more
competent than the veins . Because of their generally
restricted dimen ions, either as isolated veins or as part of
vein arrays, vein in equally compe tent rock are expected
to deform homogeneously with their host.
Of added relevance to gold deposits, however, is tl1e fact
that selvages of hydrothermally altered wall rock commonly
intervene on both sides between veins and unaltered hosts
(Fig. 28A, B; McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998). Such alteration
may therefore be modeled qualitatively a a multil ayer
(host rock-altered rock-vein-altered rock-ho t rock) lead-
ing to a different style of deformation (Fig. 27B; Ramsay
and Huber, 1987). The assumption here is that alteration
renders the rock directly adjacent to the vein incompete nt
relative to both tl1e unaltered host rock and the vein. Thi
scenario is rea onable in the ca e of a competent host
lithology with alteration dominated by mineral such a
sericite, calcite, and chlorite (Fig. 28A). Dolomite, however,
i a common alteratio n mineral associated with gold
deposits in greenstone belts and can lead to a relatively
competent alteration se lvage if present (with quartz) in
substantial quantities.
The main additional effects of incompetent alteration can
be expected to be tl1e development of prominent mullion
on the inner arcs of buckled ve ins, and of bidirectional
cusps pointing outward from tl1e alteration into both unal-
tered wall rock and the necks of boudinaged vein (Fig. 27B;
Talbot and Soukoutis, 1992). Depending on the orientation
of the veins with re pect to the incremental shorte ning
direction, the presence of an incompetent alteration selvage
might also lead to significant refraction of external foliation
within the selvage, in a way similar to cleavage refraction in
graded greywacke-m udstone bed . In cases where veins are
suitably oriented with respect to the incremental horten ing
direction, shear zones can develop in the alteration selvage
parallel to the vein , irrespective of the original vein type. In
this case, the re ulting geomeu-ic relationships between the
foliated alteration elvages and the vein might be very diffi-
cult to distinguish from those a ociated with a fault-fill vei n
form d in an active shear zone.
Because shear zones in green tone belts a re commonly
sites of hydrothermal alteration (McCuaig a nd Kerrich,
1998) , the fo liated rocks within them may a lso behave
incompetently during subsequent deform ation increments.
It is therefore reasonable to expect their reactivation, with
contemporaneous fo lding and boudinage of ve in s co n-
tained within the zone of reactivation. Where preexisting
h ear zones are oriented at a low angle to exte rnal axes of
sh ortening, the h ear zones an d the vein they con tain
might also be expected to undergo wholesale folding (Fig.
27B). In this ca e, one might expect primary h ear zone
fabrics (fo liation, lin eation , and sh ear bands) to be com-
pletely overprinted by the later gene ration of regional
cleavage and minor folds.
Finally, it must be su-e ed that the hypothetical case illus-
trated here (Fig. 27) relates to a n externa l bulk co-axial
140 ROBERT AND POULSn'N

~=1
z
Oblique-
extension
vein

Trace of
foliation

Boudinage

A
X

~=1
z
Folded
extension
vein

Folded oblique-
extension vein

Folded

FIG. 27. A. Isometric block diagram illustrating the expected deformational behavior of quartz ve ins more competent
than their hosts overprinted by significant coaxial strain (adapted from Talbot, 1982). B. Isometric block diagram illus-
trating the expected behavior of a shear zone and extens ional vein mes h , overprinted by a significant coaxial finite
stra in. Note the folded shear zones and the development of mullions and cusps in the alteration haloes, modeled here
as less competent than the veins and unaltered host rocks. See text for discussion.

strain, wh erein finite strain axes X, Y, and Z have the same
directions as the incremental strains dX, dY, dZ. This is by no
means th e only situation one migh t encounter in nature
where non-coaxial strains (i.e., where the finite strain axes lie
at some angle to the incremental strain axes) may predomi-
nate, particularly in shear zones (see Hanmer and Passchier,
1991). The same basic principles apply h owever, and similar
geometric relationships among veins, alteration selvages, and
foliation will be developed. An added complication is that
there will be a greater likelihood of encounte ting veins that
were first folded and then boudinaged, as they rotated from
the shortening field to the elongation field during progr s-
sive shear zone development (Ramsay, 1980a).
In contrast to quartz veins, sulfide-rich ore, either as co -
cordant lenses or discordant veins, is typically less compe-
tent than its enclosing li thologies . Consequently, sulfi e
veins and layers will deform passively with respect to their
host rocks. They will fold with their h ost rocks and flow into
boudin neck areas and fo ld hinges, producing a variety of
cusps and piercement su-uctures (e.g., Maiden et al. , 1986).
 VJ:,IN FORMATION & DEFORJVIATION IN GREENSTONE Au DEPOSI TS
Deformation features of veins and their analysis
Distinguishing features related to vein deformation
from tho e related to vein growth is a critical task in ana-
lyzing the structural significance of gold deposits. The
most common manifestations of vein deformation are
their external forms (fold and boudins), vein margin stri-
ations, and internal deformational fabrics such as tylo-
lites.
Folding: It is common to encounter veins taking the
form of folds, particularly under greenschist to lower am-
phibolite facie condition . Within shear zones or highly
strained rocks, two general cases of folded veins need to
be con idered: one where the foliation of the ho t rock is
axial planar to the folds, and the other where both the
vein and fo liation of the ho t rock have been folded to-
gether.
Foliation axial planar to vein folds: Implicit in thi ca e i the
greater competency of the vein with respect to its foliated
host and the possibility that the vein predates fo liation
entirely. Folding ranges from incipient buckling (Fig. 28A,
B) to tight folding (Fig. 28C, D) of the vein. Tight folding is
commonly accompanied by boudinage of the vein along the
limbs (see below). In profile (section perpendicular to the
fold axes), vein folds can be symmetric (Fig. 28C) or asym-
metric (Fig. 28D) . The distinction depends in part on where
the minor fold is located with respect to larger one (limbs
or hinges) ; however, where all folds along a vein are of the
arne a ymmetry, the enveloping surfaces of the folds reflect
the overall orientation of the vein in the deformed state .
The axes of folded veins further constrain the three-dimen-
sional orientation of the deformed vein as a whole, because
they coincide with the line of inter ection of the vein in its
deformed tate with the foliation plane. Finally, it i gener-
ally po sible to determine whether the folded vein was orig-
inally an extensional or a fault-fill vein, based on its mor-
phological and textural characteristic as described above.
In shear zones, the internal features of veins, the geome-
try and orientation of the vein folds, and the overall enve-
lope of the veins can be used to assess their compatibility or
incompatibility with the strain axes or slip direction within
the host structure. Compatibility of original vein orienta-
tions with strain axes might suggest that the vein formed
during, but wa outla t d by, shear zone deformation.
Incompatibility could be used to argue that the vein pre-
dated the development of the host shear zone. The fo llow-
ing examples serve to illustrate different situations.
In the sample shown in Figure 28B, the planar walls of
the quartz-tourmaline vein and its internal fibers indicate
that thi i an extensional vein. The overall angle between
the vein and the foliation, as well a the retained perpen-
dicularity of the foliation to vein walls, suggests that the vein
formed at a high angle to the foliation. The trace of the
vein along the foliation plane and the fold axis are also per-
pendicular to the e longation lineation in the foliation
plane. Thus, the inferred original orientation of this ex ten-
141
sional vein is compatible with the direction of elongation
and shortening within the host hear zone, suggesting it
formed during progressive shear zone deformation. The
fact that the quartz-tourmaline vein cuts the foliation and
foliation-parallel veinlets further indicates the vein formed
relatively late during hear zone development and has only
experienced a minor amount of subsequent hortening.
In the case of an asymmetrically folded vein in a shear
zan (Fig. 28D), the fact that the shear zone fo liation is
axial planar to the vein fold (and not folded with the vein;
ee below) indicate that the vein has experienced a signif-
icant amount of shear zone deformation. The fact that the
fold axi is perpendicular to the elongation lineation within
the hear zone doe not provide additional information on
the timing of vein formation relative to shear zone devel-
opment. The same geometric relationship would be
expected by folding of a vein formed at a low angle to the
shear plane early during shear zone development, and a
vein of imilar orientation but entirely predating shear
zone development. In this example, the laminated nature
of the vein is typical offault-fill veins, which may be used to
ugge t (but not prove) that the vein was related to shear
zone development rather than entirely predating it.
Some gold ore bodies consist of stockworks of va1iably ori-
ented veinlets. Where overprinted by deformation, veinlets
at a high angle to foliation will be buckled (Fig. 28A, E, F),
whereas those lying at a low angle to foliation will be boud-
inaged (Fig. 28A). In both ca es, the veinlets have clearly
been overprinted by some of the shortening across the foli-
ation plane, but it is not possible to determine if they have
formed early during, or entirely before, shear zone defor-
mation. In the case of the veinlets in Figure 28E and F, evi-
dence indicating that the veinlets predate the development
of the fo liation comes from the existence of the same,
undeformed, stockwork veinlets extending outside the foli-
ated zone (see Robert, 1997).
Folded veins and foliation: There are a number of cases
where subparallel foliation and veins are fo lded together
(Fig. 28G, H) , sugge ting that both feature predate a sig-
nificant increment of deformation. In shear zones, two
main situations can lead to this wholesale folding of a shear
zone: a subsequent increment of regional deformation,
and progressive internal folding (Platt, 1993) either during
continued movement or during later reactivation.
Map- cale fo lding of both shear zone and vein during a
sub equent increment of deformation is best documented
through systematic mapping. This mechanism can also be
recognized at outcrop cale by the fact that a foliated zone
enveloping the vein i itself folded. The foliation is folded
together with the zone but, in detail , may locally be oblique
to both the margin of the vein and of the zone.
Asymmetric fo lds of both veins and subparallel foliation
are particularly common in intense shear zone (Fig. 28G).
Such fo lds imply that, prior to folding, the ve ins and folia-
tion were parallel or at low angles to each other, which can
be the case for fault-fill vein , extensional veins formed by
dilation offoliation planes (e.g., Kerrich, 1989), or highly
142 ROBERT AND POULSEN
 VJ:.JN FORMATION & DEFORMATION IN GREENSTONE Au DEPO JT 143

FIG. 28. Feature of folded ve ins. A . Small buckled quartz ve in (shall ow-d ipp ing on photo} at a high angle to the fo li-
a tion in th e host rock, with we ll-deve loped chloritic altera tion selvage (clark) forming ma ll-sca le mu lli ons. ote th e
in cipi e nt bo udin age o f th e ve in a t a low a ngle to th e foliation on th e left side of photo. Copper Ra nd d e posit, Chi-
bo ugamau, cross ecti on vi ew. Stee l plate i - 15 em across. B. Small bucldecl quartz-tourma li ne ve in with buff-colored
alte ration se lvage in a sample cut peqJe ndicul ar to th e foliation but para llel to d1 elongation lin eation of the host hear
zo ne. Th e fo lded quartz-tourmali ne vein cu ts smalle r fol iation-parall el quartz-ca rbo nate veinl ets (3 and 4) and has an
overall orien ta tion at a modera te to high angle to d1 e foliation. Along the lower right limb of the vein, th e fo li ation itself
is defl ected and reta ins a n o rth ogonal orie ntati on relative to d1 e ve in wa ll . Within th e vein , th e re are tourmaline fibers
(a rrows), now oblique to th e ve in, linkin g a pair o f fo liatio n-parall el vein lets ( 1 a nd 2) . Ore n ada Zon e 4 deposit, Val
cl 'Or. . ymm etrically fold ed qua rtz-ca rbonate vein in a hea r zon . T hese tighdy fo lded veins re pre ent an earli r gen-
era ti on th an the more abundant qu artz-tourmalin e ve in . igma d epos it, Val d 'Or, cross section view. Hamme r for scale.
D. cross secti o n '~ew of a asymme tri cally fo lded ve in in reve rse sh ear in a view approximate ly pe rpendicular to th e fol ia-
tio n a nd parallel to th e elongatio n lineati o n of the ho t reve r e sh ea r zone . Th e internal laminated character ofthe vein
ind icates tha t it is a fault-fill ve in . The vein fold is stro ngly asymmetric and its verge nce i compatible with reverse move-
ment alo ng d1 e host shear zon e . Th e e nvelo pe of th e vein is a t a low angle to th e fol iation , which is clearly ax ial plan ar
to d1 e fold of the vein ; th e fold ax is is at a high angle to the elo ngation lineation within th e host shear zone. Con depo it,
Yellowknife, cross secti on view. H amm e r head fo r scale. Courtesy of the Geo logica l m-vey of an ada, photo no . 1996-
015K. E. Folded stoc kwo rk ve in lets (white} a nd associated albiti c alteration selvages (light brown ) in moderate ly fo liated
basalt. Holt-McDe rm o tt de posit, Ha rker-Ho lloway, cross section vi ew. Field of view -1.5 m. F. Detail of a fo lded ve in le t
and alte ration halo fro m d1 e deformed stockwork shown in Figure 28£ . ote d1 at d1 e foliation is axial planar to th e vein-
let folds. Ho lt-McDermo tt deposit, H arker-Holloway. G. Asymme tri cally fo lded quartz ve in ( 1) and mylonitic fo liation of
the host gran itic intrusio n (2). J asper depo it, tar Lake district, map view. Pe n for scale. H. Asymme trica lly fo lded gray
quartz vein le ts and folia ti on , definin g a small intrafo lial fold do main with in th e Cadi ll ac fault zo ne. Note th e small vein
boudins fo rmed prior to the folds (a rrows). Orenada prope rty, Val d 'Or, map view. Compass for scale.

rotated extensional veins initially formed at high angles to
foliation. In all cases, the join t fo lding of vein and foliation
might result either from continued shear zone movement
(Platt, 1983) or from shear zone reactivation in a different
sense or direction of movement. The distinction between
th e two situation may be diffic ul t to establish in practice
but locally ca n be ach ieved by examin ing the geometric
re lationsh ips of the fo lds to the strain axes in the sh ear
zone, as defined by its penetrative foliation and lineation.
In the examples illustrated in Figure 2 G and H , the axe
of the asymmetric fo lds of both the vein and fo liation are
ubvertical, subparall el to the elongation lineation in the
ho t sh ear zone. The clo e to tight character of the folds (as
opposed to isoclinal) sugge t that sh ear train were not
ufficiently high to lead to significant rotatio n of the fold
axes towards paralleli m with the movement direction
along the sh ear zone. Based on the near paralleli m of fold
axe with elongation lineation in the host sh ear zone, the
fo lds are best interpreted as resulting from reactivation of
the host sh ear zone by transcurrent movements. The asym-
me tric fold in the example shown in Figure 2 H from the
Cadillac Tectonic Zone in the Val d'Or district, have been
interpreted by Robert (1990) as resulting from dextral tran-
current reactivation of the hear zone.
Boudinage and related f eatures: Inasmuch as quartz vein
tend to be more competent than their urroundings, it is not
uncommon to observe in them the effects of vein-paralle l
extension. These effects may take the form of macroscopic
pinch and well tructures with cusps developed in boudin
necks (Fig. 29A) or of the development of n ew extensional
veins perpendicular to an existing vein in order to accom-
modate its extension (Fig. 29B). Extreme cases of boudinage
in shear zones also lead to development of isolated quartz
pods along the foliation (Fig. 29C). Boudin can be ymmet-
ric (Fig. 29A) or asymmetric (Fig. 29C, D) relative to the foli-
arion. Symmetric boudin indicate that, prior to its extension
(or boudinage), the vein was oriented subparallel to the foli-
ation plane and to the incremental elongation direction, dX.
Asymmetric boudins indicate that the vein was initially
oblique to the hear zon foliation and rotated toward the
foliation plane and dX. The asymmetry of th e boudin can
generally be used to infer the en e of rotation of the vein
during its deformation (H anme r and Pa chie r, 1991).
Boudins of veins typically are elo ngated obj cts, with their
long axe perpendicular to the elongation lineation , or to
the dX axis, in the related foliation plan e.
Boudinage of veins can also develop along th e limb of
tight to i oclinal folds (as described above ) in shear zones
and highly trained rocks. Fault-fill veins, because they gen-
erally form a t a low angle or parallel to their host sh ear
zone, will gen erally be bo udinaged as a result of continuing
movement and sh o rte ning across the sh ear zone, or as a
result of reactivation. The orie nta tion of the long axe of
the boudins helps to discrimina te between th e two ca e . If
produced during continued sh ear zone defo rma tion , th e
long axes of the boudin will lie at a high angle to the elon-
gation lineation in the h o t fo liation and typically parallel
to the axes of related fold (e.g., Robert and Brown, 1986) .
If produce d du ring later h ear zone reac tivation , the
boudins will h ave a different orientation relative to the
elongation lineation in the related foliation. In the exam-
ple sh own in Figure 29C, the axes of the boudins are sub-
vertical, subparallel to the elongation lineation in the fo lia-
tion plane, sugge ting that boudinage took place during a
subsequent deformation increme nt.
Boudinage clearly indicates that a vein h as be en over-
printed by strain . However, eve n in the case of boudin age
related to continued shear zone deformation , it is not pos-
sible to determine wh eth er th e ve in predated th e h os t
shear zone or if it formed during its development. Choco-
late-tablet boudinage of a vein indicate its extension in two
144 ROBERT AND POULSEN
 VEIN FORMATION & DEFOR.MATIO IN GREENSTONE Au DEPOSITS 145

FIG. 29. Features of bo udin aged vein . A. Pinch and swell structure in boudinaged ankerite vei ns (light gray). ote
the developme nt of cu ps of le competent foliated basalt (da rk gray) in th necks of th e vein boudins. 1 ote al o the
pre e nce of small exte nsional quartz vein lets (whi te) at a high a ngle to th e a nkerite veins. Dome de posit, Timmins, map
view. Steel plate is - 15 em acros . ourtesy of Geological Survey of anada, photo no. 1999-0150. B. Boudin aged quartz-
tourmalin e ve in (oudin ed ), fo lded together with its host foliation. Note the deve lopme nt of white ex tensio nal vein lets
perpendi cular to the main ve in in d1 e necks of in cipi e nt boudins. Th e fac t th at the vein lets in boudin neck retain d1e ir
h igh angle to the main vein across the fo ld indicates that the vein was first boudinaged a nd then folded. Orenada Zone
4 de po it, Val d'Or eli trict. Vein is 15 em thick. C. Intense boudin age of quartz ve in para ll el to foli ation , leading to sep-
aration of th e bouclins into individual isolated quartz pod in th e shea r zone. To te d1 e asymm etry of th e bouclin , indi-
cating rota tion ofd1e ve in durin g its boud inage. Oren ada Property, Cad ill ac faul t zone, Val d'Or, map view. H amm er for
scale. D. Developmem of a ymmetri c boudins in a quartz ve in lying at a low angle to d1 e foliation. The bouclin s are -5 em
thick. Jam es Bay. E. Piercement structure (arrow ) of su Lfid es (li ght gray) in more competent andalusite schist (dark
gray) d eve loped alo ng th e walls of a massive sulfide band. La Ro nde de posit, Bou quet eli trict, map view. tee! plate are
- 15 em aero s. F. Boudins ofandalusite schist (clark gray) within layers o f massive ul.ficles (light gray) , bowing flow of
the su lfides in the bouclin necks. La Ronde deposit, Bousquet, map view. Steel pl ates are -15 em across. C. Mylon iti c
quartz in fau lt-fill ve in (hi ghlighteci ). J asper deposit, Star Lake distri ct, map view. Pe n for scale. H . Disseminated ulfide
and su lfide-ri ch vein let ore in ericite chist. oLe th e elongation of th e pyrite gra ins parallel to the foli ation (a rrow) .
Doyo n deposit, Bou quet.

orthogonal directio ns and reflects bulk fl atte ning of the
shear zone. Again, it provides no information on the timing
of vein formation, other than to indicate the vein ha been
overprint d by at least some of the shear zone deformation.
Because of their commonly incompete nt character, sul-
fid e-rich ores, either in th e form of rna ive sulfide lenses or
vein , will display diffe re nt d eformation fe ature than
quartz vein s. Shortening aero ulfid e-rich layer initially
produces pi erceme nt structures of the sulfides into incipi-
ent boudin necks in the adjacent compete nt material (Fig.
29E; Maiden et al. , 1986). In more advanced states of boud-
inage of the competent layers, sulfide material flows into
the boudin neck areas (Fig. 29F). As in the ca e of boudi-
naged veins, sulfide cusp and piercem ent structures indi-
cate that th e sulfides have expe ri enced a t least ome of the
shortening aero the ho t hear zon e, but they provide no
informatio n on the relative timing of sulfide introduction
and shear zone development.
Striated vein margins: Striations (slickenlines) on the walls
of fault-fill veins or of individual laminae within them are
relatively co mmon (Fig. 19F), and more than one set may
be present in the sam e vein. Striations record th direction
of slip event(s) during vein deve lopment or during ubse-
quent reactivation . Striations may d efine steps recording
the e nse of movement along th e slip plane, and some may
be accompanied by fibrou mineral growth. As discussed in
the previous sec tion , only in rare ca e can striations be
unequivocally related to ve in development: tho e in which
min eral fibers along the slip su rface co nsist of a p ecific
mineral (e.g., tourmaline) diagnostic of the main stage fill-
ing of the vein. Striations overprinting a given mineral must
be clearly distinguished from tho e defined by fibers of the
same mineral.
Striations subparallel to the move me nt direc tion along
the host sh ear zo ne probably relate to the main period of
movement along the sh ear zone a deduced from other fea-
tures, especially if they co ntain teps co mpatibl e with the
sense of shear (Fig. 19F). In the absence of diagnostic min-
eral fibers, it is not pos ibl e to de te rmine if the striations
formed as a result of vein development or as a result of their
overprinting during ubseque nt sh ear zone movement. In
th e pr sence of multiple sets of striations, those parallel to
th e movem nt direc tion along the shear zone are most
likely to be related to its developm ent. Striations produced
during reactivation of a shear zone or a vein need not be
parallel to the earlier movem ent direction along it.
Internal deformational f eatures in veins: A variety of other
deformation features, some of which are on ly visible at th
microscopic cale, are also co mmonly d eve loped within
veins. These have been recently reviewed by McCuaig and
Kerrich (1998) and a re only briefly considered here. Again,
uch internal deformation feature may be an integral part
of the progre ive d evelopment of fault-fill ve in , or may
record ubsequent overprinting d eformation. In most
cases, it is very difficult to discriminate between the two po -
ibilitie on th e basis of these internal structures alone.
Polygo nization and recry tallization of quartz, ob erved
at the microscopic cale, i very common in vein , ugge t-
ing overprinting deformation and/ or metamorphism. This
is especially clear in the case of extensional veins, in which
deformation feature do not accompany vein growth .
Deformation of vein quartz is also an integral part of th e
development of fault-fill veins in active shear zones (Boul-
lier and Robert, 1992; McCuaig and Kerrich , 1998). In this
case, however, polygonizat.ion and recrystalli zation are not
uniformly developed within the vein, varying between lam-
inae depending on the ir relative time of growth during the
hi tory of vein development (Bou llier and Robert, 1992).
Mylonitic fo liation of quartz is pre ent in a few cases and
repre ents extreme and pervasive recry tallization ofveins
in shear zones. It is defined in outcrops or hand specimen
by zones of strong quartz banding and significant grain-size
reduction (Fig. 29G). It is also accompanied by de truction
of the primary ve in textures. uch d evelopm e nt of
mylonitic foliation is not expected to be part of vein forma-
tion in the case of fault-fill veins and is, therefore , likely to
have developed during overprinting deformation or shear
zone reactivation.
146 ROBER T AND POULSEN
Stylolites marking trains of insoluble residues also pro-
vide common evidence of internal deformation of veins.
They are most commonly developed in fault-fill veins and
may form either during vein development (Boullier and
Robert, 1992) or during subsequent deformation.
Pressure shadows around pyrite grains in altered wall rocks
adjacent to veins and in disseminated gold ores are also com-
mon. They record deformation overprinting mineralization
but provide no additional constraints on their relative tim-
ings. Pressure shadows may have a prolate shape that defines
a lineation with the same significance as the elongation lin-
eation in the host foliation. In other cases, disseminated sul-
fide grains are parallel to the foliation (Fig. 29H) , also
recording deformation overprinting the mineralization.
Ore shoots resulting from vein deformation: The plunge of
long axes of deformed veins and ore bodies will reflect both
their initial morphology and its modification by deforma-
tion in their host structures. Two main cases need to be
considered: deposits overprinted by shear zones or by sig-
nificant bulk strain, and those overprinted by folds.
Deposits and orebodies overprinted by shear zones will
tend to plunge parallel to the elongation lineation in the
foliated host rocks. This is expected to be the case for pre-
shear zone deposits, as illustrated by the pre-deformation
sulfidic gold deposits of the Bousquet district, which plunge
steeply to the west, parallel to the elongation lineation in
their intense host shear zone (Marquis et al., 1990). If the
deposits or orebodies have a well-defined primary plunge,
it will be variably modified by bulk rotation towards paral-
lelism with the elongation lineation or the movement direc-
tion of the host shear zone, depending on the amount of
overprinting bulk strain.
Deposits and ore bodies overprinted by folds will tend to
plunge parallel to the fold axis. Such oreshoots can be
defined by stope-scale concentrations of gold and sulfides
remobilized in fold hinges, or by the plunge of the entire
orebody along the fold axis. The Orenada Zone 4 deposit
at Val d 'Or provides such an example (Robert, 1990). The
Orenada Zone 4 deposit is a small vein-type gold deposit
located directly within the Cadillac fault zone (Fig. 2). It is
characterized by a cluster of thin quartz-tourmaline veins
parallel to the intense s2foliation within the fault zone, and
overprinted by mesoscopic F3 folds. The vein cluster occu-
pies the core of a map-scale F3 fold and plunges moderately
to the west, parallel to the plunge of the fold.
Structural Timing of Veins
Auriferous veins in greenstone belts occur in shear
zones, folds , extended competent layers, and in zones of
broader regional strain. Determining the timing of vein for-
mation relative to the history of their host structures or host
districts is critical in determining key structural controls on
mineralization and in selecting appropriate gold deposit
models. Two complementary approaches can be followed
to constrain the structural timing of veins. The first is based
on a comparison of the axes of incremental strain recorded
by the veins or vein networks with those of well-established
strain increments in the districts (e.g., Table 1). The second
approach is based on a determination of the timing of veins
relative to specific fabrics and structures in penetratively
strained host rocks.
Comparison of vein networks and regional strain axes
In a number of districts, the axes of strain related to spe-
cific deformation increments can be determined from their
corresponding penetrative structural fabrics (foliation and
elongation lineations) and folds. The incremental strain axes
of vein networks can then be compared with those of differ-
ent deformation increments. As a ftrst approximation, com-
patibility of network axes with those of a specific deformation
increment suggests a temporal link between the two.
For example, in the eastern part of the Val d 'Or district,
where not overprinted by D3 structures (Fig. 5) , D2 is charac-
terized an east-west subvertical S2 foliation, containing a sub-
vertical L 2 elongation lineation (Robert, 1990). These struc-
tural fabrics record D2 strain in which the maximum fini te
shortening direction, Z, is north-south and horizontal , and
the maximum elongation direction, X, is subvertical. In con-
trast, D3 structures are marked by northeast to east-west sub-
vertical crenulation cleavages, steeply-plunging asymmetric
folds , and subhorizontal striations on D 2 shear zones and
veins. They record a late increment of dextral transcurre t
deformation (Robert, 1990) , in which Z is horizontal and
trends broadly southeast, whereas X is subhorizontal and
trends broadly northeast. As discussed above, the develop-
ment of the quartz-tourmaline vein network at Sigma-
Lamaque clearly records incremental north-south horizontal
shortening, dZ, and subvertical elongation, dX. (Fig. 26) .
The cigar-shaped stockwork zones of the Louvicourt Gold-
field deposit also define dX, dY, and dZ incremental strain
axes plunging steeply east, shallowly west, and horizontally
north, respectively (Fig. 23C). The axes of incremental strain
recorded by quartz-tourmaline vein networks at both
deposits are compatible with those of D 2, suggesting tha t
they formed during this regional increment of deformatio .
In contrast, the formation of quartz-tourmaline veins in both
deposits is inconsistent with the D 3 transcurrent increment
of deformation, in which the elongation direction, X, is sub-
horizontal. A D2 timing is also indicated by the overprinting
of quartz-tourmaline veins by F3 folds at the Orenada Zone 4
deposit (see above), located within the first-order Larde r
Lake Cadillac fault zone (Fig. 2). The local horizontal stria-
tions observed on fault-fill vein surfaces at Sigma-Lamaque
can also be explained by a weak D 3 overprint (Robert, 1990).
The weak D 3 overprinting of quartz-tourmaline veins north
of the Larder Lake-Cadillac fault zone reflects the fact that
this increment of deformation was largely localized along the
fir:st-order structure in the district.
Timing constraints can also be placed even in the case of
simpler vein networks with less well-defined incremental
strain axes. In the Star Lake district, quartz vein deposits
occur in a set of east-northeast- to northeast-trending, sub-
vertical shear zones, overprinting a composite granitoid
intrusion and parallel to the regional D 2 structural trend
(Figs. 4 and 9A). All host shear zones are defined by a
 VEIN FORMATION & Dr.r ORMA T JON fN GREENSTONE Au DEPOSITS 147

strong mylonitic foliation and co n tain a moderately to formed in a syst m of D 3 sinistral wrench faul ts, for which
teeply northeast-plunging elo ngation lineation, recording the elongation direction, by definition, i impli d to be ub-
oblique-slip south-sid e-up movements kinematically com- horizontal. Altho ugh thi apparent incompatibili ty ca n be
patible with the regional D 2 in crement of deformation explain ed by tran pres ional d eforma ti on, this approach
(Pou lsen et al., 1986b; Thomas an d Heaman, 1994). The serves to identify questions needing further attention.
deposits consist oflaminated fault-fill veins (Jolu, Rod Main
zone; Fig. 18C) , breccia vein bodies (2 1 Zone; Fig. 22D) , Vein timing criteria in penetratively strained rock
and rare, moderately dipping extensional veins exte rnal to A second approach to e tabli hin g the tructural timing
the shear zone (Jolu, Rod South zone). All deposits have of vein relie on pecific tructural and geological relation-
similar vein and wall-rock alteration mineral ass mblages, ships at the mesoscopic, hand- pecime n , and microsco pic
suggestin g that they are of th e same age. At the 21 Zone scales. Three ge n eral ca e of tructural timing h ave typi-
deposit, di cordan t vein segme nt in the breccia body cally been argued by geologist for vein in penetra tively
clearly truncate th e mylonitic fo li ation of the h o t shear u·ained rocks: (1) veins are syn chronou with development
zone (Fig. 22D), indicating the vein formed after foliation of penetra tive fab rics; (2) vei ns pre date deve lopment of
development. In other d eposits such at J a p er, fault-fill pe netrative fa brics and ar unrelated to ob erved strain in
veins and the enclosing mylonitic foliation are overprinted the ho t tructure; or (3) veins comple tely postdate fabric
by asymmetric fo lds plunging subparallel to th e sh ear development in the host rocks. These three ituations are
zone's elongation lin eation (Fig. 28G). Given their open to di cussed be low, with an attempt at formu lating orne crite-
tight character, these fo lds are incompatible with the move- ria for distinguishing among these different ca e . The pro-
ment direction in the ho t shear zone and are best ascribed posed criteria can be regarded as a erie of questio ns that
to the effects of th e D3 transcurrent deformation in the dis- sh ould guide the o b ervation and documenta tion of pe-
trict (Lewry et al., 1990). Ore bodies within the shear zone cifi c feature or relation hips in the fi eld. Few of the pro-
and the dip of external exten ional veins all lie at a high posed criteria are en tirely diagno ti c, and any interpre ta-
a ngle to the sli p direction in the host hear zone . Thi tion of the timing of mineralization relative to deformation
geometry is con istent with their occurre n ce at branch es must th erefore be based on as many crite ria a po ible.
and deflection in the hear zone at a high angle to the slip
direction (Fig. 19) . Only in the J asper deposit is this larger Veins formed synchronously with penetrative fabrics in their host
pattern modified to include smaller ore shoots plunging structure: Man y aurifero u quartz vein have bee n inter-
parallel to lineation and the axes of minor fold . The e rela- preted as having formed synchron o u ly with th e ir host
tionships suggest that the veins in the tar Lake di trict sh ear zon es (McCuaig and Kerrich , 1998). In some ca e ,
have formed in existing sh ear zones, during (th e late veins have been interpre ted to develop late in the hi tory of
stage ?) ofD 2 , but prior to D3 . th e ir host structure (Ro be rt an d Brown , 19 6), uch that
Barren veins overprinting mineralized rocks can also be they have retained tl1 ir primary geomeu·y and their inter-
u ed to place time constrain ts on mineralization if the vein na l texture are relatively well pre erve d. In oth r cases,
can confiden tly be a cribed to a specific deformation incre- deformation can outlast vein development, a nd th e veins
ment. In th e H arke r-Holl oway district of the Abitibi (Fig. will sh ow so m e evidence of d eform a ti o n overprinting
1) , disseminated-replacement go ld mineralization at the related to continued move me nt along the ho t structure.
Holt-McDermott and H oll oway deposits i overprinted by a A number of field criteria can be u ed to establish whether
set of barren subhorizontal extensional veinlets (Fig. 30A; or not veins in shear zones are related directly to shear zone
Robert, 1997). The e veinlet are perpe ndi cular to the displacement, even though they may be overprinted by con-
local, weakly developed, subvertical elongation lineation L 2 tinued shear zone deformation. Some of tl1e expected geo-
and are interpreted a having for med during D 2 • The fact metric and structural relationships for veins formed ynchro-
that these veins cut disseminated-replacement orebodies nou ly with their host tructures are listed below:
sugge ts that gold mineralization at tl1ese deposits predate
some or all of the D 2 deformation (Robert, 1997). l. Where both fau lt-fi ll vein and fringing exten sional
In a number of ca e , there may not be a unique olution veins are presen t, the overall vein configuration and geom-
for the incremental strain axes of a vein n etwork, leaving etry will b e co mpa tibl e with the kine m a ti c of th e host
ambiguities in correlating vein network axe with tho e of shear zo ne (Fig. 19), provided that th e two sets of veins are
regional deformation increments. This is illu trated by the co nte mpora neou . For example, th e lin e of inte r ection
Mount Ch arlotte depo it, wh ere two di tinct sets of strain between fault-fill and extensional ve ins i expected to be
(stres ) axe can explain the development of stockwork ore- perpendi cular to the slip di rection a long the host shear
bodie (Ridl ey and Mengler, 1998). Finally, this approach zone, an d p aralle l to the inter ection b tween conjugate
can be used to highlight possible uncertainties in the tim- set of h ear zones if prese nt (Fig. 19). This is case at the
ing of mineralization. At the Revenge deposit, for example, Sigma-Lamaqu d e p os it, a illu trated in Fig ure 26,
the vei n network h a been interpreted by guyen et al. where north- and south-dipping faul t-fi ll veins a nd sub-
(1998) to have formed in a compres ional stress field (ver- h orizontal exten io n al ve in all inte r ect along a lin e sub-
tical cr3 ), recording an increme nt of subvertical elongation pa rallel to the slip direction alo ng the related set of con-
dX . However, th e ve in n etwork is interpreted a h aving jugate sh ear zone .
148 ROBJ.:,'RT AND POULSEN

Fie. 30. A. Subhorizontal barren extensional quartz veins crosscutting ore-grade albiti zed and pyritized basalt in the
Holloway deposit, Harker-Holloway district. cross section view, hammer for scale. Courtesy of the Geological Survey of
Canada, photo no. 1999-015CC. B. Photomicrograph of tourmalinized shear zone in mafic volcanic rocks adjacent to a
quartz-tourmaline fault-fill vein of the Sigma deposit, Val d 'Or. Shear zone foliation is marked by the trails of fine rutile
grains (black; see arrow) ; it is fo lded and clearly overgrown by tourmaline porphyroblasts (gray) . Field of view is 1.35 mm
wide. Reprinted with permission of Economic Geology; Robert, 1996, fig.l. C. Barren but foliated diorite dikes (arrows) cut-
ting across quartz-carbonate-pyrite veins within an in tense shear zone in ultramafic rocks. First Canad ian deposit, Val
d'Or. Oblique view, steel plate -15 em across. D. Intense foliation (right half of photograph) overprintin g veins on the
fringes of a stockwork ore body at the San Antonio deposit, Rice Lake. Cross section view, hammer for scale.

2. Planar extensional veins, if present, will cut the pen-
etrative foliation and will be nearly perpendicular to the
foliation and elongation lineation in the shear zone or
strained rocks. Furthermore, the line of intersection
between the veins and the foliation will lie nearly per-
pendicular to the e longation lineation. Mineral fibers
within the veins will also be subparallel to the elongation
lineation.
3. If extensional veins are buckled due to continued
shear zone deformation, their enveloping surfaces remain
at a high angle to the shear zone's elongation, unless shear
strain is very high. In this case, the penetrative foliation is
expected to be deflected around rotated limbs of buckle
folds, as opposed to axial planar to the folds. The line of
intersection between the vein and the foliation plane, also
corresponding to the axes of the buckle folds, will lie at a
high angle to the elongation lineation, as is the case for the
folded vein let shown in Figure 28B.
4. The internal geometry in en echelon extensional vein
arrays, if present, v.rill be compatible v.rith the sense of shear-
ing determined for the host shear zone (Fig. 19), as in the
examples shown in Figures 20B and 25C.
5. Striations on slip surfaces within fault-fill veins, and
especially those defined by hydrothermal minerals presen t
in the veins (Fig. 18F) , will be subparallel to elongation lin-
eations in the host foliated rocks (Fig. 19).
6. Foliated wall-rock slivers v.rithin fault-fill veins are gen-
erally intensely altered. In many cases, the foliated natur
of the wall-rock slivers is lost due to progressive replace-
ment by hydrothermal minerals v.rith increasing intensity of
alteration (Robert and Brown, 1986). This observation indi-
cates that vein-related hydrothermal alteration postdates
the bulk of foliation development. At the Sigma-Lamaqu
deposit, trails of ilmenite and rutile grains defining th
foliation in wall-rock slivers within fault-fill veins are over-
grown by tourmaline porphyroblasts (Fig. 30B), clearly
indicating that veins and associated alteration formed in a
zone of already foliaLed wall rock (i.e., in a preexisting
shear zone; see Robert, 1996). Of similar significance are
the discordant segments of veins truncating the mylonitic
 VEIN FORMATION & DEFORMATION IN GREENSTONE Au DEPOSI T.
fo li atio n a t the 21 Zone d ep os it in th e Star La ke di tr ict
(Fig. 22D).
7. Co n trastin g degree of train will commo nly be
observed between adj ac nt quartz laminae in fa ult-fill ve ins.
Laminae wi th nearly strain-free quartz ( h awing only undu-
lose extinctio n) wi ll coexi t wi th strained laminae in whi ch
quartz is polygoni zed to completely recrystallized (Bo ullier
and Robert, 1992; see also fig. 5 in Robert eta!. , 1995). The
co n trasting degr e of strain between diffe ren t laminae in
sh ar veins refl ects diffe re nt degrees of deform ation over-
prin ti ng due to the ir successive formatio n at different tage
of shear zone activity, the older laminae being more strai ned
than younger o n es. In ve ins overprinte d by subse qu e n t
deformatio n, fo r exam pi in the case of hear zone reactiva-
tio n , m o t if n ot all quartz laminae wo uld be exp ected to
show similar, moderate to high d grees of strain .
O ve rall, ve ins for m e d durin g progressive p e n etra tive
defo rmati o n will display o rn e fo rm of conflicting rela ti on-
ship to deformation fea tures of their h ost rocks. For exam-
p le, orne veins in a given se t, or som e part of a vein, may
truncate pe netra tive fabrics in the ho t rock, and the oppo-
site relatio nsh ip i n oted for oth er veins of th e se t or fo r
o th er p arts of th e sam e ve in. This is th e cas fo r th e 21
Zo ne dep o it, where som discordan t vein segmen ts trun-
cat the mylo ni tic fo liation in th e core of th e ore body, but
wh ere the same veins are ligh tly buckled and boudin aged
o n th e margins of th e ore body, refl ectin g some weak over-
printing strain . This type of conflicting relatio n hip is also
illustrated by the sampl e sh own in Figure 28B, wh ere the
vein clearly trun cates th e fo liatio n but is buckle d by fu r-
ther sh o rte ning ac ross it, while retaining geom e tric com-
p a tibility with th e co n tained elo ngatio n lineatio n , as dis-
cu s d above.
Veins formed before penetmtive deformation in their host struc-
tures: A number of vein gold deposits have been interpreted
as be in g ove rpr in te d by stru ctural fa b rics in th e ir h os t
rock , a nd to preda te all or a significan t part of the pene-
trative strain . Examples include th e Campbell d ep osit in
the Re d Lake distri ct (P n czak and Maso n , 1997), th e
H ollinger-Mclntyre deposit in the T immi ns district (Ma on
and Meln ik, 1986), and ulfi de-rich Cu-Au vein depo its in
th e hibougamau district (Magnan and Blais, 1995; Pilo te
et al. , 1995). Relationship that can be u ed to upport such
in terp retations include the following:
1. The p re en ce of po tore dikes, cu tting across vein or
oth r styles of min eralization , which are th em elves fo lded ,
transposed , in te nsely fo liated , or boudinaged in p enetra-
tively strain d rocks (sh ar zone or regional fo liatio n ), p ro-
vides a clear time ma rke r in th e history of the h ost truc-
ture. Figu re 30C how a mafic dike crosscutting a vein at a
small angle wi thi n a shear zone; the dike itself i inten ely
foli a te d , whi ch indi cates th a t th e vein fo rm ed prio r to a t
least the Ia t incre me nt of penetrative deform ation within
th e h ost sh ear zo ne. Addi tio nal examples of d eform ed
dikes cu tting gold mine raliza tio n h ave been described in
149
th e H emlo (Robert and Poulsen , 1997), Bo usqu et (Gos-
selin et al, 1994), Val d 'O r (Couture e t al. , 1994; Ro bert,
1994), and Chi bougamau (Magn an an d Blais, 1995) dis-
tricts in Canada.
2. In thecae ofveinle t and veinle t stockwork o res, th e
presence of fis h-h oo ks, i olated fo ld hinges, and trail of
i olated boudins of min e ralized ve inlets, indicates inten e
transpo itio n (H obbs e t al. , 1976) and provide a good indi-
catio n th at th e o re h ave bee n inte nsely d efo rm ed . Such
fis h-hooks and i olated hinges are best o bserved looking at
a p la n e p erp e ndic ul ar to th e stretc hin g lineatio n , a
oppo ed to looking at a plane parallel to it.
3. T h e grada tio n of a stockwork zon e fro m a we ll-pr -
e rved tate ou tside a shear zon e into a trongly defo rmed
stockwork within the h ear zon e indicates tha t the stock-
work predate much if no t all of the strain within th shear
zone. An example fro m th e San An to ni o stockwork o re-
bodi es is illu trated in Figure 30D, wh ere in tact stockwork
vein le t (above th e h amm er) are in crea ingly d fo rm ed
toward the cen ter of the shear zone o n th e righ t.
4. T he p re en ce of a perva ive, trong folia tion wi thin a
ve in , a i th e case fo r th e quar tz v in fro m th e J a p e r
depo it at Star Lake h own in Figure 29G, is indicative of a
sign ificant amount of u·ain overprin ting th e ve in .
5. Similarly, the joint folding of h ear zone foliatio n and
fo liation-paral le l vein reflects the exi tence of a significant
overprin ting strain . In the ca e of th e J asper deposit at Star
Lake, the plunge of asymmetric open folds (Fig. 2 G) i sub-
parall I to the elo ngatio n lineatio n in the ho t hear zone.
The plunge of the fold is incompa tible with that of th e folds
resul ti ng fro m continued move me nt alo ng the host stru c-
ture, an d the train ove rprinting the vein i best interpreted
as rela ted to shear zone reactivation (during D 3 ) .
6. Folded exten io nal veins tha t predate pene trative foli-
atio n are like ly to di play wall that a re cre nula te d by the
folia tion (Fig. 28A). In such cases, th e enveloping surface
of the veins can be at any an gle to the elo ngation lineatio n
(as o pposed to at a high angle for a vein synchro nous with
fabric develo pm en t). In th e ro tated limb of a folded vein,
limi ted d efl ec tio n of th e fo lia tion is expec ted (Fig . 28C;
compare with Fig. 28B).
7. The geom etric arrangem ent and kinem atic of over-
printed en echelon vein arrays (e.g., sigm oidal exten sional
vein ) or multiple vein e ts (combin ed faul t-fill and exten-
sio nal veins) will be in compatible with the kinematics of the
host shear zone. Thi would be theca e, for example, of an
array of steeply-dipping, recognizably sigm oidal exte nsional
veins recording strike-slip shearing, ove rprinted by a pene-
trative fo liation with down-dip elo ngation lineatio n.
8. Several gold depo its occur in zon e of intense chlo-
rite o r ericite chi ts . So me of th e e chi t zon e are rela-
tively thi ck co mpared to the ir strike lengths and a re diffi-
cul t to trace fo r a ny sig nifi cant dista n ce . Becau se sh ear
zones alo ng whi ch displaceme nt h as taken place te nd to be
long and kinny, one can su p ct th at short "stubby" zones
of schist a ro und veins overp rint and mim ic th e shap es of
p reexi ting phyll osili cate alteratio n zo n es (Pil ote e t a!. ,
1995).
150 ROBERT AND POULSEN
Finally, it should be noted that shear zones and synchro-
nous veins within them may also be reactivated or folded
together during subsequent generations of deformation
belonging to the same deformational event. Examples of
folded auriferous veins in the Larder Lake-Cadillac fault
zone have been described at the Orenada Zone 4 deposit,
Val d'Or (Robert, 1990) , and examples of folded shear
zones and veins been described in the Rice Lake belt by
Brommecker eta!. (1989). Shear zone-hosted veins that are
folded in subsequent deformation events are difficult to dis-
tinguish from those that have been folded during shear
zone development.
Veins postdating their host structure: There are at least two
lines of evidence that have been used to argue for the for-
mation of auriferous veins well after regional deformation
and metamorphism and, thus, postdating the structures to
which they appear to be related.
The first argument is geological and commonly revolves
around the apparent late paragenesis of gold in some veins
(Mawdsley, 1938; White , 1943; McCuaig and Kerrich,
1998). These arguments closely parallel ideas set forward by
McKinstry and Ohle (1949) , who regarded veins in part as
metasomatic replacements of preexisting structural fea-
tures rather than exclusively dilational fillings of fractures.
The type of observation that supports this view is illustrated
in Figure 21C, where an entire shear zone and its included
foliation has been tourmalinized to produce a tabular com-
petent rock mass overprinted further by an array of exten-
sional quartz veins. Taken on its own merits this observation
could lead one to conclude that the shear zone played a
passive role, serving only as a fluid conduit well after the
tectonites were formed within it. This type of argument has
also been applied at a microscopic scale to create a distinc-
tion between the timing ofvein formation as opposed to
the timing of introduction of gold into the vein. Cases have
been made for late introduction of gold into previously bar-
ren veins, for example in the Star Lake district, typically
where quartz has recrystallized to finer grain size or subse-
quently been fractured (e.g., Hrdy and Kyser, 1995).
The second argument for late development of gold
deposits in greenstone belts is geochronological. As
reviewed by Kerrich and Cassidy (1994) and McCuaig and
Kerrich (1998), the ages of auriferous veins in the Abitibi
Greenstone belt and the La Ronge Domain have been esti-
mated by a variety of methods (U-Pb, Pb-Pb, Ar-Ar, Sm-Nd)
applied to a variety of minerals. In nearly all cases, except
for U-Pb zircon data (Kerrich and King, 1993) , the results
suggest vein formation postdating deformation, metamor-
phism, and plutonism by as much as 50 to 100 Ma after
regional deformation and metamorphism. These young
ages have been interpreted as representing either the age
of primary gold mineralization, selective resetting of iso-
topic systems during late hydrothermal overprinting, or
remobilization (McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998).
The above arguments notwithstanding, there is evidence
of at least some deformation overprinting auriferous veins at
most deposits implying pre- or syn-kinematic timing, making
it difficult to rationalize a late, postkinematic timing for min-
eralization. Although one might dismiss the late paragene is
of gold in veins as evidence of remobilization , and t e
apparent young radiometric ages as evidence of selective iso-
topic resetting, the observations are real and should nev r-
theless be considered in the structural analysis of veins in
gold deposits. One must acknowledge , however, the possi-
bility that some deposits may have formed very late in the
structural history of the regions in which they occur, partic-
ularly where evidence of deformation of veins is minimal.
Discussion and Concluding Remarks
The determination of the structural timing of veins in
greenstone gold deposits, either in relation to their ho t
structures or to the structural evolution of districts, is a chal-
lenging task. It is nevertheless essential to attempt this in
order to highlight structural controls of mineralization, to
select appropriate gold deposit models, and to formula te
valid predictions of the geometry and plunges of deposi ts
and orebodies.
It is apparent from the above descriptions that nearly all
greenstone gold deposits show evidence for some level of
pre-, syn-, and postmineralization strain. The task is to
assign the timing of the main stage of ore deposition cor-
rectly in relation to the structural evolution of districts and
of host structures. Pre-deformation deposits will record the
effects of all strain increments in the district, and their orig-
inal shapes and morphologies will be substantially mod i-
fied. This is the case of the Bousquet no. 2 gold-rich vol-
canic-hosted massive sulfide deposit, which plunges parallel
to the elongation lineation in the highly strained host rocks
(Marquis et al. , 1990). In deposits formed synchronously
with their host structures, there will be evidence that veins
and associated alteration overprint the host shear zone foli-
ation. For example, this can take the form of vein segmen
truncating foliation planes, as at the 21 Zone deposit (Fig.
22D) , or of alteration minerals overgrowing the foliation in
wall-rock slivers within fault-fill veins, as at Sigma-Lamaque
(Fig. 30B) . However, there will also be varying degrees of
deformation overprinting the veins. This can result from
continued deformation along the host structure, as can be
argued for folds and boudins geometrically consistent with
the slip direction along the shear zone (e.g. , the sample
shown in Fig. 28B). Overprinting deformation can also be
related to the effects of a subsequent deformation incre-
ment, producing structural features inconsistent with the
movement direction along the host shear zone (e.g., the
asymmetric folds of vein and foliation at the jasper deposit;
Fig. 28G). Deposits can also postdate the development of
their host structure, such as where a vein is produced dur-
ing reactivation of a preexisting shear zone during a later
increment of deformation. In such cases, the geometric
and kinematic features of the veins will not be compatible
with those of the host shear zone.
Two main factors will influence the degree of preserva-
tion of gold deposits. The first is the timing of ore forma-
tion in the evolution of the district, with the younger-
formed deposits expected to be the least deformed and
 VEIN FORMATION & DEFORMA710N IN GREt."NSTONE Au Dl:-'POS!TS 151

best preserved. The second factor is the location of the

deposits within the di trict, becau e of the domainal distri- PLUNGE OF OREBODIES IN RELATION
bution of the eff cts of some deformation increment , as TO THEIR STRUCTURAL SETIING
shown in Figure 5. As a result, for two depo its formed at
the same time, one may be well preserved if it i located in
an area where the effects of a ubsequent strain increment LONGITUDINAL SECTION STRUCTURAL SITE
are not well developed, whereas the other can show signifi-
cant overprinting. This i the case for the D 2 quartz-tour- - Veins in dilational jogs
maline veins of the Val d 'Or district (Fig. 2): those in the
Sigma-Lamaque depo it, located in an area where the - Veins at shear zone and vein
effects of D3 are weak (Fig. 5), are relatively well preserved. intersections
In contrast, those of the Orenada Zone 4 deposit, within
the Larder Lake-Cadillac fault zone, are overprinted by F3
folds becaus of the reactivation of this fault during D 3 . The
heterogeneous distribution of the effects oflate (D 3 ) train
increments can also explain why some vein in the Star - Veins in folds , in axial plane or
Lake district are well preserved, such as those in the 21 "AC" positions
Zone deposit (Fig. 22D) , wherea other veins, like those at
-Folded orebodies
Jasper, are overprinted by a trong internal foliation (Fig.
29G) and asymmetric folds (Fig. 2 G). An important impli- -Intensely sheared orebodies
cation is that it may be erron ous to conclude that a deposit
has formed very late in the evolution of its host district on
the simple basi of the ab ence of overprinting deforma-
tion: the deposit may have formed in an area where subse- - Veins in dilational jogs at
quent deformation increments had only very minor effects. intersection with favorable layer
Knowledge of the structural timing of mineralization also
- Orebodies at intersection with
provides a basis for ass ssing interpretations of the age of
favorable layers (e.g.. BIF)
mineralization reached from other, or from perhaps incom-
plete, lines of evidence. For examp le, the very young ages
obtained for the quartz-tourmaline veins at Val d 'Or (see
abov ) , are inconsistent with the fact that the veins have
formed during D 2, and prior to the last important incre- t
Elongation
or slip direction T!
Fold axis
?
Line of
6
intersection
ment of deformation, D 3 . In the Star Lake di trict, the fact
that go ld occupie late brittle fractures in foliated and
FI G. 31. Di agram showing th e ex pected geometri c re lationship
folded vein quartz atja per ha been used to argue for between the plunge of orebodie and the lip direction or e longation lin-
introduction of gold into the veins after they were formed eation in shear zones in diverse structu ra l settings (see text for discussion ).
a nd deform ed (Hrdy and Kyser, 1995). Con ideration of
the 21 Zone deposit, where there is limited overprinting
deformation and where there i an intimate a soc iation units (e.g. , band d iron formations) intersected by th e
between the amount of coarse pyrite in the vein and the shear zone (Fig. 31B). Vein deposits formed in fold , con-
gold grades (Pout en et a l. , 19 6b), rather uggests that sisting of veins parallel to the axial plane or of veins in AC
pyrite a nd gold were introduced together, during the for- joint positions, tend to be concentrated within p cific
mation of the veins. li thologic units and wi ll p lunge parall e l to the fo ld axes
Finally, with constraints on the timing and tructural hi - (Fig. 31 C). Ore bodies overprinted by intense hear zone
tory of a given deposit, it is possible to make some valid pre- will likely plunge parallel to the elongation lineation (Fig.
diction concerning the po sible plunges of deposits and 31 C), wherea folded deposits and orebodie are exp cted
orebodies, or high-grade shoots within them, dep nding to plunge parallel to the fold axes.
on the specific structural and lithologic context. In deposits In summary, careful tructural analysi of ve ins hould
synchronous with their ho t structure , orebodies in dila- provide an accurate picture of the permi sible timing of vein
tional jogs or at hear zone splays and intersections wi ll formation relative to other deformational events, and, mo t
plunge at a high angle to the elongation lineation in the importantly, may highlight significant ore control and pro-
host structure (Fig. 31A). In a few ca es, however, ore bodies vide some u eful gu idelines for local m ineral exploration. In
have also b en docum e nted to plunge parallel to the slip addition, structural analysis provides an a sessment of the
direction ( ee Poulsen and Robert, 1989). Ore bodies in degree to which a deposit has b en modified by overprint-
bends caused by refraction of the shear zone across a litho- ing deformation. This information can in turn be u ed in
logic contact will instead plunge parallel to the line ofinter- determining po sible and permi sible plunge of orebodie
ection between the hear zone and the laye r, and so wi ll or of high-grade ore shoots within th em, even when only
orebodies formed by replacement of chemically favorable limited tructural information i available, information of
152 ROBi'-"RT AND POULSEN
particular value in the early stages of drilling an occurrence.
The timing of mineralization in deformed terranes is also an
essential parameter in the classification of deposits or occur-
rences and in the selection of appropriate genetic or explo-
ration models. This, in turn, relies heavily on the correct
interpretation of the structural significance of veins. Char-
acteristics of veins interpreted to be orogenic by some
authors (Groves et al., 1998) are similar to those for veins
argued to be intrusion-related by others (Sillitoe and
Thompson, 1998) . Even though these designations are by
no means mutually exclusive, they carry with them an over-
all genetic connotation, which commonly also guides explo-
ration. The geologist working in this field must therefore be
willing to continually evaluate the reliability of genetic inter-
pretations of veins based on further interpretations of their
structural characteristics and their structural settings.
Acknowledgments
The review presented here relies heavily on more than
15 years of structural studies in gold deposits and districts
by the authors. This work would never have been possible
without the collaboration and participation of numerous
colleagues from the Geological Survey of Canada, provin-
cial geological surveys, and the private sector. We extend
our deepest appreciation to all of these people, and partic-
ularly to B. Dube for constructive discussions of many of the
ideas presented here. Comments of the reviewers and J.P.
Richards ' editorial skills led to significant improvements of
the original manuscript. Finally, we thank the editors of this
volume for understanding the challenges of writing such a
paper and of meeting deadlines while working in an indus-
try environment.
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Society of Economic Geologists
Reviews v. 14, 2001, fJ. 157-181

Chapter 6

Magmatic and Structural Controls on the Development of

Porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au Deposits
R. M. T o DALt
Mineral Deposit Research Unit, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1 Z4, Canada

D J. P. RICHARDS
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E3, Canada

Abstract

Porphyry Cu ± Mo ±Au depo its requ ire th e coincidence and positive interaction of a eries of individ-
ually commonplace geological processes. Th y, and all the ir genetically associated deposits, are a natural
consequence of co nvergent margin magmatism , and reflect the dynamic interplay be twee n magmatic, hy-
drothermal, a nd tecton ic proce e . Magma generated during ubduction rise into the upper crust, com-
monly along zo nes of lithosphe1·ic weakn ess, where they pond in tabular magma chambers a t depths of 6
km or deepe r. The chambers grow laterally by chamber floor depre ion (cantilever mechanism ) and
some rooflifting (piston mechanism ). Apop hyses rise from the parental magma chamber and inu-ude to
within 1 to 3 km of the surface, where they may undergo vola tile exsolution and crystallization as por-
phyritic stocks. Emplacement of porphyry stocks is facilitated by structural an i otropy in the roof rocks. As-
cending hydrothermal fluids exsolved fro m the porphyry stocks and the underlying parental magma
chamber are focused into the cupola, taki ng advan tage of vertical structural and rheological anisotropies
introduced eith r before or du ring porphyry emplacement.
From a tructural standpoint, three recurre nt processes enhance permeability in the form of fracture o r
breccia networks through wh ich hydrothermal fluids pass and precipitate minerals. Fracture-producing
events are re lated to in trus ion of pre-, syn-, and post-mineral porphyry tocks or dike to near- urface depth
(1-3 km ), phase separation and volume expansion of a hydrothermal fluid through a variety of mecha-
nism , and tectonically induced fai lure . Concentric and radial fracture patterns refl ect magmatic proce e
whereas more linear arrays of veins reflect tectonic influences. The re ulting different ve in array are com-
monly vertically and temporally distributed in the porphyry sy tern; concenu-ic and rad ial arrays are more
common above or in the upper parts of the stocks, whereas linear array dominate at depth, formi ng as the
system cools and the pluton solidifie . Orthogonal and conj ugate arrays of veins characterize al l scales and
all parts of porphyry systems. Veins fro m a particular parage netic tage do not have unique o1·ientations, but
1·ather occur with all orientations typical of that system. The com mo n conjugate to o rthogonal inter-vein re-
lationships in porphyry Cu deposits require repetitive exchange of p1incipal stre orien tatio n , events that
are fac ilitated by condition f low differe ntial horizontal stres . Such tre conditions indicate that many
porphyry Cu depo its form in specific environments where the magmatic arc i under a near-neutral stress
state. These condition occur e ith er in areas re moved from active deformation , or during periods of stre
relaxation and low strain in the magmatic arc. Achievement of these conditions in time and pace i like ly
to be infrequent and tran itory during the life of a convergent margin , which may explain the patial and
temporal cluste ring of deposits in large porphyry disu-icts.

Introduction
P ORPHYRY Cu ± Mo ± Au deposits, h ereafter referred to as
porphyry Cu deposits, are associated with shallow-level plu-
tonic complexes emplaced in m agmatic arc at convergent
plate margins (Fig. 1, 2A; Sillitoe, 1972, 1997; Sutherland
Brown, 1976; Titley, 19 2; awkins, 1990). Since their first
recognition as important so urce of metal (Ransome,
1904, 1919; Lindgren, 1905, 1933, 1937; Emmons, 1927),
much work has been devoted to under tanding the forma-
tCorre ponding author: e-mail , rtosdal®eo .ubc.ca
tion of these depo its from a phy ical and geoc h e mical
standpo int (Burnham , 1967, 1979; Gustafson a nd Hunt,
1975; Cathles, 1977; Burnham and Ohmo to, 1980; Beane
and Titley, 1981; Candela, 1989; lin e and Bodnar, 1991 ;
Hedenquist and Richards, 1998). In addition, the question
of why th ere i consid erable variation in the size of these
type of deposits ha been pondered (Clark, 1993). Other
studies h ave focused o n structural co ntro ls on vein a nd
fracture distributions within porphyry Cu d e po it , and
the ir spatial and paragenetic rela tion ship to p o rphyry
stocks (Rehrig and Heidrick, 1972, 1976; Gustafson a nd
Hunt, 1975; Titley and H eidrick, 1978; H eidrick and Titley,

157
158 TOSDAL AND RICHARDS

Pacific Ocean

Porphyry belts of the Circum-Pacific

~ Oxidized magmatic belt:
Porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au

Ftc. l. Disu·ibution of Mesozoic an d Cenozoic porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au deposits along convergent plate margins in th e
circum-Pacific region. PNG = Papua New Guinea. Adapted from Thompson (1995).

1982; Wilkinson et al., 1982; Lindsay et al., 1995). These
studies demonstrate that porphyry Cu deposits are influ-
enced not only by magma tic and hydrothermal processes,
but also by regional tectonics at the time of formation. In
fact, the prevailing tectonic setting and structural frame-
work may strongly influence not only the size and form of a
porphyry system (Sillitoe, 1994, 1997; Skewes and Stern ,
1995) but also its location (Rehrig and Heidrick, 1972,
1976; Titley and Heidrick, 1978; Heidrick and Titley, 1982;
Richards et al., 2001 ).
This chapter reviews the interplay between magmatism
and dynamic structural environments in the development
of porphyry Cu deposits. Critical to this goal is the general
model of porphyry Cu deposits, which highlights the need
for constructive interaction between magmatic, magmatic-
hydrothermal, and tectonic events in the formation of por-
phyry Cu deposits. It is e qually important to consider
emplacement mechanisms of shallow-level plutonic com-
plexes in the upper crust because porphyry Cu deposits are
restricted to these environments. Throughout this chapter,
we draw liberally on well-described examples of porphyry
Cu deposits to illustrate various points. Most examples are
from the southwestern United States and from the Andes of
Peru and Chile. This geographic focus is not intended to
indicate that other porphyry Cu provinces are insignificant,
but merely reflects past history of geologic investigations,
availability of literature, and our personal experiences.
General Porphyry Model
Physicochemical model
Important characteristics of porphyry Cu deposits summa-
rized herein are based on the primary physiochemical stud-
ies of Lindgren (1937), Remley and jones (1964), Sheppard
etal. (1969, 1971) , Lowell and Guilbert (1970), Rose (1970),
Roedder (1971), Sillitoe (1973) , Gustafson and Hunt
(1975), Hollister (1975), Sheppard and Gustafson (1976),
Sutherland Brown (1976), Eastoe (1978), and Reynolds and
Beane (1985), and reviews by Gustafson (1978), Beane and
Titley (1981), Titley and Beane (1981), Titley (1982), Hunt
(1991), Kirkham and Sinclair (1996), and Hedenquist and
Richards (1998).
Porphyry-type systems are so-named because of their spa-
tial and genetic association with porphyritic intrusions (Fig.
2A). Commonly, such intrusions are characterized by phe-
nocryst assemblages consisting of one or more of the min-
erals quartz, Kfeldspar, plagioclase, hornblende, and biotite
(rarely pyroxenes and olivine) in a fine-grained matrix.
Rock compositions vary from granitic to dioritic or rarely
gabbroic, and are of calc-alkaline to alkaline parentage
(Brown, 1982). Parental magmas are believed to be moder-
ately water-rich as indicated by the presence of hydrous phe-
nocryst phases such as amphibole and biotite, whose stabil-
ity requires at least 3 wt percent H 20 in the melt (Holland,
1972; Burnham, 1979). Water concentrations are probably
 i\1AGMAT!C AND TR UCT URAL CONTROLS 0 PORPHYRY Cu ± Mo ±Au Dt."'POS! TS 159

A Generalized porphyry-rel ated ba e metal systems B

0 ?

ARGILLI C
qtz - kaol - chi
POTASS IC
qtz - K feld - bi
± ser ± anh

I to greater tha n 5 km PERIPH ERAL PERIPHERAL

Zn-Pb-Ag-A u- cp-gal- I cp-gal-sl
4 As-Sb-Hg+/-Cu Au-Ag Au-Ag

FI G. 2. nato my of a po rph yry Cu ± Mo ±Au de posit a nd other spatia lly rela ted
deposits. A. General mode l of a zoned magmatic hydrotherma l sys tem showin g pote n-
tial linkages betwee n a po rphyry Cu de po it ce n te red on a composite po rphyry intru-
io n at depth (adapted fro m Silli toe, 1993) . Th e po rphyry Cu d epo it i fl anked out-
wa rd a nd upwa rd by a cha rac te risti c suite of d e pos it types. o t a ll d e pos its in the
g nera l model a re prese nt in every zoned magmatic-hydro the rmal y tem. Peripheral
de po its dominate some sy te m such as Copper Canyon in the Battle Mountain Min-
ing District (Th eod o re, 2000 ), wh e reas in oth e r ystems such as th ose in so uth e rn
Pe ru a nd Chi le, th e po rphyry Cu depos it dom inates and few periphera l deposits are
kn own (Gustaf o n a nd Hunt, 1975; la rk et a l. , 1990). B. Simplifi ed di tributio n of
hydro th e rm a l alte ratio n and sulfid e min e rals in a n id ealized po rphyry Cu d eposit
(adapted from Lowell and Gui lbert, 1970). Abbreviation : AA =advanced argi llic alter-
atio n; adu l =adu laria; alb = albite; anh =anh ydrite; bi = biotite; carb = carb nate min-
e ral ; chi = chlo rite; cp =c halco pyrite (and bornite); epi =epid ote; gal = galena; kaol
= kaolin ite; K-fe ld = K feldspar; mag= magnetite; mb = mo lybde nite; py = pyrite; q tz =
qu artz; se r =se ricite; sl =sph alerite; suif. = ul.fidatio n. ORE
SHELL

not h igher than 5 wt percent, however, because of the com-
mon presen e of plagioclase phenocrysts (Gill, 1981). Fluid
exsolution fro m the melt u pon reaching atu ration lead to
a u dden ri e of th e magma so lid us te mp e rature, wh ich
qu ench es the matrix and gives ri e to th e po rp hyritic tex-
ture. T his magmatic-derived hydrothermal fl uid is, in turn ,
implicated in the tran port and deposition of metals to form
po rp hyry mineral deposits.
The hyd rous natu re of the melt derive from magmagene-
sis in an arc environment where water is carried down into
th e up p er mantle by subduction of altered oceanic crust
(Fig. 3) . Slab dehydration during descent to -100 km depth
meta omatize the overlying mantle wedge, thereby generat-
ing cond itions ui table for extraction of hyd rous, ba altic
magmas by decompressio n melting (H amil ton, 1981; Arcu-
lus, 1994) . As th ese magmas asce nd toward th e urface, a
combi nation of processe , including de pre surization and
crystallizatio n of an hyd ro us m in eral p h ases, leads to a
decrease in volatile olubility and an increase in the volatile
content of the residual ilicate melt, eventually leading to sat-
uration (Burnham, 1967, 1979; Whitney, 1975). At thi point,
a eparate volatile phase is exsolved, which becom e concen-
trated at the top of the magma chamber (Figs. 4 and 5A). In
calc-alkaline to alkalin e arc magmas, this water-rich volatile
phase will also con tain other water-soluble volatile compo-
nent such a Cl and S sp ecie . Dep ending o n the depth
(pres ure) of mplacem ent, initial volatile exsolution yield
eith er (1) a hig h-pressu re, h om ogen eous, superc riti cal,
aqueous fluid with alinity in th e ran ge 2 to 10 wt pe rcent
NaCl equiv, or (2) at hallower depths (above approximately
5 km) two immiscible fluids, consisting of a low-salini ty vapor
phase and a high-salinity brine (Burnham, 1979; Cline and
Bodn ar, 199 1; Shinoh ara, 1994; Gu tafson and Quiroga,
1995; H edenquist and Richards, 1998; H ede nqui t eta!. ,
1998). The e fluid pha es can tran p ort ba e and preciou
metals as chl01ide and po ibly bi ulfide complexes (Candela
a nd H olland , 1984, 1986; Williams e t a!. , 1995; Gammo ns
and Williams:Jones, 1997; Loucks and Mavrogenes, 1999).
160 TOSDAL AND RICHARDS
Three Dimensional Geometry of Magmatic Arcs
fixed
relative to
Deformed zones
Thermally weakened
deformed zones
Upper Crust (UC): Strike-slip partitioning Ri sing magma in
and distributed shearing dikes I shear zones
Lower Crust (LC): Distributed shearing
Upper Crust (UM): Localized shearing
FMS: Forearc Mantle Sliver
FIG. 3. Geomett-y of a magmatic arc formed at an obliquely convergent
plate margin. Hydrous magmas are generated in the mantle wedge and
intrude the lithosphere along broad deformation zones undergoing varying
amoun ts of strike-slip motion depending upon the degree of obliqui ty along
the convergent margin. Modified from de Saint Blanquat et al. (1998) .
Exsolution of a volatile phase from magma necessarily
involves a large positive change in volume (Phillips, 1973;
Burnham, 1979; Burnham and Ohmoto, 1980) . Depending
on the stress regime and the structure and permeability of
the confining host rocks, this volume change may be accom-
modated by pervasive brecciation of the volatile-saturated
carapace of the intrusion, or direct escape toward the surface
along fault zones or breccia pipes (Fig. 4). Both mechanisms
involve creation of fracture permeability and porosity into
which ore minerals may subsequently be precipitated,
thereby leading to formation of porphyry deposits.
Hydrothermal fluid exsolved at magmatic temperatures is
initially in equilibrium with the coexisting magma and its
mineral phases. High-temperature alteration assemblages
(Fig. 2B), therefore, consist of minerals such as quartz, K
feldspar, biotite, anhydrite, and magnetite (the "potassic"
alteration assemblage; Lowell and Guilbert, 1970; Gustafson
and Hunt, 1975). Base metal sulfide minerals, typically com-
binations of chalcopyrite, bornite, and molybdenite with
pyrite (Fig. 2B), are deposited with these alteration minerals
as disseminations and in thin, commonly wavy or ductilely
deformed, wispy veinlets that lack parallel vein walls. These
early veins were termed "A veins" by Gustafson and Hunt
(1975), based on their study of the El Salvador porphyry
deposit in Chile. These veins are usually cut by intramineral
porphyry stocks where such stocks are present. Marginally
later "B veins" at El Salvador are quartz-rich with more abun-
dant molybdenite and chalcopyrite, and straighter vein
walls; these veins cut all but post-mineral stocks. The
straighter vein walls and mineral textures within these veins
indicate formation at lower temperatures than the A veins.
high-sultidation
alteration
FIG. 4. Fluid circu lation patterns in a porphyry copper deposit form-
ing in the cupo la of a stock at depths in the range of 1 to 3 km. Exsolu-
tion and trapping of magmatic fluids in a zone of lithostatic fluid pres-
sure (Pr) beneath an isoth erm of -370• to 40o•c, which marks the
brittle-ductile transition. Within this zone , brine and "steam" interac t
with the country rocks forming the potassic alteration stage. Above the
transition zone, circul ating fluids und e r hydrostatic pressure alter the
country rocks to propyliti c min eral assemblages. In a n unperturbed and
cooling porphyry Cu deposit, the brittle-ductile transition graduall y co l-
lapses onto the ea rly potassic a lteration zone, lead ing to phyllic over-
printing and the influx of meteoric fluids into the system. If the brit-
tle-ductile transition is suddenly pe rturb ed or breached because of
tectonism or later magmatism, the fluid lid ruptures, lead in g to sudden
transition from lithostatic to hydrostatic fluid pressures (see left side o f
stock o n diagram). The fluid-saturated carapace undergoes sudd n
phase separation lead in g to "steam" plus brine plus crystals, with the
potential expulsio n of metal-bearing fluid upward into the epithermal
environment. Within the porphyry Cu environment, these exp losi ve
pressure transitions trigger the formation of hydroth erma l brecci as .
Adapted from Fournier, 1999.
As the high-temperature fluid migrates away from the
parent magma, it rises owing to buoyancy and begins to
cool. Two processes may happen, as follows:
1. If the fluid was exsolved originally as a homogeneous
supercritical phase, then upon cooling it will likely intersect
its solvus and separate into liquid and vapor phases. This
phase separation event involves a further increase in vol-
ume leading to additional fracture permeability and brec-
ciation, most commonly in the fluid-soaked carapace above
or at the top of the porphyry stock. Phase separation may
also occur during sudden pressure drops such as massiYe
hydrofracturing, sudden removal oflithostatic load, or rup-
turing of the brittle-ductile transition zone separating the
deeper lithostatic from the overlying hydrostatic environ-
ment (Fig. 4; Fournier, 1999).
2. Sulfur originally dissolved in the high-temperature
fluid as so2will react with water and disproportionate to
form H 2S and sulfuric acid (Burnham, 1979).
 MAGMA71C AND STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON PORPHYRY Cu ± Mo ±Au DEPO ITS 161

A
s s

Restored view

Tea Cup Granodiorite

Porphyritic phase
Equigranu lar phase
Tertiary dike

c s
Domes

Paleo urface_ --
Domes
..._,...
---
0
---

3
km
4

6
I, I I

' ' '

7 '
'''

''
edi mentary and volcanic rocks (Tri . and Jur.) Granitic rocks (Middle Jur.)
Volcanics of Artesia Lake (Jur.) ~ Granite porphyry dikes
Quartzi te (Jur.) Luhr Hill porphyritic granite
Siltstone (Jur.) Border granite of Bear intrusion
Limestone (Tri.) Qu artz monzonite of Bear intru ion
Sedimentary and volcanic rocks (Tri.) Quartz monzodiorite of McLeod Hill intrusion
Volcanic rocks (Tri.) Shamrock batholith

FIG. 5. Re la ti o nship betwe n porphyry Cu d epo its, porphyry stocks, a nd dikes to unde rlyin g parental m agm a c ha m-
bers, which common ly li e at depths of 6 km or greater. A. Evolutionary model for the exsolution of h igh-density aline
aqueous fluid from tabular plutons and the upward escape of this fluid into th e roof zon e where a porphyt-y Cu deposit
forms (Dilles, 1987). The a lin e aqueou fluid trapped a lo ng th e roof of a coolin g batholi th is ch an ne led upward along
dike or tacks that emanate from th e inwardly uystallizing magma. B. The Kelvin porphyt-y Cu prospect in Arizona is
associated with a sma ll porphyry stock that emanates fro m the apical part of the Tea Cup Granodiorite ( m odified from
Cornwa ll a nd Kri eger, 1975; Creasey, 1984). C. The Ann-Mason porphyry Cu deposit in th e Ye dn gton batho lith i asso-
ciated with dikes eman ati n g from succes ively deeper parts of the Luhr Hill porphyritic gran ite (Dilles, 1987). Jur. =
Jura ic; Tri . =Tria sic.
162 TOSDAL AND RICHARDS
These processes generate a new set of veins and breccias
characterized by gangue and alteration minerals stable at
lower temperature and pH. In particular, an increase in activ-
ity of sulfate in the fluid owing to so2disproportionation will
result in voluminous precipitation of anhydrite and further
release of more acid in the form ofHCl (Burnham, 1979). In
feldspar-rich host rocks, the characteristic alteration assem-
blage from these acidic fluids is fine-grained muscovite
(sericite) with quartz ("phyllic" alteration assemblage, Fig. 2B;
Lowell and Guilbert, 1970). In addition, sulfide minerals are
precipitated in response to the increase in H 2S activity. Asso-
ciated D veins (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) are coarse-grained
and sharply defined with strong alteration haloes, and consist
of sulfide minerals (abundant pyrite, with lesser Cu Fe-sulfide
minerals, sulfosalt minerals, sphalerite, and galena), anhy-
drite, and minor quartz. Typically, the highest grades of hypo-
gene Cu ore are present close to the boundary between the
potassic and phyllic alteration zones, again reflecting the
increased activity ofH 2S in the fluid as a result of S02 dispro-
portionation. The phyllic alteration zone is commonly
observed as a shell surrounding the potassic core of the por-
phyry system (Lowell and Guilbert, 1970) , and may have a
diameter of several hundred meters to a few kilometers.
Separation of a vapor phase may lead to the formation of
a low-density vapor plume rich in acidic volatiles such as
S0 2, HCl, HF, and C0 2 (Fig. 4). Cooling and condensation
of these vapors at shallow depths causes intense acid leach-
ing ("advanced argillic" alteration; Fig. 4) , characterized by
total destruction of primary minerals to leave an insoluble
residue of quartz, clays (kaolinite or pyrophyllite), alu-
minum hydroxides (diaspore), and alunite. Such alteration
zones, being very porous and permeable, may serve as hosts
to high-sulfidation styles of epithermal mineralization
(Hedenquistetal., 1993; Hedenquist, 1995).
Emplacement of a hot body of magma into the shallow
crust typically involves interaction with local ground waters
(Fig. 4). The degree of that interaction depends on crustal
permeability, but in many cases hydrothermal convection
cells driven by heat from the intrusion can be shown to
have operated over radii of many kilometers (Taylor, 1974;
Titley et al., 1986). The fluids involved are typically dilute
ground waters, and the alteration arising from their flow is
characterized by hydration, producing minerals such as
chlorite and epidote, commonly with carbonate minerals
("propylitic" alteration; Fig. 2B).
Many variations upon the general porphyry model have
been recognized throughout the world, particularly in
terms of the sequence of sulfide minerals deposited in
veins. For example, at Mineral Hill, Arizona, molybdenite is
the oldest sulfide mineral recognized and much of the cop-
per sulfide mineralization is paragenetically younger, gen-
erally associated with D-type veins (Wilkinson et al., 1982).
Nevertheless, the general sequence of alteration and sul-
fide mineral deposition described above characterizes the
majority of porphyry Cu deposits, regardless of their size.
From a structural standpoint, three processes contribute
to fracturing during porphyry Cu formation, and each
process enhances permeability in the form of fracture or
breccia networks through which hydrothermal fluids m ay
flow and precipitate minerals (Figs. 5-7): (1) intrusion of
pre-, syn-, and post-mineral porphyry stocks or dikes, which
may be intruded to near-surface depths (1-3 km; Koide
and Bhattachariji, 1975) ; (2) exsolution of hydrothermal
fluid from a cooling parental magma chamber, with
upward focus into the solidified or partially solidified stocks
and warm wall and roof rocks (Fig. 5A); and (3) phase sep-
aration of the hydrothermal fluid. Each event involves vol-
ume expansion and fracturing wherever the fluid pressure
exceeds the ambient minimum effective stress (0 3' = 0 3 - P r•
where Pris the fluid pressure plus the tensile strength of the
rock; Jaeger and Cook, 1979; Sibson, 2000). Multiple or
recurrent pulses of hydrothermal activity, which are com-
mon in porphyry systems, lead to repetition of fracturin g
and superimposition of veins and alteration, leading to
increased complexity.
Vein-dominated versus breccia-dominated porphyry Cu deposits
Porphyry Cu deposits developed within noncalcareous
country rocks have a considerable range of morphology
and show variations between vein-dominated and breccia-
dominated systems with considerable overlap between the
two . Vein-dominated porphyry Cu deposits represent a rel-
atively simple environment: veining events are consistent
with emplacement of a porphyry stock, exsolution of a mag-
matic-derived hydrothermal fluid with local influx of exter-
nal fluids, and cooling of an evolving magmatic-driven
hydrothermal system. These deposits are the most common
variety of porphyry Cu deposits, with numerous well-docu-
mented examples (see volumes edited by Titley and Hicks,
1966; Sutherland Brown, 1976; Titley, 1982; Pierce and
Bolm, 1995; Schroeter, 1995).
The other end-member is breccia-dominated (Sillitoe,
1985). Breccias in the porphyry Cu environments have a
range of morphology and genesis, being formed from
igneous, magmatic-hydrothermal, and phreatomagmatic
processes. The most common types of breccia are pre- to
syn-mineral bodies that are irregular to pipe-like in shape,
and are characterized by angular clasts, sharp or grada-
tional contacts against enclosing rocks, and an intimate
association with porphyry stocks or dikes. The breccia
matrix consists of igneous rocks or hydrothermal silicate
and sulfide minerals (Richard and Courtright, 1958;
Camus, 1975; Zweng and Clark, 1995). Post-mineral brec-
cias commonly but not always have a milled rock-flour
matrix and rounded clasts; they are referred to as pebbl
breccias. These breccias essentially excise parts of a prior
hydrothermal system (Richard and Courtright, 1958) ,
although locally, such as at Toquepala, the pebble breccias
are intramineral and contain chalcopyrite in the matrix.
Zweng and Clark (1995) proposed that breccia-dominated
porphyry Cu deposits form at shallow levels based upo
fluid inclusion data from Toquepala. They suggested that
vein-dominated deposits would more commonly form at
slightly greater depths. Implied in their model is a primary
influence of the lithostatic load of the overlying column of
rock on breccia formation (see discussion below).
 1\1AGMATIC AND STRUCTURAL CONTROL ON PORPHYR Y Ctt ± Mo ±Au DEPOSTTS 163

_,: /1
', zones of \dilation
.' /
.--.-- -~~--
• \.• •
" . )It' -~ ' , ' '
' · / Intru ion-induced \ ,' )' · ,···· -----~\:- ,.•''
---~·-..
.. ~.. ..,...... ..
fracture ~
~
f.~, ...-;
1',}1 , /
,.:~ ,, '- ,-, . . . (:..
,,'' , _______ , , . .
.... .. ' .... .... I - '\ t.,,,, , , , ' '""

···-..~ \\-.·'.'1
·" I 1\\1\1
\.\ \l'' '·'li.'
,.,,,1,,1 /''I : ,•'
~-~· ·
• • • "'(- ' ' \ ~ I • ,•:•V'
"- ?-..' ;_;;·
--- intrusion-induced
fractures

B
roof uplift along steep fa ults by piston mechanism
roof exten ion above expanding pluton
progres ive lateral development of steep fa ult as pluton expands

crystalli zing magma

---
lateral growth
by canti_lever

~
magma input

F1 c. 6. G ne ral mod els for th e formatio n o f a tabu lar graniti c batholith a nd ove rlying porphyry Cu d eposit at shallow
leve ls in th e crust. A. Co mputer simu lati o n of growin g tabula r ba th o lith fe d fro m be low (Au stra li a n eodynam ics
Research Group, 1997). Subho ri zontal fra tur and fa ult system pro pagate o utward from th e expand in g ti ps ofthe tab-
ular plu ton . Ri ing above th e growing bath olith are stocks extending to shall ow levels in th e crust. T he u rface of th e
Earth is displaced upwa rd by th e shallow stoc k, wh o e emplace ment deve lops co nce ntric fractu re and fault sy tems as
we ll as inte nse, teep fractu re networks in the overlying volca ni c ca ra pace. B. A ta bu la r pluto n expands laterally and
grows do minantly by a ca nti leve r mecha n ism. Lifting o f th e pluto n roof alo ng steep d ipp in g normal faul ts accomm o-
date the ve rtical expansio n of tl1 e stock. U pward expansio n of th e pluto n may be assi ted by sto ping of roo f rocks and
po tentially by ball ooning. Roof uplift is likely accompanied by extension , which leads to weak zones into whi ch apop hy-
ses or tocks may in trude. These apo phy e focu tl1 e asce nt of exsolved magmatic-derived hydro the rmal flui ds, and sub-
seque nt ore fonn atio n ( ee Fig. 5 ~ r example ) . P D = p rphyry Cu ± Mo ±Au de posit.
164 TOSDAL AND RICHARDS

\ trace qf plane (section)

contammg
(map view) cr 1 and cr
3 c
B

(section)
(map view) trace of plane containing E
cr1 and cr
D 2
FIG. 7. Simplified predicted su·ess trajectories above a rising, shall ow-leve l stock where the stress state approaches uni-
axial exte nsion above a cylindri cal stock. In isotropic rocks, formation of fractures, vein s, and dikes wou ld be gu ided by
the su·ess trajectories. In anisotropic rocks, older structural fabrics, such as fau lts, bedding, and folds , \l~ ll strongly influ-
ence the su·ess disuibution , and favorably oriented planes of weakness will be preferentially opened. In all cases, the max-
imum principal su·ess (cr 1) is oriented vertically. Dikes and ve ins develop normal to the minimum principal stress (cr 3)
and in the plane contain ing cr 1 and the intermed iate principal stresses (cr2 ). Other planes of weakness can form conju-
gate systems of shear fractures, distributed symmeu·ically distributed about cr 1• A. Stress trajectories generated above a
dom ica l stock. B, C. Map and cross-sectional views of orientation of stress for generation of cone sheets or concentri c
fractures. D. Map view of stress u·ajectories for generation of radial dikes and fractures. E. Cross-sectio nal view of the ori-
entation of shear fractures generated by a stress system above a domical stock. Modified from Park (1983).
 J\!JAGMATJC AND STRUCTURAL CONTROLS 0 PORPHYRY Ctt ± Mo ± Att DEPOSITS 165

Convergent Plate Margin Magmatism overpressure may drive magmas b yond their level of neu-
tral buoyancy, commonly resulting in violent eruptions.
Porphyry Cu deposit are the end result of a complex Overpres ured magmas may intrude by forcing open dikes
equence of events initiated by magmagene i at conver- or pipes, or by penetrating old faults or fractures (Bus ell et
gent plate margins, and it is, therefore, useful to review the a!., 1976; Delaney eta!. , 1986; Ida, 1999). The prevaili ng
process of magma ascent and emplacement in the litho - cru tal tress fi e ld control the ori ntation of dikes, favor-
phere. Convergent margin magmatism i linked to ubduc- ing intru ion along older faults oriented at high angles to
tion of an oceanic plate beneath an overriding continental the least principal str ss (cr 3 ) . Alternatively, tectonic stress
or oceanic plate, upon which the arc is constructed (Fig. 3) . and r ultant train may epi odically create reduced pre -
In this environment, pla te motion vectors are commonly sure or tensional zone in the crust, uch a pull-apart zone
ob lique at varying angle to the plate margin , and stress at fault inter ection or jogs, which may focu magma
tran mitted to the overriding plate, and there ulting defor- ascent (Hutton, 19 8; Tikoffand Teyssier, 1992; Grocott et
mation , reflect the degree of obliquity. Strain is partitioneda!., 1994; Richards eta!., 2001). Thu , the varied tyle and
into arc-normal (convergent or divergent) and arc-parallel m echanisms of magma emplacement in the crust involve
(strike-slip) components. A wide range of structural styles an important dynamic interplay between tectonic and mag-
can, thus, be expected in the upper plat depending on the matic proce ses. The final three-dimensional form of the
degree of convergence obliquity, convergence rate, and the stock is controlled by strain rate , magma upply, country
angle of subduction (Fitch, 1972; Dewey, 19 0; Jarrard , rock versus magma rheologic difference , and tectonic
1986). Of additional importance is whether trench retreat environment (Castro and Fernandez, 1998; Corriveau et
or advance occur at the plate margin (Hamilton, 19 8; a!., 1998; Hogan eta!., 1998; Paterson and Miller, 1998a, b;
Royden, 1993). In the former situation (trench retreat) , the Yoshinobu eta!. , 1998; Wilson and Grocott, 1999).
overall tectonic etting will be exten ional, or transten-
ional where a ignifican t degree of net convergence obliq- Growth of a magma chamber
uity is present. In the latter case (trench advance), contrac- Magmatism at the Earth's surface or in near-surface envi-
tion or tran pre ion dominate . Regardle of convergence ronments is a manifestation of th relative effect of tec-
geometry, some relationship between trike- lip tectonic tonic tre s and magmatic overpressure. Whereas tectonic
and magmatism, including porphyry magmatism, is present or vertical str s acting on magma decreases with decreas-
in convergent margin arcs , although the relative impor- ing depth , the effect of magmatic overpressure shou ld
tance of strike-slip motion will vary (e.g., Glazner, 1991; de remain essentially unchanged because of hydraulic con-
Saint Blanquat et al., 1998). The ubiquitous as ociation of nectivity to depth. Hence, final emplacement of magma at
plutonic and volcanic complexes and major fault zone in shallow crustal levels will , in large part but not entirely,
arc implies that rising magma concentrates in zon s of reflect magma dynamic or magma overpre sure (Takada,
deformation . A corollary to this observation is either that 1994; Hutton, 1997; de Saint Blanquat eta!. , 1998; Ida,
deformation is crucial to the emplacement of magma, or 1999) . Coherent magma chambers recharge and grow
that magma assi t the deformation proces e which , in through the aggregation of mall pulse of magma, perhap
turn , helps its ascent to higher crustal level (McCaffrey, through the intrusion of multiple dike or lo bate bodie
1992; de Saint Blanquat et al., 1998). Paterson and Schmidt (Petford eta!., 1993, 1994). Buoyant diapiric ri e of magma
(1999; see also Schmidt and Paterson, 2000) have argued or lateral translation by pu hing aside of wall rocks helps
that many plutonic complexes are not neces arily emplaced create room for an expanding pluton (Tikoff eta!. , 1999).
along faults but come to rest in the I deformed rock de Saint Blanquat eta!. (1998) propo ed that magma
between major fau lts. However, their analy is applies to a cent into the crust tops where the magma become capa-
contractional orogenic belts characterized by thrust faults, ble of deforming or displacing its enclo ing wall rock ,
rather than transpressional or transt nsional trike- lip thereby creating spac for a growing or ballooning magma
zones in volcanic arcs (Richard , 2000a). chamber. Evidence for varying amo unts of wall-rock strain
Exactly how magma moves through the crust is poorly around pluton at all depths of emplacement lends support
under tood. evertheles , there i general agreement that to this model.
th fo llowing factors are important (Hogan and Guilbert, Granitoids emplaced at high levels in th e cru t tend to
1995; Hutton, 1997): (1) magma , being fluid , will always have tabular hapes with flat tops and bottom and steep
move down a hydrodynamic gradient toward region of low ides, and lateral dimensions that are much larger than
pressure; (2) in the ab ence of ignificant magmatic over- their vertical dimensions (Fig. 5B, C; Hamilton and Myers,
pre ure, the den ity contrast between a granitic melt and 1967; Dilles, 1987; McCaffrey and Petford, 1997). Such
the urrounding rocks wi ll drive the melt upward to an magma chamber grow above narrow vertical feeder zones
"equilibrium" leve l of neutral buoyancy in the crust; (3) or dikes and spread laterally a ill-like intrus ions th at
increasing vapor pre sure during late tage of cry talliza- inflate by floor disp lacement or by roof-lifting (Fig. 6;
tion generally increases magma pressures; (4) the lithosta- Johnson and Pollard , 1973; Po ll ard and J o h nson , 1973;
tic load of the overlying crust may act as a pre ure seal hin- Corry, 1988) . Floor depression leading to lopolithic com-
dering the rise of magma; and (5) temperature-dependent plexe eem to be the most common form of granitoid
viscous resi tance to magma flow inhibits ascent. Magmatic mplacement except at high-crustal leve ls (<3 km depth) ,
166 TOSDAL AND RICHARDS
where roof lifting is important and laccoliths may form
(Corry, 1988). Mechanisms of lateral growth of a magma
chamber are poorly understood , but they involve relative
downward transport of the country rocks as the magma
expands laterally. Mechanisms include cauldron subsi-
dence (Myers, 1975), stoping (Paterson et al., 1996), fold-
ing (Hamilton and Myers, 1967), and downward transport
on fringing brittle or ductile shear zones along the mar-
gins of the pluton (Paterson et al., 1996; Cruden, 1998).
Lateral growth of a tabular body is aided by faults and frac-
ture networks that extend laterally from the edges of the
plutons (Fig. 6A; Australian Geodynamics Research
Group, 1997). Such subhorizontal fracture systems could
be ductile shear zones or brittle fault zones depending on
the pressure-temperature conditions and, hence, depth.
Emplacement of additional dikes, sills, or veins along the
leading fracture tip would facilitate the lateral growth of
the pluton.
Cruden (1998) evaluated various mechanisms for the
thickening of tabular granitoid bodies in the upper crust.
He proposed that tabular plutons result from piston or can-
tilever mechanisms, or a combination of the two (Fig. 6B).
Both mechanisms result in plutons that have flat roofs.
Steep faults developed in the roof or floor of the growing
magma chamber would also assist in vertical chamber
growth (Fig. 6B). If chamber growth is accompanied by an
upward expansion somewhat akin to ballooning, or by a
piston mechanism on inward dipping faults, extension of
the roof rocks would be expected. Lateral growth in such
circumstances would result in the outward development of
a sequence of steep faults that presumably nucleated at the
tip of the expanding chamber. Alternatively, the steep faults
may nucleate along older planes of weakness such as intru-
sive contacts or older faults.
Plutons emplaced by a piston mechanism will have flat
floors and steep sides that correspond to brittle or ductile
faults or to feeder dikes. The belljar stocks in the Peruvian
Coastal batholith are excellent examples of this mechanism
(Myers, 1975). Emplacement by a cantilever mechanism
results in displacement of the floor of the chamber down-
ward, along steeply or shallowly dipping shear zones, lead-
ing to an inward sloping floor to the magma chamber.
Combinations of the two mechanisms are likely, and should
be expected for chambers emplaced in the brittle upper
crust at depths near or below -3 km. Such depths are
believed to be typical for the parental magma chambers
that source the shallower-level porphyry-related stocks and
dikes (Fig. 5B, C). Steep pluton margins are commonly
controlled by regional fracture sets, active faults , or older
fault systems (Bussell, 1976; Dehls et al., 1998). Growth and
replenishment of the chamber is via feeder dikes (Petford,
1996) , which also act to recharge the magma system with
fresh magma. Each influx of new magma could be of dif-
ferent composition, and may carry additional volatiles
(Folch and Martf, 1998). This process leads to evolutionary
changes in chemistry of the magma body (Matthews et al.,
1995; Keith et al., 1998) that perhaps contribute to por-
phyry Cu formation (Clark, 1993).
Volcanoes and Shallow-Level Intrusive Complexes:
The Environment of Porphyry Cu Deposits
In the volcanic and near-surface subvolcanic environ-
ment (<3 km depth) where porphyry Cu deposits form, the
free boundary provided by the Earth's surface is a critical
constraint on magma emplacement, growth, and eruption
(Nakamura, 1977; Takada, 1994). The outward and upward
pressure exerted by a rising magma chamber lifts and
extends the roof and adjacent walls of the stock, leading to
characteristic patterns of brittle deformation in the overly-
ing carapace, inflation of wall rocks, and local emanation of
radial dikes or cone sheets from the central stock (Figs. 6
and 7; Koide and Bhattachariji, 1975; Park, 1983). Fract r-
ing is most intense across the roof of the stock. Most of the
roof uplift is accomplished along faults that root in the
edges of the stock, and outwardly progressing roof fault sys-
tems are expected above a series of composite subvolcanic
stocks. The faults and fracture networks provide channel-
ways for intrusion of later stocks and dikes, as well as
hydrothermal fluids (Fig. 5A).
Within this near-surface environment, several factors gov-
ern growth and final form of a magma chamber and the
overlying volcanic edifice if present (Nakamura, 1977),
and, by extension, the characteristics of associated mag-
matic-hydrothermal mineral deposits. Volcanoes and sub-
volcanic stocks and dikes are commonly emplaced along
fault zones. These fault zones may have formed contempo-
raneously with magmatism, or may have been older struc-
tures reactived during magmatism (Bussell, 1976; Shaw,
1980). Whether or not these fault zones were active during
magmatism depends upon the regional tectonic stress field,
strain developed as a consequence of this stress, and mag-
matic pressure. The tectonic stress regime controls which
fault orientations might be dilatant, as well as whether o r
not original formation of the structures was contempor -
neous with magmatism. Favorably oriented faults provide
dilational channels permitting emplacement of magma
and fluids (Sibson, 1985, 2000) . Takada (1994) proposed
that the final form of volcanoes and their shallow-leve l
intrusive complexes reflects the degree of magma supply
coupled with the differential horizontal stress or strain rate
(Fig. 8). Areas of small differential horizontal stress and
high magma supply rate are conducive to the formation of
large plutonic complexes and overlying polygenetic strato-
volcanoes. In contrast, regions with a similar magma supply
but large differential horizontal stress (and correspond-
ingly higher strain rate) are characterized by numerous
largely monogenetic volcanoes and small, more dispersed,
subvolcanic plutonic complexes.
Subvolcanic plutons range from circular to elliptical in
map view. The orientation of the stock's ellipticity and any
associated dikes will be at high angles to the orientation of
the finite extension direction and minimum principal stress,
whether that is a regional tectonic-induced or local pluton-
induced stress. The exact angle depends greatly on the
degree of structural anisotropy in the immediate area of the
complex. Where the plutonic complex is emplaced in
 MAGMATIC AND STRUCTURAL CONTROLS 0 PORPHYRY Cu ± Mo ± Au DEPOSITS 167

Effect of differential horizontal tress and strain rate

on volcano-plutonic complex development
differential
stress

Small Hori zo ntal differential stress Large Small average

magmatic input rate
Large average magmatic input rate

FIG. 8. Effect of differenti al h01izo ntal stress and magma up ply on di u·ibution of volcanoe and subvolcan ic intru-
sions; modified from Takada (1994) . A large, nea r-surface, degassin g magma chamber is required for the form ation of
a porphy•-y Cu depo it. Formation of such magma chambe rs in the upper crust is seemingly favored by large to probably
intermed iate magma input rates, coupled with small to interm ed iate d iffere nti al horizontal stress and tra in rate .

isotropic or little-fa ulted rocks, th long axis of the complex
may approach o r thogonali ty to cr 3 depending upon the
magnitude and style of deformation. However, wh ere the
complex is emplaced into highly faulted crust, its long axis
could be at an oblique angle to cr 3 , because favorab ly ori-
ented fau lts and oth er structural fabrics will be exploited
preferentially. The elli pticity of the stock al o give ome
indication of the differential horizontal tress and strain rate
during magmatism ( akamura, 1977; Takada, 1994) . For
example, where radial dikes are well developed, a uniform
horizontal tress field during magmatism is indicated (Fig.
9). T his situation eems to domin ate th near-ven t ar as of
many volcanoes ( akamura, 1977), and implie that a soci-
ated subvolcanic stocks will be circular to slightly elliptical in
map view. In contrast, wh ere significant differential h ori-
zontal stre or high strain rate i established, radia l dike
swarms characterize only the core of the magmatic ystem
where magmatic pressure exceeds the tectonic stress (Fig.
9). Away from the volcanic core, dike , peripheral intru-
sions, satellite volcan oe , and axial grabens develop along
fau lt systems that are aligned at high angle to the minimum
principal stres . An important part of th is transition from
the volcanic core to peripheral environments is the effect of
temperature. Cool rocks away from the magmatic center will
fracture under the influence of a regional tre s field,
whereas near the warm core of th magmatic system, inter-
action between regional and magmatic pressures will con-
trol the final form of the volcano, ubvolcanic stocks, and , at
still greater depth , the parental plutonic body.
O f addition al impo rtance to th e final form of h a llow
plutonic co mplexe i the interplay between th e cooling,
solidified edges of the chamber and the dynamic, partially
mol te n, and poten tially recharged core. The importance of
th is interp lay exte nds to th e country rock where the
mechanical contra t between a cooling pluton and its host
rocks governs the spatial development of fau lts, fracture ,
and shear zone , which may in turn control the location of
later intrusion and hydrothermal systems (Cow and Ord,
1999). Where a strong rheological contrast i pre ent, su ch
a where plutons intrude edimentary rocks, faults may
form along m argins of the ce ntral stock, thereby permitting
acce oflate magma and fluid to th e country rocks. Wh ere
there i a weaker co ntrast, however, such as where pluton
intrude volcanic rock , deformation is most likely co ncen-
trated within the stock, thereby en h an cing episodic mag-
matism a nd hydroth ermal circul ation . In addition, the
nume rical models of Gow and Ord (1999) indi cate th a t
conjugate zones of volumetric dilation around the pluton
refract at the pluton margin , and do not reach its center.
The greatest dilatancy, therefore, occurs at the inte rsection
of the e conjugate zones and above th e pluton . Gow and
O rd (1999) further uggested that if ho rizontal compres-
ive stre s is ufficient, fluid or magma will be drawn up out
of the stock and into th e dilatant zo n e in the carapace.
External fluid m ay also be drawn into this zone leading to
fluid mixing, a prediction co n sisten t with evidence for
influx of external fluids during pota sic alteratio n in some
deposits (e.g., Dilles et al. , 1995; Bouse et al. , 1999).
168 TOSDAL AND RICHARDS

Cross-sectional views of conduits of subvolcanic plutonic and dike complexes

~
~~/ ~

Uniform or isotropic regional stress field

~ '
Differential horizontal or anisotropic stress field

Fie . 9. Radial dike disu·ibution, polygenetic volcano morphology, and underlying map view of plutonic comp lexes in
different idealized stress regimes; modified from Nakamura (1977, and refe re nces therein). A. Un iformly distributed
radial dikes, subcircu lar volcanic edifice, and underlying subvolcanic stock(s) form in an isotropic stress field where the
horizontal stresses are subequal (e.g., o 2 ~ o 3 ). B. Asymmetric dike distribution and curviplanar dikes developed under
an anisotropic stress field where a differential horizontal stress is extant (e.g. , o 2 > o 3). The volcano and underlying
stocks would have strongly elliptica l outlin es in map view with the long axis at hi gh angles to o 3 .

Where older structural anisotropy is present, faults may
be reactivated and may guide magma from the underlying
source chamber into the shallow crust or volcanic environ-
ment. Reactivation of old structures is a common theme in
many porphyry Cu-rich regions such as Arizona (Heidrick
and Titley, 1982) and the Central Andes (Salfity, 1985;
Richards, 2000b; Richards et al., 2001). On a regional scale,
reactivation of old fault and fracture systems is enhanced if
they are oriented favorably with respect to the ambient
stress field. Furthermore, intersections of such structures
may provide focal points for magma emplacement and
potential porphyry Cu generation if the conditions are
appropriate (Fig. 10; Heidrick and Titley, 1982; Richards,
2000b; Richards et al., 2001). On a local scale, however,
structures may be reactivated during magmatism and
hydrothermal circulation, even where they are not ideally
oriented with respect to the regional stress field, implying
that magmatic or hydrothermal fluid pressures locally
exceed tectonic stresses.
Examples of misoriented structural fabrics that have been
reactivated during intrusion and porphyry Cu formation
occur in Arizona (Heidrick and Titley, 1982), the Maricunga
belt of Chile (e.g., compare convergence geometry outlined
by Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987, with vein orientations
described by Vila et al., 1991) , and at El Salvador, Chile. The
alignment of Eocene subvolcanic stocks along northeast-
striking Paleocene faults around the El Salvador porphyry
provides a particularly well-documented example of this
phenomenon (Fig. 11; Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Cornejo
et al., 1997). During the Eocene, this region experienced
transpressive deformation, with the maximum compressive
stress oriented northwest-southeast, at high angles to north-
east-striking Paleocene faults that formed as a result of ear-
lier volcanism and tectonism (Tomlinson et al., 1993;
Cornejo et al., 1997). Under the Eocene stress field, nort -
east-striking faults would not have been under tension and
should not, therefore, have localized magma intrusion. Ne -
ertheless, Eocene stocks are aligned parallel to Paleocene
faults and fracture systems, beginning with the Cerro Pelado
and Old Camp complexes to the northeast, and progressing
southwestward to Cerro Indio Muerto (Fig. llA). A weak
porphyry Cu system developed in the older and slightly
more silicic Cerro Pelado and Old Camp complexe
(Gustafson and Hunt, 1975), but the major porphyry Cu sys-
tem formed in association with granodioritic stocks under-
lying Cerro Indio Muerto. The latter stocks are elliptical in
plan view with long axes striking northwest (Fig. liB;
Gustafson and Hunt, 1975), at high angles to the northeast-
erly alignment of stocks at the district scale. Late dacitit
(latite of Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) dikes also strike north-
west, thereby implying northeasterly extension, consistent
with emplacement within the inferred Eocene regional
stress field (Cornejo eta!., 1997). Thus, although misori-
ented Paleocene faults broadly localized plutonism on a di -
trict scale, the form of these intrusions reflects the prevail-
ing Eocene stress field. Either the horizontal differential
stress was not great, or magmatic pressures were sufficiently
high such that the tectonic stresses acting to close the north-
 J\!lAGMATIC AND STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON PORPHYRY Cu ± Mo ±Au DEPOSI TS 169

---
100 km

26"S

F•ml 6o\
•
Negro

Major volcano
Mapped fault
2Ef'S Lineament
Miocene-Pleistocene
volcanic arc
Metallogenic Belts:
M. Miocene-e. Pliocene
E.-m. MIOCene
L. Eocene-e. Oligocene
\ Paleocene-e. Eocene
Argentina Belt of manto deposits

\ Mineral Deposit Types:

~
• Porphyry Cu
Q OtherCu
D Porphyry Au , skarn
• Epithermal Au

Fie. 10. Geological ske tch map of the Central Andes howing the locations of major Cu and Au deposits (from Silli-
toe, 1992) and th eir spatial re lationsh i ps to th e West Fissure Zon e and its in tersections with eros -oroge n l in eaments
(from Salfity, 1985). Modified fro m Ri chards (2000b) .
170 TOSDAL AND RICHARDS

A Generalized geology of Co. Indi o Muerto, Chile

2
km I

Granodiorite porphyry
Ill (Eocene)

D Quartz rhyolite
porphyry (Eocene)
~ Rhyolite (Paleocene)
~ Rhyolite & flows
l..:__:j (Paleocene)
~ Tuff (Paleocene)
j = l Llanta Fm.
c....::J
(Cretaceous)
F ~ Sierra Fraga Fm
(Jurassic)

Simplified geology, 2400 m level,

~-::=,'<=::.....:::.__ El Salvador mine
B
Eocene
magmatic-hydrothermal
comp lex
.......
....... Pebble dike

t -- "-.._ Dacite
... A porphyry
D Hydrothermal
breccia
CJ L porphyry
E;J K porphyry
D X porphyry
Quartz porphyry

[;] Llanta Fm.

(Cretaceous)

300

m
FIG. 11. Geology of Cerro Indio Mueno and El Salvador porphyry copper deposit, northern Chile. A. Cerro Indi o
Muerto consists of a Paleocene sil icic dome complex and tuffs that unconformably overl ie deformed Mesozoic volcan ic,
volcan icl astic, and sed im entary rocks . The complex sits on the edge of the Paleocene El Salvador trap-door caldera.
Ca ldera margin faults and subparallel faults strike northeast. Paleocene rhyolite dikes, such as the lin ear one imm ed i-
ate ly east of Cerro Rio !ita, intruded along northeast-trending faults and fracture systems. The inferred orientation of the
Eocene stress field would have favored dilation along northwest-trending structures, but the stro ng northeasterly align-
ment of the Eocene intrusions suggests that their emp lacement was nevertheless conu·olled by the o lder Paleocene struc-
tural fabric. Quartz rhyolite or quartz porphyry intrusions are about 43 Ma old, whereas the granodiorite porphyries are
41 to 42 Ma. Modified from Gustafson and Hunt (1975) and Cornejo et al. (1997). B. Simplified geological map of the
2400-m leve l of the El Salvador mine showing the distribution of porphyry intrusions, listed in order of decreasing age
from bottom to top in the explanation. ote at this scale the northwesterly long axis of the plutonic complex, compared
with the regional northeast-alignment of plutons; the majority of the complex consists of the late-m in eral L p01-phyry.
The oldest stocks, the X and K porphyries, seem to be large ly sem i-circul ar intrusions in the lower right-hand portion of
the map area. Post mineral dacite dikes and genetically related pebble dikes have prominent northwesterly strikes. The
orientation of the dikes and long ax is of the stocks is consistent with the Eocene regional su·ess field shown in A. Modi-
fied from unpublished mapping by Anaconda geo logists and provided by Guillermo Muellar, Compan ia de l
Cobre-Chile (CODELCO) at El Salvador.
 lvf.AGMATIC AND STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON PORPHYRY Cu
east-trending tructure were overcome by the force of intru-
sion . Because no evidence is pre ent for any explo ive vol-
canic activi ty associa ted with the Eocene complexe , it is
more likely that the differential ho rizontal stress was low.
Structural Sequence in Porphyry Systems
Early veins in porphyry systems (A-vein of Gustafson and
Hunt, 1975) form at n ear-magmatic temperatures and
under li thostatic pressures within a ductile environ me nt,
which i urrounded and overlain by a brittle region do mi-
nated by hydrostatic pre ures (Fig. 4; Gustafson and Hunt,
1975; Muntean, 1998; Fournier, 1999). Depe nding upon
rheologic contrast, the transition between the brittle a nd
duc tile zones m ay li e wi thin temporally associated por-
phyri es o r in the country rocks. As the system evolves and
cools, later ve ins at th e same depth form under hydro tatic
pressures and under brittle co nditions. Within the ductile
region, frac tures may form in response to sudden cha nges
in internal fluid pressure (e.g., owi ng to chamber recharge
by fres h , volatil e-rich m agma) , rapid strain rates that
exceed the capacity of the rock to deform plastical ly, or rup-
turing of the pressure seal lead ing to a sudden transition
from lithostatic to hydrostatic pressure cond iti o ns. In the
latter case, the volatile phase i likely to undergo phas sep-
aration and a large positive volu me change, which may lead
to extensive hydrofrac turing (crackle brecciation ). As tem-
perature decreases, veins become more regular in orienta-
tion becau se th ey form by brittl e fai lure unde r the influ-
e nce of external tectonic stres es (Figs. 7 and 12) . Fracture
formation and vein filling con tinues episodically so lo ng as
sufficient hydrothermal fluid is chann eled into the evolving
carapace from the tabul ar pluton at depth.
Variations in vein and mineralized fracture orientation
Comprehensive vein a nd mineralized-fracture analy e in
porphyry Cu deposits are few. Tho e that have been under-
taken typically reveal a variation in orie ntation a nd style
with inferred d e pth of formation of th e porphyry Cu
d eposit that is con siste nt with a magm atic and stru ctural
framework of sh all ow subvolca ni c stocks (Figs. 7 and 12;
H eidrick and Titley, 1982). At shallow depths, concentric or
quasi-concentric and rad ial fracture patterns characterize
some deposits (Langerfeld , 1964; Baum er and Fraser, 1975;
Corn, 1975; Dunn, 1982; H e idrick and Titley, 1982). For
example, at the SanJuan deposit, Arizona, concentric and
radial fractures and veins are centered around one lobe of
a stock, but dikes that form an orthogonal pattern are off-
set from the center of the fracture and vein array (Fig. 12A;
H eidri ck and Titley, 1982) . In the sh allow levels of El Sal-
vador, two overlapping radial arrays of post-mineral pe bble
dike , vein s, hydroth e rm al breccias , and fractures refl ect
empl ace m en t of two a po physe or tacks at d e pth (Fig.
12B; Langerfeld, 1964). It is not clear at what point during
th e life of th El Salvador porphyry ystem these fractures
formed, altho ugh they are n ow filled by late-D vein and
post-mineral pebble dike (Langerfeld, 1964; Gustafson
and Hunt, 1975 ) . Be n eath the co n centric p attern in the
hallower levels of the system, Gustafson and Hunt (1975)
± M.o ±Au Dl:."'POSI7 171
documented a crud e radial an d concentric or e llipti cal
arrangem ent of Ia te-D ve in (Fig. 12C). The patte rn s are
broadly centered on two L-porphyry tacks, which are late
intra-m ineral intru ion tha t largely postda te sulfide min-
e ral d epositio n. T h e northwe tern L-porphyry tock
directly underlies the center of one of the radial vein and
dike arrays, wherea a composite stock of granodiorite por-
phyrie cored by an oth e r L porphyry underli es the radial
vein and dike array to the outheast. The a ocia tion with
the L porphyry impli e a ge n e ti c linkage, a nd th a t the
radial fractures formed late in the de posit' evolution. How-
eve r, because the ou th east array li es above a co mpo ite
tock of X, K, and L porphyry, formation of that radial array
could conceivably have been initiated earlier. A northwe t-
rly elon gation to the overall pattern sugge ts that !at -D
veins at d epth reflec t not on ly magma tic stre s a oc ia ted
with emplacement of the composite porphyry stocks, but
also the northeast- southwest-oriented minimum prin cipal
su·es associated with regional transpressional defo rmation .
At deep levels in porphyry sys tem it has been propo ed
that a singular trend dominat the vein and fractur s, a
exe mplified by the simpl e patte rn at Sierrita, Arizona (Fig.
12D; H e idri ck and Titl ey, 1982; Titley et al. , 1986; Titl ey,
1993). H ere, veins and fractures are parallel to quartz mon-
zonite porphyry dike emplaced into the host gran iti c rock
as part of the magmatic evolu tion of the system. Th d ns st
concentration of fracture is ce ntered on the apophy es of
quartz monzonite porphyry, whi ch also localized th e ierrita
and E peranza porphyry Cud po its. Support for thi model
is fo und at El Salvador, where late pebble dikes exploit older
fracture networks that become progressively more lin ear and
aligned to a north we terly u·ike at depth (compare Fig . 11B
and 12B, C). Strong linear arrays of veins are common in
many deposits (Britte n a nd MatT, 1995; Pi erce a nd Bolm,
1995; Schroeter, 1995) , which, acco rding to th e mod el of
H eidrick and Titley (1982), should therefore represent the
deep levels of porphyry u system .
As with many model of porphyry systems, there are excep-
ti ons to these rule . Linear v in arrays at the hallow Marte
porphyry Au deposit are cl arly inconsistent with the model
of H e idrick and T itley (1982), becau e that depo it can be
reasonably assumed to have fo rmed at depths <l km (Vila et
al., 1991). Exception areal o found in everal other deposits,
where vein and frac ture networks vary with depth, parage-
netic tage, and location in th e deposit (e.g., Wilkinson et al. ,
1982; Clark, 1990; Lind ay etal., 1995). At Chuquicamata, for
example, interpretation of the vein geometry is complicated
by the apparent superimpo ition of two di crete porphyry y -
tems eparated by a much as 3 m.y. (Reynolds et al. , 1998).
onetheless, copper-bearing veins associated with pota sic
alteration generally tre nd no rth east and indicate formation
under a regional stre s fi eld, in this case dextral trike- lip
along the Domeyko fau lt system. Earlier quartz-molybdenite
veins, in contra t, form a crude elliptical fractur pattern
aro und the porphyry co mplex. Quartz- ericite- ulfide a nd
enargite veins are supe1;mposed on the potassic alteration at
Chuquicamata, and their emplacement was conu·olled by old
frac ture and veins as well as the regional tectonic stres fi eld
172 TOSDAL AND RICHARDS

A Fracture Orientations at the San Juan Deposit

'~I F
------

0 0 .5
kilometres

0 2 3
kilometers

D Veins Rock units c::::::::J Quartz grain porphyry

---- Major tend E'ZZ2J Igneous breccia ~ K porphyry
-- Subordinate trend c::::=J A porphyry ~ X porphyry
Minor trend
c:::::=J L porphyry c::::=J Quartz eye porphyry
~ Section "A'' feldspar porphyry E:l Andesite

FIG. 12. Mineralized fracture and vein patterns developed in porphyry copper deposits. A Concentric and radial miner-
alized fractures and veins developed at high levels in the Sanjuan mine area, Safford Mining District, Arizona. ote super-
position of radial and concentric veins and mineralized fractures. In contrast, dikes do not conform to this pattern but fonn
orthogonal sets. Modified from Heidrick and Titley (1982) . B. Surface d istribution of dacite dikes, pebble breccias, and
hydrothermal breccias on Cerro Indio Muerto as mapped by Langerfeld (1964). Pebble breccias are related to the post-min-
eral dacite dikes and D veins, and are paragenetically late. The pebble dikes decrease in abundance with depth and gener-
ally lie in the upper parts of the deposit above a zone that sepa.rates sericite-dom inated alteration from an overlying mixed
sericite-kaol in alteration assemblage. With depth and where present, pebble dikes become more linear with dominantly
northwesterly strikes (see C and Fig. 11 B) . The hydrothermal breccias are cemented by hydrothermal minerals and, tl1t.1s,
represent intennineral bodies. SupeqJosed on the dikes are interpreted concentric stress t:r<Yectories (clashed lines) tl1atsug-
gest the presence of two clomical stocks at cleptl1. When compared with the geological map of the subsurface (C), the center
of me concentric rings correspond general ly to the center of the composite stock of X, K, and L porphyries to me southeast,
and the main mass ofL porphyry to tl1e northwest. C. Distribution of country rock units, Eocene granodiorite porphyries,
and cross-<:utting D veins on the 2600- and 2660-m levels of the El Salvador poqJhyry deposit. ore the roughly radial and
elliptical clisu;bution of veins. Modified from Gustafson and Hunt (1975). D. Generalized fracture clistJ;bution and orienta-
tion around the Sierrita and Esperanza porphyry deposits, Arizona. Modified from Titley et al. (1986) and Titley (1993).
 MAGMATIC AND STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON PORPHYRY Cu
(Lindsay et al. , 1995); evidently, the influence of magmatic
pressure over tectonic stress was transitory. The enargite veins
may represent shallower levels of a younger porphyry Cu
deposit emplaced during uplift and unroofing of the older
system (Sillitoe, 1994). It is interesting that at Chuquicamata,
the dominant faults and mineralized fractures within the
composite porphyry Cu deposit form a crude conjugate frac-
ture network, a pattern predicted by numetical modeling of
porphyry stocks (see above), despite the local structural con-
trol exerted by the Falla Oeste (Domeyko fault ystem). Con-
jugate vein patterns also characterize many other deposits,
such as Panguna (Papua ew Guinea; Clark, 1990) and High-
land Valley (British Columbia; Osatenko andjones, 1976;
Casselman eta!., 1995).
Implications for stress during mineralization
Despite the inherent beauty of Heidrick and Titley's
(1982) vertical zonation model, the variety of vein orienta-
tions noted above suggests that it requires some modifica-
tion. Concentric and radial fractures are expected to be con-
centrated above and exterior to the intruding stock to which
they are related; where multiple intrusions are present, frac-
tures should form overlapping arrays (Fig. 12B, C). In con-
trast, after solidification, the stock and its host rocks will
undergo brittle frac ture assoc iated with tectonic a nd
hydrothermal activity. The orientations of resulting fractures
will reflect a new set of stress conditions controlled either by
magmatic or tectonic forces. Magmatic stress results from
ren ewed intrusion, whereas tectonic stress is externally
imposed . Fractures developed under a tectonic stress field
will reflect that field, and should be more ordered and linear.
They will also develop later in the system's evolution, and will
be concentrated within the stocks themselves. The elongate
arrays of type-D veins within Eocene granodiorite stocks at El
Salvador (Fig. 12C) and the concentric and radial arrays in
the overlying rocks can be attributed to superposition offrac-
ture systems derived from early magmatic- and later tectonic-
dominated stress fields (Fig. 12B, C).
Multiple vein ets are normal in porphyry Cu deposits. The
veins are u ually cogenetic, and open episodically and repeat-
edly at different paragenetic stages during formation of the
deposits. In addition, there is usually either a consistent vein
orientation persisting throughout the deposit laterally and
vertically, or the veins have a consistent angular relation hip
between tl1em, or both. Where documented, veins are com-
monly orthogonal or conjugate, and are rarely completely
randomly oriented with respect to one another. A common
angular pattern is not what would be expected in the case
where the veins reflect simple fracturing above a stock under
conditions approaching uniaxial extension, or where they
result from volume expansion caused by exsolution of
hydrothermal fluids. It is the consistent deposit-scale angular
relationship among veins which suggests that intrusion or
hydrothermal-related models for vein formation are simplis-
tic. Recognizing a common angular relationship is also criti-
cal to understanding the state of stress that dominates during
porphyry Cu formation, which in turn has important implica-
tions for the tectonic setting of these deposits.
± Mo ± 1\u Dtl'OSITS 173
Taking the simplest case as illustrated in Figure 12, an
orthogonal set of veins characterizes many porphyry ystems
(see also Stanley et al. , 1995) regardless of depth offorma-
tion. In some deposits such as El Salvador (Fig. 12C) and
locally in Sierrita (Titley et al. , 1986), other veins bisect the
orthogonal veins. During brittle failure of rocks, extensional
fractures are the easiest to form, and are oriented normal to
the minimum effective principal stress, cr 3 ' Qaeger and
Cook, 1979; Sibson, 2000, 2001). Such fractures should
dominate fluid-saturated environments such as porphyry Cu
deposits, and they will be filled by hydro thermal minerals
whenever open. However, formation of extensional shear or
compressional shear veins requires a higher differe ntial
tress (Sibson, 2000, 2001). Such fracture and veins lie at
high angles to cr 3 ' and should bi ect the intersection of
orthogonal fractures; they will also be less common than
extensional fractures unless a planar fabric is already pre-
sent within the rock, or, if the numerical models of Cow and
Ord (1999) are correct, little or no rheologic contrast exists
between the stocks and host rocks. Hence, from simple rock
mechanical consideration, formation of veins in multiple
orientations during the li fe of the porphyry Cu deposit
requires specific stre s conditions. In view of the ease of
forming extensional fractures , the simplest interpretation of
the vein pattern in a porphyry Cu deposit, particularly of
orthogonal sets, is that cr3 ' changed orientation many times
during the life of the system. In essence, the existence of
orthogonal veins requires that cr 3' and the other horizontal
stress, either the maximum effective principal stress (cr 1') or
the intermediate effective principal stress (cr 2') depending
upon the stress field, swapped episodically during the life of
the system. This situation can be visualized by comparing
the inferred stress trajectories above a stock in anisotropic
rocks, such as is shown in Figure 7C and E.
Porphyry Cu d eposits form over a short period of geo-
logical time based upon thermal models of cooling stock
(Cathles, 1977) and geochronological data (e.g., Chesley
and Ruiz, 1997; Cornejo et al., 1997; Marsh et al. , 1997).
Because of this relatively short duration of hydrothermal
activity, it seems unlikely that a significant and episod ic
rotation of the regional stress fie ld would occur during
deposit formation. Therefore , in order to explain the
repeated rotation of the effective minimum stress direction
called for above, a low-differential stress field , modified by
fluctuating fluid pressures, may be the norm during por-
phyry Cu formation .
Origin of Breccia Pipes in Porphyry Cu Deposits
As noted previously, hydrothermal breccia pipes are of
varying importance in porphyry Cu deposits. They range
from insignificant in vein-dominated systems, to forming
the major portion of the ore body in breccia-dominated sys-
tems (Sillitoe, 1985). Most breccia pipes are pre- to synmin-
eral, but some pebble breccias are late and are usually bar-
ren (Richard and Courtright, 1958; Sillitoe, 1985) . All
hydrothermal breccias in the porphyry Cu environment,
regardless of their gene is, reflect sudden expulsion of fluid
a t pressures that exceed the litho tatic load, thereby caus-
174 TOSDAL AND RICHARDS
ing hydraulic fracturing (Burnham, 1985; Sillitoe, 1985).
This fluid release is generally attributed to the process of
second boiling in the porphyry magma, and rupturing of a
pressure seal at the brittle-ductile transition (Fig. 4;
Phillips, 1973; Burnham, 1985; Fournier, 1999). The resul-
tant catastrophic fragmentation of the host rocks propa-
gates upwards from a narrow source toward areas of
reduced effective mean stress. Most porphyry Cu-related
breccias are rooted in porphyry intrusions or dikes but
apparently do not vent to the paleosurface (Sillitoe, 1985) ,
resulting in lensoid, ovoid, or irregular pipe-like geometry.
Hydrothermal minerals fill the resulting voids leading
locally to bonanza concentrations of ore.
Zweng and Clark (1995) proposed that hydrothermal
breccia pipes are more common in porphyry Cu deposits
formed at shallow levels because of the decreased litho-
static load imposed by the mass of country rocks above the
stock. However, not all shallow porphyry Cu deposits are
dominated by breccias as shown by vein-dominated Cu-Au
and Au-Cu systems emplaced within 1 km of the surface in
the Maricunga belt, Chile. Hence, simple magmatic and
fluid exsolution processes may not have been sufficient in
all deposits to permit breccia formation. Because breccias
are present to varying degrees in all porphyry Cu deposits,
the obvious question is what controls their formation and
abundance? Porphyry Cu deposits represent dynamic sys-
tems where magmatism and fluid circulation are affected
by tectonic stresses, so there is no shortage of potential
local causes that could trigger breccia formation.
Amongst these local triggers are fluid-pressure build-up
(Burnham, 1985), stock or dike intrusion that disrupts the
evolving porphyry Cu system (Langerfeld, 1964), sector
collapse of the overlying volcanic edifice (Sillitoe, 1994),
and local seismic activity perhaps associated with intrusion
and volcanism. Skewes and Stern ( 1994) also proposed
that tectonic-driven changes in magmatism triggered
breccia formation in the late-Miocene porphyry Cu
deposits of central Chile . Still another potential trigger
for breccia formation is remote (>500 km) earthquake
activity, which has been shown to generate enhanced seis-
mic activity in active geothermal and magmatic systems
(Hill et al. , 1993). Evidently, propagation of seismic
energy into a magmatic or hydrothermal system is suffi-
cient to induce gas separation leading to volume expan-
sion (Linde et al., 1994; Sturtevant et al. 1996). The mag-
matic pressure increase could give rise to volcanic
eruptions (Sahagian and Proussevitch, 1992) , whereas in
the hydrothermal environment of a porphyry Cu deposit,
increased fluid pressures could be sufficient to trigger
rupturing of the pressure seal above the porphyry system,
leading to generation of breccia pipes.
Tectonic Setting of Porphyry Cu Deposits
A simple model of porphyry Cu deposit genesis involves
formation from hydrothermal fluids exsolved from calc-
alkaline to alkaline magmas in a subvolcanic arc environ-
ment. However, many shallow-level porphyritic plutonic
complexes are devoid of or have only weak porphyry-style
mineralization. The barren Paleocene ring complexes of
the San Jeronimo superunit in the Peruvian Coastal
batholith are examples from an a rc otherwise rich in p r-
phyry Cu deposits of broadly similar age (Bussell, 1985;
Pitcher, 1985; Zweng and Clark, 1995). On a more global
scale, porphyry Cu deposits are sparse in the western Pacific
(Uyeda and Nishiwaki, 1980) , with notable exceptions in
Papua ew Guinea and the Philippines (MacDonald an d
Arnold , 1994; Sillitoe, 1997; Hedenquist et al., 1998). In
addition, porphyry Cu formation is characteristically
episodic and localized, being concentrated during limited
time ranges within narrow, margin-parallel belts (Sillitoe,
1972, 1988; Titley and Beane , 1981; Clark et al. , 1982;
Damon et al. , 1983). These considerations suggest tha t
additional factors must be involved in determining whethe r
a porphyry Cu deposit will form or not, including details of
magma chemistry (e.g. , water content, oxidation state) and
tectonic setting (Uyeda and Nishiwaki, 1980).
A review of structural settings of porphyry Cu deposits
indicates that there are no unique environments into whi h
these deposits are emplaced. They are found within strike-
slip fault zones with only limited displacement contempo-
raneous with mineralization (Maksaev and Zentilli, 1988;
Clark et al. , 1990; Sapie and Cloos, 1994; Lindsay et a l.,
1995) , within regions affected by slightly older to cone r-
rent transpressional or contractile strain and uplift (Titley
and Heidrick, 1978; Heidrick and Titley, 1982; Olson, 1989;
Tomlinson, 1994; Sillitoe, 1997) , in areas undergoing lim-
ited extensional deformation (Presnall, 1997) , and in areas
lacking major active fault systems (Sillitoe, 1997). Many bu t
not all deposits are localized along older fault systems that
provided crustal permeability (Heidrick and Titley, 1982;
Richards et al. , 2001) . Significant porphyry Cu deposits are,
however, seemingly absent from regions undergoing large-
scale extensional strain, a negative association that has long
been recognized, and which seems to preclude those arcs
or times within arcs where such tectonics dominate. A com-
mon theme throughout these convergent arcs is the limited
deformation that is demonstrably contemporaneous with
porphyry Cu development.
Times of porphyry Cu generation have been causally cor-
related with times of shallow-dipping subduction (Sillitoe,
1972; Nielsen, 1976; Uyeda and Nishiwaki, 1980; Titley and
Beane, 1981), increased convergence rates (Clark et al. ,
1990) , subduction of aseismic ridges (Skewes and Stern,
1995), subduction zone reversals (Solomon, 1990) , or fol-
lowing uplift (Sillitoe, 1997). Many but not all porphyry Cu
deposits in Arizona (McCandless and Ruiz, 1993), southern
Peru (Clark et al., 1990), Chile (Maksaev and Zentilli, 1988;
Skewes and Stern, 1995; Richards et al. , 2001) , and Papua
New Guinea (Titley and Heidrick, 1978; Sillitoe , 1997)
formed near the end of major periods of magmatism, con-
tractile or transpressional strain, and uplift. Silli toe ( 1997)
suggested that rapid uplift in an arc is an essential precur-
sor to the formation of giant porphyry Cu deposits, which
appear near to or just after the end of that event.
The above observations, combined with the near-circular
plan of many porphyries and the common deposit-scale ori-
 MAGMATIC AND STRUCTURAL CON TROLS ON PORPHYRY Cu
entations of associated ve ins and dike , suggest that por-
phyry Cu deposits are developed during periods of low-dif-
ferential or near-isotropic horizontal tre in the arc. The
ac hievement of such stress states i likely driven by funda-
mental changes in subduction geometry and convergence
rates. For example, ch ange in the coupling of stress
between the ubducting and overrid ing plate may lead to
hifts in the location of zone of upper-plate deformation
with respect to the magmatic arc, either inboard toward the
back-arc or outboard toward the convergent margin. Thi
shift in the locu of deformation relative to magmati m may
permit the arc to approach a neutral stress state. The giant
Miocene and Pliocene porphyry Cu deposits in central
Chil e (Los Pelambre , Rio Blanco-Los Bronce , El
Teniente) seem to fit this scenario becau e they formed in
the h anging wall of a fo ld-and-thrust belt that lies to the
east in the Argentin ean for land (Jordan et al. , 1993;
Ramo et al. , 1996). In an alt rnative scenario, relocation of
the volcanic arc may be accompanied by relaxation of com-
pressional or transpre ional tres in an old, establi hed ,
plutonic-volcanic arc, re ulting in late-stage development of
porphyry magmatism. The late-Eocene-early-O ligocene
porphyry Cu depo its of northern Chile are propo ed to
have formed during uch a p riod of stress relaxation fo l-
lowing a prolonged epi ode of Eocene transpre ion and
effusive volcanic activity; relaxation coincided with flatten-
in g of th e subduction angle and subsequent inland shift of
magmatism (Maksaev an d Zentilli, 1988; Clark, 1993;
Richards et al. , 2001).
These characteristics may be speculatively tied to models
of magmagenesis and cru tal emplacement as reviewed
above (Fig. 13). First, the simple textbook form of a
de tructive margin-that of orthogonal compression, deep-
crustal or mantle melting, and widespread effusive magma-
tism-is not con ducive to porphyry Cu formation (Fig.
13A). e ith er is a state of arc rifting (exte nsio n ) , wh ere
cr ustal melting is sh ort-circui te d and mantle-derived
ba a!tic melts ascend directly to the surface (Fig. 13B) con-
ducive to porphyry Cu formation. Instead, th e variou tec-
tonic environments identified during porphyry Cu gen ra-
tion around the world suggest th at ideal condition s form
during tran itions between the e end-member tate , u u-
a lly caused by changes in ubduction geometry or rate.
Geochemical studies show that, even in island-arc setting ,
porphyry Cu-re lated magmas are not direct products of
asthenosphe ri c melting in the mantle we dge above the
Ben ioff zone, but result from ignificant am oun ts of frac-
tionation and interaction of the e magmas with the ove rly-
in g lith osph ere. Isotopic an d g och emical evid e n ce for
crustal inte raction in Ce ntral Andean m agmas, for exam-
ple, i overwh e lmin g (Tilton e t al. , 1981; Barreiro, 1984;
Harmon et al. , 1984; Pankhurst et al. , 1988; Walker et al. ,
1991). A period of " tewin g" near the base of the lith os-
phere i implied, invo lvin g exten ive MASH (me lting,
assimilation , storage, and homogenization; Hildreth and
Moorbath, 1988) proce se in volum inous but probably dif-
fu e, batholithic magma chambers. Conditions appropriate
to this activity are achi eved during "classic" convergence
± Mo ± Au DEPOSITS 175
periods in the arc, compressive tre es in the upper plate
acting to close major orogen-p arall e l stru ctu re , an d
inhibiting ascent of all but the most overpre ured magma
(Fig. 13A) . Those magm a that do e rupt d o so vio le ntly,
producing widespread effusive volca ni c equ e nc s but
largely unaccom panied by sh allow-level plutonism.
If com pre sive stress in the lithosphere is locally relaxed ,
however, magma dynamics ubordinate tectonic tres , and
melts may a cend through the crust more passively driven
by buoyancy force , rather than violently by magm atic over-
pres ure (Fig. 13C, D). In consequence, such magmas tend
to ri e to leve l of neutral buoyancy in the sh allow crus t,
where th ey may undergo further fraction ation and cru tal
in teraction, and potentially gen erate porphyry-style
d posits as these distillate magmas cool and saturate with
vola til es. Volcanism, wh ere it occurs, is more localized,
forming discrete composite edifices directly above hallow-
ource magma chambe rs.
An analog may be fo und in the use of a pressure cooker.
Effective stewing i achieved at elevated temperature and
pressure by seali ng th e pot with a lid and a afety valve
(periodic violent eruptions occur o nly when high-pre ure
fluids overcome the valve weight). Sudden removal of the
lid (equivalent to exten ional tectonics, and not advi ed at
home) will result in catastrophi c erup tion of th e con ten ts
of the pot, equivalent to ba altic rift magmatism. To pre-
serve the stewed conte nt just righ t, the pot need s to be
depressurized (stress relaxation) before the li d is removed .
In this model, localization of porphyry magmati m in the
crust can be understood in terms of structural permeability.
During periods of arc-normal compression, major arc-paral-
lel tructures will be closed, and magma penetration will be
restricted. Upon relaxation of stress, however, the e stru c-
tures will provide planes of elevated permeability through
the crust. More specifically, fault jogs or structural inter ec-
tions may generate pull-apart volume when oblique com-
pre ive su·ess relaxes (Fig. 13C, D). Such volumes represent
discrete ve rtical columns of maximum permeability through
th e crust, which may se rve as o ptimum loci for m agm a
ascent and potential porphyry Cu gen eration. Relatively low
degrees of differential horizontal su·e are implied by thi
model, because fau lt lock-up under high strain will progre -
sively destroy permeability ( ibson, 2001).
Concluding Remarks
Porphyry Cu depo it require the precise coin cid ence
and positive interaction of a series of individually common-
place geological p roces e . The role of magmas and their
exsolved hydroth erm al fluids have long bee n recognize d
and widely studi ed, an d are now reason ably well under-
toed. In contrast, th e detailed influence of structure and
tectonic setting on depo it localization and evolution in the
porphyry enviro nment is under-appreciated, de pite several
careful tudie . In part, this situa tion ste ms from the
immense scale of porphyry ystems (commonly exceeding
diameters of 10 km) and the inherent difficulties that this
poses to structural analysis. It also derives from the research
focus on mineralogic and geochemical processes during the
176 TOSDAL AND RICHARDS

A. Compression: Magmas penetrate

fault zones only at high pressure

B. Extension: Mafic magmas

leak up extensional fault zones Basaltic flows and
cinder cones

C. Transpression: Limited crustal

permeability at fault intersections;
limited potential for PCD formation

D. Transtension : Maximum crustal

permeability at fault intersections;
maximum potential for PCD formation

FIG. 13. Cartoon depiction of the re lationship between co nvergent margin tectonics, upper plate structures, and mag-
matism . A. In orthogonally convergent settings, m<Yor arc-parall el fau lt zones a re compressed. Magmas generated in the
mantle wedge pond near the base of tl1e li thosp here, and interact with it through processes of melting, assimilatio n, stor-
age, and homogenization (MASH processes; Hildreth and Mo01·bath, 1988). Ascent to the surface is resu·icted to mag-
mas under high overpressure, which erupt violently with out significant residence in upper crustal magma chambers. B.
Arcs under tension provide multiple high-permeability paths for magma ascent, to the exte n t that asthe nosphe re-
derived magmas may rise directly to the surface. The distillation and crustal in teraction processes that appear to be nec-
essary for the deve lopment of porphyry Cu-prospective magmas are thereby sho rt-circu ited, and porphyry Cu deposits
are not found in l'ifting arcs. C and D. Upon relaxation or stress, lucali zed zones of exte nsion may be ge nerated during
transpression a! or, optim all y, transtensional strain along arc-related strucLUres. These zon es provide high-permeabi li ty
condu its for tl1e passive ascent of magmas to shallow crustal levels, driven primarily by buoyancy rather than magmatic
overpressure. Hypabyssal plu tonism with associated localized volcan ism is favored, and is an environment cond ucive to
porphyry Cu formation. PCD = porphyry Cu deposits.
 MAGJ\1ATIC AND STRUCTURAL CONTROL ON PORPHYRY Ctt ± Mo ± Att DEPO ITS
period of major porphyry Cu exploration and development
in the 1960s to 1980s (Titley and Hicks, 1966; utherland
Brown, 1976; Titley, 1982; Pierce and Bolm, 1995; chroeter,
1995). Neverthele s, structure and tectonics clearly play a
major role in porphyry Cu emplacement and genesis, and
may be critical in determining where and when spatially and
temporally localized porphyry Cu provinces form within
convergent plate margins.
Porphyry Cu deposits and all their genetically associated
deposits are a natural con eguence of converg nt margin
magmatism. everthe less, the preceding review uggests
that significant porphyry Cu deposits form in specific struc-
tural environments under a near-neutral stress state. These
structural conditions appear to occur during periods of lit-
tle deformation or in area removed from deformation, or
during tress relaxation in the magmatic arc, conditions
likely to be infrequent and tran itory during the life of a
convergent margin. This hypothe is uggests that detailed
re earch into arc history and dynamics may be fruitful in
predicting the loci not only of porphyry Cu provinces, but
also of individual porphyry centers within tho e provinces.
Acknowledgments
Writer of review articles benefit from the great minds,
careful work, and published literature tl1at precede them.
We are no different. We extend our appreciation to all of
those people who have lent their expertise to the tudy of
porphyry deposits; many of them are referenced her in, but
we apologize to any who have not been, either due to con-
straints of space or our over ights. RMT would like further
to acknowledge A.H. Clark, who first introduced him to
Andean porphyry copp r deposits, and to geologi ts of evi-
cio acional de Geologia y Minerfa (Chile), U.S. Geological
Survey, and Compania del Cobre-Chile for research oppor-
tunitie in porphyry deposits in orth and South America.
JPR acknowledges RTZ Mining and Exploration Ltd. , and
Minera Outokumpu Chile S.A. for fieldwork support, and
research grants from the Natural Environment Research
Council (UK) and the atural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council (Canada). The manuscript benefited
from discussions with P. Erdmer and]. Waldron , and reviews
by T. Theodore and CJ. Hodgson; their insights and efforts
are greatly appreciated. Thi paper represents MDRU con-
tribution 141.
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