Organic Practices

Some Organic Farming Practices for the Production of
Eggplant (Solanum melongena) and Okra (Abelomoschus

esculentus) in Central Sudan
A thesis
Presented to the Graduate College

University of Khartoum
In fulfillment of the requirements

For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
In Agriculture (Horticulture)
By
SAMIR ELABID MUTWALLI MUSA

B.Sc. (Agric. Hort.) Alexandaria Univ., Egypt.
M.Sc. (Horticulture, Vegetable Crops) Alexandaria Univ., Egypt.
Supervisors:
Prof. Abdalla M.Ali
Prof. Gaffer M.Elhassan
Prof. Abdalla A. Abdalla
Horticulture Department,
Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Khartoum.
Feb 2007
DIDICATION
To Sudan, my beloved country and to my family especially

my wife Huda and my chielderen.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TILTLE PAGE
DIDICATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………...I
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………..II
ARABIC ABSTRACT……………………………………………………….IV
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………..1
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………….5
2.1: Organic farming: Definitions ………………………………………….....5
2.2: Botanical or Organic Insecticides……………………………..…………6
2.2.1 Neem……………………………………………………………………6
2.2.1.1: Taxonomy, Description ,Origin and Uses……………………………6
2.2.1.2: Chemical constituent and active ingredients…………………… …...6
2.2.1.3: Traditional and recent uses of neem………………………….............8
2.2.2 Argel…………………………………………………….…………….11
2.2.2.1: Botanical classification, taxonomy, descriptionand distribution .…..11
2.2.2.2: Some uses of Argel in folkloric medicine…………………………...12
2.2.2.3: Active ingredients in argel ………………………..………………...12
2.2.2.4 : Use of argel in agriculture………………………………………….13
2.2.3:Organic fertilizer………………………………….................................13
2.2.3.: Compost ..………………………………………….……….………...13
2.2.3.2: Benefits of compost………………………………………………....15
2.2.3.3: Effect of compost on vegetative growth and yield………………….15
2.2.4:Synthetic Inorganic chemicals…………...…………………………….18
2.2.4.1: Inorganic insecticides……………………………………………….18
2.2.4.1.1: Endosulfan………………………………………….……………,19
2.2.4.1.2: Sumicidin (Fenvalerate)…………………………………… ……..20
2.2.5: Inorganic fertilizers…………………………………………………....22
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS…………………………………………….24
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS…………………………………………………………................30
Experiment (1)……………………………..………………………………...30
4.1-1:Growth Parameters : Plant height ……………………………………..30
4.1-1-2: Number of branches / plant…………………………………………30
4.1- 3: Number of leaves / plant……………………………………………..30
4.1-1- 4: Leaf area index……………………………………………………..34
4.1-1-5: Fresh weight (g)/plant…………………………………………….. 34
4.1-1-6: Dry weight (g)/plant………………………………………………...37
4.1-2-1: Total yield in tons /fed. ……………………………………………..37
4.1-2-2: Number of fruits / fed……………………………………………….40
4.1-2.3: Insect survey (jassid counts) as affected by botanical and

synthetic insecticides treatments……………………………………………..42
4.1-2.4: Residues of synthetic …………………………………………….....45

Experiment (2)
4.2-1: Growth Parameters
4.2-1-1: Plant height (cm)…………………………………………………....47
4.2-1-2: Number of branches/plant…………………………………………..47
4.2-1-3: Number of leaves/plant……………………………………………..50
4.2-1-4: Leaf area index……………………………………………………...50
4.2-1-5: Fresh weight (g)/plant……………………………………. ………..53
4.2-1-6: Dry weight (g)/plant………………………………………………...53
4.2-2-1: Total yield tons / fed………………………………………………...55
4.2-2-2: Number of pods/fed………………………………………………..55
4.2-2-3: Insect survey (jassid counts) as affected by botanical, neem and argel,
insecticides treatments……………………………………………………….58
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………..60
SUMMARY and CONCLUSIONS………………………………………....70
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………….74
LIST OF TABLES
TILTLE PAGE
Table 1: The effect of application of compost and nitrophoska in
combination with spraying of neem, argel, sumicidin and endosulfan on
plant height (cm) of egg plant and okra plants
……………………………………………………………………...............31
combination with spraying of neem, argel, sumicidin and
endosulfan on number of branches/plant of egg plant and okra
plants …………………............................................................32
endosulfan on number of leaves/plant of egg plant and okra plants
……………………….....................................................................33
endosulfan on leaf area index of egg plant and okra plants
……………………………….......................................................35
endosulfan on fresh weight (g) of egg plant and okra plants
………………………..............................................................36
endosulfan on dry weight (g) of egg plant and okra plants
…………………………................................................................38
endosulfan on total yield of egg plant and okra plants
……………………………….....................................................39
Table 8.The effect of application of compost and nitrophoska in
endosulfan on number of fruits of egg plant and okra plants
…………………………...........................................................41
Table 9(a): Effect of application of compost and nitrophoska fertilizers in
combination with neem, argel, sumicidin and endosulfan in jassid
count and population drop and treatment efficacy, on eggplant,
season 2001-
02………………………………………………….....................43
Table 9(b): Effect of application of compost and nitrophoska fertilizers in

combination with neem, argel, sumicidin and endosulfan in jassid count and
population drop and treatment efficacy,on eggplant,season (2002-
03)………………………………………………........................................44
Table (10) Sumicidin Residues in Eggplant and Okra Fruits (mg/ml)at
different sampling time from
spraying………………………………………..........................................46
Table 11: Effect of using different rates of compost and concentrations of

neem (N) and argel (H) on height of okra plants (2004-
05)……......................................................................................48
neem (N) and argel (H) on number of branches of okra
plants(2004-
05)………………………………………………………………..49
neem (N) and argel (H) on number of leaves of okra plants(2004-
05)………………………………………………………………..51
neem (N) and argel (H) on leaf area index of okra plants(2004-
05)………………………………………………………………..52
neem (N) and argel (H) on fresh and dry weight/plant of okra
plants(2004-
05)………………………………………………………………..54
neem (N) and argel (H) on total yield of okra plant (tons/fed)
(2004-
05)………………………………………………………………..56
neem (N) and argel (H) on number of okra pods (2004-
05)………………………………………………………………..57
Table 18: The mean of jassiad count and percent of Population drop of
jassiad and treatment efficancy as affected by application of
different rates of compost and different concentrations of neem
and argel on okra plants (2004-
2005)…………………………………………………………59
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to God over all. I wish to express my deep thanks and

gratitude to prof.Abdalla M.Ali to his helpful suggestions, assistance and
supervision and to prof. Gaffar M.Elhassan for supervision and
guidance.I am greatly indebeted and my deep and sincere appreciation to
prof. Abdalla A. Abdalla for his keen interrest and unlimited assistance. I
wish to extend my special thanks to Dr.Mohamed H.Awad for his
undefenite help and continous assistance during the study period and his
great efforts in analizing the data of this study.Thanks to prof.Abdawahab
Abdalla for his guidance in analizing the data and to Dr.Shayoub and
Dr.EL Kamali.
Thanks are due to Sennar University for offering the schoolership of
this study and also to all my collieges at the Faculty of Agriculture,
Sennar University and to the Faculty field staff. I also very much
indebeted to all who helped me during my study.
I wish to thank Mr. Ismail and Mrs. Treiza for their help in analizing
and residues detecting.
The encouragement of my family is heighly appreciated.
ABSTRACT
In an attempt to produce eggplant and okra plants organically in

central Sudan, (compost) as organic fertilizer, (neem seeds and hargal leaves
water extracts) as organic insecticides, in different levels and concentrations
were evaluated using split plot design.
The results showed that mostly no significant differences were
observed between the application of organic fertilizer, compost, and
inorganic fertilizer, nitrophoska, in yield and yield components of eggplant
and okra.Only in season 2002-2003, number of okra pods per feddan was
significantly increased with compost application compared to nitrophoska
application.
All sprayed organic insecticides, neem and hargal, or inorganic
insecticides, endosulfan and sumicidin, generally, did not significantly differ
in their effects in yield and yield components of eggplant and okra.
However, hargal spraying significantly increased the eggplant fresh weight
in season 2001-02, compared to sumicidin treatment.
In season 2002-03., neem treatment significantly increased the leaf
area index, fresh and dry weights of okra plants compared to all other
treatments.The total yield and number of okra pods per feddan was
significantly increased with neem and hargal treatments compared to
endosulfan, sumicidin and control treatments.
The efficacy of organic insecticides and inorganic insecticides in
reducing jassid population in eggplant and okra plants had followed the
general trend of endosulfan, sumicidin, neem then hargal, mostly in all
seasons. However, all tested organic and inorganic insecticides gave better
results compared to control treatments.
Sumicidin residues were detected in all tested samples of eggplant and
okra fruits ranging from 18.7- 0.26 mg/ml. and were found up to 14 days
after spraying.
No significant differences were observed between the applications of
10 or 15 tons of compost per feddan in okra yield and yield components in
season 2004-05, but generally, the application of 15 tons gave better results
compared to 10 tons. In addition, the difference between the effects of all
tested neem and hargal concentrations and their interactions in yield and
yield components of okra were not significant. However, it was found that
interaction of spraying of neem at 1.5 kg/40 L water and hargal at 0.88
Kg/16 L water significantly increased okra plant height compared to neem
sprayed at 1 kg/40 L water and hargal at 0.44 Kg/16 L water.
‫ﻣﻠﺨﺺ اﻷﻃﺮوﺣﺔ‬
‫ﺃﺠﺭﻴﺕ ﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺒﻌﺽ ﻤﻌﺎﻤﻼﺕ ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ ﻟﻤﺤﺼﻭﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺫﻨﺠﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺎﻤﻴﺔ ً‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺃﻭﺍﺴﻁ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻭﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ ﺇﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ ) ﻜﻤﺒﻭﺴﺕ ( ﻭﺭﺵ ﻤﺴﺘﺨﻠﺼﺎﺕ ﻤﺎﺌﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺭ ﺠل ﻭﺇﻤﻜﺎﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻤﻬﻤﺎ ﻜﺒﺩﺍﺌل ﻟﻠﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺭ ﻋﻀﻭﻱ ) ﻨﺘﺭﻭﻓﻭﺴﻜﺎ ( ﻭﺍ ﻟﻤﺒﻴﺩﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺭ ﻋﻀﻭﻴﺔ ) ﺍﻷﻨﺩﻭﺴﻠﻔﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻤﻭﺴﻴﺩﻴﻥ (ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﻭﻤﻜﻭﻨﺎﺘﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻤﺤﺼﻭﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺫﻨﺠﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺎﻤﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺫﻟﻙ ﺒﻤﺯﺭﻋﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺯﺭﺍﻋﺔ –ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺴﻨﺎﺭ ﺒﺎﺒﻰ ﻨﻌﺎﻤﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻭﺴﻡ ‪2003-2002 -2001 -2001‬‬
‫ﻭﻜﺫﻟﻙ ﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ ﺇﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻴﺎﺕ ﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ) ‪ 10‬ﻭ‪ 15‬ﻁﻥ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ ﻭﺭﺵ ﺘﺭﻜﻴﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻤﻥ ﻤﺴﺘﺨﻠﺼﺎﺕ ﻤﺎﺌﻴﺔ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻡ ) ﺼﻔﺭ‪ 1,5 -1 -‬ﻜﺠﻡ ﺒﺫ ﻭﺭ ‪ 40 /‬ﻟﺘﺭ ﻤﺎﺀ ( ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺭ‬
‫ﺠل)ﺼﻔﺭ‪ 0.88-0.44 -‬ﻜﺠﻡ ‪ 16/‬ﻟﺘﺭ ﻤﺎﺀ ( ﻓﻲ ﻤﻭﺴﻡ‪.2005-2004‬‬
‫ﺃﻭﻀﺤﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻭﺴﻡ ‪ 2002 -2001‬ﻡ ﺃﻨﻪ ﻻﺘﻭﺠﺩ ﺇﺨﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﺒﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺭ‬
‫ﻋﻀﻭﻱ ) ﻨﺘﺭﻭﻓﻭﺴﻜﺎ( ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ) ﻜﻤﺒﻭﺴﺕ( ﻓﻲ ﺍﻹ ﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﻭﻤﻜﻭﻨﺎﺘﻪ ﻟﻤﺤﺼﻭل ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺫﻨﺠﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺭﻏﻡ ﻤﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺇﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺭ ﻋﻀﻭﻱ ﺃﻋﻁﺕ ﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺃﻓﻀل ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﺎﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ‪.‬‬
‫ﻟﻡ ﻴﺘﺄﺜﺭ ﻁﻭل ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﻋﺩﺩ ﺍﻷﻓﺭﻉ ﻭﻋﺩﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﺍﻕ ﻭﺍﻟﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻑ ﻭﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻲ ﻭﻋﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﺭ‬
‫ﻟﻤﺤﺼﻭل ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺫﻨﺠﺎﻥ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﹰﺎ ﺒﺎﻟﺭﺵ ﺒﺎﻟﻤﺒﻴﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻡ ﻭﺍ ﻟﺤﺭﺠل ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺭ ﻋﻀﻭﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻨﺩﻭ‬
‫ﺴﻠﻔﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻤﻭﺴﺩﻴﻥ‪ .‬ﻭﺠﺩ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﺵ ﺒﻤﻴﺒﺩ ﺍﻷﻨﺩﻭ ﺴﻠﻔﺎﻥ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺩﻟﻴل ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻭ‬
‫ﺭﻗﻴﺔ ﺒﺎﻟﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﺎﻟﺭﺵ ﺒﻤﺤﻠﻭل ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺠل ﻭﻤﻥ ﺠﺎﻨﺏ ﺃﺨﺭ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺭﺵ ﺒﻤﺤﻠﻭل ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺠل ﺇﻟﻰ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ‬
‫ﺇﺤﺼﺎﺌﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﻁﺏ ﻟﻨﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺫﻨﺠﺎﻥ ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﺎﻟﺭﺵ ﺒﻤﺒﻴﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻭﺴﺩﻴﻥ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﻜﺫﺍﻟﻙ ﺃﻥ ﺇﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺭ ﻋﻀﻭﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ ﻟﻡ ﻴﺅﺜﺭﺍ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﹰﺎ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻁﻭل ﻨﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻤﻴﺔ ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﺎﻟﺸﺎﻫﺩ ‪ .‬ﻟﻡ ﺘﺘﺄﺜﺭ ﻋﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﺭﻭﻉ ﻭﻋﺩﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﺍﻕ ﻭﺍﻟﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻑ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﹰﺎ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻤﻭﺴﻴﺩﻴﻥ (‬ ‫ﺒﺎﻟﺭﺵ ﺒﺎﻟﻤﺒﻴﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻴﺔ ) ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺭﺠل ( ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺭ ﻋﻀﻭﻴﺔ) ﺍﻷﻨﺩﻭﺴﻠﻔﺎﻥ‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺭﺵ ﺒﻤﺒﻴﺩ ﺍﻷﻨﺩﻭﺴﻠﻔﺎﻥ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﻁﺏ ﻟﻠﺒﺎﻤﻴﺎ ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﻤﻌﺎﻤﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻡ‬
‫ﻜﺫﺍﻟﻙ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺭﺵ ﺒﻤﺒﻴﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻭﺴﺩﻴﻥ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻤﺤﺼﻭل ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻤﻴﺔ ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﺎﻟﺤﺭﺠل‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺸﺎﻫﺩ ﻭﺠﺩ ﻜﺫﺍﻟﻙ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﺵ ﺒﻤﺒﻴﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻭﺴﺩﻴﻥ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺩﺩ ﻗﺭﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻤﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﺒﻘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻤﻼﺕ ﺍﻷﺨﺭﻯ ‪ .‬ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺤﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺨﺭﻯ ﺃﻋﻁﺕ ﻤﻌﺎﻤﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺵ ﺒﺎﻟﺴﻤﻭﺴﺩﻴﻥ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻷﻨﺩﻭ ﺴﻠﻔﺎﻥ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺩﻟﻴل ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻭ ﺭﻗﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﺎﻤﻴﺔ ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﻤﻌﺎﻤﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﻫﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻭﺴﻡ ‪ 2005 - 2004‬ﻡ ﻋﺩﻡ ﻭﺠﻭﺩ ﻓﺭﻭ ﻗﺎﺕ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﺒﻴﻥ ﺇﻀﺎﻓﺔ ‪10‬‬
‫ﻁﻥ ﻭ‪ 15‬ﻁﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﻭﻤﻜﻭﻨﺎﺘﻪ ﻟﻤﺤﺼﻭل ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻤﻴﺎ ﻭﻋﻤﻭﻤﹰﺎ ﻭﺠﺩ ﺃﻥ ﺇﻀﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫‪ 15‬ﻁﻥ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ ﺃﻋﻁﺕ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺩﺩ ﺍﻷﻓﺭﻉ ‪ ،‬ﻋﺩﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﺍﻕ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺼﻭل ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻲ‬
‫ﻭﻋﺩﺩ ﻗﺭﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻤﻴﺎ ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﺈﻀﺎﻓﺔ ‪ 10‬ﻁﻥ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ ﻟﻠﻔﺩﺍﻥ ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺃﻋﻁﺕ ﺇﻀﺎﻓﺔ ‪10‬‬
‫ﻁﻥ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻌﺩل ﺩﻟﻴل ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻭ ﺭﻗﻴﺔ ‪،‬ﺍﻟﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﻁﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺎﻑ ﻟﻤﺤﺼﻭل‬
‫ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻤﻴﺎ ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﺈﻀﺎﻓﺔ ‪ 15‬ﻁﻥ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺱ ﺭﺵ ﺘﺭﻜﻴﺯﺍﺕ ﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻤﻥ ﻤﺤﻠﻭل ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺭﺠل ﻭﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭﻫﻤﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺼﻭل ﻭﻤﻜﻭﻨﺎﺘﻪ‬
‫ﻟﻤﺤﺼﻭل ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻤﻴﺎ ‪ .‬ﺃﻭﻀﺤﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﻋﺩﻡ ﻭﺠﻭﺩ ﻓﺭﻭ ﻗﺎﺕ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻌﻅﻡ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺩﺭﻭﺴﺔ ﺒﻴﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺭﻜﻴﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻴﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺭﺠل ﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻭﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ ﻟﻜﻥ ﻭﺠﺩ ﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ‬
‫ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻱ ﻟﻠﺘﺩﺍﺨل ﺒﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺭﺠل ﺤﻴﺙ ﺃﻋﻁﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻡ ﺒﺘﺭﻜﻴﺯ ‪ 1.5‬ﻜﺠﻡ ‪ 40/‬ﻟﺘﺭ ﻤﺎﺀ ﻭ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺭﺠل‬
‫ﺒﺘﺭﻜﻴﺯ ‪ 0.88‬ﻜﺠﻡ ‪ 16 /‬ﻟﺘﺭ ﻤﺎﺀ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻌﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺼﻔﺔ ﻁﻭل ﻨﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺎ ﻤﻴﺎ ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺒﺭﺵ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻡ‬
‫ﺒﺘﺭﻜﻴﺯ ‪ 1‬ﻜﺠﻡ ‪ 40 /‬ﻟﺘﺭ ﻤﺎﺀ ﻭ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺭﺠل ﺒﺘﺭﻜﻴﺯ ‪ 0.44‬ﻜﺠﻡ ‪ 16 /‬ﻟﺘﺭ ﻤﺎﺀ ‪ .‬ﻋﻤﻭﻤﹰﺎ ﻴﺘﻀﺢ ﻤﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺇﻤﻜﺎﻨﻴﺔ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺫﻨﺠﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺎﻤﻴﺎ ﻋﻀﻭﻴﹰﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻭﺍﺴﻁ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﺒﺎﺴﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻭﻱ‬
‫ﻜﺒﺩﻴل ﻟﻠﺴﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺭ ﻋﻀﻭﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺭﺠل ﻜﺒﺩﻴل ﻟﻠﻤﺒﻴﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺭ ﻋﻀﻭﻴﺔ ‪.‬‬
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Organic agriculture was introduced during the period 1924 – 1970
and gained acceptance and respectability during the period 1980–2002 when
most of the National and International Standards were set and implemented
(El Bitar, 2001).
Organic farming is an agricultural production system of farming that
maintains the long-term fertility of the soil. Several names have been given
to organic farming including organic agriculture (O.A), biological
agriculture (B.A), and ecological agriculture (E.A). The US Department of
Agriculture defined organic farming as a production system which avoids or
largely excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators
and genetically-modified organisms (GMO). Organic farming has been
described as the sum total of the use of locally adapted varieties, the
reduction of nutrients losses, wide rotation, steering natural balances and
mechanical and manual weed control without need for synthetic inputs
(Byiringiro, 2003).
Organic farming has nutritional, environmental, economical, social
and ecological benefits, including better sales prices, improvement of
production and sustainability of farms, reducing pollution, fostering local
production/consumption and biodiversity, saveing natural resources,
maintaining jobs, provideing employment opportunities in farming, etc...(El
Bitar, 2002).
Organic farming management relies on developing biological
diversity in the field to disrupt habitat for pest organisms and the purposeful
maintenance and replenishment of soil fertility (El Bitar, 2002).
Organic farming can and does play an important role in moving
agriculture and food production towards more sustainable practices, as well
as recognition of the economic value of producing high quality and certified
organic products for export and domestic markets.
Sudan is one of three countries named at The Food Summit (1983)
that have the potential to contribute to the international food security. The
World Bank has estimated that Sudan could feed the whole of Africa, while
the Arab League sees Sudan as the key to closing the Middle East’s
widening food gap. The traditional production systems in Sudan are often
close to compliance with regulations of organic agriculture.
Since the end of the second war, man has slipped gradually to the use
of hazardous synthetic or inorganic pesticides to solve his problems with
plant diseases or insects. These pesticides might leave toxic residues in food
products, which are not easily biodegradable. Furthermore, pesticides have
negative and deleterious influence on the environment.
Pollution by pesticides and fertilizers is an area of great concern in
many countries. On the other hand, using chemical fertilizers might lead to
changes in soil micro flora, soil texture and chemistry, (Inckel et al, 2002).
In the end, synthetic fertilizers have negative effects on the soil which might
become acid because of the chemical composition of the fertilizers.
The over-reliance on synthetic or inorganic pesticides as a sole
measure for pest control has created several problems such as resistance,
residues, pollution, etc. According to the World Health Organization (2000),
insecticides accidentally poisoned many people in the world and the
mortality rates are increasing. Accordingly, many national and international
organizations and farmers groups are re-evaluating the need for continued
heavy use of insecticides promoting integrated pest management (IPM) and
using of botanical insecticides to control pests, resorting to pesticides only
when other methods fail to reduce their effects (WHO 2000). Pesticides are
used only after critical assessment and that their benefits outweigh the
environmental and social costs.
The misuse of highly toxic substances might lead to a great
disturbance of the natural biological balance (El Bitar, 2001).Therefore,
recognition of problems caused by synthetic or inorganic fertilizers and
pesticides has led a number of countries to reduce or totally abolish
subsidies on those inputs, and these policies facilitate a shift towards organic
farming.
Research efforts have been, therefore, directed towards searching for
more rational long term and environmentally accepted methods for
combating pests and vectors and maintaining soil fertility. This has led to the
concept and philosophy of organic farming. In some areas, organic farming
is encouraged in order to decrease the negative effects of conventional
agriculture.
The use of natural plant products as insecticides against crop pests has
gained importance in recent years. Plant extracts proved to be effective as
natural pesticides; they are cheep, safe, ecologically-sound, and IPM
compatible. A large number of species of higher plants posse's insecticidal
properties against various insects and vectors of plant diseases. Among such
plants are the neem tree (Azadirachta indica) and argel (Solenostemma
argel).
Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is one of the most important
vegetable crops grown in many parts of the Sudan all the year round. It is
produced mainly for local consumption and small quantities for export. Okra
(Abelomoschus esculentus L.) is an important and popular vegetable crop in
the Sudan. Therefore, because of the increased demand for chemical-free
products in the local and foreign markets, efforts are needed to put eggplant
and okra among the leading exportable organic vegetable crops.
The main objectives of this study were to shed some lights on the use
of organic farming as a production system of eggplant and okra plants.The
use of synthetic (inorganic) materials (nitrophoska fertilizer, insecticides:
endosulfan and Sumicidin) and organic materials (compost, insecticides:
neem and argel) and their effects on growth characteristics and yield of
eggplant and okra plants, and jassid population was investigated.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Organic Farming: Definitions:

Several definitions have been given to organic farming.
Byrirngrio (2003) defined organic farming as a production management
system, which promotes and enhances ecosystem health, including
biological cycle and soil biological activity. It encompasses a range of
land, crop and animal management procedures that use little or no
external inputs and promote the use of local natural resources.
Organic farming was defined as a food production system
based on farm management methods or practices that rely on building
soil fertility by utilizing crop rotation, recycling of organic waste,
application of unsynthesized minerals, and when necessary, mechanical,
or botanical pest control (El-Gizawy, 2002).
According to FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission
(1999) "Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system
which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including
biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasizes
the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm
inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally-
adapted systems. This is accomplished by using, where possible,
agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using
synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system."
2.2 Botanical or Organic Insecticides
2.2.1 Neem
2.2.1.1 Uses:
Neem tree Azadirachta indica A. Juss, Melia azadiracht L. is a
member of the mahogany family Meliaceae. Originally, from South and
South East Asia, it was one of the earliest used botanical pest control agents.
In recent years, scientific research organizations and chemical
companies have become increasingly interested in using products derived
from neem tree for controlling agricultural pests. Recent scientific and
commercial interest in Neem has evolved in response to the need to find
alternatives to costly and hazardous synthetic pesticides. Results of many
field trials show that the neem products suppress a wide range of pests
(Isman et al, 1990).
2.2.1.2 Chemical constituent and active ingredients:
Neem protects itself from pests with a multitude of pesticidal
ingredients. Its main chemical constituent is a mixture of compounds, which
belong to a general class of natural products called triterpenes and more
specifically limoniods (Anon, 1992).
The major insecticidal ingredient of neem is termed azadirachtin.
According to the present knowledge, this group of compounds and similar
ones are usually non-toxic to mammals and are readily degraded on plants
and in soil. Azadirachtin is also highly efficient in controlling insects and its
effect in beneficial insects is negligible.There is no evidence of
environmental hazards or health risks associated with the use of neem
derivatives (Elsiddig, 1998).
Azadirachtin, a steroid like tetranortriterpenoid (Limonoid), is
considered the most active pesticidal compound of neem. All parts of the
neem contain azadirachtin, but it is more concentrated in the seed. The
content of azadirachtin per neem tree varies greatly between locations, and
other factors may contribute to variability. Neem has other compounds with
pesticidal properties (Schmutterer, 1990), but most research has focused on
azadirachtin, which is the most used ingredient in commercial products.
Azadirachtin is one of the first active ingredients isolated from neem
that has proven to be the tree’s main agent for battling insects. It appears to
cause some 90% of the effect on most pests. Azadirachtin repels insects and
disrupts their growth and reproduction. In fact it is so potent that a mere
trace of its presence prevents some insects from even touching the neem
plants.Azadirachtin is structurally similar to the insect hormones called
“ecdysones” which control the process of metamorphosis. It blocks insect’s
development by the release of these hormones. On average, neem kernels
contain between 2 to 4 mg of azadirachtin per gram of kernel (Anon, 1992).
Neem pesticidal action is not understood for all pests. The compound
Azadirachtin may work as an insect growth regulator interfering with
ecdysone, which is the key insect molting hormone that prevents immature
insects from molting. Neem products may also repel insects, stop their
feeding, inhibit reproduction, and cause other interruptions (Schmutlerer,
1990).
Melianlriol is another feeding inhibitor with low concentration, which
inhibits insects from feeding. Solanin (triterpeniod) is also isolated from
neem. This compound also powerfully inhibits insects from feeding but does
not influence insect molts. Nimbin and Nimbidin are also neem compounds
that have been found to have antiviral activities. Nimbidin is the primary
component of the better principles obtained when neem seeds are extracted
with alcohol (Anon, 1992).
2.2.1.3 Traditional and recent uses of neem:
Neem was one of the earliest used botanical pest control agents
(Ahmed and Koppel, 1987).Neem seed water extract using one kg powder in
40 liters of water significantly controlled jassid Empoasca lybica (Debery)
and other okra pests and the yield of okra was increased ,Siddig (1991). In
addition, neem extracts could control insects by three strong modes of action
repellent, antifeedant and growth regulatory effects, in addition to a
comparatively weaker insecticidal effect. Thus, Rao et al. (1991)
Samuthiravelu and David (1991) Upadhyay and Mishra (1999) emphasized
the great potential use of neem and to be an integral part in IPM programs,
especially for vegetable production.
Usage of the natural plant products in protecting crops from
pest traces back to early-recorded history. Traditional botanical pest control
methods used leaves, stems, seeds, roots, or other plant structure known to
kill or repel the pest (Golob and Webley, 1980).Sometimes the plant
materials were chopped or ground into powders or liquid. Pruthi and Singh
(1944) reported that from the an old practice in India is mixing neem leaves
with stored rice grains or crushing neem fruits on storage facility walls will
prevent insects damage. Farmers have traditionally ground neem leaves,
soaked them overnight in water and treated the plants with the extract,
(IRRI, 1989).
Dorn et al. (1987) reported the insecticidal effect of neem on many
pests. They found that adult females of Oucopeltus faciatus die when treated
with azadirachtin at the rate of 0.25 mg.The soil treatment with neem
products protects young plants from insect pests and kills or repels soil-
infesting nematodes, (IRRI, 1991).
Swarms of the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk) were
repeatedly seen to settle on neem trees, but to fly away soon after without
feeding on the leaves (Schmutterer, 1980). Schmutterer (1981) reported that
neem seed powder at 1–2 % reduced Trogderma granarium damage in
pulses and cereals for a considerable period. Siddig (1992) found that neem
seeds water extract, at the concentration of 1 kg seed powder in 40 L water,
was the best effective treatment that significantly controlled Jassid,
Empoasca lybica (Deberg), aphid, Aphis gossypii (Glov) and white fly,
Bemisia tabaci (Genn) in vegetable crops in Sudan.Neem seed water extract
at 50 g/L proved to be very effective in field and farm trials in Niger against
the cotton ballworm, Helicoverpa Heliothis armigera (Hb) (Ostermann,
1992). Also he stated that in laboratory trials in Niger, the addition of neem
seed water extracts and leaf water extract of 50 g/ L to agar significantly
reduced fungal growth of Fusarium oxyiporum, on this medium. According
to Bashir (1996) one spray of neem seed water extract, 1 kg/ 40 L water,
applied 25 days after sowing of eggplant, was sufficient to control jassid and
aphid in the Sudan. In addition, the effect of neem substance lasts between 3
to 6 days (Ketkar1, 989). Mohammed (2004) stated that the application of
neem seed kernel water extract significantly reduced the percentage of
infestation of the black cutworm, Agrotis ispilon (Hfn), and the potato tuber
moth, Phthorinaea porreculelle (Zoller).
Satti et al, (2002) stated that neem extract significantly reduced
infestation of Cucumis melo L. major pests, especially Bemisia tabaci
(Genn), Aphis gossypii (Glov).The results were always comparable to, or
even better than the use of malathion. No adverse effects on natural enemies
were detectable because of using neem extracts. In addition, in 2003, they
recommended neem seed aqueous extract for the control of cucurbit pest
complex due to its best performance, cheap and simple preparation. The
farmers themselves could adopt this technique in smallholdings until readily
formulated neem products are available for large-scale usage in Sudan.
Mohammed et al (2004) reported that the use of neem Azadirachta indica
A .Juss aqueous extract at 40 g neem seed kernel powder/ L of water alone
or in combination with the fungicide benomyl on Khartoumia and Sennar
okra varieties, resulted in high yields, compared to those of the two standard
insecticides methomyle and omethoate. (Schmutterer , 1984;1988,Siddig ,
1991, and Abdulkareem, 1981) found that the results of several field
experiments showed that neem extract are comparable to many conventional
synthetic insecticides in controlling different economical pests worldwide.
Mitchell et al. (2001) stated that all tested concentrations of neem seed
kernel suspension significantly reduced bug-feeding activity on inside and
outside pod walls of pigeon pea. Dreyer (1984) studied the effect of neem
extracts on the main pests of squash Cucurbita pepo L. and he reported that
the effect of neem extract could be repellency rather than insecticidal.
Jacobson et al.1984; Larwen, 1987; Meisner et al 1987; Adhikary, 1981;
Fogoonee, 1987; and Schmutterer, 1995, reported the repellency effect and
great potentialities of different neem extracts as insecticides against many
pests
Several studies explained the safety of neem extract against natural
enemies. It was reported that neem insecticides work mainly by stomach
action and their safety to predators was based principally on lack of
insecticidal contact effect. (Srivastava and Pumar, 1985; Siddig, 1991;
Jayarraj, 1992; Schmutterer, 1995; Ahmed, 1997, and Satti et al 2003).
A major reason for the recent interest in neem is the widely held view
that neem is safe to humans, the environment, and natural enemies of pests
and Saxena (1989) believe that insect resistance to neem products is
unlikely. Neem products were not toxic to workers, honeybees and other
pollinators in the United States when applied at doses of up to 418-ppm
azadirachtin/ha (Schmutterer and Holst, 1987).Various commercial
formulations of neem pesticides are now available e.g. Margoside,
Margosan, Neemark, Neemosan, Neemguard and Neemin. El-Zadjali et al
(2003) reported that the average mortality with Neemosan was 64.18%.
Kaadeh et al. (2001) also reported the effectiveness of Neem Azzal another
neem product against aphid on cucumber.
One constraint to the use of neem is its slow killing (knock down)
effect on some insect pests compared with most synthetic insecticides. The
speed of action varies according to the insect pest species, its life stage, and
environmental factors (Libreo et al.1988).
2.2.2 Argel
2.2.2.1 Botanical classification, taxonomy, description and distribution
Argel, Solenostemma argel (Del) Hayne belongs to the family
Asclepiadaceae and its aerial part is called “El-Hargel” in Sudan. It is an
erect shrub reaching a height of 60-100 cm, with many velvety,
pubescent branches from the base. The leaves are weak yellow to pale
green and lanceslate 1-2 cm. The odor is characteristic and the taste is
mucilage-like, and then slightly bitter. Apex is acute to sub acute
muceronate, fleshy, sub sessile, ovate-oblong to elliptic and has a velvet-
like pubescent. Inflorescence is amble with short peduncle. The calyx
consists of five separate sepals and white corolla, 7-10 mm broad with
erect oblong liner lobes. Characteristic pollen masses are cup-shaped,
flattened and pendulous. Fruits are follicle, oblong to ovate, and a smooth
and very hard-flattened seed with silky coma and opposite estipulate
leaves. Argel is distributed in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya, Chad, and
Palestine. In Sudan, it is indigenous in “Rubatab area” between Barber
and Abu Hamad (Andrews, 1952, El-Kamali 1994).The first irrigated
cultivation of El-Hargel was made by Hag Mohamed Ali Mustafa, in
1970, at Attmore village, Rubatab area (Ali, 2005), in the River Nile
state.
2.2.2.2 Some Uses of Argel:
Ross et al. (1980) stated that some plants including argel were
markedly antifungal when they were studied for their activity against five
fungi. The examined plant material of argel leaves passed the test for the
absence of Salmonella spp and also the test for the absence of Eschericha
coli since no such colonies were detected (BP, 1988; WHO,
2000).Antibacterial and antifungal properties of argel were recognized by
Alcaraz and Fernandez (1987) while Shayoub (2005) recognized its
antibacterial activity.
2.2.2.3 Active Ingredients in Argel:
Harbone, (1973) detected the presence of flavonoids, kaempferol,
quercetin, rutin, flavonoids, flavonones, chalcones and alkaloids in argel.
However, Khalid et al., (1974); Innocenti et al (1999) isolated flavonoids
and kaempferol from argel leaves and confirmed the presence of kaempferol
and reported the isolation of pregnane ester glycosides in argel extract. On
the other hand, Alcaraz and Fernandez, 1987 found that Flavonoides, which
are present in argel, have antibacterial and antifungal properties. In addition,
they detected the presence of flavonoids, saponines and alkaloids and /or
nitrogenous bases in the leaves, stems and flowers.
2.2.2.4 Use of argel in agriculture:
No research data are available concerning evaluation of the use of

argel in agriculture and namely against pests and diseases, but the
observations of some farmers were encouraging to proceed forward in
preparing formulations suitable for organic production of vegetable crops. El-
Kamali (1999) stated that the crude aqueous extract of argel was effective
against the mosquito larva. Ibrahim (2005) stated that, except for the “Oshar
locust “Zonocerus variegates (L.) no insect can attack hargal plant and it also
repels aphids and whitefly. He also reported that some farmers put a sack
containing hargal inside the water canal to irrigate tomato plots for the
protection from the worms. Ali (2005) reported that any insect cannot infest
hargal plant and if any insect visited the hargal plants, it makes no effect on it.
Mustafa (2005) observed that the people put hargal straw among the roof
materials to protect it from weevils and termites. Ali (2005) reported that
hargal controls nematodes in tomato farms and stops the movement of the
insects in the soil if a sack containing hargal was put at the head of the
irrigation cannal. He further stated that the plant is used to cure sand fly bites
and is repellent to cutworms, aphid and scale insect and its seed protects itself
from insects for many years. In addition, the rats do not attack any part of the
plant.
2.2.3 Organic fertilizer:
2.2.3.1 Compost:
Composting is the breakdown of organic material by microorganisms to
produce humus. The end product is strongly decayed organic matter known as
compost. Compost is an organic fertilizer that can be made on the farm at very
low cost. Rynk (1992) has defined composting as a biological process in
which microorganisms convert organic materials such as manure, sludge,
leaves, paper, and food waste into a soil-like material called compost.
2.2.3.2 Benefits of compost:
Inckel et al, (2002) stated that compost improves soil fertility in the
long run, by improving the soil structure and the water retention capacity of
the soil. Compost releases the nutrients slowly and therefore its effect is slow.
Compost improved yield and quality of tomato by more than 30% compared
to animal manure, (Lahcen, 2002). The desert sand was converted into
productive soil using organic and biodynamic agriculture methods including
composting (Byiringiro, 2003).
When compost was added to the soil, the soil level of nutrients, water
holding capacity were increased and the soil microbial activity was improved .
Compost may help to provide a more favorable pH for corn germination and
root development and also improves the physical condition of the soil for
cultivation and improves soil structure so the surface of the soil does not crust
(Davis, 1997).
It has been reported that, applying compost improves the soil structure
and increase its aggregate stability thus improving soil porosity, water
penetration and root growth (El-Gizawy, 2002). These in turn increase the
nutrient uptake from the soil. Other advantages of compost were the increase
of organic matter in the soil, which gave enough nitrogen to living
microorganisms to convert the nutrients from organic form to available
mineral form .Also the addition of compost with chicken manure and
biofertilizer increased NPK in the leaves, tuber size and total yield of potato
(El-Gizawy, 2002).
The high temperature generated during composting reaching 50 °C, help
to kill weed seeds and a wide variety of disease pathogens. In addition,
compost contains active ingredients such as antibiotics and is antagonisic to
the soil pest Abd-El Moity (2002). There is a further advantage to composting,
which is that many pesticide residues are broken down before they are applied
to the crop (Al-Araby, 2002). A properly constructed compost pile, which
should heat up in the center, can control many diseases (Boyhan et al. 1999).
(Bulluck and Ristaino, 2002) reported that using compost cotton – gin trash to
control tomatoes blight, reduced the disease incidence and also enhanced
population of beneficial soil microbes.
Sances and Ingham (1997) used broccoli and mushroom compost or a
combination of both of them to reduce soil borne pathogens that attack
strawberries roots. The efficiency of compost and compost extract in
suppressing damping off and some other foliar diseases was reported by
(Trankner, 1992). Moreover, compost as organic farming method of fertilizing
has economic and environmental advantages in comparison with the
conventional method (Kim, 1996).
Guet (2003) informed that the well-composted organic matter could be
used against diseases and insects. (El-Gizawy ,2002) stated that compost is
preferred because it is usually free of weed seeds, has a better nutrient balance
and there is less chance that the crop will take on “off-flavors” which may
occur when raw wastes are applied.
2. 2.3.3 Effect of compost on vegetative growth and yield:
Corrales et al. (1990) stated that leaf area, flowering rate and yield of
sweet pepper (Capsicum annum L.) were significantly increased when
compost was added. Mohammed (1995) reported that the application of 10
tons of compost per feddan resulted in high yield and quality of vegetables.
Maynard (1995) found that plots amended with compost at 50 tons/acre
significantly increased tomato fruit yield compared to mineral fertilizer and
untreated plots (control).Hsich and Hsu (1995) compared five organic
manures with chemical fertilizer and demonstrated that fruit yield of sweet
pepper was significantly higher with all organic manure treatments than with
chemical fertilizers, and the fruit yield was significantly earlier. Clark et al.
(1995) applied 10, 67, and 135 tons/ha of compost to pepper and found that
the yield was increased with the 3 compost levels, compared to the control.
Hartz et al. (1996) studied the effect of composted green yard and landscape
waste as a soil amendment on sweet pepper plants and reported that fruit yield
increased with compost.
Maynard, (1996) mentioned that higher pepper yield was obtained
with plots treated with fully mature leave compost compared with untreated
control. The increase in yield was mainly due to the increased number of
fruits/plant. On the other hand, similar results were reported by Maynard,
(1997) on tomato. Stoffella and Graetz(1996) reported that total tomato yields,
and also early marketable yields, were higher and mean fruit size (g/fruit) was
larger, in plots amended with sugarcane filter cake compost (224 mt/ha) as
compared to control plots without compost. Weir and Allen, (1997) found that
tomato yield was mostly higher in plots treated with compost. The application
of compost to the soil increased early and total yields of tomato plants rather
than the normal treatment compared to the use of mineral fertilizer, (Morsy et
al. 2001).Chindo and Khon (1990) stated that adding organic fertilizer at 4
tons/ha increased growth of tomato plants significantly.
Florescu et al. (1991) studied the effect of applying compost at the rate
of 30, 50 or 70 ton/ha and farm yard manure at 50 ton/ha to cucumber
seedlings grown in fertile soil, compared with unamended soil. They
mentioned that the highest total yield was obtained with 30-ton compost. Also
the early yield was higher with this treatment while with heavier application,
fruiting was delayed. Vogtmann et al. (1993) studied the effect of compost
and mineral fertilizer on tomato fruit quality. In general, compost positively
improved food quality such as taste, soluble dry matter and acid concentration
in fruit, and improved storage performance.
Ismail et al. (1996) stated that the effect of applying some composted
manures to heavy alluvial soil for growing cucumber plants at a rate of five
kgs chicken furthers compost / m 2 increased leaves dry weight of plants. Roe
et al. (1997) reported that adding biosolids and yard trimming compost alone
or mixed with waste paper or refused derived fuel for growing cucumber,
tomato and pepper, increased stem length and fresh weights of the studied
vegetables. They also reported that K, P, Ca and Mg concentrations in pepper
leaves were higher in plants that received compost rather than chemical
fertilization. Okur et al. (1999) found that clay soil amended with compost
produced tomato fruits with higher TSS.
Abd El-Aty (1997) found that the total chlorophyll content in pepper
leaves was higher with the addition of compost. Using several sources of
organic matter in media of growing pepper plants, Bayoumi (1999) found that
higher number and weight of early fruit yield were obtained with composted
yard wastes. He also demonstrated that compost resulted in the highest plant
length and number of leaves, increased dry matter percentage in pepper fruits
and a higher yield was produced.
Ismail et al. (1999) stated that the addition of organic fertilizer increased
the dry matter of okra plant, leaf number, number of flowers and number of
fruits. Asiegbu and Oikeh (1995) showed that plant height and number of
branches of potato plants was markedly increased with increasing rate of
organic fertilizer.You and Duonwel (1999 reported that tomato plants height
was increased by addition of organic fertilizer supply.
Roe et al. (1997) grew peppers and cucumbers in a sandy soil
supplemented with compost or fertilizersand reported an increase in yield
when compost was applied. Morsiy et al. (2001) noted that higher
concentration of N, P and K were found in leaves of tomato plants grown in
soil with compost than those grown without compost.
2.2.4 Synthetic inorganic chemicals:
2.2.4.1 Inorganic Insecticides:

Insecticides are toxic chemicals which offer a quick and immediate
solution to pest and vector problems. They are highly effective and
economical to use especially when pests become important in large areas.
Pingali and Marquez (1990) stated that many insecticides used in
agricultural production are extremely hazardous and showed that unsafe
application techniques greatly harm health and may reduce the productivity
and adversely affect the environment. Gunther (1973) reported that during the
last decade considerable attention throughout the world has been given to
pesticide residues in foodstuffs. In some countries polices have been adopted
of phasing out or curb some types of persistent pesticides. Effects of
pesticides on vital processes such as nitrification, respiration and degradation
have been the subjects of several reviews (Cullmore, 1971; Edwards, 1973;
and Tu, and Mites 1976).
Abd-El Moity (1981) stated that since the end of the second war man
slipped gradually to use hazardous pesticides to solve his problems with plant
diseases or insects. Misuse of these highly toxic substances led to a great
disturbance of the natural biological balance, resulted in appearance of new
aggressive races of insects and pathogens, and the appearance of pests due to
the great reduction in their natural enemies. The most serious result was the
great increase in concentrations of toxic substance in human food chain.
Pollution by pesticides and excess use of synthetic fertilizers is an area of
great concern in many countries (EL Bitar 2002).
Kumar (1984) stated that insecticides invariably upset the pest-
natural enemy relationship, leading not only to the problems of primary pest
resurgence and secondary pest outbreaks, but also resulting in direct hazards
to human beings resulting from mishandling and also from exposure to
contaminated surfaces where insecticides have been sprayed. Buckley,
(1979) and Morquez et al. (1992) reported that many pesticides are
disruptive and adversely affect the environment and can seriously harm
farmer’s health.
2.2.4.1.1 Endosulfan:
Endosulfan is an organochlorine (chlorinated hydrocarbons)
insecticide. These chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds are well known for
their long environmental persistence, accumulation in fatty tissue of higher
animals and biomagnifications along the food chain. Their high persistence,
broad-spectrum of activity and cheapness favored their widespread usage.
However, after three decades of intensive use, many disadvantages emerged
such as environmental pollution, insect resistance, and accumulation in body
fats and along the food chain. Consequently, their usage was either banned or
severely restricted in many countries like Germany, which is the country of
origin. Various international programs were set forward to reduce their release
in the environment (PIC, 1998).
S everal investigators recommended the use of endosulfan for
controlling white fly, aphids and jassid (Hussein 1966; Siddig and Hughes,
1969; Balla 1985; Gameel and El-Tayeb, 1985 and Eisa (1989).
Rao et al. (1991) compared the efficacy of some insecticides for
controlling aphid and other insects on okra and reported that endosulfan spray
was the most effective treatment against all pests. Application of endosulfan
for the control of pest complex of okra and aubergines reduced damage and
increased yield (Samuthiravelu and David, 1991; Thanki and Patel, 1991;
Waryam et al. 1991).
Endosulfan residues may affect soil fertility by eradicating the
arthropod fauna and may affect neighboring and successive crops (Kumar,
1984).
In Sudan, endosulfan residues were detected in high concentrations in
onion, tomato and eggplant fruits samples (Gamer, 1976 and Omer, 1999).
A survey conducted in Germany by FAO/WHO (1972) which showed
that endosulfan residues was found in leafy vegetables, in green fruits and in
oils and fats.Geisman (1975)reported that the processing of vegetables
reduced the amount of residues .
Schmutterer (1969) stated that endosulfan acted mainly as a contact
insecticide and had a comparatively long residual effect and the safety period
for this chemical was 3-4 weeks.
2.2.4.1. 2 Sumicidin (Fenvalerate):
Fenvalerate, the common name of sumicidin, is a synthetic
photostable pyrethroid insecticide discovered in 1972 by Sumitomo Chemists
in Osaka, Japan (Ohno et al., 1974).
Sumitomo Chemical Co., Japan, introduced Sumicidin to the Sudan in
1976 under the commercial name of sumicidin 20% for experimentation in
small scale in ARC farm. It was released for commercial use in the season
1980-1981. In addition to its use in cotton the Pest and Disease Committee
also recommended sumicidin for control of whiteflies on tomato (Kisha,
1983).
No phytotoxicity of sumicidin has been observed on fruit and vegetable
crops and can be considered nonhazardous to beneficial insects like honeybees
due to the repellency effect.Gameel and El-Tayeb (1979) reported that in
Gezira sumicidin gave satisfactory results against whitefly and jassid in
cotton. David and Kumaraswani (1991) reported that some synthetic
pyrethriods were tested against some insects on okra where sumicidin
treatment was most effective.
Ratanpara and Bharodia (1989) evaluated the efficacy of some
insecticides against okra shoot and fruit borer. The highest yield and lowest
infestation levels were recorded with sumicidin. Eisa, (1989) concluded that
the population of whitefly was not significantly lowered over the untreated
control when sumicidin was applied singly. However, it performed well
against the whitefly when mixed with endosulfan. Many synthetic pyrethriods,
like sumicidin, have much greater activity, which makes it possible to lower
their rate of application (Elliot et al., 1978).Mohamed (2003) reported that
sumicidin has significantly reduced the number of thrips compared with
untreated control and increased onion yield to 10 compared to 5.5 ton/fed for
the untreated control.
Sumicidin is used at extremely low dose level compared with the
conventional insecticides. Its influence on the environment is small and less
hazardous. Sumicidin shows a reasonably long residual activity even under
direct sunlight condition (Ohno et al., 1974). The residue levels of sumicidin
of sprayed cotton leaves were found to be low 21 days after spraying. Thus,
safety of this insecticide is assured and can be considered as low persistent
insecticide. Rapid disappearance of sumicidin occurred in the first three days
followed by slower disappearance rate immediately after the 3rd day up to 21st
day Bakheet (1985). Biswas et al. (1993) studied the sumicidin residues and
reported that its half-life values ranged from 1.1 to 3.0 days, and the waiting
period for Sumicidin range from zero to 2.8 days.
2.2.5 Inorganic Fertilizers:
For sustainable production the fertility of the soil may be maintained
either by incorporation of crop residues into the soil or the application of
suitable fertilizers, to replenish the nutrients that are removed by the
different crops. Raising soil fertility can be done through the use of
fertilizers, which are mainly inorganic materials and commonly synthetic
rich in one or more of the essential plant nutrients.
Nitrophoska, as described by BASF “Agrochemicals company”, as a
solid compound fertilizer consisting of free running granules rich mainly in
N 18 %, P2O5 18 % and K2O 5 %.
Nitrophoska rapidly dissolves after application and the nutrients are
completely available to the plant and ensure a balanced supply of nutrients
during vegetation period.
Abu-Sarra et al. (2001) tested three sources and three types of

fertilizers ,including Nitrophoska, at Rahad and Gezira Research Stations
and they found that the best yield and quality of tomato was associated with
Nitrophoska(N 18 %, P2O5 18 % and K2O 5 %) .
Dawoud (1991) found that Nitrophoska foliar application to ‘Foster’
grapefruit trees resulted in greater increase in plant height, number of leaves,
and fresh and dry weights of different plant parts than the control. More or
less, similar findings were also reported by other investigators working with
different plants species (Mudathir 1992, Bakhiet 1994, and Ali 1995), also
reported similar findings.
Eltaher and El Amin (1999) stated that foliar application of
Nitrophoska resulted in significantly higher plant height, number of leaves,
and fresh and dry weights of different banana plants.
CHAPTER THREE
3 MATERIALS AND METHODES
3-1 Experiments Location

The experiments were conducted at the Experimental Farm of
the Faculty of Agriculture, Sennar University, Abu-Naama, Sennar State,
400 kms South East of Khartoum.The experimental site lies in the semi-
tropical savanna at latitude 12° 44' N and longitude 35° 7َ' E. The field
experiments were conducted during 2001-02, 02-03 and 04-05 season.
3-2 Preparation of the Experimental Site
The experimented site was ploughed, disc harrowed, leveled, ridged
and then divided into plots. The plot size was 3 X 3.5 m2 with five ridges 70
cm apart, Soil samples from different depths were collected and analyzed
prior to planting and after harvesting of each crop.
3-3 Experiment One

This experiment was initiated to study the effect of the application of
two types of fertilizers, namely, organic fertilizer (compost), and synthetic
fertilizer (nitrophoska) and four pesticides, two synthetic or inorganic
insecticides (endosulfan and sumicidin) and two natural or organic pesticides
(neem and hargel) on growth and yield of eggplant and okra plants.
3-3-1 Treatments and Preparation of the Materials
Nitrophoska (18% N, 18% P2O5, 5 % K2O, 3 % S and 1.2 %
MgO plus trace elements) was added at the rate of 200 kg/fed, and organic
fertilizer (compost) was added at 10 tons/fed. Two inorganic insecticides
endosulfan at 250 ml/fed and sumicidin at 300 ml/fed. and two plants
extracts of neem (Azadirachta indica) seed kernel at 1kg seeds/40 L water
and hargel (Solenostemma argel) at 1 Ib hargel dry leaves/16 L water and
were assigned as sub-plots plus a control treatment for the okra experiment,
and were randomized in the main plots. The two plant neem and hargel
extracts were used as natural or organic insecticides and were applied as
water extracts.
Mature neem seeds were collected from Abu-Namma area and dried
under shade for one week. The dried seeds were ground.Two grams of soap
were dissolved in water and added to the mixture, to prevent the running off
of the oily neem solution from the plant leaves, and mixed thoroughly and
then left over night. In the next day, it was stirred thoroughly then sieved so
as not to block the nozzles of the knapsack sprayer.
Dry hargel leaves were obtained from the local market immersed into
16 L of boiled water and then left over night .The mixture was stirred
thoroughly for maximum extraction, stirred and then sieved on the next day.
The compost used in this experiment was prepared according to Rynk
(1992) and Ali (2001), in a pit 2m wide, 1.5m deep and 3m long. A layer of
dura stalks was put at the bottom of the pit then layers of animal manure
(cow, chicken and sheep) 5cm thick were put alternating with plant materials
consisted of dry leaves, dura straw and crop residues 10cm thick, until it
reached a reasonable height about 1.5m.The layers were moisted by spraying
water onto each layer. Some molasses was added to the pit to stimulate the
fermentation process.The compost was kept moist throughout the
decomposition period. The pit was covered with grass, leaves, and a thin
layer of soil to prevent water loss. After one month, all the contents of the pit
were turned over, put back into the pit, moisted and then covered again.
After four months, the compost was ready for use.
3-3-2 Cultural Practices
Irrigation was applied immediately after sowing okra or transplanting
of eggplant seedlings and continued at 7-day intervals. Weeding was done
manually when needed. Compost was applied once at the time of land
preparation. The Nitrophoska was splitted into two doses: the first dose was
applied after 21 days from sowing okra or transplanting of eggplant
seedlings and the second dose after one month from the first application.
Synthetic or inorganic insecticides (endosulfan and sumicidin) and the
natural or organic insecticides (neem and hargel) were sprayed 4 times at 15-
day interval starting after one month from sowing of okra and 21 days after
transplanting of eggplant seedlings. Leaves of both plants were thoroughly
covered with very fine droplets of neem and hargel extractions early in the
morning using a knapsack sprayer.
3-3-3 Planting Materials
Eggplant var."Black Beauty" seedlings were transplanted during
January in both seasons 2001-02-2002-03.with 50 cm spacing between
plants. Okra var. Khartomya seeds were sown directly during March in the
three seasons 2001-02-2002-03.and 2004-05.with spacing of 30 cm between
plants.
3-3-4 Recorded Parameters
Growth parameters were evaluated in terms of plant height,
number of branches and leaves, leaf area index and fresh and dry weights of
plants. Three plants from each sub-plot were randomly selected for
recording growth parameters Plant height was measured from the soil
surface to the top of the main stem of the plant.
At the termination of the experiment, the plants were cut at the soil
level and separated into leaves and stems for determination of fresh and dry
weights and leaf area-index.For determination of dry weight, the samples
were dried in an oven at 65°C for 24 hours.
Leaf area index (L.A.I.) was determined according to Watson and
Watson (1953) by taking fifty leaf discs, using a puncher of 1cm diameter.
The discs were dried in an oven at 65oC for 24 hours. The leaf area was
calculated using the following formula:
Total area of leaf discs
Leaf area = × Total dry weight of leaves
Dry weight of leaf discs
The leaf area index (L.A.I.) was determined as follows:

Leaf area per plant
Leaf area index ( L. A.I .) =
Plant ground area
Jassid Count
For jassid count, five plants from eggplant and okra were randomly
selected from cross diagonal lines of each sub-plot. From each plant, five
leaves (two from the upper, one from the middle and two from the lower
parts of the plant) were selected and checked for the presence of jassid
adults. The counts were done twice early in the morning pre and post-
spraying of endosulfan, sumicidin, neem and hargel for a period of fourty-
five days.
Yield parameters were recorded as total yield /fed.and number of
fruits/fed.
Fruit samples (10 fruits) were taken from eggplant and okra at various
times, immediately and then after 3, 7, and 14 days from spraying of
endosulfan and sumicidin for determination of residues using Gas Liquid
Chromatography (GLC).
3-3-5 Experimental Design
Split-plot design with four replications was used.The two types of
fertilizers (Nitrophoska and Compost) were assigned as main plots Two
inorganic insecticides (Endosulfan and Sumicidin ) and the two plants
extracts (Neem and Hargel) were assigned as sub-plots plus a control
treatment for the okra experiment.
The experiment was repeated in the second season 2002- 03 with the
addition of a control treatment for the eggplant crop experiment. Also for the
okra crop experiment, a fourth replicate was excluded because it was
attacked and damaged by the locusts.
3-4 Experiment Two
This experiment was conducted in season 2004-05, to investigate the
potentiality and efficacy of applying two rates of organic fertilizer(compost)
and different concentrations of neem and hargel extracts on okra plant.
3-4 -1 Treatments and Preparation of the Materials
Two rates of compost (10 and 15 tons/fed) were assigned to main
plots and two plant extracts, neem (Azadirachta indica) and hargel
(Solenostemma argel) were assigned to sub-plots.Neem extract was applied
at 3 concentrations namly, 0, 1 and 1.5 kg neem seed kernel/ 40 L water and
hargel extract at concentrations of 0, 1 and 2 Ib hargel leaves/ 16 L water.
The compost used in this experiment was prepared as was mentioned in
experiment one.
3-4-2 Cultural Practices
The experimental plots size, number, length and direction of ridges,
planting side, and number of holes/ridge were the same as mentioned in
experiment one. Irrigation was applied immediately after sowing of okra and
then applied at 7-day intervals.Weeding was carried out when required.
3-4-3 Planting Materials
Okra (Abelomoschus esculentus) var." Khartomya" was sown.
3-4-4 Recorded parameters
The recorded parameters were the same as mentioned in experiment
one but on okra plant only.
3-4-5 Experimental Design
Split-plot design with three replications was used.The collected data
from both experiments was subjected to the analysis of variance using
SAS/STAT (1990).Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) was used to
separate the treatments means (Gomez and Gomez 1984).
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
4-1 Experiment one
4-1-1 Growth Parameters.
4-1-1-1: Plant height measurements.

The data presented in Table (1) showed no significant difference were
noted in plant height of eggplant among the treatments, regardless of the
season in which measurements were recorded.However, measurements taken
in the second season were greater than those of the first season.Application
of nitrophoska with spraying of neem, argel, sumicidin and endosulfan
resulted in greater values than application of compost.More or less, similar
observations were noted with okra plant.
4-1-1-2: Number of branches / plant.
The mean number of eggplant and okra branches per plant as affected
by different treatments presented in Table (2).The results showed that the
application of nitrophoska gave greater number of branches per plant
compared to compost application, but the differences between them were not
significant. The grand means of number of branches per plant of eggplant
and okra was not significantly affected by spraying of neem, argel,
sumicidin and endosulfan in combination with the application of nitrophoska
or compost, regardless of the season.
4-1-1- 3: Number of leaves / plant.
Generally,the number of leaves of both eggplant and okra
plantcounted in both seasons tended to follow the same patterns as that oh
plant height and number of branches(Table 3).
Table 1: The effect of application of compost and nitrophoska in combination with spraying of neem, argel, sumicidin and
endosulfan on plant height of eggplant and okra plants.
Plant Height(cm)
Eggplant
Treatment First Season (2001-02). Second Season (2002-03).
Insecticide
Compost Nitrophoska Compost Nitrophoska Insecticide Mean
Mean
Neem 52.30 a* 58.05 a 55.18 A 59.25 a 63.84 a 61.55 A
Argel 51.30 a 61.10 a 52.30 A 54.00 a 60.17 a 57.09 A
Sumicidin 52.70 a 61.10 a 55.52 A 63.17 a 57.75 a 60.46 A
Endosulfan 52.70 a 61.10 a 56.90 A 52.84 a 62.67 a 57.76 A
Control - - - 53.67 a 59.59 a 56.63 A
Fertilizer Mean 52.44 A 57.51 A 56.58 A 60.80 A
Okra
First Season (2001-02). Second Season (2002-03).
Treatment Compost Nitrophoska
Insecticide
Compost Nitrophoska Insecticide Mean
Mean
Neem 34.78 a 34.15 a 34.46 A 59.50 a 59.16 a 59.33 A
Argel 38.40 a 30.28 ab 34.34 A 56.44 a 59.16 a 57.80 A
Endosulfan 35.80 a 33.03 ab 34.41 A 50.94 a 55.78 a 53.36 A
Control 29.95 a 28.60 b 29.28 A 50.22 a 57.48 a 53.85 A
* Means followed by the same letters in a column are not significantly different at p=0.05, according to Duncan’s
Multiple Range Test.
endosulfan on number of branches of eggplant and okra plants.
Number of Branches
Eggplant
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 8.25 a* 9.00 a 8.63 A 15.50 a 18.75 a 17.13 A
Argel 8.95 a 9.45 a 9.20 A 12.75 a 16.76 a 14.76 A
Control - - - 16.54 a 17.50 a 17.02 A
Okra
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 3.81 a 5.10 a 4.46 A 11.55 a 12.56 a 12.06 A
Argel 5.08 a 4.15 a 4.61 A 12.89 a 7.56 a 10.22 A
Control 4.30 a 4.33 a 4.31 A 8.96 a 10.22 a 9.59 A
Table 3 The effect of application of compost and nitrophoska in combination with spraying of neem, argel, sumicidin and
endosulfan on number of leaves of eggplant and okra plants.
Number of Leaves
Eggplant
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 56.05 a* 63.50 a 59.78 A 96.08 a 107.17 a 101.63 A
Argel 53.70 a 67.50 a 60.60 A 84.58 a 86.59 a 85.59 A
Control - - - 90.92 a 82.50 a 86.71 A
Fertilizer Mean 54.79 A 64.94 A - 96.87 A 94.67 A
Okra
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 18.95 a 44.70 a 31.83 A 76.56 a 85.66 a 81.11 A
Argel 43.33 a 31.78 a 37.56 A 95.44 a 64.11 a 79.78 A
Control 30.60 a 37.98 a 31.15 A 59.83 a 67.89 a 63.86 A
Fertilizer Mean 33.82 A 35.37 A - 68.72 A 72.71 A
4-1- 1- 4: Leaf area index.
Table 4 revealed that there were no significant differences in leaf area
index of eggplant and okra in seasons 2001-02/2002-03, due to the
application of compost or nitrophoska in combination with spraying of
neem, argel or sumicidin and endosulfan. Endosulfan spraying coupled with
the application of compost or nitrophoska,resulted in significantly higher
leaf area index of eggplant compared to argel treatment, and of okra
compared to sumicidin treatment in season 2001-02. In season 2002-03,
Neem treatment with the application of compost or nitrophoska significantly
increased okra leaf area index compared to other treatments. Sumicidin and
endosulfan spraying treatments with the application of compost or
nitrophoska significantly increased the leaf area index compared to the
control treatment.
4-1-1-5: Fresh weight (g)/plant.
Table 5 showed that no significant differences in fresh weight of
eggplant and okra plants in both seasons, between the application of
nitrophoska or compost coupled with neem, argel, sumicidin and endosulfan
treatments. Spraying of argel coupled with the application of compost or
nitrophoska resulted in significantly higher fresh weight of eggplant as
compared to spraying of sumicidin in season 2001-02. The results indicate
also that spraying of neem in combination with application compost or
nitrophoska gave significantly lower results of okra fresh weight compared
to endosulfan and control treatment in season 2001-02. Neem spraying with
the application of compost or nitrophoska increased significantly okra fresh
weight compared to other treatments in season 2002-03.
Table 4 The effect of application of compost and nitrophoska in combination with spraying of neem, argel, sumicidin and
endosulfan on leaf area index of eggplant and okra plants.
Leaf Area Index
Eggplant
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 2.60 ab* 2.27 ab 2.44 AB 3.31 a 3.68 a 3.49 A
Argel 1.46 b 2.07 b 1.77 B 2.91 a 3.11 a 3.01 A
Sumicidin 1.98 ab 2.18 ab 2.08 AB 3.15 a 3.73 a 3.44 A
Control - - - 3.23 a 3.28 a 3.26 A
Okra
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 1.19 ab 1.20 ab 1.19 AB 1.11 a 0.94 a 1.03 A
Argel 1.38 ab 1.50 ab 1.45 AB 0.84 bc 0.61 bc 0.72 BC
Sumicidin 1.10 b 1.06 b 1.08 B 0.62 b 0.99 b 0.81 B
Endosulfan 1.39 a 1.60 a 1.49 A 0.72 b 0.68 b 0.83 B
Control 1.45 ab 1.26 ab 1.36 AB 0.64 c 0.68 c 0.66 C
endosulfan on fresh weight of eggplant and okra plants.
Fresh Weight (g)
Eggplant
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 216.69 ab* 212.55 ab 214.62 AB 1170.78 a 1165.94 a 1168.36 A
Argel 261.31 a 253.60 a 257.46 A 1236.49 a 1198.12 a 1217.31 A
Sumicidin 157.95 b 188.72 b 173.33 B 1236.49 a 1279.70 a 1218.43 A
Endosulfan 171.29 ab 275.94 a 223.62 AB 1252.13 a 1200.36 a 1226.25 A
Control - - - 1373.19 a 1118.47 a 1245.83 A
Okra
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 121.15 b 152.50 b 136.83 B 393.39 a 418.16 a 406.11 A
Argel 154.18 ab 175.83 ab 165.01 AB 388.50 b 239.52 b 314.01 B
Sumicidin 142.50 ab 163.35 ab 152.93 AB 232.28 b 388.13 b 310.21 B
Control 170.83 a 220.85 a 195.84 A 270.21 b 288.01 b 279.11 B
Fertilizer Mean156.57 A 178.67 A 311.43 A 343.20 A
4-1-1-6: Dry weight (g)/plant.
Table 6 shows that no significant differences between the mean dry
weight of eggplant and okra plants in both seasons from neither nitrophoska
nor compost when they were applied in combination with spraying of neem,
argel, sumicidin and endosulfan.Neem spraying with the application of
compost or nitrophoska increased significantly dry weight of okra plant
compared to other treatments, in season 2002-03.
4- 1-2-Yield
4-1-2-1: Total yield in tons /fed.
Table 7 indicated that the difference between compost and nitrophoska
application in total yield eggplant and okra in seasons 2001-02/2002-03 was
not significant when they were applied in combination with spraying of
neem and argel extracts, sumicidin and endosulfan. The difference between
different insecticides treatments means was not significant on eggplant total
yield in all seasons. Sumicidin sprayed with the application of compost or
nitrophoska, gave significantly higher okra total yield as compared to all
other treatments.Neem and sumicidin treatments coupled with compost or
nitrophoska increased significantly the total okra yield compared to argel
and control treatment in season 2001-02. Neem and argel spraying coupled
with application of compost or nitrophoska fertilizer treatments, significantly
increased total okra yield compared to other treatments in season 2002-03.
endosulfan on dry weight of eggplant and okra plants.
Dry Weight (g)
Eggplant
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 80.70 a* 64.57 a 72.64 A 295.04 a 289.41 a 292.23 A
Argel 53.44 a 69.08 a 61.26 A 312.61 a 303.51 a 308.06 A
Control - - - 309.87 a 289.67 a 299.77 A
Okra
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 55.43 a 42.55 a 48.99 A 80.26 a 85.90 a 83.08 A
Argel 56.85 a 45.75 a 51.30 A 76.39 b 49.03 b 62.71 B
Sumicidin 56.35 a 46.10 a 51.23 A 47.03 b 75.47 b 61.25 B
Control 47.70 a 50.80 a 49.25 A 53.33 b 57.29 b 55.31 B
endosulfan on total yield of eggplant and okra plants.
Total Yield (tons/fed)
Eggplant
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 12.87 a* 14.76 a 13.11 A 10.51 a 11.13 a 10.82 A
Argel 11.18 a 13.12 a 12.15 A 9.71 a 12.79 a 11.25 A
Control - - - 9.02 a 10.63 a 9.83 A
Okra
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 1.90 b 1.46 b 1.68 B 2.79 a 1.73 a 2.26 A
Argel 1.25 c 1.23 c 1.24 C 2.51 a 1.81 a 2.16 A
Endosulfan 1.46 bc 1.48 bc 1.47 BC 2.09 b 1.21 b 1.65 B
Control 1.30 c 1.37 c 1.34 C 1.63 b 1.05 b 1.34 B
4-1-2.2: Number of fruits/fed.
The difference between compost and nitrophoska application in

number of fruits of eggplant and okra in season 2001-02,and on eggplant in
2002-03,as shown in Table 8, was not significant when they were applied in
combination with spraying of neem, argel, sumicidin and endosulfan.But in
season 2002-03 compost application significantly increased number

of okra pods compared to nitrophoska application .
The difference between different insecticides treatments means was

not significant on number of eggplant fruits in all seasons. Spraying of neem
extract in combination with the application of nitrophoska gave higher
number of eggplant fruits as compared to spraying of argel, sumicidin and
endosulfan,
Sumicidin sprayed with the application of compost or nitrophoska,
gave significantly higher number of okra pods compared to all other
treatments in season 2001-02. Neem and argel treatments coupled with the
application of compost or nitrophoska increased significantly the number of
okra pods per feddan, compared to other treatments in season 2002-03.
endosulfan on number of fruits of eggplant and okra plants.
Number of Fruits
Eggplant
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 60.16 a* 74.62 a 67.39 A 73.51 a 81.80 a 77.66 A
Argel 53.58 a 66.22 a 59.90 A 67.41 a 86.48 a 76.95 A
Control - - - 61.22 a 72.10 a 66.66 A
Okra
Insecticide
Mean
Neem 153.13 b 124.10 b 138.62b 228.46a 147.83 a 188.15 A
Argel 153.13 b 121.63 b 137.38 B 205.31a 146.03 a 175.67 A
Endosulfan 138.73 b 140.45 b 139.59 B 182.16 b 98.22 b 140.19 B
Control 132.58 b 137.80 b 135.19 B 166.60 b 86.33 b 126.47 B
Fertilizer Mean 147.51 A 136.33 A 184.23 A 122.06 B
4-1-2.9: Insect survey (jassid counts) as affected by botanical (neem and
argel) and synthetic (endosulfan and sumicidin) insecticides spraying:
Generally, in both seasons (2001-02and 2002-03)the jassid infestation
levels were not high in eggplant Tables ( 9 a,9 b). However, the insect
population levels tended to reduce when eggplant was sprayed with organic
(neem and argel) and synthetic insecticides (endosulfan and sumicidin). In
most counts, synthetic insecticides(endosulfan and sumicidin)resulted
ingreater drop in jassid infestation than spraying of organic
insecticides(neem and argel). However, the difference between the synthetic
and the organic insecticides were not high.All treatments gave better results
than the control in both seasons.
Better efficacy was noted to be associated with organic insecticides
than synthetic ones.
Table 9 (a) Effect of application of compost and nitrophoska fertilizers in combination with neem, argel,
sumicidin and endosulfan in jassid count and population drop and treatment efficacy, on eggplant,
season 2001-2002
1st spray
Compost Nitrophoska
Pre- Post- Pre- Post-
Treatment Efficiency Efficiency Mean
spray spray Drop spray spray Drop
(%) ( %) Efficiency
count count count count
(%)
Neem 10.4 4.3 6.1 58.7 5.9 3.1 2.8 47.5 53.10
Argel 7.7 3.9 3.8 49.4 6.4 3.4 3.0 46.9 48.15
Sumicidin 20.4 3.1 17.3 48.8 7.9 2.9 5.0 63.3 56.05
Endosulfan 6.8 2.8 4.0 58.8 7.8 2.4 5.4 69.2 64.00
Mean
efficiency 53.6 55.3
(%)
2nd spray
Compost Nitrophoska
Treatment
Efficiency Mean
spray spray Drop spray spray Drop Efficiency %
% Efficiency
count coun count count (%)
Neem 7.2 2.7 4.5 62.5 7.5 3.5 4.0 53.3 57.9
Argel 5.9 2.6 3.3 55.9 7.4 3.4 4.0 54.1 55.00
Sumicidin 5.2 2.6 2.6 50.0 6.4 2.8 3.6 56.3 53.15
Endosulfan 7.2 2.4 4.8 66.7 6.0 2.4 3.6 60.0 63.35
Mean
58.8 55.9
efficiency %
3rd spray
Compost Nitrophoska Mean
Treatment
Efficiency
Efficiency Efficiency (%)
spray spray Drop spray spray Drop
(%) (%)
count count count count
Neem 9.1 4.5 4.6 50.5 9.8 4.9 4.9 50.0 50.25
Argel 10.9 4.2 6.7 61.5 9.5 5.4 4.1 43.2 52.35
Sumicidin 8.5 4.5 4.0 47.1 9.1 4.3 4.8 52.7 49.90
Endosulfan 7.7 4.2 3.5 45.5 7.8 4.1 3.2 43.8 44.65
Mean 51.2 47.4
efficiency
(%)
Table 9 (b): Effect of application of compost and nitrophoska fertilizers in combination with neem, argel, sumicidin and endosulfan in jassid
count and populat drop and treatment efficacy, on eggplant, season 2002-2003
1st spray
Compost Nitrophoska
Treatment Pre- Post- Pre- Post-
Efficiency Efficiency
spray spray Drop spray spray Drop Mean Efficiency
(%) ((%)
count count count count (%)
Neem 11.3 8.8 2.5 22.1 12.1 9.3 2.8 23.1 22.60
Argel 10.9 9.0 1.9 17.4 12.9 9.5 3.4 26.3 21.85
Sumicidin 13.6 9.6 4.0 29.4 12.4 7.2 5.2 41.9 35.65
Endosulfan 12.9 6.6 6.3 48.8 12.1 4.9 7.2 59.5 54.15
Mean efficiency 12.7 10.8 1.9
(%)
2nd spray
Compost Nitrophoska
Treatment Pre- Post- Pre- Post-
Efficiency
spray spray Drop spray spray Drop Efficiency (%) Mean Efficiency
(%)
count count count count (%)
Neem 7.8 3.6 4.2 53.8 9.3 3.9 5.7 61.3 57.55
Argel 7.4 5.9 1.5 20.2 6.9 4.3 2.6 73.7 46.95
Sumicidin 10.5 2.1 8.4 80.0 8.9 1.5 7.4 83.1 81.55
Endosulfan 7.8 1.4 6.4 82.1 9.6 1.8 7.8 81.3 81.70
Mean efficiency 9.4 7.4 2.0
(%)
4-1-1.10: Residues of synthetic insecticides:
Table 10 presents the residual effect of the synthetic insecticide
sumicidin. It was clear that the residual effect was extended up to 14 days
after spraying and detected in the eggplant and okra fruit samples at a level
of 0.2-36.7 mg/ml.
Table (10) Sumicidin Residues in Eggplant and Okra Fruits (mg/ml) at different
sampling time from spraying.
Sumicidin Residues (mg/ml) in Eggplant
Fertilizer Sampling Time (days) after spraying
0 3 7 14
Compost 4.8 18.7 11.4 0.61
Nitrophoska 10.6 n.d 0.52 1.7
Sumicidin Residues (mg/ml) in Okra
Fertilizer Sampling Time (days) after spraying
0 3 7 14
Compost 6.1 2.9 2.5 0.35
Nitrophoska 36.7 21.8 0.26 0.72

n.d = not detected
4-2 Experiment Two
4-2-1 Growth Parameters.
4-2-1-1: Plant height (cm).

Analysis of table 11 indicated that there was no significant difference
between the two levels of compost.No significant differences were
appeared relating okra height when comparing the effect of spraying
different concentrations of neem and argel coupled with the application of
the two levels of compost, 10 and15 tons per feddan and their interactions,
Comparing the interaction between neem and argel sprayed
concentrations, it was found that spraying of neem at 1.5 kg/40 L water
alone and argel at 0.88 kg/16 L water alone significantly increased plant
height compared to argel at0.44 kg/16Lwater, and neem at 1kg/40 L water
and the control.
4- 2-1-2 : Number of branches/plant.
No significant differences were found from the analysis of Table (12)
between the application of 10 tons or 15 tons of compost per feddan in
number of okra branches. Also, No significant differences were found
between spraying different concentrations of neem and argel coupled with
the application of the two levels of compost and their interactions .Mean
of (11.4) for compost10 tons per feddan and (11.6) for compost 15 tons
per feddan. The interaction between all other combinations of different
neem and argel concentrations coupled with the application of the two
levels of compost, did not show any significant differences in number of
okra branches per plant.
Table 11 Effect of using different rates of compost and concentrations of neem (N) and argel (H) on height of okra plant
(2004-05)
Plant height ( cm)
Hargel conc. Hargel conc.
H0 H1 H2 H0 H1 H2 Neem
Neem conc. Neem Means Neem conc.
Compost (10 ton/fed) Compost( 15 ton/fed) Means
N0 67.7a 75.0a 89.7a 77.47 A N0 78.2a 69.7a 89.0a 78.97 A
N1 72.4a 75.6a 83.3a 77.1 A N1 75.4a 80.6a 79.4a 78.47 A
N2 83.4a 79.6a 74.1a 79.03 A N2 91.6a 89.0a 87.4a 89.33 A
Hargel Means 74.5 A 76.7 A 82.4 A 77.87 A Hargel Means 81.7A 79.7A 85.3A 82.3 A
Means followed by the same letters in a column are not significantly different at p=0.05, according to
Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
Neem concentrations: Hargel concentrations

N0 = Control H0 = Control
N1 =1Kg neem seeds/40 L water H1 =0.44 Kg/16 L water
N2 =1.5 Kg neem seeds/40 L water H2 =0.88 Kg/16 L water
Table 12 Effect of using different rates of compost and concentrations of neem (N) and argel (H) on number of branches of
okra plant (2004-05)
Number of branches
H0 H1 H2 H0 H1 H2
Neem conc. Neem Means Neem conc. Neem Means
Compost (10 ton/fed) Compost( 15 ton/fed)
N0 9.67 a 10.11a 9.78 a 9.85 A N0 13.56a 9.89 a 12.00a 11.81 A
N1 10.44a 9.55 a 11.67a 10.55 A N1 10.89a 11.56a 11.33a 11.26 A
N2 11.00a 12.11a 11.00a 11.37 A N2 11.11a 13.22a 10.56a 11.63 A
HargelMeans 10.37A 10.59A 10.81A 10.59 A HargelMeans 11.85A 11.55A 11.30A 11.57 A
4- 2-1-3 : Number of leaves/plant.
Regarding the number of okra leaves per plant, it was clear that
application of 15 tons of compost gave higher, but not significantly
different values, compared to the application of 10 tons of compost per
feddan, Table (13). Although the interaction between the application of 15
tons of compost per feddan coupled with spraying of neem at 1kg/40 L
water and argel at 0.88 kg/16 L water gave the highest number of leaves
per plant compared to other compost, neem and argel interaction effects,
no significant differences were observed between them. The interaction
between neem treatment at 1.5 kg/40 L water and argel at 0.44 kg/16 L
water resulted in high number of okra leaves per plant compared to other
neem and argel combinations.
4-2-1-4 : leaf area index.
Table (14) indicated that non of the two levels of compost (10
and 15 tons), applications gave significantly high values of leaf area index
over the other. However, generally, the application of 15 tons of compost
gave higher leaf area index compared to the application of 10 tons of
compost per feddan. No significant differences were found between
spraying different concentrations of neem and argel coupled with the
application of the two levels of compost and their interactions, but it was
indicated that neem treatment at 1.5 kg/40 L water and argel at1 0.44
kg/16 L water gave highest leaf area index followed by neem at 1kg/40 L
water and argel at 0.88 kg/16 L water compared to other neem and argel
combinations. The application of 15 tons coupled with neem at 1kg/40 L
water and argel at 0.44 kg/16 L water resulted in high leaf area index
compared to other interactions between applied levels of compost and
neem and argel sprayed concentrations.
Table 13 Effect of using different rates of compost and concentrations of neem (N) and argel (H) on number of okra
leaves of okra plant (2004-05)
Number of leaves
H0 H1 H2 H0 H1 H2
N0 45.9a 52.6a 51.4a 50.0 A N0 56.1a 46.3a 63.4a 55.3 A
N1 49.2a 52.3a 52.8a 51.4 A N1 54.2a 62.7a 63.2a 60.0 A
N2 54.3a 67.2a 54.8a 58.8 A N2 56.3a 66.5a 55.6a 59.5 A
HargelMeans 49.8A 57.4A 53.0A 53.4A Hargel Means 55.6A 58.5A 60.7A 58.3 A
Table 14 Effect of using compost and different concentrations of neem (N) and argel (H) on leaf area index of okra plant
(2004-05)
leaf area index
H0 H1 H2 H0 H1 H2
N0 3.51a 3.29a 2.99a 3.26 A N0 3.42a 3.40a 3.72a 3.51 A
N1 2.35a 2.59a 3.81a 2.91 A N1 3.72a 3.90a 4.30a 3.97 A
N2 2.81a 3.24a 3.15a 3.07 A N2 2.78a 4.11a 3.39a 3.43 A
HargelMeans 2.89A 3.04A 3.32A 3.08 A Hargel Means 3.31A 3.80A 3.81A 3.64 A
4 -2-1- 5 : Fresh weight (g)/plant.
Table (15) reveals that the application of 10 tons of compost per
feddan recorded higher, but not significantly different, okra fresh weight
compared to application of 15 tons. The combination of applying 10 tons
of compost with spraying of argel at 0.44kg/16 L water resulted in high
fresh weight compared to all combinations of application of the two levels
of compost and all neem and argel concentrations.No significant
differences were observed between applied levels of compost and neem
and argel sprayed concentrations and their interactions regarding okra
fresh weight.
4 -2-1-6 : Dry weight (g)/plant.
Results in Table (15) revealed that the application of 10 tons of
compost resulted in higher okra dry weight of plants (82.3), but not
significantly differ, from the application of 15 tons (75.5). Application of
10 tons of compost coupled with spraying of argel at 0.44 kg/16 L water
resulted in higher dry weight of okra plants (92.9) compared to other
compost levels, neem and argel concentrations interactions. No significant
differences were observed between all different neem and argel
concentrations sprayed coupled with application of the two levels of
compost, table .Neem treatment at 1 kg /40 L water and argel at 0.44
kg/16 L water, resulted in higher dry weight compared to all other neem
and argel treatments with no significant differences between them .
Table 15 Effect of using compost and different concentrations of neem (N) and argel (H) on fresh and dry weight /plant of okra
plant (2004-05)
Fresh weight (g)
Hargel conc Hargel conc
H0 H1 H2 Neem Neem conc. H0 H1 H2 Neem
Neem conc.
Compost (10 ton/fed) Means Compost( 15 ton/fed) Means
N0 394.0a 483.0a 505.0a 461.0 A N0 422.0a 287.0a 368.0a 359.0A
N1 328.0a 456.0a 326.0a 370.0 A N1 410.0a 418.0a 387.0a 405.0A
N2 456.0a 460.0a 361.0a 426.0 A N2 462.0a 400.0a 444.0a 436.0A
Dry weight (g)
Hargel conc Hargel conc
H0 H1 H2 Neem Neem conc. H0 H1 H2 Neem
Neem conc.
N0 82.5a 86.1a 85.0a 85.5A N0 83.4a 55.2a 70.0a 69.5 A
N1 72.1a 102.7a 67.5a 80.8A N1 84.6a 83.9a 71.2a 79.9 A
N2 84.7a 89.7a 70.2a 81.5A N2 75.3a 70.4 85.4a 77.0 A
Means followed by the same letters in a column are not significantly different at p=0.05, according to Duncan’s
N1 =1Kg seeds/40 L water H1 =0.44 Kg leaves/16 L water
N2 =1.5 Kg seeds/40 L water H2 =0.88 Kg leaves/16 L water
4- 2-2-Yield
4-2-2-1: Total yield (tons /fed.)
Table (16) shows that okra total yield was not significantly affected
by the application of either 10 or 15 tons of compost per feddan but they
almost recorded the same total yield (2.13 tons). Neem treatment at 1.5
kg/40 L water sprayed with the application of 15 tons of compost gave
higher total yield, (2.36 tons), when interaction effects between different
compost levels and neem and argel combinations were compared. A high
okra total yield was obtained by spraying of argel at 0.44 kg/16 L water
coupled with application of 10 tons of compost (2.27 tons), compared to
all other neem and argel treatments with no significant differences
between them, table. Comparing neem and argel interactions, higher okra
total yield was recorded by spraying of neem at 1 kg /40 L water alone
(2.49 tons) followed by neem at 1.5 kg /40 L water and argel at 0.88 kg/16
L water (2.40 tons).
4 -2-2-2: Number of Pods / fed.
The analysis of Table (17) shows that the application of 15 tons of
compost resulted in higher but not significantly different number of okra
pods per feddan (183.0) compared to application of 10
tons(154.2).Comparing the interaction effects of applied compost levels
with neem and argel concentrations, it was found that application of 15
tons of compost per fed with spraying of neem at 1kg/40 L water (204.4)
or argel at 0.44 kg/16 L water (197.8), gave higher records in number of
okra pods compared to other compost levels, and neem and argel
concentrations, but no significant differences between them.
Table 16 Effect of using compost and different concentrations of neem (N) and argel (H) total yield of okra (ton/fed)
(2004-05)
Total Yield ( ton/fed)
H0 H1 H2 H0 H1 H2
N0 1.50a 1.95a 2.87a 2.11 A N0 1.32a 1.48a 1.87a 1.56 A
N1 2.40a 2.62a 1.78a 2.27 A N1 2.58a 1.55a 1.63a 1.92 A
N2 1.97a 2.12a 1.99a 2.03 A N2 1.86a 2.40a 2.81a 2.36 A
Table 17 Effect of using compost and different concentrations of neem (N) and argel (H) on number of okra pods (2004-05)
Number of okra pods
H0 H1 H2 Neem H0 H1 H2 Neem
Neem conc. Neem conc.
N0 110.3a 111.6a 153.4a 125.1 A N0 114.4a 170.7a 237.9a 174.3 A
N1 209.3a 116.5a 119.3a 148.4 A N1 218.4a 233.2a 161.7a 204.4 A
N2 139.5a 202.9a 225.3a 189.2 A N2 178.7a 189.5a 142.3a 170.2 A
4 -2-2-3: Insect survey (jassid counts) as affected by botanical (neem
and argel) insecticides spraying:
Generally,Table (18) showed that the jassid population in okra

plants tended to drop as a result of both neem(N) and argel (H) treatments
coupled with the two levels of compost. The drop varied between 1.7-10.5
with treatment efficacy of 17.5-60% and from 1.3-9.8 with treatment
efficacy of 11.11-36.3% when 10 tons and 15 tons of compost were
applied respectively.
Table 18: Population drop of jassid and treatment efficacy as affected by application of different rates of
compost and concentrations of neem and argel on okra plants (season 2004- 05)
Compost
Treatment 10 tons/fed 15 tons/fed
Treatment Treatment
Drop Drop
Efficacy % Efficacy %
N0H0 2.5 21.6 4.5 36.6
N0H1 10.5 60.0 5.1 43.9
N0H2 2.2 18.0 9.8 56.3
N1H0 3.0 29.1 3.6 28.4
N1H1 2.6 21.5 2.6 22.2
N1H2 5.4 37.5 2.6 22.2
N2H0 4.8 31.4 3.6 29.8
N2H1 1.7 17.5 4.1 30.2
N2H2 3.0 24.4 1.3 11.1

CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION
The response of both eggplant and okra plant to the application of

organic fertilizer (compost) and inorganic fertilizer (nitrophoska) in
combination with spraying of botanical or organic insecticides (neem and
hargel) and synthetic or inorganic insecticides (endosulfan and sumicidin)
was studied. Generally, the results obtained showed no significant difference
between the application of nitrophoska or compost coupled with spraying of
neem, argel sumicidin and endosulfan in eggplant and okra.
Nitrophoska gave better results than the compost application.This is
probably attributed to the lower nutrient content of compost as compared to
the available nutrients of nitrophoka. Also composting of organic material is
a biological process that needs activity of some biota. It needs a period for
the digestion of the organic material to be completed. It is quite normal that
complete digestion of the organic material would not be achieved directly
after adding the compost to the soil.The activity of the funa starts and the
conditions that contribute to digestion of the organic matter need some
nitrogen, which will be extracted from the soil. Therefore, there will be a
competition between the funa and the plants for the nitrogen and to the fact
that the quickly available nutrient value in compost is generally very low.
This could explain the superiority of nitrophoska over compost.
Only sumicidin.treatment resulted in significantly taller plants compared
to the control.All spraying treatments increased the plant height compared to
the control.
Neem and hargel spraying coupled with application of compost and
nitrophoska increased the number of leaves compared to endosulfan and
sumicidin.Neem and hargel spraying significantly increased fresh and dry
weight of eggplant and okra plants compared to sumicidin. The insecticidal
and repellency effects of argel were reflected in healthy growth of plants due
to its growth regulating action, and its antifungal and antibacterial properties
that might explain these findings. These results are in agreement with that
obtained by Alcaraz and Fernandez (1987) Dawoud (1991),Inckel et
al.(2002),Eltaher and El Amin (1999), who found a good response to the
application of inorganic fertilizers. Argel contains Flavonoides, which have
antifungal and antibacterial activeties. Flavonoides, kaempferol and
quercetin that may probably affect the hearts of the insects and reduce their
populations. Saponin and tannins are reported to have toxic effects. Argalin
argaloside and monoterpenes can have repellent effect. Acylated phenolic
glycoside can have insecticidal effects. Cholin affects the central nervous
system. All these chemicals can possibly reduce the harmful effects of
insect on the crop .These results were in line with Ibrahim (2005), Mustafa
(2005), Ali (2005), El-Kamali, (1999) and Shayoub, (2005) who claimed
that hargel repels and has insecticidal effect and also with EL Amein,
(2004)who noticed that argal has growth regulator-like effects and it
exhibited broad-spectrum pesticides effects.
The leaf area index was increased significantly with endosulfan spraying
treatment, of eggplant, compared to argel spraying and the control. Spraying
of endosulfan effectively control sucking and chewing insects, like jassid
and other insects, which decrease the food material that is otherwise used in
plant growth and development. Similar results have been reported by Siddig
and Hughes, (1969), Gammeel and EL-Tayeb, (1985), Thanki and
Patel,(1991)and Rao et al.(1991)who recommended the use of endosulfan
against jassid and they reported that it was superior in controlling a wide
variety of crop pests mainly chewing and sucking insects.
Neem significantly increased the leaf area index of okra plants
compared to the control. This can be attributed to that neem extract spraying
induced a variety of effects, most notably on the molting cycle and the male
reproductive system of insects which lead to an interruption in multiplication
and finally reduced its populations and lowered their damage.
Neem, hargel and endosulfan spraying coupled with compost or
nitrophoska application increased okra leaf area index. Leaf area is
important for absorption of light energy used in photosynthesis and therefore
leaf growth is of the main determinants of plant production. Their role in
increasing the productivity of eggplant revealed that leaf area of plants
receiving compost coupled with neem, hargel and endosulfan was superior
over the control. The result indicates that neem is more effective than argel
because it contains insecticidal ingredients like Azadirachtin. Compost
application improves the structure of soils and it may do this through its
action as bulky diluents in compacted soils. These structural improvements
increase the amount of water that soils can hold which is useful to plants.
They also improve aeration and drainage and encourage good root growth by
providing enough pores of right size and preventing the soil becoming too
rigid when dry or completely waterlogged and devoid of air when wet. On
the other hand, compost application gives rise to a high cation exchange
capacity, regulates plant nutrition to certain extent, and activates
physiological and biochemical process in the plant and stimulates or
regulates growth or assist plants resistance to pathogenic attacks (Lampkin,
1990).
sumicidin significantly increased the total yield of okra plants
compared to all other treatments. These results were in agreement with
Gammeel and EL-Tayeb (1985), Ratanpara and Bharodia, (1989) and
Mohamed (2003) who reported higher yields and low insects infestation
with sumicidin treatments.
Neem and hargel spraying significantly increased the total yield of okra
plants compared to the control in 2001-02 and over all other treatments in
2002-03.
Compost application significantly increased the number of okra pods
compared to nitrophoska in 2002-03.
The effect of compost and nitroposka as fertilizer is in agreement with
most evidence that shows the vital need of fertilizer to correct nutrient
deficiencies and make efficient use of limited resources in plant
productivity. Total fruit yield is largely a function of leaf area increment in
response to fertilizer application.
Neem extract spraying coupled with compost application increased
plant height, number of branches, leaf area index that were reflected in
increasing total yield and number of fruits of eggplant in season 2002-03,
over most of other treatments, which were reflected in high total yield and
number of fruits of eggplant. This result may be attributed to the repelling
effect of neem sprayed on plants and its great potentialities as insecticide
that prevents insects from even touching the plants, which results in
significantly higher leaf area of okra plants when compost was added to the
plants. The latter interpretation is in agreement with the findings of Anon,
(1990) Golob and Webley (1980), Isman et al., (1990),Schmutterer, (1980,
1990, 1995), Siddig, (1991,1992) and Bashir, (1994) Adhikary, (1981) and
Fogoonee, (1987) who proved the neem repellency and its great insecticidal
effects against many pests. It is likely that leaf area development could be a
response to optimal nitrogen nutrition and other essential elements received
by plants through their leaves because of neem extract.
The results of the effect of compost and nitroposka as fertilizer are
in agreement with most evidence that shows the vital need of fertilizer to
correct nutrient deficiencies and make efficient use of limited resources in
plant productivity.Total fruit yield is largely a function of leaf area
increment in response to fertilizer application. Neem treatment, coupled with
compost, increased significantly the okra leaf area index, fresh weight and
dry weight that were reflected in increasing significantly the total yield and
number of pods per feddan compared to inorganic insecticides (endosulfan)
and (sumicidin). These results could be explained by the neem nutritive
action and repellency effect and its significant reduction of the feeding
activity of different pests. Neem contains meliantriol and solanin that inhibit
insect feeding. Neem seeds extract could control insect by strong modes of
action; repellent, antifeedant and growth regulating effects. Also neem may
increase crop yield and fruit quality by increasing disease and pest resistance
and it has antifungal properties. The results of several field experiments
showed that neem extracts are comparable to many conventional synthetic
insecticides in controlling different economical pests .This is also in
agreement with the results obtained by Abdulkareem (1981), Dreyer(1984),
Schmutterer (1984, 1988 ), Siddig (1991), Siddig(1997) , Mitchel et al.
(2001), Satti et al. (2003) and Mohamed et al. (2004) , who reported that
neem has best performance in reducing the percentage of insects infestation
which was reflected in less incidence of insect infestation and consequently
high yield.
The application of compost improves soil physical properties,
such as decreasing soil bulk density and increase soil permeability to water
and probably an increased supply of essential plant nutrient elements and
had a better nutrient balance .These factors , in turn , increased the nutrient
uptake of eggplant from the soil in season 2002-03. The high temperature
involved with composting help to kill weed seeds and a wide variety of
disease pathogens and hence many diseases may be controlled specially the
soil born pathogens and some other foliar diseases. In addition,
microorganisms, which release chemicals which breakdown, soil minerals
and make nutrients available to the plants. In addition, compost contains
active ingredients such as antibiotics and antagonists of the soil pest that
means that compost has sanitary value. Compost is also believed to benefit
the antiphytopathogenic potential (inherent disease resistance) of soil. It was
reported that compost fertilizer enhance plant growth and increase the yield
of plants.Compost as a partial substitute to nitrogenous fertilizers may
increase the total chlorophyll content in leaves that was reflected in healthy
plant growth and increased dry matter. This can explain the high total
eggplant yield when compost was added. Mostly, the nutrients present in
compost like nitrogen are not water-soluble. As the compost decay in the
soil, these nutrients may be released slowly at a rate that matches uptake by
the crop. The results of the current experiment substantiated previous
findings of many workers relating to increased crop yields in response to the
residual effect of compost. Florescu et al (1991), (Trankner 1992) (EL-
Araby 2002) Guet (2003) Mohamed (1995), Hsich and Hsu (1995),
Maynard(1995),Lampkin,(1990), Asiegbu and Oikeh(1995) Hartz et at
(1996) Lahcen(2002) Sances and Ingham (1997) Abd-El-Aty(1997)Weir and
Allen(1997), Bayoumi (1999),You and Duonwel (1999) EL-Gizawy (2002)
and Inckel et al. (2002) reported Increase the plant height, number of
branches and leaves and dry weight.The results might be attributed to the
positive effect of the added compost that was distinct and was attributed to
the beneficial effect of the compost on the soil structure, water and root
penetration and their complexing properties that prevent precipitation and
fixation of any plant nutrient.
The usage of natural or organic insecticides gained increased
acceptability in sustainable agriculture in recent years. The results obtained,
from this study support this trend. This could be attributed to neem seeds
and hargel leaves aqueous extract that might contain much active gradual
pesticidal action. Also neem was found to be active in increasing the growth,
leafage, results in rich blossoming, strengthening the roots and improving
the general appearance of the plants. This was reflected in plants with
reasonable insect free growth and high yield. These findings were supported
by insect counts as the application of sumicidin resulted in lower insect
counts, which means that it has higher efficiency in controlling insects that
compete with plant reproductive organs for available food. These results
could indicate that the availability of nutrients was the primary cause of
increased total okra yield.These results were in agreement with the findings
of Dorn et al. (1987), Isman et al. (1990), Siddig (1992), Clark et al. (1995),
Asiegbu and Oikeh (1995), Bashir (1994), Ismail et al. (1996) and
Schmutterer (1969) who reported the efficacy of neem extract in insect
control.
Comparing different levels of compost applied, generally, no
significant differences were observed in their effect on yield and yield
components of okra in season 2004/05. Application of 15 tons/feddan of
compost resulted in good response in plant height, number of branches and
leaves, leaf area index per plant and number of pods per feddan compared to
10 tons/feddan. But, on the other hand, application of 10 tons/feddan of
compost resulted in better response in fresh and dry weights of plants
compared to 15 tons/feddan. However, application of the two levels of
compost resulted in almost the same total yield. The application of 15
tons/feddan of compost coupled with spraying of neem and hargel generally
increased yield and yield components of okra compared to 10 tons/feddan.
Good response to all levels of compost may be attributed to that application
of compost resulted in reduction of soil density, and porosity increased with
increasing soil bulk density. In addition, the percentage of soil moisture
increased which assisted in good performance of roots in their functions. In
addition, compost application may help to regulate soil temperature, reduce
leaching out of nutrients, and enrich the soil bacterial activity that in turn,
has a direct effect on the availability of some mineral salts to the plants. On
the other hand, compost application allows the direct uptake by plants to
specific chemicals, such as phenols, which are needed for the development
of the plants immune system. These findings are in agreement with the
results obtained by (Lampkin,1990) Florescu et al (1991), (Trankner 1992)
Mohamed(1995), (Al-Araby 2002) Guet (2003), Hsich and Hsu
(1995),Maynard(1995), Asiegbu and Oikeh(1995) Hartz et at (1996), Sances
and Inghan (1997), Abd-El-Aty (1997), Weir and Allen(1997), Bayoumi
(1999),You and Duonwel (1999), EL-Gizawy (2002) Lahcen (2002 and
Inckel et al. (2002).
No statistical differences were obtained because of spraying different
concentrations of neem and hargel in their effect on yield and yield
components of okra but generally gave better results compared to control
treatments. This may be explained by that neem proved to have repellency
and antifeedant effect on insects and pest which preferred to starve to death
than feed on neem treated plants. In addition, hargel contains toxic
substances that can reduce insect populations which result in healthy good
yielding plants.
High concentrations of neem did not always have significant effect when
sprayed. This can be explained by that neem extract may not kill the pest
instaneously but incapacitate it in several ways like repellency, feeding and
ovipositional deterrence, growth inhibition, mating disruption which were
now considered far more desirable than quick knock-down in organic
farming as they reduce the risk of exposing pests natural enemies to
poisoned food or starvation.
Inconsistent effects of compost and its different levels, neem, hargel
aqueous extract, and their different concentrations on all parameters
measured were observed. There may be several reasons for this variability in
results from which that many of the compounds, in neem and hargal, may
rapidly degrade under field conditions. The concentration of the active
substances may vary from season to season (seasonal variability) and with
location, age, maturity harvesting, drying and storage methods of the plant
material from which the extract is taken.
Efforts to modernize and intensify horticultural production have displaced
many traditional practices. Farmers became used to applying synthetic
insecticides and fertilizers to the new high yielding varieties. Many
insecticides used in agricultural production are extremely hazardous and
showed that unsafe application technique greatly harm health and may
reduce the productivity. Farmers usually resort to synthetic pesticides as a
sole method of pest control. The reliance on chemicals created many
environmental and health problems, which became more apparent in recent
years.
Synthetic pesticides and fertilizers are therefore a powerful tool in
pests and vector management and plant nutrition and will continue to play a
major role in plant production.The critical question is how best to use
pesticides and fertilizers so that their maximum benefits are obtained, while
at the same time their adverse effects are minimized putting in mind
pesticides do not increase crop yield rather they prevent losses. Therefore,
we need to enhance the biological diversity within the whole system and
maintain soil fertility by recycling wastes of plant and animal origin to
return nutrients to the land and to minimize the application of synthetic
fertilizers. In addition, the application of synthetic insecticides should be
minimized to give way to other alternatives like IPM and natural
insecticides. Therefore, organic farming system can help and participate in a
way or another in solving this problem.
SUMMARY and CONCLUSIONS
Two experiments were conducted to study the effect of the application

of organic fertilizer (compost), synthetic fertilizer (nitrophoska) and
synthetic or inorganic insecticides (endosulfan and sumicidin and the natural
or organic pesticides neem and hargel) on growth and yield of eggplant and
okra plants .
The following results could be drawn from the present investigation :
1- The results of the first season (2001-2002) showed no significant
differences between the application of compost and nitrophoska on yield or
yield components of okra and eggplant.
2- Plant height, number of branches, number of leaves, dry weight,
total yield and number of fruits of eggplant per feddan were not significantly
affected by neither spraying organic insecticides( neem and hargel )nor
inorganic insecticides( sumicidin and endosulfan).
3- Hargel spraying increased significantly the fresh weight of eggplant
compared to sumicidin treatment .
4- Spraying neem extract on okra plants resulted in significantly
greater total yield compared to hargel and control treatments.
The results also showed that:
1- In most of the measured parameters of yield and yield components
of eggplant and okra, nitrophoska application gave higher, but not
significantly differe records, compared to compost application. However, the
application of compost resulted in higher number of okra pods per feddan
compared to nitrophoska application.
2- Spraying of organic insecticides (neem and hargel) and inorganic
insecticides,(sumicidin and endosulfan) did not significantly differe in their
effects in all measured parameters of yield and yield components of eggplant
and okra. But, in most cases, they resulted in better records compared to the
control.
3- Neem spraying gave significantly higher leaf area index, fresh and
dry weights of okra compared to other treatments.
4- Neem and hargel spraying gave significantly higher okra total yield
and number of pods per feddan compared to other treatments.
5-The results obtained showed that the general trend was mostly:
endosulfan, sumicidin, neem then hargel.
6- Generally in most of jassid counts in eggplant in the first season
(2001-2002), showed that the compost application coupled with spraying of
insecticides gave higher efficacy compared to nitrophoska.
7- The spray of insecticides, generally, gave higher drop in jassid
population compared to the control treatment in the second season (2002-
2003).
8- The residues of inorganic insecticides, sumicidin, were detected in
all tested samples of eggplant and okra fruits at level of (0.02-36.7 mg/ml)
up to 14 days from spraying.
9- The results obtained from the second experiment (2004-05),
showed that the application of 15 tons of compost per feddan increased the
number of branches, number of leaves, total yield and number of okra pods
compared to the application of 10 tons of compost per feddan. On the other
hand, application of 10 tons of compost gave higher leaf area index, fresh
and dry weights of okra plants compared to the application of 15 tons of
compost per feddan.
10- The results obtained from different concentrations of neem and
hargel sprayed on okra plants coupled with application of different levels of
compost showed that the interaction between neem and hargel significantly
affected okra plant height.
11- The use of pesticides of plant origin e.g neem and hargal provides
an excellent alternative for protecting plants from depredations of injurious
insect pests. They differ from synthetic insecticides in that they, mostly, do
not kill insect they serve as anti-feedants (insect repellent) and as insect
growth regulators (impairing insect fecundity and oviposition).They do not
destroy the beneficial parasites and predators. More importantly, there is no
question of emergence of resistant races of pest species, as happens in
chemical pesticides. These "bio-pesticides" are equally, or nearly to be,
effective, far cheaper and fully eco-friendly. The use of insecticides
produced from neem, and may be also from hargal, is becoming a real
alternative for the management of pests in vegetable crops. However, neem
currently has attained a pride of place in the international research and
literature. On the other hand, because the use of chemicals affects crop
quality and quantity, so this study suggest that various initiatives have to be
taken to reduce the danger of pesticide use and from the more positive ones
is organic farming. In addition, because in the near future, only agricultural
commodities produced which are reasonably free of chemical contaminants
will have the advantage to compete in local, regional and international
markets. Sudan export potentials of vegetable crops and other organic
agricultural products needs to be kept in view, since eco-friendlly products
will be in great demand.
12- Eggplant and okra can be produced organically in central Sudan
using compost and botanical insecticides, like neem and hargel, instate of
chemical fertilizers and insecticides and due to its best performance, cheap
and simple preparation, but it needs more investigations for conformation
and recommendation. Therefore the results of this study suggests a need for
more further investigation in the future to elucidate their effect and
potentialities on organic production of vegetable crops. At last, but not
certainly not least, still economical evaluation is necessary.
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Some Organic Farming Practices for the Production of

Eggplant (Solanum melongena) and Okra (Abelomoschus

Presented to the Graduate College

In fulfillment of the requirements

SAMIR ELABID MUTWALLI MUSA

To Sudan, my beloved country and to my family especially

4.1-2.3: Insect survey (jassid counts) as affected by botanical and

4.1-2.4: Residues of synthetic …………………………………………….....45

Table 9(b): Effect of application of compost and nitrophoska fertilizers in

Table 11: Effect of using different rates of compost and concentrations of

Thanks to God over all. I wish to express my deep thanks and

In an attempt to produce eggplant and okra plants organically in

2.1. Organic Farming: Definitions:

No research data are available concerning evaluation of the use of

2.2.4 Synthetic inorganic chemicals:

2.2.4.1 Inorganic Insecticides:

Abu-Sarra et al. (2001) tested three sources and three types of

3-1 Experiments Location

3-3 Experiment One

The leaf area index (L.A.I.) was determined as follows:

4-1-1-1: Plant height measurements.

The difference between compost and nitrophoska application in

season 2002-03 compost application significantly increased number

The difference between different insecticides treatments means was

Sumicidin Residues (mg/ml) in Eggplant

Fertilizer Sampling Time (days) after spraying

Compost 4.8 18.7 11.4 0.61

Nitrophoska 10.6 n.d 0.52 1.7

Sumicidin Residues (mg/ml) in Okra

Fertilizer Sampling Time (days) after spraying

Compost 6.1 2.9 2.5 0.35

Nitrophoska 36.7 21.8 0.26 0.72

4-2-1-1: Plant height (cm).

Neem concentrations: Hargel concentrations

Generally,Table (18) showed that the jassid population in okra

Neem concentrations: Hargel concentrations

The response of both eggplant and okra plant to the application of

Two experiments were conducted to study the effect of the application

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