DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

I
BEACH EROSION BOARD
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS

FACTORS AFFECTING
D,U RABILITY OF CONCRETE
IN COASTAL STRUCTURES

TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM NO. 96

 FACTORS AFFECTING
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
IN COASTAL STRUCTURES

TECHN ICAL MEMORANDUM NO.96

BEACH EROSION BOARD

CORPS OF ENGINEERS

JUNE 1957
 PORB~D

An important feature of the general investigations pro-

gram of the Beach Erosion Board is the assembly of data to
facilitate economical selection and employment of materials
for use in coastal structures. Barlier reports presented data
on durability of steel sheet piling CTechnical Memorandum No.
12) and on factors affecting the economic life of timber in
coastal structures CTechnical Memorandum No. 66). The follow-
ing report concerns concrete structures and factors affecting
their durability. Test data on concrete specimens and service
records of structures at numerous locations are
included.

The report was prepared for the Beach Erosion

Board by
the Concrete Division of the U. S. Army Engineer
Waterways Bxperiment Station, Jackson,
Mississippi. The report was written by Bryant
Mather, Chief, Special Investigations Branch,
under the supervision of Thomas B. K.ennedy, Chief
of the Concrete Division. The assistance of the
following is greatly appreciated: Messrs. Jay V.
Hall, Jr., Chief, Engineering Division, the Beach
Brosion Board's representative on the pro- ject;
William Lerch, Hubert Woods, I. L. Tyler, George
Verbeck, and A. C. Wenger, Portland Cement
Association; C. M. Wakeman, City of Los Angeles
Harbor Department.

At the time the report was completed the

technical staff of the Beach Brosion Board was
under the supervision of Major General Charles G.
Holle, President of the Board, and R. O. Eaton,
Chief Technical Advisor. The report was edited
for publication by A. C. Rayner, Chief of the
Project Development Divisien, and R. L. Rector,
Assistant Chief of that Division of the Beach
Erosion Board. Views and conclusions stated in
the report areisnot
This report necessarily
publiShed under the thoSe of the
authority Beach
of Public Law
166, 79th Congress, approved July 31, 1945.
Brosion Board.
 TABLB OF CONI'ENrS

INTRODUCTION •••• • c • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1

INTERNAL FACTORS •• • ••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••• 2

Selection of Component Materials ••••••••• • •••••••• 4
Portland Cement •• • •••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••• 4
Aggregates • •••• ••••••• •• •••••••• •••• ••••••••••• 7
Mix"i.n g Water ••••••••••• '• • •••••• • •••• • •••••••••• 8
Air-entraining Agents ••••••••••• •••• ••• •••• ••• • 10
Cementitious or Pozzolanic Components •••••• ••• • 10
Selection of Mixture Proportions •• • •••• ••• •••• ••• • 10
Workability •••••• • •••• •••••••••• •••••• • •••••••• 10
Cement Content • ••• •••••• • •••• ••• •••••• • •••••••• 11
Water Content •• ••• •••• ••• •••• ••• •••• • •• •••• •••• 11
Consistency of Concrete • • ••••••••••••••••••• • • • 11
Processing and Use of Materials ••••• •••••• • •••• ••• • 11
Cement •• ••• ••• ~ ••• •••• ••• •••• ••• •••• ••• •••••••• 11
Aggregates ••••• ••• •••• ••• •••• • •••••• ~ •••••••••• 13
Water ••••• • •• ••• •• ••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••• 14
Concrete Mixing ••• ••• •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 14
Handling Mixed Concrete •• ••••• •••••• • •••••• ••• • 15
PlaCing •• •• ••••••• •••• • •••••• • •••••• • •••••• ••• • 16
PlaCing Under Water ••• •••••••••• •••• ••• •••• ••• • 16
Pneumatic Mixing and Placing • ••• •••• ••• •••• ••• • l7
Consolidating Concrete ••• •••• • •••••• ••• •••••••• l7
Construction Practices ••• •• • •••••• • •••• • •••••• ••• • 18
forms •• • • • • ••••••• ••• '0 ••• •••• • ••••••••••••••••• 18
Horizontal Construction Joints ••••••••••••••••• 18
Protection of Bmbedded Steel • ••• ••••••••••••••• 19
Curing •• ••••••••••••••••• •••• ••• ••••••••••••••• 19
Removal of Forms •• •••••• •••• ••••••••••••••••••• 19
Finishing Surfaces •••••• ••••• ••• c • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 20
EXTERNAL FACTOR S ••••••• •• • •••• ••• •••• ••• •• 0 •••••••••••• 20
Chemical Attack •••••••••• •••• ••• ••••••••••••••• 20
Physical Attack ••• •••• ••• •• ••••• ••••••••••••••• 22
TEST DATA •• •••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • 23
SERVICE RECORDS ••••••••••••••• ••• •••••••••••••• •••• •••• 25
CONCLUDING STATEMENT ••• ••• •••• ••• •••• •••••••••• •••••••• 25
Mass Concrete •• ••••• •• ••• •••••• • •••• ••• •••••••• 25
Reinforced Concrete ••• ••• •••• ••• •••• ••• •••• ••• • 26

APPENDIX A Test Data ••••••• •• ••• •••• ••• •••• • ••••••••• A-I
APPENDIX B Service Records ••••••••••••• ••• •••• •••• ••• 8-1
APPBNDIX C References •••• ••••• •••••• • •••••• • ••••••••• C-l
 FACl'ORS APFECl'I M; TIlB DURABILI1Y OF CO~ ETE
IN CX>ASTAL S'IRUCTURES
by
Bryant Mat her, Chie f , Special Invest i gat ions Br anch
Concr ete Division, Wat erways Exper iment Station

ItmlODOCTION

1. Por tland cement concrete is used as the material for such *

shore structures as breakwater s, jettie s, groins , se awa lls and bulkheads(5).
The durability of concrete in coastal waters is influenced by the internal
conditions or quality of the concrete and external conditions of exposure
in the e l emen ts, including waters and wave s of the s ea or lake in Which
the str uctur e is located. It has become apparent th at a l l t hese factors
must be considered in completely e valuating the suitabil i ty of concrete
utilized in coast al structures. This study presents test dat a and serv ice
records of concrete used in various coastal structures, correlated with
available information relative to factor s that may have affected the
service r ecords.

2. Concrete shore structures wil l not provide the service they

shou l d, even though the concrete in them i s high ly dur able, unless t he
structures ar e designed adequately to withstand t he forces to Which they
will be subjected and unless they are provided wi th stable foundations.
Discussion of these factor s is however outside the scope of th is repor t.

3. Ther e are two fundamental reas ons why the durability of the
concrete in shore structures should be considered in conne ction with
shore protect i on planning and design : ( a ) unle ss the durability of the
concrete to be used in a proposed structure can be real i stical ly pre-
dicted , it is not possible adequately to evaluate the r e lat ive economy
of designing and building a given structur e or project i n concrete or
other materials, when a choice . of material s is available;
(b) unless the requirement s for concrete durabi lity are known, it is
not possible adequately to plan, design , and specify concrete shore pro-
tection works that may be expected, with reasonable assurance, to provide
the required service .

4. It might be thougkthat the requ irements for concrete durab i l ity

are already well and generally known and need not be restated in conne ction
with a discussion of shore protection engi neering. Although there i s
some basis f or this thought. practical experience suggests that these
requirements are all too f requently ignored by designer s and constructor s
generally and, as will be brought out in this report , there aBe circum-
stances concerning shore protection work and exposure that impose signif i-
cant changes i n the emphasis that should be given to various f actor s
affecting concrete durability .

*Raised numerals in parentheses refer to similarly numbered i tems in the

list of references in Appendix C.
 5. A concrete structure may be said to be durable , in the broadest
sense of the term. if it successfully and without undue cost for main-
tenance or repair render s the service for which it was constructed. Con-
versely, a nondurable structure is one that requires replacement or
excessive cost for repair or maintenance before the expiration of it s
anticipated period of service life. Often a distinction is made for
cases in which a structure requires major repair or replacement through
no defect in the material itself but rather as a result of extraneous
factors. Concrete structures damaged severely by foundation failure ,
explosion blast, or earthquake loading which they were not designed
to resist are regarded as outside the scope of a discussion of concrete
durability . On the other hand, when concrete structures successfully
withstand such unusual influences, this is likely to be cited to their
credit . It , therefore , seems appropriate to include in this discussion
a consider at ion of success and failure in the presence of both anticipated
and unanticipated influences and factors.

6. These considerations suggest a useful division of classes of

service rendered:
a. Durable.

( 1) Demonstrated or inferred ability to withstand

successfullY all stresses, exposures, and influences
that were anticipated during design.

(2) Ability as described in a(l ) plus additional ab-

ility to withstand successfully catastrophic and
extraneous influences that could not economically
be considered in design.

b. Nondurable

( 1) Failure to withstand anticipated fac tors.

7. In evaluations of the sort contemplated by the items mentioned

above, success is normally sought only from the standpoint of durability
as indicated in category a(l) or avoidance of f ailure as indicated in
category b(l) . On the other hand, shore protection works may , to a
greater extent than many other classes of engineering works, properly be
designed to withstand catastropic stresses. Therefore, the ability to
withstand such influences, especially if it is available or can be pro-
vided at little or no increased cost, may often be a most important
f actor both in comparative evaluations and in design.

INTERNAL PACI'ORS

8. Portland cement concrete is a deceptively simple construction

material. I ts apparent simplicity probably results principally from
i ts normal ability to render service in spite of abuse . The fact that
there are sti ll differences of opinion among scientists concerned with

2
elucidatirlg the factors affecting concrete durability points up this
phenomenon . It is sometimes impossible to conclude, without reservation,
that a given concrete has failed because of rdher than in spite of a
given factor. Notwithstanding the need for more basic information , data
now available have permitted the development of a number of working
hypotheses regarding durability . Assuming that a structure is adequately
designed from the standpoint of loading and that foundation conditions
are stable, concrete having the ability to serve its purpose successfully
will be insured if proper practices are used in the following respects:

a. Selection of component materials,including portland cement ,

f ine and coarse aggregates, mixing water, air- entraining admixture , and
when applicable, other cementitious or pozzolanic component .

b. Selection of mixture proportions, i .e. , ratio of water to

cement, ratio of sand to total aggregate, cement content , and air content.

c. Processing and use of materials. i.e. processing of com-

ponent materials for uniformity and avoidance of contamination or damage
prior to use; accurate batching; thorough mixing; proper handling,
placing, and consolidation to preserve the thoroughly mixed character and
achieve a compact state; and proper curing and early protection.

9. The emphasis on "proper" re lating to the preceding practices

signifies that all specific instructions should be tailored to the use
and exposure for the particular case . To take extreme examples: for
concrete that i s to serve only as fill, providing mere weight , to be
subjected to no load, nor to moisture or temperature change , very lenient
requirements with few restrictions would be proper ; for concrete to be
used in a prestressed beam as an eKPosoo part of a structure in a climate
where it would be subjected to severe freezing and thawing and to chemical
attack by sea water , quite stringent requirements with many restrictions
would be proper . Requirements should be selected with due regard for
what is necessary , what is desirable, and what is possible. Once the
requirements are established , they should be r igorously adhered to.
During their selection, however it should be borne in mind that some re-
quirements are based on conditions that demand a given solution regardless
of the decisions made regarding different problems, while other require-
ments may be considered and balanced with respect to each other . For
example; if concrete is to resist f reezing and thawing while wet, it must
contain entrained air . The quantity of entrained air is an invariable
requirement , within given limits, regardless of other considerations and
materials. On the other hand, if a concrete is to develop a given com-
pressive strength, a choice may frequently be made among several com-
binations of requirements relating to selection of materials, processing
of materials, or proportioning of materials in order to achieve the
de sired re suI t •

10. In proper ly made concrete each particle of aggregate, no matter

how large or how small, is compl etely surrounded by paste and all spaces

3
between aggregate particles are completely filled wi th paste . The
aggre gates are considered as ine rt materials while the paste (cement
and water) is the cementing medium that binds the aggre gate partic les
into a solid mass. It can be r eadily understood , therefore , that the
quality of the concr e te is great l y dependent on the quality of the
paste and that the pa ste must have the strength, durability,and resistance
to the passage of water required by the job. The cement ing or binding
proper ties of the paste are the results of chemical reactions between
the cement and water . These reactions require time and favorable
t emperature and moisture c onditions. They take place very rapidly at
fir st and then more s lowly f or a long time under favorable conditions
Alt hough a rel ativelY small amount of water is requir ed for the
chemical reactions, more water is used for the sake of placeabili ty,
and with more water , more aggregate can be used with resu lt ing economy.
As the paste is th inned with water, however. its qualny i s lowered;
it has less s t rength and becomes less resistant to the elements. Por
successful result s, then. a pr oper proportion of water to cement is
e ssent i al. The paste ordinarily constitutes 22 to 34 percent of the
tot al volume of concrete . The absolute volume of cement is usual ly
be tween 7 and 14 percent and the water f rom 15 to 20 percent. Thus
someth ing like 66 to 78 pe rcent of the concre te is made up of the
a ggregates . Since they constitu te such a large par t of the concrete ,
c are in their select i on is important . They should be graded to secure
gr eate s t economy i n amount of paste required; they must consist of
par t icles h avi ng ample strength and resistance to exposure conditions;
and they must not contain mater ials having injurious effects.

SELECTION Of COMPONENT MATER IAts

11 . Portland cement. Por t land cements are hydraulic cements

manuf actured from carefully selec ted materials by c losely controlled pro-
cesses. Such calcareous materials as limestone or marl and such
ar gillaceous or c layey materials as shale or clay are generally used in
the manuf acture . Blast-f urnace slag is sometimes used to supply a part
of the ingredients. The raW materials are cal ciged, crushed and pulveriz-
ed, with a small amount of gypsum added to regulate the setting time. The
pulverized product is the finished portland cement. It is ground so f ine
t hat nearly all of it will pass through a sieve having 200 meshes to the
l ineal inch or 40,000 openings in a square inch. When portland cement
is mixed with water a paste is formed which first sets - that is, becomes
f irm - and then hardens for an indefinite period. The setting and
hardening are brought about by chemical reactions between the cement
and water and are referred to as hydration.

12. Portland cement for use in concrete should be required to

r.onform to current federal or ASTM specifications(3) and before use
,hou ld be sampled and tested for compliance therewith by a representative
of the purchaser. The specification of a wide varie ty of types of
cement is permissible .

13. There are, or recently have been, f ive basic types of portland
cement :

4
 a. Type I: for use in general concrete constructio~l \lJhen
the special properties specified f or types II, I I I, IV,
and V are not required.

b. Type II : for use in genera l concrete construction exposed

to moderate sulfate action, or where moderate heat of
hydration is required.

c. Type III: for use when high early strength is required.

d. Type IV : for use when low heat of hydration is required.

e. Type V: for use when high sulfate-resistance is required.

14. All , or most of these, are, or recently have been, available

either with or without an interground air-entraining addition and , when
purchased under Federal spec i fications, e ither with or without a limita-
tion on content of alkalies (sodium and potassium). Al so type II is
available either with or without a specific limitation on heat of
hydration. In addition , at least two blended cements and two blending
cements are available (each with~ without an inter ground air-entraining
addition): portland blast-furnace slag cement , portland-pozzolan cement ;
slag cement , and natural cement , respectively.

15 . Por practical purposes, portland cements may be considered as

being composed of f our principal compounds . These are given below with
their chemical formulas and abbreviations:

Tricalcium silicate 3CaO. S iO

a
Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.Si0
2
Tricalcium aluminate ~aO.AI203
Tetracalcium alumino-
ferrite 4CaO.AI 0 .Pe 0 3 ~ C AP
2 3 2 4

16. The approximate percentage of each compound can be calculated

from the Chemical analysis. Most of the strength-developing characteristics
are controlled by the C S and C S. Typical compound composition data for
3 2 covered by the ASTM specifications are
the five types of portland cement
given in table 1. Each value represents the average of four brands of
cement of the type indicated.

17. The rate at which the strength of concrete increases varies

someWhat with the type of portland cement used. Approximate values for
the five types of portland cement, with normal portland cement used as the
basis tfor 'comparison, are given in table 2.

5
 TABLE 1

Calculated Compound Composition

of Portland Cements

Pinene ss
Percent
Compound Composition Passing
Percent S q Cm Number
per Gr* 325 sieve
Type of Cement

I - Normal 45 27 11 8 1710 90 .7
II - Modified 44 31 5 13 1990 94. 7
III - High- e arly - strength 53 19 .1.0 10 2730 99 . 5
IV - Low-heat 28 49 4 12 1880 93 .1
V - Sulfate-resistant 38 43 4 8 1960 93 .2
*Sur face ar ea as de t ermined by Wagner turbid ime t er test
TABLE 2
Approximate Relative Strengths of Concrete
as Affected by Type of Cement

Compressive Strength -- percent of Strength

Type of Portland Cement of Normal Portland Cement Concrete
3 days 28 days 3 months
I - Normal 100 100 100
II - Modified 80 85 100
II I - High-early-strength 190 130 115
IV - Low-heat 50 65 90
V - Su l fate-resistant 65 65 85

18 . The value s given in the preceding table are based on concrete

that is cured moist until tested . This basis is taken since in most
cases where types II, Iv or V cement would be used , tre concrete would be
in large masses or would be exposed to moisture so t l~t hydration would
extend over a long period. I f the concrete is cured mo i st f or only a
short period and is t hen allowed to dry , the relative values would be
someWhat d i ff erent than indicated.

19. Concrete made with air-entraining portland ceme nt sometime s has

slightly l ower st rength than corresponding concrete made with normal
cement . I n general, e ac h percent age point incre ase in air content reduce s
the compressive strength from 3 to 5 percent and the modulus of ruptur e
f rom 2 t o 3 per cent. The t o tal reduction in compressive strength
ordinarily is no t more than 10 to 15 percent and in modulus of rupture
6 t o 10 pe rcent . When the cement factor is maintained constant and the
water and sand ar e reduced as permitted by the improved workabi lity d ue
to the en t rained air, there may be lit tle. if any, re duction in strength.

20. Tests of a number of type IV, lOW-heat cement s. indicate that

they ge nerate f r om 40 to 50 per cent le ss heat of hydration at ages of 1

6
to 7 day s th an does type I, normal cement . Type V, sulfate-resistant
~~ment , also produces much less heat , some 25 to 40 percent less than
normal cement . Type II, modified cement , generates about 15 to 20 per -
cent less heat than normal cement. Type II I, high-ear ly-strength
cement, produces up to 50 percent more heat at these early ages than the
normal cement . There is considerable variation in heat of hydration of
individual cements of anyone type , as indicated by these comparisons .

21. Aggregates . We ll-graded aggregates of known soundness and

durability meeting current ASTM Specifications for Concrete Aggregates:
C 33 ( 3) should be used. The maximum size of the coarse aggregate should
be as large as possible up to a size equal to one-sixth the smallest
dimension of the forms or three-fourths of the minimum clear opening
between reinforcing bars. Aggregates should have low absorption and
should consist of clean, hard, strong, and durable particles free of
chemical coatings of clay or other fine material that may aff ect bonding
of the cement paste. The contaminating materials most often encountered
are dirt , silt, clay, coal, mica, salts, and humus or other organiC
matter. They may occur as coatings or as loose, f ine material . Many of
them can be removed by proper washing.

22 . Weak, friable or laminated aggregate particles are undesirable.

Shale, stones laminated with shale, and most cherts are especially to
be avoided. Visual inspection will often disclose weakness in coarse
aggregate . Where doubt exists, the aggregates should be tested. Por
structures where durabi l ity is important , only aggregate of proved resi s-
t ance to the particular type of exposure should be used.

23. The commonly used aggregates are sand, gravel, crushed stone
and blast-furnace slag. Cinders, burnt c lay, expanded blast-furnace
slag and other materials are also used. Very sharp and rough aggregate
particles or flat and elongated particles require more fine material to
produce workable concrete than aggregate particles that are more rounded
or cubical. Therefore, when the aggregates are made up largely of such
particle shapes, more cement may be required. Bxcellent concrete is
made by using crushed stone and other crushed materials, but the part i cles
should be more or less cubical in shape. Stones that break up into long
slivery pieces Should be avoided. Generally, long , slivery or f lat
piece Should be limited to about 15 percent. This requirement is just
as important, if not more so, for the fine aggregate as for the coarse
aggregate . Natural sands are usual ly made up of rounded particles. Stone
sand, made by crushing stone, consists of more angular particles and
when used for fine aggregate in concrete it is essent i a l that those
materials having an abundance of thin , sharp and slivery particles be
avoided. Experience has shown that very fine sands or very coarse sands
are objectionable; the former are uneconomical , the latter give harsh ,
unworkable mixes. In general , aggregates that do not have a large
deficiency or excess of any size and give a smooth grading curve produce
the most satisfactory results. The requirements of ASTM Specifications
C 33 permit a relatively wide range in grading and some specifications

7
 - - --------

are made more restrictive. The most desirable grading will depend on the
type of work, r ichness of mix and size of coarse aggregate with which
the fine aggregate is combined. For leaner mixes, or when a small-size
coarse aggregate is used. a grading approaching the maximum percentage
passing each sieve is desirable . For richer mixe s, a grading approaching
the maximum percentage passing each sieve is desirable . For richer
mixes, a grading approaching the minimum percentage passing each sieve
is more desirable for economy .

24 . The amount of fine aggregate passing the Nos. 50 and 100 sieves
affects the workability, f inish and surface texture, and water gain .
Experience has shown that in thin walls and for smooth surfaces where
concrete is cast against forms, not less than 15 percent of the fine
aggregate should pass the No. 50 sieve and at least 3 or 4 percent should
paSS the No . 100 sieve . With these minimum amounts of f ines the concrete
i s more workable and more cohesive; hence there is less water gain than
when lower percentages of fines are present. The presence of adequate
f ines is more important in the wetter mixes than in stiffer mixes. and
in leaner mixes than in rich ones .

25. Coarse aggregate should be graded up to the l argest size practicable

to use for the conditions of the job. The larger the maximum size of the
coarse aggregate, the less the amount of mortar and paste that will be
necessary and hence the less the amount of water and cement required to
produce concrete of a given quality . Field experience and many tests
have shown that the amount of water r equired per unit volume of concrete
for a given consistency and given aggregates is substantially constant
regardless of the cement content or relative proportions of water to
cement . Also the water r equired decreases with increases in maximum
size of the aggregate.

26 . Mixing water. Mixing water f or concrete should, when possible ,

be fresh water of potable quality . Particular care should be taken to
avoid waters contaminated with appreciable amounts of acids, alkalies,
oils, or organic materials, especially sugar . Brackish water or sea
water create conditions favorable to aggravation of deterioration due to
corrosion of reinforcing steel if the quality and thickness of the concrete
cover over the steel are insufficient and such corrosion begins. If
water containing more than a small amount of sulfate is ~sed f or mixing .
ty pe II or type V cement should be required. Tests have shown that sea
water gives compressive strengths from 10 to 20 percent lower than fresh
water . This reduction in strength may be corrected by using somewhat
less mixing water and somewhat more cement . No evidence has been found
to indicate that the use of sea water for mixing has been the direct
cause of deterioration of concrete or corrosion of the steel reinf or cing.
Exposure of the steel to a ir and moisture after the concrete has cured
is the cause of corrosion. and can be prevented by providing a s ufficient
cover of watertight concrete over the steel. Within the tidal range and
those areas reached by spray. the constant wetting and drying with sea
water, particularly if combined with freezing and thawing,

8
constitute very severe exposur e. Should sea water reach t he steel,
corrosion is more rapid than wi th fresh water .

27. In response to an inquiry relative to the desirability of

using sea water to mix concre te, the American Concrete I nstitute gave(2)
the followin g discussion:

"Abrams(l) said among hi s summarie s of te s ts of wat er s f r om

many sources:

( 7) Concrete mixed wi th sea water (about 3. 5 percent

sal t s, mostly sodium chloride) and cured in the moist room gave higher
s trengths than fresh-water concrete at ages of 3 and 7 days; at 28 days
and ove r , the strength-ratios for sea water r anged from 80 to 88 percent.
Air- cured concrete mixed with sea water was lower in strength than
s imilar fresh-water concrete at 3 mo. , but showed a recovery in strength
at - later ages and gave strengths equal to that obtained with fresh water.
( In spite of the satisfactory strength r esult s , it seems unwi se to use
sea water in reinforce d concrete construction, particularly in the tropics
on account of the danger of corrosion of reinforcement) .

'(8) Synthetic sea water gave concrete and mortar strengths

simi lar to natural sea water .

'(9) Concrete mixed with water from the Great Salt Lake
(about 20 percent sodium chloride) gave strength-ratios from 65 to 77
percent at ages of 28 days and over. This wat er i s not sat isfactory for
mixing concrete, unless allowance is made for about 30 percent reduction
in the assumed strength.

'(10) Water from Devil's Lake, North Dakota (0 . 15 percent

sodiUm sulphate and 0. 15 percent sodium chloride ) gave normal concrete
s trengths and showed no i ll effects.

' ( 11) Water from Medicine Lake, South Dakota ( 3.5 percent
solution of sulphates , largely magnesium ; S04 concentration 2.8 percent),
gave strengths similar to that obtained with sea water. The lowest
strength-rat i o was 84 percent .

' ( 12 ) Waters from drains and small streams in sulphate

districts gave satisfactor y strengths at ages up to 2-1/4 years. The
lowe st strength-ratios were about 90 percent .'

"From a correspondent we have also these comment s and r ef erence s:

'We do not have any references to recently published papers

on t he use of salt or brackish water used as mixing water i n concrete.
Ther e are several references in the literature which indicate that salt
water has been used in mixing plain concrete without incurring trouble
at later periods. This practice is however discouraged where reinforced

9
concrete is involved. Much of the concre te in the Florida Key structures
of the Florida East Coast Railway was mixed with sea water , with no
detrimental effect due to it s use. Experienced engineers are practically
unanimous in the belie f that ~a water should not be used f or mixing in
reinforced concrete work, particularly in the tropics(lO).,

"A mortar strength test as a measure of the quality of the

m1x1ng water is proposed in t he Report of the Joint Committee on Standard
Specifications for Concrete and Reinfor ced Concrete(2l) . This specifica-
tion states, 'When subjected to the mortar strength test, the strength
at 28 days of mortar specimens made with the water under examination
and normal portland cement Shall be at least 90 percent of the strength
of similar specimens made with water of known satisfactory quality.' II

28. Air-entraining agents. Air-entrained concrete should be used

f or al l shore protection structures. In addition to protecting concrete
from the damaging effe cts of freezing and thawing, air-entrainment also
helps to make concrete more durable by reducing segregation and bleeding
and by i mproving workability. The total air content required in the
mixture for durability depends on a number of factors . For average
mixtures of 5 to 5-1/2 gallons of water per bag of cement and for coarse
aggregates of 1-1/2 to 2-inch maximum size, 4 to 7 percent entrained air
i s suggested. Air-entrained concrete may be obtained either by the use
of air-entraining portland cement or by the batching of an air-entraining
admixture when the concrete is mixed. The use of air-entraining cenent
avo i ds t he necessity f or handling the air-entraining agent as a separate
ingredient but severely restricts the opportunity of the user to increase
or dec rease the air content of the concrete .
29 . Cementitious or pozzolanic components . Concretes in which the
cementitiou9 material includes portland cement plus an additional cement -
itious or pozzolanic material such as natural cement, slag cement , fly
ash, volcanic glass, calcined shale , etc •• may have advantages for use
in shore structures either from the standpoint of reduced cost or improved
performance. If the aggregates are r eactive with alkali~s and high-alkali
cement must be used, the use of a proper pozzolan will prevent deleterious
expansion and cracking ; the replacen ent of part of the portland cement by
other materials will reduce heat of hydration and consequently the heat
rise of massive structures thus reducing the tendency to crack on cooling;
materials such as fly ash may compensate for deficienc i es in fine material
in sands used as f ine aggregate while at the same t ime providing later
s t rength gain due to the ir pozzolanic character .

SELECTION OF MIXTURE PROPORTIONS

30. Workability . The ease or difficulty in plac i ng concrete in a

particular location is referred to as workability . The proportions of
materials for concrete mi xtures should be selected to give the most
economical and practical combinat i on that will produce the necessary work-
abil ity in the fresh concrete and the required qualities in the hardened
concrete.

10
 31. Cement content . Concrete for shore structures should generally
contain ahout 7 bags of portland cement per cubic yard especially in
those portions directly exposed to weathering or sea-water attack.
Massive structures made with well-graded aggregates under c lose engineering
control may properly employ lower unit cement content, provided l aboratory
mixture proportioning studies indicate that design strength requirements
will be aChieved. Experimental lahoratory-fabricated test blocks with
only 2 bags of portland cement per cubic yard have shown good durability
when exposed at the mean tide e l evation at Treat Island, Maine.

32. Water content. The relative amounts of water and cement should
be selected on the basis of the type of structure, type of exposure,
and strength desired. The following table 3 may be used as a guide.

33. The water content of concrete for shore structures should usually
be not more than 5-1/2 gallons of water per bag of portland cement, in-
cluding water entering the mixture as f ree moisture on the aggregates.
Proportions of f ine to coarse aggregates should be adjusted so that a
workahle mixture is produced without the addition of water .

34. Consistency of concrete . With a given amount of cement paste,

more aggregate is used in stiff mixes than in more fluid mixtures; con-
sequently , the stiff miXturesare more economical : in cost of the materials.
Stif f mixtures require more labor in placing, however, and the additional
cost of plaCing may offset any saving made in materials. Concrete mixtures
should always be of a consistency and workability suitable for tre con-
ditions of the job. Thin member s and heavily reinforced members requiJ:e
more fluid mixtures than large members containing l it tle reinf or cing .
A "plastic" concrete is one that is readily molded and yet will change
its form only slowly if the mold is immediately removed. Mixtures of
plastic consistency are required for most concrete work. Concrete of
such consistency does not crumble but flows sluggishly without segregation.
Thus, neither very st iff, crumbly mixtures nor very f luid, watery mixtures
are regarded as of plastic consistency. A stiff but plastic mixture with
large aggregate would be workable in a large open form but not in a thin
wall with closely spaced reinforcement. The slump test is used as a
measure of consistency. It should not be used to compare mixtures of
wholly different proportions or of different kinds or sizes of aggregates.
Under conditions of uniform operation, changes in consistency as indicated
by the slump are useful in indicating changes in the character of the
mater ial, the proportions or the water content .

PROCESSI~ AND USE OF MATERIALS

35. Cement. If sacked cement is used the batches of concrete should

be of such size that only full sacks are used . If fractional sacks of
cement are used they should be weighed for each batCh . It i s not satisfactory
to divide sacks of cement on the basis of volume. Bulk cement should
always be weighed for each batch. An advantage of bulk cement and weight
measurement is, of course, that the size of batch can be based on the size

II
 TABLE 3
Wa ter-cement Rat ios for Various Types of Construction and Exposure Condit ions

Gallons per bag

Severe or moderate climate, wide range
Qf temperature, rain, and long freezing Mild climate, rain or semi-arid;
s~lls or freguent freezing and thawing rarelI snow or frost
Thin Moderate Mass Thin Moderate Mass
TIpe or location of structure
Sections Sections Sections Sections Sections Sections
A At the water line in hydraulic
or waterfront structures or
prot ions of such structures
where complete or intermittent
saturation is possible, but not
·where the structure is continu-
ously submerged in water .'5 5-1/2 6 5 S-1/2 6
B Portions of hydraulic or water-
;\; front structures some distance
from water line, but subject to
frequent wetting by water 5-1/2 6 6 5-1/2 6-1/2 7
C Ordinary exposed structures,
buildings and portions of
bridges not COMing under
above groups 6 6-1/2 7 6 7 7-1/2
D Complete continuous submergence
in water 6 6-1/2 7 6 6-1/2 7
E Concrete deposited through water 5-1/2 5-1/2 5-1/2 5-1/2
of mixer and need not be in units of f ull sacks of cement . On jobs
where bulk cement is used, overhead storage bins for both cement and
aggregates set over weigh batchers are usually provided. While all
materials except the water may be weighed cumulatively in the same
batcher, weighing the bulk cement separately is generally preferred.
The batcher scale preferably should be equipped with a springless dial
reading up to the full capacity of the batcher . Such a dial shows
whether the hopper is properly charged, whether it is complete ly dis-
charged, and whether there are irregularities in the flow of the cement
into the mixer. Loss of cement after it is discharged from the batcher
must be prevented to maintain uniformity . Canvas tremies at the bottom
of the batcher will prevent loss from dusting or scattering.

36. Aggregates. Aggregates should be handled and stored so as to keep

segregation of sizes to a minimum. Stockpiles should be built up in
layers of uniforn thickness. Whether aggregate s are handled by truck ,
c lamshell or conveyor, the stockpile s should not be bui lt up in high,
cone-shaped piles; this results in segregation of sizes. Pine aggregates
that is damp has less tendency to segregate than dry materials. When
dry f ine aggregate is dropped from buckets or conveyors, the wind may
blowout some of the fines; th i s should be avoided insofar as possible.
Material should be removed from stockpiles in approximately horizontal
layers to minimize segregation.

37. Storage bins should preferably be round or nearly square and

should have a bottom sloping not less than 50 degrees from horizontal
from all sides to center outlet . They should be charged by the mater ials
falling vertically over the outlet . Chut i ng the material into the bin
at an angle and against the bin sides may cause it to segregate. It is
an advantage to keep bins as f ul l as possible ; this reduces breakage of
aggregate partic l es and tendency to segregate. To reduce segregation of
aggregat e to a minimum and to give uniformity from batch to batch, it is
desirable to provide and measure the coarse aggregate in two or more sizes,
especially if the maximum size exceeds 1 inch. General l y , the ratio of
the maximum size particle to the minimum size for coarse aggregates sep-
arations should not exceed 2 to 1 for material s "larger than 1 inch and
3 to 1. for finer material. Thus 1-1/2-inch aggregate wou l d be separated
into 1/4 to 3/4-inch and 3/4 to 1-1/2-inch sizes. Similarly, 3-inch
aggregate would be separated into 1/4 to 3/4-iDch, 3/4 to 1-1/2 inch and
I - 112 to 3 inch sizes.

38. On smaller jobs weighing may be done on platform scales. These

may be set on the ground in a level position with short runways on
e ither side so that wheelbarrows may be run onto the platform. Weigh
batchers as used on larger jobs are placed under the storage bins; a
single batcher for each size of aggregate or mul ti ple batcher s in which
several or all sizes of aggregate are weighed cumulatively in one compart-
ment may be provided. The scales may be equipped with several beams and
sliding poises which can be set f or each i ngredient.

13
 39. ~. Dependab le and accurate means f or measuring the mixing
Wa t er are essential. Portab le mixer s ar e generally equipped with water
tanks and me asuring device s that are fairly accurate when properly operated.
The horizon t al t anks used on mixers some years ago cannot be depended upon
f or accuracy. The vert ical tanks on newer mixers are far more accurate.
The mea sur ing device most generally used operates on the principle of the
siphon. The tank is fille d and the desired amount of water is siphoned
off. When the water level reaches the point at which the bottom of the
siphon is set , the sea l is broken and the water is automatically shut off .
A d ial indicat es the sett i ng and a water glass shows water levels in the
tank . The equipment should be tested and calibrated for accuracy by
discharging the water at each set t ing into containers of known capacity
or by weighing the discharged water and converting the observed weight s
in to gallons. On some large installations and central mixing plant s,
water meters are used. Some of these can be set to cut off the f low
automatically ; other s are manually operated. ]he accuracy of the meter
should be determined at various pressures that may prevail on the job.

40. Concrete mixing . All concrete should be mixed thoroughly unti l

it is uniform in appearance with a ll ingredients uniformly distributed.
The time required for thorough mixing depends on several factor s.
Specifications usual ly require a minimum of 1 minute mixing for mixers
up to l~cubic yard capac i ty with an increase of 15 seconds mixing for each
1/2 -cubic yard , or f ract ion thereof. addi tional capac i ty • The mixing
period should be measured from the t ime all solid materials are in the
mixer drum, provided all of the water is added before one-fourth the
mixing time has elapsed.

41. Batch mixers are available in sizes from 2 cubic feet to 4 cubic
yards. For general construction work . standard mixers have capacities
of 3~1/2, 6,11 , l6.or 28 cubic feet of mixed concrete. On larger work
and central plants, mixers of 56 and 84-cubic foot capacities are used.
In a f ew cases, such as dams, the mixers have capacities of 112 cubic
f eet . Standard paving mixer s have capacitie s of 27 or 34 cubic feet of
mixed concrete. Mixers may be of the tilting or nontilting type . The
tilting type has the advantages of rapid discharge and easy cleaning .
Both types may be equipped with loading skips and the nontilting type is
equipped with a swinging discharge chute. Many mixers are provided with
timing devices ; some of these can be set for a given mixing time and
locked so that the batch cannot be discharged unti l the designated t ime
has elapsed.

42. Mixer s should not be loaded above the ir rated capacity and shou ld
be operated a t approximately the speeds for which they are designed. If
increased output is needed it should be obtained by a larger mixer or by
additional mixers, not by speeding up or overloading the equipment on
hand. If the blades of the mixer become worn or coated with hardened
concrete, the mixing action wil l be less efficient . Badly worn blades
should be replaced and hardened concrete should be removed before e ach
run of concrete.

14
 43 . Under usual running conditions, up to about 10 percent of the
mixing water should be placed in the drum before the dry mater ials are
added. Water should then be added uniformly with the dry materials,
leav i ng about 10 percent to be added after all other material s are in
the drum . When heated water is used during cold weather this order of
charging may require more modification to pr event flash setting of the
cement. In thi s case. addi t ion of the cement should be delayed unti l
most of the aggregate and water have intermingled i n the drum. Where
the mixer is charged directly from batchers the materials should be
added simultaneously at such rates tha t the charging t ime of all ingredients
is about the same.

44 . Handling mixed concrete • . Each step in hand l ing , transporting,

and placing the concrete should be carefully controlled to maintain un-
iformity within the batch and from batch to batch so that the completed
structure will be of uniform qual i ty throughout . I t is essen t ial to
avoid separation of the coarse a~grpgate f rom the mortar or of water f rom
the other ingredients. Segregation at the point of discharge f rom the
mixer can be corrected by providing a downpipe at the end of the chute
so that the concrete will drop vertically into the center of the receiving
bucket, hopper,or car. Similar provision s should be made at the ends of
all other chutes and conveyor s.

45. Al l hoppers should be provided with a vertical drop at the

discharge gate. When discharge i s at an angle, the larger aggregate is
thrown to the far side of the container being charged and the mortar is
thrown to the near side thus r eSUlting in segregation that may not be
corrected upon further handling of the concrete .

46. Concrete is handled and transpor ted by many methods such as

chutes, pushbuggies operated over runways, buckets handled by cranes or
cableways , small rail cars, trucks,and pumping through a pipel i ne. The
method of handling and transporting concrete and the equipment used should
not place a restriction on the consistency of the concrete. This should
be governed by the placing conditions. If these permit the use .of a s t iff
mixture, the equipment s hould be so designed and arranged as to facilitate
handling and transporting such a mixture. This may require larger chutes
on a steeper slope , large discharge gate openings,and modification of
other features.

47. Concrete is sometimes pumped through a steel pipel i ne, this

method b~ing of particular advantage in tunnels and other locations where
space is limited. The equipment includes a heavy-duty, single acting ,
horizontal piston-type pump of rugged construction. The pipe is of 6, 7
or 8- i nch outside diameter with wall thickness usually 7/16 inch. The
concrete can be pumped through 600 to 1, 000 feet of straight horizontal
pipe, depending on size of pump and pipe. Vertical distances are calculated
on the basis of I foot vertical equaling 8 feet horizontal. A 90-degree
bend i s equivalent to 40 f eet of horizontal pipe, a 45-degre e bend equivalent
to 20 feet. The capacity ranges f rom 20 to 65 cubic yards per hour and

15
the maximum size of aggregate that can be used is 3-inch. Concrete
having a slump of only 1/2 inch has been pumped successfully but best
results are secured with a slump of 3 inches or more. One added benefit
resulting from pumping is that uniform qual i ty is achieved since workable
concrete that will not segregate must be use d . because constant supply
of uniform concrete is necessary for successful operation of the pump.
To assist i n maintaining uniformity , the hopper f eeding the pump is
often supplied with an agitator to remix the concrete as it is dumped
into the hopper.

48 . Placing. Concrete should be placed as nearly as practicable in

its final position , and should not be placed in lar ge quant i ties at a
given point and allowed to run or to be worked over a long distance in
the form . The l atter practice resul t s in segregation, because the mortar
tends to flow out ahead of the coarser material. It also _results in
sloping work planes between successive layers of concrete, In general ,
the concrete should be placed in horizontal layers of uniform thickness,
each layer thoroughly compacted before the next is placed. Layer s should
be 6 to 12 inches thick for reinforced members and up to 18 inche s thick
for mass work, the thickness depending on the width between forms, the
amoun t of reinforcing and the requirement that each l ayer be placed before
the previous one stiffens. The concrete should not be allowed to drop
freely more than 3 or 4 feet. I n thin sections , drcpchutes of rubber
or metal should be used. I n narrow wall forms the metal drop chutes
may be made r ect angular to f it between reinforcing steel . Drop chutes
should be provided in several lengths or should be in sections which can
be hooked t ogether so that the length can be adjusted as concreting
progresses. Concrete is sometimes placed through openings, popularly
referred to as ··windows," in the sides of tall , narrow forms. When a
chute discharges dir ec tly through the opening there is danger of segrega-
tion. In slab construction , placing of the concrete should be started at
the far end of the work so that each batch will be dumped against pre-
viously placed concrete, not away from it . The concrete should not be
dumped i n separate pile s and the piles then leveled and worked together.
If stone pockets occur, some of the excess large particles should be re -
moved and distributed to ar eas where more mortar is present to surround
them.

49 . The order of placing concrete is also of some importance. In

wa l ls the f irst batches should be placed at either end of the section ;
the placing should then progress toward the center. This same procedure
should be used for each layer. This method can also be fo l lowed in placing
beams and girders. In large open areas, the first batches should be
placed around the perimeter . In all Cases the procedure should be such
as to prevent water from co llect i ng at the ends and corners of forms and
along form faces .

50 . Placing under water . Concrete should be placed in the air rather

than under water whenever possible . Where it must be placed under water,
the work should be done under experienced supervision and certain

16
precautions taken. The most commonly used method is by tremie, a
straight stee l pipe long enough to reach from a work i ng plat form above
water to the lowest point to be concreted. A hopper is provided at
the top and sometimes a foot val ve at the bottom. I f the tremie does
not have a valve , the bottom is plugged with straw, burlap or other
mater i al. The tremie is filled with concrete as it is lowered to
posit i on. Once concreting is started the lower end of the tremie shou ld
be kept submerged in the fresh concrete to maintain a seal and cause
the concrete to f low into position by pressure. Concrete f or this
purpose must be plastic and cohesive, of good fl owabi l i ty, and usually
with 6 or 7-inch slump. The mixture should be somewhat riche r t han
one placed in air, usually no t less than 7 bags of cement per cubic
yard of concrete . The fine aggregate proportion should be higher than
for normal condit ions , often 45 to 50 per cent of the total aggregate.
The maximum size of the coarse aggregate should not exceed 1-1/2 or 2
inches. P lacing should be continuous with as litt le di sturbance t o
the previously placed concrete as possible . The t op surface shou ld be
kept as level as possible .

51. Placing under water may also be done by special bottom- dump
bucket s or by pump. In some cases sacked concret e has been used, the
f illed sack s lowered to posit i on and pl aced by divers. This method is
seldom used now. Still another method is t o f ill the forms with coar se
aggregate and then displace the water by pumping in cement grout through
previously pl aced grout pipes.

52. Pneumatic mixing and placing. Wakeman(40 ) has suggested that

pneumat ic mixing and placing ("guni t e", " shotcrete" ," spraycrete") may
have advantages in concrete wor k i n marine environments. He describes
a large landing barge for a passenger f e try terminal at Los Angeles that
was so const r ucted in 1919 and has withstood 35 years exposure i n sea
water with no deterioration. He notes that such concrete for marine
use is usually propor t ioned in the ratio of one part of cement by volume
to four parts of well-graded sand. He suggest s tha t its use may e f f ect
considerable economy in labor and materials and may y ield a denser, less
permeable product. Its disadvantages include the fact that its placement
is much more critical , requiring extraor dinari ly careful. consc i entious,
and experienced cr aftsmen.

53 . Consolidating concrete. Concrete, other than that placed under

water, should be compacted and worked into place by spading or puddling.
Spades or puddling sticks long enough to reach to the bo t tom of the f orm
and thin enough t o pass between the reinforcing steel and forms should
be used , or mechanical vibrators may be used eithe r within the concrete
or on the forms. The process should eliminate stone pockets and large
bubbles of air , consolidate each layer with that pre viously placed,
completely embed reinforc i ng and fixtures and bring just enough fi ne
material to the f aces and top surfaces to produce the proper finish.

54. Vibration of itself does no t make concrete stronger, more

watertight,or more Iesistant to deteriorating f orc e s. It doe s permit

17
the use of stiffer, harsher mixtures. Thus, e ither mixture s of lower
water content or leaner mixtures for a given water content can be used.
If less water is used , the concrete will be of better quality; if leaner
mixtures are used, the concrete will be more economical. Vibration also
is of assistance in avoiding the difficulties resulting from mixtures
that are too wet and tend to bleed and segregate . Thus better surfaces
and better construction joints are produced.

55. Mixtures that can be consolidated readily by hand should not

be vibrated as they ar e very l ikely to segregate under this action. As
stated above , the mixture should be stiffer and harsher than for concrete
placed by hand . In many cases the slump can be le ss than one-half that
required for hand-placing and in most cases it can be reduced at least
one-third. The proportion of fine aggregate can also be reduced, in an
average mixture by about f i ve percentage point s. Thus, reduction in
sand proportion from 40 to 35 percent or fr om 35 to 30 percent is not
unusual . Of course, the use of less fine aggregate reduces the amount
of water required or permits :the use of more total aggregate wit h a
given amount of cement.

56. Vibrators should not be used to transport concrete laterally

over long distances within the form, a practice too often allowed. The
concrete should be deposited as near its final position as possible.
It should be distributed in layers and then vibrated. Some hand spading
or puddling may be necessary a long with the vibration to secure smooth
surfaces and reduce pitting on formed surfaces.

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

57. Porms. Porms should be clean, t ight , adequate ly braced, and

constructe~material s that will impart the desired text are to the
finished concrete. Care should be taken to see that sawdust , nails,and
other debris are removed from the spaces to be concreted. Forms should
be moistened or oiled previous to placing of concrete to facilitate
their removal. Where they have been exposed to the sun for SOme time
it may be necessary to saturate the wood thoroughly to t ighten the joint s.
Plywood forms are sometimes lacquered instead of being wetted or oiled.

58. Horizontal construction joints. A vulnerable point of attack

in shore protection structures is the horizontal construction joint.
Such joint s should be avoided whenever possible. When they must be in-
cluded car e should be taken to construct them properly . The durability
of construction joints is most affected by the quality of the concrete
immediately below the joint and the care taken in preparation of the
joint surface before fresh concrete is placed for the adjoining upper
lif t.

59 . One of the best methods to assure good bonding and Watertight-

ness at joints is wet sandblasting and washing immediately before place-
ment of the fresh concrete. The concrete in the upper portion of the

18
lower lift should be placed at the lowest slump consistent with prope r
placement and consolidation. It is particularly important to avoid wet
mixtures that might cause segregation or bleeding which would result
in a layer of laitance and thus make cleanup of the joint more difficult .
The surface of the concrete should be left relatively even. Sandblasting
should be done before the side forms are erected. However, it should
be limited to removal of laitance. Just prior to placement of fresh
concrete the joints should be thoroughly c lea~ed with an air-water jet ,
after which a layer of cement mortar (grout ) should be spread evenly
over the joint surface.

60. Protection of embedded steel. It is most important to provide

adequate protection of reinforcing steel against the corrosive action
of salts in sea water . It is essential that the reinforcement be placed
farther from the exposed face of a concrete shore protection structure
than from the exposed face of a similar land structure . It is also
important to provide an impervious concrete to help keep the salt water
away from the reinforcement.

61 . All steel , including ma in reinforcement stirrups and chairs,

should be at least 3 inches from the exposed faces and 4 inches from
corners.

62. Halstead and Woodworth(l8) report that re inforced concrete

structures exposed under coastal conditions (within 10 miles of the
sea coast) in South Africa have in some Cases shown deterioration
believed to have been caused by electro-chemical corrosion of the steel.
In the discussion of their paper it was noted that the South African
Railway Administration has adopted the policy of using reinforced con-
crete structures in preference to steel because of difficulties in
maintaining steel structures. The Administration also attempted to design
st ructures for a minimum of reinforcing steel. The performance of such
st ructures has generally been ,good and such deterioration as has occurred
is believed related to insufficient concrete cover over reinforcing steel ,
which permitted e lectro-chemical corrosion .
63. Curing. Concrete should be cured under favorable condi t ions at
temperatures of 50 degrees F or more. In general , it should be kept moist
for at least 3 days when t emp~ratures are 70 degree s F or above , or at
least 5 days at temperatures of 50 degr ees F. When it is not convenient
or economical to provide continuous moist curing of concrete surfaces, a
membrane -f orming curing compound should be used . Such materials should
comply with Corps of Engineers Specification CRO-C 300 and should be ap-
plied at the rate of 200 square feet per gallon. I t is important that
the curing compound be applied before the concrete surface has become
dry but after any bleed water has evaporated.

64. Removal of forms. The forms should not be removed until the
concrete has attained sufficient strength to insure structural stability

19
and to carry both the dead load and any construction loads that may be
imposed on it. The concrete should be hard enough so that the surfaces
will not be injured in any way when reasonable care is used in removing
forms . In general, the side forms of reasonably th ick sections may
be removed in from 12 to 24 hours.

65. Finishing surfaces. Concrete may be finished in many ways,

depending on the effect desired. Formed surfaces may simply require
correction of surface defects and filling of bolt holes, while in other
cases a cleaning process to give uniformity or a painted or tooled surface
may be called for . Unformed surfaces may require only screeding to proper
contour and elevation , or a broomed , floated,or troweled f i nish may be
specified.

66. Bulges and projections are removed by chipping or tooling and

the surface is then rubbed or ground. Honeycombed and other defective
areas must be chipped out to solid concrete, the edges cut as straight
as possible and at right angles to the surface or slight ly undercut to
pr ovide a key at the edge pf the patch . Shallow patches may be filled
with mortar similar to that used in the concrete. This should be placed
in layers not more than 1/2 inch thick and each layer given a scratch
f inish to match the surrounding concrete by floating, rubbing or tooling
or, on formed surfaces, by pressing the form material against the patch
while the mortar is still plastic . Cutting out the defective concrete
to solid material i s essential for a successful job. If honeycombed
concrete is left behind a shallow layer of mortar, moisture will ge t
into the voids, and in t ime weathering action will cause the mortar to
spall. Bolt holes should be filled with mortar carefully packed into
place in small amounts. The mortar should be mixed as dryas possible ,
with just enough water so that it will be tightly compacted when forced
into place . Tierod holes extending through the concrete can be filled
wi th mor t ar with a pressure gun similar to those used for greasing
automobile s.

EXTERNAL FACTORS

67. Chemical attack. Tuthill(38) defines Chemical attack as leach-

ing or attack by acids or sulfates. Leaching - the dissolution of lime
is a phenomenon associated with the use of lean, permeable concrete in
siutations where cold, relatively pure, water can pass through the con-
crete ; it is not likely to be a problem in connection with shore structures
since , for other reaSons , lean, permeable concrete will not be employed
ard the water tOWlich it is exposed will not be pure. The principal
element involved in chemical attack on concrete in "shore structures is
sulfate attack , although most concrete failures in sea water are said by
Tuthil l to have been due less to Chemical attack than to porosity which
enhanced leaching and expansive corrosion of reinforcing bars , and to
freezing and thawing at tide and wave levels. In one notable example
in Southern California, alkali-aggregate reactivity contributed to
failure. Sulfate normally constitutes a little over 0.25 percent of
sea water, a concentration regarded as sufficiently severe when found in
ground water to warrant use of type V cement. Good workmanship, air
entrainment, low water-cement ratios, and amp le cover over reinforcing

20
steel should largely offset the causes of failure of concrete in sea
water. European literature speaks favorably of the performance of
aluminous and slag cements and of portland-pozzolan combinations in
sea water exposure(23 .24,31). Lea and Desch(24.PP 364 , 199) indicat e
that chemical attack of sea water on concrete is principally due to
magnesium sulfate, which react s with calcium hydroxide to form gypsum
and precipitate magnesium hydroxide, and reacts with hydrated tricalcium
aluminate to form calcium sulfoaluminate . Bogue(8) note s that the dis-
integration of cements in sulfate solutions is due chiefly to the f orma-
tion of calcium sulfoaluminate. He states that, since the salt forms
most readily in concentrated solutions of calcium hydroxide, the
presence of active silica will retard its formation and thus delay the
disintegration of the structure. It is thus indicated tha t active
siliCa or pozzolan is helpful in reducing the severity of the sulfate
attack. Most investigators have concluded that the lower the percentage
of tricalcium aluminate in the cement the better the resistance of
concrete to sulfate attack . Type V, sulfate-resisting portland cement ,
must not contain more than 5 percent tricalcium a luminate (C A), and
type II portland cement, moderate sulfate-resisting. must no~ contain
more than 8 percent. Type I, general purpose portland cement, may con-
tain up to 15 percent C A. In addition to the use of cement of low C A
3
content , sulfate resistance is improved by the f ollowing measures: 3
( 1) Proper proportions: ample cement content and low water content.
The water-cement ratio should not exceed 0. 50 by weight. (2 ) Use of a
pozzolan to Teplace 15 to 30 percent of the cement. (3) Low-liae ceme~
in which the tricalcium silicate content of the cement is kept below
50 percent. (4) Improved curing to facilitate pozzolanic reaction when
a pozzolan is used, drying after curing to promote carbonation, and
steam cur i ng at 350 degree s P or above.

68. Studie s to develop cements and mortars to resist the action

of sulfates in sea water antedate the invention of portland cement -
generally accepted as 1824. Smeaton(35) records such tests made between
1756 and 1759 in connection with plans for construction of the Eddystone
lighthouse. Miller(28 ) began work in 1919 in connection with deterioration
of concrete drain tile in Minnesota due to contact with sulfate in soil .

69. The complex nature of the chemical reactions of the constituent s

of portland cement and sulfates haS been under investigation for a number
of years as a part of the work of the Portland Cement Association Fellow-
ship at the National Bureau of Standards. The results of these studies
have been reported in detail by Bogue(7,8). Shelton(34) offer s the simple
explanation of the physical destruction of concrete by swelling caused
by sulfates that when sodium sulfate solutions ar e added to tricalcium
aluminate, crystals of calcium sulfoaluminate begin to form and hydrated
calcium aluminate appears shortly after but when magnesium sulfate
solutions are added to tricalcium aluminate , sulfoaluminate crystals,
are produced. together with gypsum and amorphous material thought to be
mainly an aluminate. formation of these products in hydrated cement
causes marked increase in volume, with consequent rupture of concrete and
mortars even though made of sound aggregates.

21
 70. It has been observed( ~) that in reaction with the C A in the
cement, the disruptive action of the Na2S0 4 solutions was more 3 severe
than that of the MgS0 solutions for caIculated values of the C A above
4
9 percent, while below 9 percent the situation was reversed and 3aggravated
as the percentage of C A dropped still lowe r. Thus, in general, the
susceptibility of conc~etes and mortars t o the action of MgSO and Na S04
solutions is markedly lowered by reducing the C A content of the ceme~t.
3
The more severe action of the MgSO solutions on cements relatively low
in C A may be attributed to the fa~t that the MgS0 4 not only reacts with
3
the C A but also with the hydrated calcium silicates. However, for
cemenfs high in C A the disintegration is so rapid that the secondary
3
action of MgS0 on the silicates becomes a minor matter.
4
71. It was also found(29,30} that the destructive action of the
sulfates of magnesium (MgS0 ) and sodium (Na S0 ) increased rapidly with
4 2 4
the strength of the solution up to 0.5 percent, t hen at a diminishing
rate.

72. The primary requirement for sulf ate-resistant concrete is

sulfate-resistant cement, and the first requisite of a sulfate-re sistant
portland cement is low tricalcium aluminate (C A). It was concluded(30}
3
from longtime tests of 122 cements that the permissible upper limit
for C A should not exceed 5.5 perc~nt f or a sulfate-resistant cement.
Poten~iallY sulfate-resistant portland cements may be improperly pro-
cessed in manufacture an4 conversely, pote ntially low sulfate-resistant
cements can be processed so as to make them more resistant than would be
indicated by their chemical composition( l3}. It is evident that much
research is needed on the practical problem of manufacturing sulfate-
resistant cements. However, there is no r eason to believe that the con-
cept of low C A for sulfate resistance wi ll be altered appreciably.
3
73. Prancis(16) has recently called attention to the potentially
deleterious effects of waters containing even less than 0.2 percent
sulfates and recommends the use -of pozzolanic materials unde r such con-
dit i ons suggesting that the amount of suc h material " should be sufficient
to neutralize the lime liberated during the setting of the portland
cement" •

74. Physical attack. The weathering of concrete in areas outside

the tropics and subtropics is in many case s most affected by freezing
and thawing. -The effects may be anything from negligible to catastrophic.
The component of the concrete that must be contr olled in ·o rder to prevent
damage due to freezing and thawing is the free zable or evaporable water.
Fortunately, however, the proper use of air entrai nme nt in concrete made
with sound materials will generally insure fro s t re sistance. Most existing
concrete that has suffered deterioration from freezing and thawing does
not contain entrained air in adequate amounts.

75. On much work it is importan t that the concre te be water tight,

since imperviousness is an essential requ i rement of concrete exposed to

22
the weather or other severe condit ions. This requires a watertight
or impermeable paste. Tests show that the permeability or watertight-
ness of the paste is dependent on the amount of mixing water used and
the extent to which the chemical reactions between the cement and water
have progressed.

76. The best protection against deterioration in sea water is

impervious concrete. Where concrete is porous so that sea water can
enter, crystallization, leaching, and alternate freezing and thawing
will cause disintegr ation. Where the required Watertightness has not
been obtained or where cracks have occurred, the life of the structure
can be pr olonged by suitable maintenance . Few records of the performance
of surf ace coatings under sea-wa ter exposure are available, but there
are many such coatings that, no do ubt, would afford considerable pro-
tec tion. It should be realized that sur face coatings would require
renewal f rom t ime to time depend ing on the conditions of exposure and
the durab ility of the material.

77. The Board of State Harbor Commissioners of San Francisco has

succe ssfullY used an uncut asphalt livened with 10 percent of china
wood oil and applied hot. Bituminous paints and enamels are available,
some of which are applied hot and others cold, that should prove
effective. Pitch, tar , linseed oil, china wood oil,and va~nishes would
also provide good coatings. Lin seed oil should be applied hot in 2 or
3 coats, each coat being allowed to dry thoroughly before the next is
applied. On concrete that has not thoroughly seasoned, the surfaces
should be neutral ized before linseed oil, china wood oil,or varnish
is used by applying a solution consisting of 2 to 3 pounds of zinc
sulphate per gallon of water. The solution should be brushed on the
concrete, allowed to dry,and any crystals that form on the surface
should be removed by brushing. The concrete should be dry and. dustfree
bef ore any of the surface coatings discussed above are applied.

78. Concrete surfaces should be protected against abrasion to

prevent removal of part of tbe concrete and consequent reduction in the
thickness of the concrete c~ver over the steel. This is particularly
important i n the tidal zone . in loc ations where there may be many floating
obje ct s. In locations where currents are swift and the water carries
sand or other debris scour may occur. In such locations wood sheathing
may be fastened to the concrete to protect it from abrasion. The sheath-
ing can be repl aced when necessary .

TEST DATA

79. Many agencies have conducted test programs to develop data

with respect to the durability of concrete in shore exposures. Certain
studies of the Corps of Engineers, Portland Cement ASSOCiation, California
Department of Highways, and University of Liege (Belgium) are summarized
in Appendix A of this report.

23
 ~o. Tests by the Corps of Engineers at Treat Island, Maine wer e to
de te rmine the effects of freezing and thawing on the durability of con-
crete . I t was found that the entrainment of properly-regulated quantities
of air is the most important factor in the improvement of the durability
of concrete under severe weathering conditions; also that the quality of
the coarse aggregate had more effect on the performance of the concrete
than did that of the fine aggregate. In general durability increased with
specimen size ••
81. At San Pedro, California,exposure of blocks within the t idal
range in the ocean by the Corps of Engineer s had not produced disintegra-
tion in 27 years.

82. A study was made at San Juan, Puerto Rico by the Corps of
Bngineers to determine the effects of the use of sea water as mixing
water in concrete. Under the conditions of the tests it was found that
the compressive strength ofsea~water concrete differed little from that
of fresh-water concrete, especially after an age of 1 year. The bond
strength of the sea-water concrete was materially greater than that of
fresh-water concrete after an age of 180 days. Rusting appeared to
cause the increase in bond strength of the sea-water concrete, but
the progressive corrosion caused disruption of the concrete at the 3-year
age. Steel showed more rust development when completely embedded in
sea-water concrete than in fresh-water concrete, but not when the bars
were embedded at depths greater than 1/2 inch.

83. The Portland Cement Association studies were made to determine

the relationship of cement characteristics to the resistance of concr ete
to external physical and Chemical influences. It was found that the
effect of rusting and expansion of the reinforcing stee l is a major
deteriorating influence and that 1 inch of concrete cover over steel
reinforcing is insufficient to protect- the steel from sea-water attack.
The fresh-water exposure did not have the same effect . At a sea~ater
location, also subject to severe freezing and thawing, concrete piles
of lower cement content were much more severely damaged than those of
higher cement-content . The proper use of air entrainment improves the
performance of concrete with respect to freezing and thawing and to
exposure to solutions of sulfate salts.

84. The California Highway Department tests were made to determine

relative resistances of various concretes to attack by sea water . It
was found that the durability of concrete exposed to sea water was governed
by density of the concrete, cement composition,and soundness of aggregates.
It was also found that durability is affected to a much greater extent
by the storage water than by the mixing water when both mixing and
storage water s are similar to that of San Francisco Bay .

85. The Belgian study indicated the necessity for a rich mixture,
proper grading, careful placement and finishing to yield a dense water-
proof concrete.

24
 SERV ICE RECOR DS

86. The durability of concrete in shore structures is a function of

the interaction of the properties of the concrete and the elements of
the exposure. In a short stretch of shor e line , varying severity in
exposure conditions wil l be found depending on the nearness of the
structure to the strand, the r ate of deepening of the water offshore,
the length of the fetch, and other factor s. In a general way, however ,
from the standpoint of concrete durability , the Atlantic Coast from
Canada south to about the latitute of North Carolina may be considered
to be a zone in which freezing and thawing is a dominant influence.
The south Atlant ic and Gulf Coasts, and much of the Pacif ic Coast may
be considered zones in which chemical factors are dominant . The Great
Lakes shores are again a zone where freezing and thawing is dominant and
where, since the wat er is fresh, sulfate attack is absent . Service re-
cords of specific concrete structures are briefly presented in Appendix B.
The records are listed in geographic sequence.
87. Structural sufficiency, the ability to withstand overturning
due to wave impact, or to withstand pounding by transported rock fragment s,
is a most important matter but is a design rather than a materials pro-
blem. Shore structures must be designed to withstand forces tendin~ to
produce overturning, sliding , and loading. The service records given in
Appendix B are intended to show the resistance of the concrete to dis-
integration by physical and chemical attack , rather than the stability
or effectiveness of the structure.
88. The service records indicate that good concrete can endure
for a period of 50 years and more without excessive maintenance require-
ments. Although little detail of materials used or construction
practices are available, the records indicate the necessity of an
adequate cover (preferably 3 inches or more) of dense. waterproof con-
crete over reinforcing steel. No metal connections should be exposed
on the surface and galvanized fittings or conduit s should not be embedded
in the concrete . The combined use of aggregates permeated with salts.
sea water for mixing and rusted reinforcing produce concretes subject
to rapid disintegration.

COJ'CLUDING STATEMENI'

89 . The Eighteenth Congress of the Permanent International

Association of Navigation Congresses waS held in Rome in September 1953,
and was attended by over 700 persons from 35 different countr ies. In the
Ocean Navigation Section of the congress one of the subjects dealt with
was the corrosion and deterioration of materials . These discussions ,
which are in general agreement with data presented in this report. have
been summarized(42) as follows:

a. Mass concrete. It was agreed that the deterioration of

concrete in warm sea water is mainly due to chemical action. namely the
change in composition of the cement caused by the chlorides and sulphates
present in the water . Little can be done to protect poor concrete , the
remedy being to select a suitable type of cement and good sound aggregates

25
in the first place, and to take steps to ensure that the fin ished pro-
duct is as dense and impermeable as possible. In colder waters, chemical
action is less severe and the main damage is done by temperature changes.
There are other causes of deterioration, such as abrasion and acids de-
posited by lithofagous organisms.

b. Reinforced concrete. ttHere, the good quality of the con-

crete is of even greater importance if fatal re sult s from cracks and
porosity are to be avoided. An interesting theory as to possible po s t-
construction development of hair crack s in marine st ruc ture has been put
forward by Sir Leopold Saville, who has written: -

'Steel is a good conductor of heat, concrete is a poor one.

The temperature of the steel reinf orcement ne ar the water-line would
correspond with the temperature of the sea , the heat being easi ly con-
ducted up from this point. The temper ature of the concrete above high
water would correspond with atmospher ic temperature. At night, when the
temperature falls, the outer skin of concrete would contract , but the
steel would remain for some distance above the water-line at or near the
sea temperature. This would tend to put the concre te above sea level in
tension and the steel in unusual compression, and might, in the long run,
destroy the bond of the steel and concre te , if not actually producing
hair cracks in the concrete, which would admit the oxygen necessary
f or corrosion.'

"Properly built reinforced concrete structures call for litt le

attention below mean tide level,a1mo st a l l the cracks which appear
during the life of the structure being f ound above water level. A great
many measures were suggested to minimize deterioration, but the most
important appear to be: -

1. Careful selection of t he cement. The most durable f rom

the standpoint of chemical composition were said to be those with low
tricalcium aluminate conten t, and the spec ial aluminous ,cements.

2. Care with tre aggregate, which must be tough and non-

re act ive to cement, and careful grading of aggregates.

3. High quality maximum density concrete. Rich mixtures --

1:1:3 or 1:1:2 were suggested.

4. Restriction of all wor king stresses to reasonable

values.

5. Absence of bracing and structural joints below low

water level.

6. Cover to be not less than 2 inches, preferably 3 inches;

and square edges to beams and piles to be avoided.

26
 7. Thorough curing in air before exposing to the tides
or to sp lash , to obtain a hard outer skin.

8. Removal of mill scale from reinforcement prior to its

installation, and sp·e cial care in the placing and securing of the rein-
forcement.

9. Water/cement ratio to be as low as possible, with

correction for the mo ist ure content of the aggregates.

10. Spec ial car e in placing of concrete to avoid segregation,

particularly in underwater work.

11. Use of vibrat ors to obtain maximum consolidation.

12. Greater use of precast concrete members.

'~he use of absorptive lining for shuttering was also discussed.

as was the embod iment of air -entrainment to produce impermeable concrete.
Use s of 'Prepakt,' 'Pressure Concre te' and 'Colgrout' were described, as
we ll as various proprietary compounds for 'mixing in' to improve impermea-
bility."

27
 PACl'(IlS AFPBCTIK; nIB DlF.ABILITY Of COlCR Bl'E
IN COASTAL S'IRtCTU\BS

APPBNDIX A

TEST DATA

(XItPS Of BP«;lNBBRS BXPERIMBNl'AL INSTALLATIONS

TREAT ISLAND, COBSCOOJC BAY I MAINE

1. Since 1936 the Corps of Bnginee!~ has operated an experimental

exposure station at Treat Island, Maine(l • It consists of a timber
rack attached to a wharf at mean tide e levation on which approxiMately
1.500 specimens are exposed ( see figure A-I) . The rack is roofed over
so that differences in exposure due to sunlight and wind are eliminated.
Specimens placed on the rack are exposed to twice-dai l y reversals of an
average 18-foot tide. At times during the winter months alternate ex-
posure to freezing air and submergence in sea water at approximately
34 degrees P produces cycles of freezing and thawing in the concrete.
The temperature of the water is always low, ranging from 42 to 30 degrees P,
which tends to reduce chemical reactions between concrete and the salts
in sea water, The number of cycles of freezing and thawing as well as
intensity of the cycles varies with severity of the winter. In a typical
series of twelve winters (1940-1952) the average number of cyc l es of
freezing and thawing bas been 136 with a high of 242 cycles in 1942-43
and a low of 89 in 1950-51.

2. When brought to Treat Island, the specimens are usually at

least 90 days old. They are exposed in a horizOntal position to t idal
alternations which tend to saturate them with sea water under considerable
head and permit tbem to drain and surface-dry to some extent~ In summer
the specimens undergo wetting in cold water and partial drying in re-
latively warm air. The degree of saturation of concrete in sea water
may be higher than in fresh water, not only because of the tidal head in-
volved, but because, as Hansen(19J shows, concrete froze~ and thawed in
a chloride solution shows a marked increase in absorption Which does not
occur when freezing occurs in fresh water . It is possible that absorp-
tion also increases with freezing and thawing in sea water as it does
in chloride solutions. freezing of the salt water in pores of the con-
crete occurs when air temperature drops below 28 degrees P and the in-
tensity of freezing increases with falling temperature. The rate of
temperature change varies with the ambient temperature. Weeks may pass
between freezings and the interval between cessation of freezing in the
spring and beginning of freeZing in late .utumn is several months.
During these nonfreezing periods curing and autogenous healing of small
cracks occur with consequent gain in strength and modulus of elasticity .

A-I
FIGURE A-I. GENERAL VIEW OF TREAT ISLAND EXPOSURE RACK .
 3. Performance of different concretes. T. B. Kennedy and K.
Mather have described(2ZJ the results of a study in which six coar se
and eight fine aggregates were used in 48 combinat ions to make speci mens,
all with the same water-cement ratio, air content , an ~ slump, for
comparative testing in accelerated freezing and thawing in the laboratory
and exposure to natural weathering at Tre at Is l and. The aggregates and
their characteristics are listed in table A-1 .

4. The concrete h~d a slump of 2-1/2 t 1/2 inch, an air content

of 4-1/2 t 1/2 percent(33), a water-cement ratio of 5.5 gallons per
bag, and sand contents from 36 to 42 percent depending upon part i cle
sha~. Six 3-1/2 x 4-1/2 x 16-inch beams and thre e 6 x 6 x 30-inch be ams
were made for each combination from each batch, fo r a total of 300 small
and 150 large beams. Half the small beams were tested in the l aboratory ;
the other half of the small and all of the large beams were exposed at
Treat Island. Table A-2 contains concrete data f rom the various batches .
All specimens were moist-cured at 73.4 t 2 degrees P to 9 day s age when
the laboratory beams were tested dynamical ly and started in the acce l erated
freezing-and- t hawing test. Beams for field exposure were removed f rom
curing at 9 days and al l owed to air dry in t he l aboratory unt il shipment
to Treat I sland. The beams were 1 to 3 months old when in s t alled on the
exposure r aCk .
5. Laboratory specimens that entered test 'at 9 day s comp l eted
300 cycles ot freezing and thawing at a maximum before they were 2 months
old; fie1dspecimen~ that entered test at ages of I to 3 months were re-
moved at about 15 month s, and endured 456 freezing-and -thawing and a much
larger number of wetting-and-drying cycles. In 300 cycles the l aboratory
specimens were exposed to a total of about 15 liters of fr esh water in
a maximum of 15 or 16 changes using about 1 liter per change. Treat
Island specimens were exposed during immer sion to unlimited quantities of
sea water . Laboratory tap water is mildly alkaline; each change probably
reaches saturation with Ca(OH)2 and available soluble mater ials in the
cart lining, mortar" and aggretate. The dissolved ions in Atlantic Ocean
water are, on the average(2~,p 364)
~ Grams ~er liter
Na 9.95
K 0.33
Mg 1.S0
Ca 0.41
Cl 17.83
Br 0.06
S04 2 s 54
Total 32.62

A-3
 TABLH A-I
Data on Aggregates Used in Treat Island Tests

Specif ic Compress ive

Gravity Los Thin Streng th of
Satu- Absorp- Loss Angeles and 2-in. Mortar Reactivity
rated tion 5 Cycles Abrasion Elon- Cubes, NaOh wit h E x
Surface Per- MgS0 4 Loss gated d Percent Co lor NaOH e 10- 6
Material Drya,b centa,b PercentC' Percent Percent 3-day 7-day Test Sc l Rc g psi
Coarse aggregates
Limestone 2.61 1.8 14.t 27 .7 15.6
Grani t e 2.62 0. 3 0.5 43. 8 9.7 2.7
River-terrace gravel 2.62 1.1 2.2 19. 9 7.6
Uncrushed chert gravel 2.54 1.7 5. 3 21. 6 7.4 10.0
Crushed chert gravel 2.55 1.1 3. 7 23.3 8.6 10.0
Quartzite 2.63 0.6 0.7 27.1 20.0 13.2

~ Fine aggregates
I
~
Limestone 2.60 2.9 20.2 122 124 ... 27 201
Granite 2.62 0.6 14.4 130 123 15 31
Mississippi-river sand 2.62 0.4 3.0 117 122 4 76 47
River-terrace sand 2. 63 1.1 3.1 106 109 4 146 86
Natural quar tz sand 2.63 0.5 3.3 101 104 1 63 35
Cherty river sand 2.6 1 0.4 2.0 111 114 2 107 37
Quartzite 2. 61 0.6 3.0 136 122 42 29
Crushed chert 2. 58 1.4 8.1 112 120 290 71

Footnote references refer to test methods contained in Handbook for Concrete and Cement,Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi , 1949.
a. am< 107-51, "Method of Test for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate" .
b. CRD-C 108-48 , "Method of Test for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate" .
c. am-c 115-49, "Method of Test for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Magnesium Sulfate".
d. CRO-C 119-48, "Method of Test for Plat and Elongated Particles in Coarse Aggregate".
e . CRD-C 128-49(c). "Method of Test for Reactivity of Aggregates with SodiUm Hydroxide (Quick Chemical Method)".
f . Sc is the concentration of silica in m1 per liter after 24-hr digestion in 0. 5N NaOH at 80 degrees C.
g. Rc is the reduction in alkalinity in ml per li ter as a result of the digestion.
 TABLE A-2

DATA ON OOPCtETB Fat nllAT ISlAND TESTS.*

Aggregate. Sand by Ce.ent,

Vol~ Air Sl_p, bags per
Coarle Pine Percent Percent in. 'Cu. yd.
(1 ) (2) p> ~<4) ..QL ~6)

Liae stone*· Crushed a_stone 41 <4.8 2-1/2 6.38

Lime stone··- Crushed li.estone <41 <4.5 2-112 6.40
Lille,tone Crushed granite 42 5. 0 2-1/2 6.46
Liaestone Mississippi River Sand 41 4.9 3 5.61
LUaestom~ River-terrace sand 41 4.8 2-1/2 5 . 71
Lillestone Natural quartz sand 41 4.5 2-1/4 5.44
Lillestone Cherty river sand 40 4.4 2-1/2 5.54
Li.IIe stone Crushed quartzite 42 5.0 2- 1/2 6.<46
Limestone Crushed cher t 42 <4.8 2-3/4 6.38

Granite Crushed 1 iJIIe stone 42 4.4 2-3/4 6.60

Granite Crushed granite 42 4.8 2-1/<4 6.47
Granite Mississippi river und 40 4. 6 2-3/<4 5.53
GrlUli te River-terrace sand 40 4.8 2-1/2 5.71
Granite Natural quartB sand 42 4.8 2-1/2 5.U
Granite Cherty river sand 40 5.0 2-3/<4 5.51
Granite Crushed quartzite 42 4.8 2-1/4 6.38
Granite Crushed chert 42 4.9 2-1/4 6.28

R iyer-terrace gravel Crushed Iiaestone 38 4.5 3 6.11

River - terrace gravel Crushed gTanite 38 4.7 2-1/2 5.81
R iYer-terrace gravel Mississippi river sand 38 5.0 2 4.56
River-ten ace r;ravel River - terrace sand 38 4.6 2-3/4 5. 25
R i ver-ter race gravel Natural quartz sand 38 4.5 3 4.97
River-terrace grave l Cherty river sand 38 4.7 2-1/2 4.67
River-terrace gravel Crushed quartzite 38 4. 3 2-1/4 5.74
R i ver-terrac~ gravel Crushed chert 38 4.8 2-1/4 5.43

Uncrushed cher t gravel Crushed I_stone 38 5.0 3 6.17

Uncrushed chert gravel Crushed granite 38 4.4 2-1/2 5.83
Uncruslled chert gravel Missi .. ippi River sand 38 4.8 2-1/4 4.57
Uncrushed chert gravel River-terrace sand 38 5.0 3 5.03
Uncrushed chert gravel Natural quartz sand 38 4.8 2-3/4 4.95
Uncrushed chert gravel Cherty rher land 38 4.9 2-1/2 4.57
Uncruslled chert gravel Crushed quartzite 38 4.8 3 5.71
Uncrulhed chert gravel Crushed chert 38 4. 9 2-1/4 5.52

Crushed chert grave l Crushed 1 ilIIe stone 42 4.9 2-3/4 6.66

Crushed chert gravel Crushed granite 42 4.9 3 6.66
Crushed chert gravel Mississippi river sand 42 6.4 3 5.24
Crushed chert gravel River- terrace sand 42 5. 0 3 5.79
Crushed chert gravel Natural quartz sand 42 4.9 3 5.71
Crushed chert gravel Cherty river "uod 42 4.7 2-1/4 5.3"
Crushed chert gravel Crushed quartzite 42 4.9 3 6.37
Cru.hed chert gravel Crashed chert 42 4.6 3 6.39

Quartzite Crushed liaestone 42 4.8 3 6.66

Quartzite Crushed granite 42 4.8 2-3/4 6.60
Quartzite Mississippi river sand 42 4. 7 2-3/4 5.43
Quartzite R !ver-terrace .and 42 4.6 2-1/2 5.91
Quartzite Natural quartz sand 42 5.0 2-1/2 5 . 60
Quartzite Cherty river sand 42 4.4 2-1/4 5.35
Quartzite·· Crushed quartzite 42 4.4 2-1/2 6.31
Quar tz he··· Crushed quartzite 42 4.4 3 6.31
Quartzite Crushed c~rt 42 4.5 2 6.49
*All IpeciDIens snade with Type II cement at water-cement ratio of 5.5 gallons per bag (0.49 by weight).
•• Pirat set •
•'*.Repeat set.

A-5
 TABLE A-3

DURABILITY PACTORS (DPE )* AT END OF TF.ST AND RANKS OF SMALL

BEAMS FROZEN IN niE LABORATrnY AND AT 'mEAT ISLAND

DPE at 300 Clcles and Rank of Beam Sets Tested in Lab Preezer
Coarse Aggregates Avg.
River- by Pine
Cr ushed Uncrushed terrace Aggre -
Pine Aggregates Chert Limestone Granite Chert Orave1 guartzite gates Rank
Granite 66 7 30 6 64 8 45 5 46 5 59 8 52 8
Quartzite 66 7 34 4 80 1 48 4 35 8 39,60,9,7 52 7
Crushed chert 89 1 56 1 75 4 56 3 62 I 63 5 67 I
Natural quartz sand 78 4 23 9 78 3 64 2 49 4 85 1 63 3
River-terrace sand 77 5 33 5 68 6 45 5 62 I 75 3 60 4
Mississippi r iver sand 71 6 28 7 66 7 39 8 38 7 82 2 54 6
Cherty river sand 80 3 28 7 72 5 41 7 56 3 70 4 58 5
Lime stone 88 2 42,50,2,3 80 I 74 1 46 5 61 6 63 2
Avg and rank by
coar se aggregates 77 1 36 6 73 2 52 4 49 5 66 3
1j
O'l DPE at 1.45 x 10 6 Degree-clcles and Rank of Beam Sets Frozen at Treat Island

Ga::anite 102 4 99 1 116 1 78 2 47 2 42 3 81 1

Quartzite 97 6 90 2 115 2 93 1 48 1 34,82,4,1 80 2
Crushed chert 103 2 87 4 95 3 62 3 43 3 50 2 73 3
Natural quartz sand 100 5 90 2 62 5 62 3 43 3 30 5 65 4
River-terrace sand 104 1 66 8 66 4 53 7 30 7 28 6 58 5
Mississippi river sand 103 2 65 9 47 7 55 5 36 5 27 7 56 6
Cherty river sand 99 6 75 6 57 6 55 5 36 5 15 9 56 7
Lillie stone 85 8 69,82,7,5 38 8 30 8 19 8 25 8 50 8

Av and rank
by coar se aggregates 99 1 80 2 75 3 58 4 38 5 37 6

* The durability factor is based on the relation of t he modulus of elAstici ty of tQe concrete
specimen at the beginning and .end of the test . The test is terminated when the modulus
reaches a value of half of that which it had .men the test started or, in the laboratory
test, after 300 cycles of freezing and thawing.
 6. Tb~re were 12 cycles of freezing and thawing a day in the
laboratory(44" each going from 0 to 42 and 42 to 0 degrees f in 2 hour s
and two cycles a day at Treat Island, varying in minimum and maximum
temperature , and in amount and rate of temperature change. In freezing
weather , the immersion phase of the cycle is warmer , but in nonfreezing
weather , it is cooler . Somet~es specimens are thawed and wetted, then
frozen and partially dried ; sometimes they are cooled and wetted, then
warmed and partially dried.

7. At comparable degree-cycles the laboratory exposure was more

severe than the field exposure in two out of six cases when all concrete
made with the same coarse aggregates are considered , and in two out of
eight Cases when all concrete made with the same fine aggregate are con-
sidered. When comparison is made on a cycle-for-cycle basis, the lab-
oratory exposure was more severe for five of the six coarse aggregates
and for all fine aggregates.

8. The result s of test s of small beams are given in table A-3.

The crushed chert gravel was the best coarse aggregate in both exposure s.
Crushed quartzite ranked third in the laboratory, but poorest in field
te st of larger beams. Limestone coarse aggregate was poorest in laboratory
tests ; but was next to the best in field tests of small beams and third
best in the large beams . Granite ranked second in laboratory and f ield
tests of large beams and third in small beams. Uncrushed cher t gravel
ranked fourt h in all tests and riVer-terrace gravel ranked f ifth i n
small beams in the laboratory and field and sixth in large beams. The
r ange in OFE f~ both fine and coarse aggregate combinations follows:

Range in OPE at 300 cycles

Small Beams Large Beams
Aggregate Laboratory Treat Island Treat Island

Fine 15 21 20
Coarse 41 41 41

There was l htle range in DFE between fine aggregate positions for lab-
oratory-tested beams. Duplication of the test might easily reverse re-
lative positions of any two adjacent sands ; however, it would not be
l ikely to reverse end positions or end-center positions. A slightly
greater range in DFE between best and poorest showings occurred with the
f ield beams. Granite sand. which was poorest in the laboratory beams ,
waS best in small field beams and thir d in the large field beams.
Quartzite sand, which tested poorly in the laboratory, tested well in the
field. Crushed chert sand did excellently in both laboratory and field.

9. When the DfE at 300 cycles of the small beams made with each
coarse aggregate tested in the laboratory and i n the f ield were plotted,
lack of significant correlation was apparent. The OFE at 300 cycles of
the smal l beams made with each fine aggregate tested in the laboratory
and at Treat Island were also plotted , and lack of s ignificant corr elation
was evident here also.

A-7
 --- -------

10. Except for l imestone-coarse-aggregate concrete, where the

average DFE of large beams was slightly lower than that of small field
beams, the DPE was higher for large beams than for the small beams a t
Treat Island. Thi s condi t ion would be expected because of the relative
masses of t he two beam sizes.

11. Bxamination of spe c imens after exposure. Specimens tested in

the laboratory received 300 cycles of accelerated freezing and thawing,
wh i ch is equal to 2. 52 x 10 6 degree-cyc l es. Field spec i mens received
45 6 cycles of na t ural freezing and thawing, which amounted to 1. 45 x 10 6
degree-cycles. I n .the preceding analysis the condition of the spec~ens
in the t wo exposures was compared at 1.45 x 10 6 degree-cycles ( or 213
l aboratory and 456 Treat Island cycles) and at 300 cycles in each ex-
posur e . The following comparisons, based on observation of the specimens
after exposure , are of necessity based on the condition of laborator y
specimens afte r 300 cycles of laboratory freezing and thawing and on the
condition of fie ld specimens after 456 cycles of natural freezing and
thawing .

12. The difference in behavior of l imestone f i ne aggregate in the

l aboratory and at Treat Island apparently resulted from the different
swelling characteristics of the montmorillonite clay in the liMestone in
the two exposure s. Limestone sand swelled as mucb as 2. 8 percent of it s
own volume more in synthetic sea water than it did in lime water . The
improved performance of limestone coar se aggregate at Treat Island is
believed due to the development of alkali-aggregate reaction between the
chalcedonic cher t in the limestone and the cement (and possibly added
sodi um i on in sea water ), which improved the bond to mortar. Slight
increased swel l ing of l i mestone coar se aggregate at Treat Island may also
have i mproved the bond. Cracking in some of the aggregate is similar
to cracking in concrete which has been damaged by alkali reaction , and
it seems likely that l onger exposure at Treat Island would lower the
rank of l imestone coarse aggregate.

13 . The characteristic pecul iar i ty of beams containing quartzite

~oar seaggregate after 456 cycles at Treat Island was a virtual absence
of bond all around t he coarse aggregate. Some of the laboratory beams
with quartzite coarse aggregate showed a similar condition to a lesser
extent. The lower r ank of quartzite coarse aggregate at Treat Island
is believed to be due to the greater number of heating-and-cooling and
freezing-and-thawing cycles, acting on the aggregate with the highest
thermal diffusivity , highest thermal coefficient, and highest modulus
of elasticity of the coarse aggregates tested.

14. Highthermal diffus i vity of the quartzite, compared to mortars

and a l l other coarse aggregates, permitted its thermal expansion and con-
tract i on to get out of phase with that of the matrix, subjecting the
bond to tensi~e stre ss during cooling and compressive stress during heating.
Since the quartzite has a high modulus of elasticity it would not yield
as the granite would, and all readjustment would have to take place in
mortar surrounding the coar se aggregate, which might thus have been

A-a
disrupted. Such a mechanism accounts for observations that the kind of
4istress shown by quartzite beams at Treat I sland i s of the kind shown
by laboratory beams, but greater in amount .

15. Granite performed well as coar se aggregate because it had

rough surfaces, thermal diffusivity not too different from the mortar s,
and elastic modulus low enough so that it could participate in readjust-
ment to stresses set up by its differences in thermal expansion with
the mortar s.

16. Crushed chert was uniformly good in both exposures because

it acted like a pozzolan and developed extraordinarily strong chemical
bond with the mortar . Operation of the same mechanism in the laboratory
is strongly suggested by the high ranking and consistent performance of
crushed chert coarse and fine aggregate in the -laboratory. Uncrushed
chert gravel contained both more chert and more porous chert and sand-
stone than crushed chert gravel . Uncrushed chert gravel developed some
improvement of bond by alkali reaction at Treat Island, but physical
disruption by failures of porous l imestone and clay-ironstone and re-
striction of alkali reaction to localized volumes combined to decrease
performance of the river-terrace gravel.

17. No positive differences among the f ine aggregates were demon-

strated in the laboratory. If the difference s are significant, and the
great improvement in rank of quartzite and granite as fine aggregates at
Treat Island is real , the major differences may be that: (1) all coarse
aggregates except granite and quartzite developed some alkali reaction
at Treat Island, and the additional spotty alkali reaction possible from
all of the natural sands was more than the usual slight amount; (2 ) the
longer exposure at Treat Island with the added heating and cooling cycles
brought out the difference in original mechanical bond between crushed
fine aggregates and natural fine aggregates; or (3) both f actor s acted.

18. These hypothetical explanations are based on examinatipn of

the beams, consideration of the lithologic composition and available
data on mechanical and thermal properties of the aggregates, and compari-
sonS with other concretes. All of the hypotheses should be verified or
refuted by experiment. No adequate explanations can be made without in-
formation on several properties of the aggregate s and mortars; the
properties on which information is needed include modulus of elasticity ,
thermal diffusivity, thermal conductivity , coefficient of thermal ex-
pansion, chemical activity , and differences in actual surface area and
activity of the surface between granite, quartzite, and chert.

19. Minor amounts of calcium sulfoaluminate, gypsum, spherulitic

calcium carbonate, and fine-grained calcium carbonate were found growing
on surfaces and in cracks and voids. The most abundant reaction product
was a white fibrous crust-forming material not conclusively identified.
It grew in all of the beams, principally on surfaces and in cracks near
the surfaces. It is believed to be a produc t of the reaction between
cr acked and consequently permeable cement paste and sea water , and is

~9
regarded 'as a secondary consequence of deterioration rather than a
principal cause .

20 . The attempt to correlate accelerated laboratory freezing and

thawing wi th natural exposure at Treat Island by comparing test results
on 48 combinations of aggregate made into concrete with the same water-
cement ratio, air content, and consistency , showed that each aggregate
combination behaves i n an individual manner in each exposure. The
two exposure s are different in manner and tend to accentuate different
physical and chemical characteristics of the materials, thereby leading
to dissimilar results. If prediction of behavior in one exposure from
behavior in the ot her is to be made , all the differences i n materials
and exposur e s must be taken into account .
21 . Comparing t he two exposures on a cycle - for-cyc le basis:

a. The laboratory test ranged from 0.8 to 39 .9 times as

severe considering the concrete made with each coarse aggregate, and
1.1 to 4.0 times as severe considering the concretes made wi th each f ine
aggregate, as indicated by the severity ratios.

b. Quality of coarse aggregate had more effect on the per-

formance of concrete than did that of fine aggregate .

c. In general, durabilit y increased with specimen size.

SAN PEDRO, CALIFORNIA

22. In 1905 , in connect i on with construction of the San Pedro break-

water 18 concrete block s approximately 5 x 5 x 4 feet were made under
the supervision of D. E. Hughes of the Los Angeles District, Carps of
Engineers and placed on the seaward slope of the breakwater . The blocks
weighing approximately 6 tons each were installed mostly I to 5 feet
above t he plane of mean lower low water . They were taken up, examined
and replaced in 1932 wi th their tops 2 to 6 feet above low water .

23. Concrete mixtures . Six cements and three mixtures were used in
casting the blocks as follows:
MgO S03
1. Gill i ngham 1.14 0. 65
2. Germania Tr 2.57
3. Alsen 1 .26 0. 95
4. lola 2.10 1.15
5. Standard, Napa 1.29 1.15
6. California ,Portland,Colton 1.48 0.85

A- IO
 Pro2ortions
Mixture Designation Cement ~ Coarse Ags.regate
A 1 2 4
B 1 3 6
C 1 2-1/2 5

24. Strength tests. Cores drilled in 1932 f rOll1 blocks repre sent ing
mixtures A and B were tested for compressive strength at the National
Bureau of Standards wi th results as follows:

Mixture A Mixture B
Cement
1
--L
6520
- -2
5350 5860
3 ~
5910
1
3040
2
1870
3
1630
...!1!g
2180
2 2380 3370 3890 3210
3 5200 4450 4410 4690 3000 2800 2460 2750
4 5800 5590 6650 6010 5 150 2680 7560 5 130
5 6230 4140 4450 4940 2120 2510 5280 3 300
6 4270 3330 3110 3570 3820 5500 2700 4000

25. The exposure from 1905 to 1932 did not produce di sintegration
of any of the specimens ; the edges and corners were sharp except as
bruised in handling. The lifting U bolt on one block was rusted off
when inspected in 1932, but the metal was " like new" at a depth of 1 to
1-1/8 inches along the embedded legs.

SAN. JUAN I PUERTO RICO

26. The Concrete Section, Materials Testing Unit , Anti l les District
Caribbean Division , Corps of Engineers in 1941 initiat ed at San Juan,
Puerto Rico , a study of ~he effects of the use of sea water as mixing
water in concrete.

27 . Concrete mixture. The concrete used in the investigation was

designed to have a cement factor of 5. 85 bags per cubic yard, a water-
cement ratio of 6.48 gallons per bag , a ratio of sand to total aggregate
of 35. 8 percent by volume, a slump of 3 inche s, and proportions of 1-2.08-
3.87 by weight. It was mixed in a 3-1/2-S mixer for 3 minute s and was
consolidated in the molds by external vibration. The cement me t the re-
quirements for Type I and was produced by the Pue r to Rico Cement Corpora-
tion. Test data are :
Chemical Data
Percent Percent

Si0 21.8 Ignit i on loss 1.4

2
A1 0 6.4 Insoluble residue 0.29
2 3
fle 0 2.5 C S 47 .0
2 3 3
caO 65. 2 C S 27.0
2
MgO 0.5 C~ 12 .6
S03 1.8 C Af1
4
8.0
caS0 4 3.0
A-II
 Physical Data

Retained on No . 325 sieve 15.2 percent

Surf ace Area 1640 sq cmlg
Initial Set 3 hr 30 min
Pinal Set 6 hr 30 min
Soundness in Steam Satisf actory
Specific Gravity 3.12
Compressive Strength , 3 day 1150 psi
7 day 2640 psi

28 . The f ine aggregate consisted of beach sand from Biascoechea

Beach in Isla Verda Section. The coarse aggregate consisted of crushed
limestone from Ramos Quarry, Bayamon. The characteristics of the aggre-
gates are given be low:

Fine Aggregates Coarse Aggregrates

Individual Cwuulative Individual Cwnulative
Percent Percent Percent Percent
Sieve
4
Retained
0.0
Passing
100.0
-Sieve
1-1/2
Retained Passing
100.
-
8 1.3 98.7 1 4.0 96 .
16 5.1 95.6 3/4 26.8 69 .2
30 25.3 68 .3 1/2 30.6 38.6
50 52. 1 16.2 3/8 15.2 23 .4
100 14.2 2.0 No . 4 23. 4
Pan 2.0 Pan 18 .3

Specific Gravity 2 .66 Specific Gravity 2. 78

Absorption 0.3% Absorption 0.8%
Strength rat io, 7 days 96'70 Unit Weight , dry rodded 100 lb/cu ft
Soundness, 5 cycles, sul- Soundness, 5 cycles,sulfate 6. 9% loss
f ate 2.8 % loss Abrasion test (Deval) 6. 8"10 loss
Plat & elongated particles 2. 7%
Soft particles 0 .8%

29. The fresh water used in this program was found to have a pH
of 7.6, a residue after evaporat ion of 0 .021 percent by weight, and a
salt content of le ss than 100 parts per million . The sea water , taken
from San Juan Bay at a point in front of the arsenal , had a mean densi ty
of 1.03 glcc , a pH of 8. 3, a residue af ter evaporation of 3. 86 percent
by weight, and a salt content of 31 ,400 parts per million .

30. §pecimens. Pabrication and curing of the specimens are described

in the following subparagraphs:

a. Compressive strength test specimens consisted of 6 x 12-inch

cylinder s. Two sets of 324 cylinders were made to provide 36 specimens

A- 12
to be tested at each of the fo llowing ages : 7, 14, 28, 90, and 265 days;
and 1, 2, 3 and 5 years. One se t was made using fresh water , the other
with sea water . To provide for a qualitative test of the rusting effect
on inclosed stee l, ten pieces of 1/4 x 3-inch clean, round, deformed
bars were evenly sCattered by hand in each cylinder during molding .
All cylinders were consolidated by external vibration f or 45 seconds and
were stripped 24 hour s after casting.

b. Bond strength test specimens consisted of 6-1/2 x 5-7/8 x

3-3/4-inch concrete prisms each containing a 6-3/4 - inch length of 1/2-inch
round, smooth, hot-rolled, steel bar embedded axially along the entir e
3-3/4-inch dimension of the prism . The embedded bars were cleaned with
a wire brush and emery c loth be f ore use and were threaded on the projecting
end. Two groups of 90 specimens were made , one with fresh and the other
with sea water. In each group 70 specimens were made with the bar in a
vertical position and 20 with the bar in a horizontal posit i on during all
operations. All specimens were consolidated by external vibration for
20 seconds . The vertical bar specimens were stripped 24 hour s af ter
molding and the horizontal bar specimens 48 hours af ter molding .

c. Curing. All specimens were cured for 14 days (or 7 day s

for those tested at that age) in the type of water used in mixing. Those
to be tested at later ages were placed out of doors at 14 days age. The
average temperature in the shade was 82 degrees P and the average relative
humidity was 75 percent. All specimens were immersed in fresh water f or
3 day s before testing. No specimens were tested at the 3-year age; however .
at thi s age the remaining compressive strength specimens were removed from
outdoor storage and placed in fresh water , and the remaining bond-strength
specimens were discarded. The compressive-strength specimens tested at the
5-year age had been stored in fresh water for the last 2 year s.

31. Testing. All strength tests were performed using a hydraulic

testing machine with 0-50,000 and 200,000-pound gages.

a. Compressive strength tests were made at 7, 14, 28, 90 and

265 days and at 1, 2, and 5 years age . The average strengths of concrete
made with fresh and with sea water and the ratios of compressive strength
of sea-water concrete to fresh-water concrete, expressed as percentages,
are sPawn below. The se dat a are plotted in figure A-2.

Average Strength. psi Ratio Sea-Water/

Age Presh Water Sea Water Fresh Water - Percent
7 days 3180 3400 107
14 days 3820 3800 99
28 days 4530 4380 97
90 days 4750 4720 99
265 days 5050 4750 94
1 year 5270 4900 93
2 years 5520 5500 100
5 years 5800 5900 102

A-13
 CONCRETE :
NO TES
l
6000 '---- C . F. :: 5.85 B /CU YO LE GEND
W. C . :: 6 .48 G PB

~
0 o FRESH WATER
5/A :: 35.8 % BY VOL
.c:.. SEA WATE R
~
SLUMP:: 3 1N. AV ERAGE C>
If)
.-I.
CL 5500 I-- STEEL:

v~
...
I EACH CY LI NDER
f- CONTA INE D to PIEC ES OF
~
Z
w
REINFORC ING STEEL
1/ 4· IN. BY 2 - IN . AT RAND OM
I ~
a: 5 000 >-- V
~ ./
I
f- I !
If) I I

w
~
l> If) 4500
I If)
TYPE OF CURING
i: w
a: II I A: I N SAME T YPE OF WATER AS US ED IN
CL
:!
0 4 000
I I MIXING ( T O 14 DAYS AGE )

u 8 : OUT OF D OQR S , AVER AGE T EMP. IN

/ I
c:
S HADE =
HU M ID IT Y
IN FRESH
28 C. , AV E RA G E RE L.
= 75 0/0
WATER ( AF TE ~. 3- YEA R AGE )
I
I

tzA
I
35 00
I
8 C- -
I
I
3 000
7 14 28 90 265 365 730 10 95 18 25
IYR 2 YR 3YR !)YR
AG E IN DAYS
FIGURE A-2
RE L ATIVE COM PRESSI VE ST RE NGT H .OF
CONCRET E M IXED WI TH F RESH WATER AND SEA WAT E R
 b. Bond strength tests on specimens containing bars embedded
vertically and horizontally were made at 7, 14, 28, 90 , and 180 day s and
at 1 and 2 years. The average ultimate bond strengths of vertically
and horizontally embedded bars in concrete made with fresh and sea water
and the ratios of ultimate bond strength of bars embedded in sea-water
concrete to that of bars embedded in fresh-water concrete, expressed as
percentages, are shown below. These data are plotted in figure A-3.
Average Ultimate
Bond Strength, psi Ratio of Sea Water-
Fresh Water Sea Water Fresh Water
Vertical Embedment
" days 550 565 103
14 day s 615 600 98
28 day s 705 670 95
90 days 820 795 97
180 days 815 920 113
1 year 850 1150 135
2 years 950 1420 149

Horizontal Embedment

7 day s 360 330 92

14 days 350 275 79
28 days 325 285 88
90 day s 380 430 11 3
180 days 440 635 144
1 year 450 610 180
2 year s 540 1200 222

When the specimens prepared for test at ages greater than 2 year s were
examined at the 3 year age, it was found that some had started to crack
and that rust had progressed to such an extent that it was thought useless
to attempt any further tests for bond strength. The remaining specimens
were discarded. It is believed that the bond-strength results obtained
in this investigation were materially affected by corrosion of the em-
bedded bars which resulted from the fac t that no measures were taken ~o
control rusting at the ends.

32. Rusting . The specimens were examined for rusting with the
following results:

a. COmpletely embedded bars. An examination was made of small

pieces of steel completely embedded in the compreSSive-strength specimens
af ter these specimens had been tested. Three types of rusting were noted :

(I) Small, evenly scattered specks of rust y ielding easily

to rubbing with the finger s, with mill scale almost
intact .
(2) Harder , flakier rust with mill scale and rust of a
darker color.

A-15
 NOTE S
LEGEND
CONCRETE:
1400 - =
C . F. 5.85 B / CU YD FRESH WATE R f\
W . C. = 6 .4 8 G P 8 0 o HO R IZONTAL / /
S /A = 3 5.8 % BY VO L C>----~ VERTICAL
- SLUMP = 3 IN. AVERAGE SEA WATER
/
If)
a.. 1200 f-- STEE L : 6 6 HORI ZO NTAL /
"'
t : : - - - - - a VERT ICAL
V'
I
f-
0
Z.
w
a:: 1000 r--
6-3/4-1 . B Y 1/2 -IN. PL A IN,
ROU ND , HOT-ROLLED BAR
EMBEDDED FUL L 3-3/4 -I N .
TH ICK NESS O F BLO CK .
/
/ /
)
./-~
f-
If)
.//
.,/'/
0
Z /
~- - - .I.

.----
:t:- O 800 ~-
__ - - - _~i""

---- :/
I [II

__ ~ ~--
Oi
W
l- I
ro--'
I~-:::::. __ ---
e{
~
600 /'
p,.,..----

~
':J
:J
!

---
400 ../
~
)-""'"

'i---
20 0
I
7 14 28 90 ,180 365 730
AGE IN DAYS

FIGURE A-3
RE L ATI V E ULTIMAT E STRENG TH OF BOND - TO - STEE L OF
CONCR ETE M IXED WITH FRESH WAT ER AND SEA WATER
 (3) Pitted bars with yielding, scaly brown rust . It was
reported that in tests up to 265 days age approximately
30 percent of the pieces of steel completely embedded
in concrete made with fresh water and approximately
60 percent of those embedded in sea-water concrete
showed definite rusting. All pieces that showed rusting
however, had one end located within 1/4 inch fr om the
surface of the concrete specimen . No rusting of steel
embedded deeper than 1/4 inch was observed in the
specimens tested at the l-~ear age and none on steel
embedded deeper than 1/2 inch in the specimens tested
at the 5-year age.

b. Bond-test bars. The bar s contained in the bond-test specimens

were embedded so that one end of the bar was flush with the face of the
concrete prisms while the other end of the bar projected 3 inches beyond
the opposite face of the prism. In tests made at ages up to 180 days on
specimens containing vertical bar s a higb degree of rusting was observed
at the exposed ends of the bars. Observations of specimens containing
horizontal bars revealed that the rust was concentrated along the lower
one-third of the total bonding surface of the bars. Bars embedded
vertical ly showed rust distributed uniformly over the surface which had
been in contact with the concrete.

33. Conclusions. The conclusions suggested by the results obtained

in this investigation may be summarized briefly below:

a. The use of sea water in concrete doe s not materially affect

the compressive strength as measured by 6 x l2-inch specimens at ages up
to 5 years.

b. The ul timate strength of the bond of bar s embedded vertical ly

in sea-water concrete was pr9gressively greater than that of bar s embedded
in fresh-water concrete at ages of from 180 days to 2 years. At the 2-year
age t he bond strength of bars embedded in sea-water concrete was 149 per-
cent of that of bars embedded in fresh-Water concrete . The Ult imate bond
strength of bar s embedded horizontally in sea-water concrete was pro-
gress ively greater than that of bars embedded in fresh-wat er concrete at
ages of from 90 days to 2 year s. At the 2-year age the bond strength of
bars embedded in sea-water concrete was 222 percent of that of bars embedded
in fresh water concrete . A high degree of rusting was observed on t he
steel bars embedded in the sea-water bond-strength specimens . It is
believed that the differ ences in bond strength between specimens made with
sea water and those made with f resh water are largely due to the effect of
greater rusting of the bars embedded in sea-water concrete . The rapid
increase in bond strength between the ages of 3 months and 2 years is
regarded as resulting from the acceleration of corrosion which at the
3-year age causes disruption of the concrete .

c. Small pieces of steel bar s showed approximately twice as

much development of rust when completely embedded in sea~ater concrete

A-1 7
than when embedded in fresh- water concrete. No rust was, however , ob-
served on bars completely embedded at depths greater than 1/2 inch.

PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION LOr«; TIME STUDY

34. Primarily. t his study was undertaken to determine whethe r any

re lationship exists between the composition, fineness. and conditions of
manufacture of the test cements and the ability of the concrete made with
them to resist disintegration .nen subjected to external influence s such
as water , sulfate solutions, temperature changes, and highway traffic
with or without application of salts for ice removal.

35. Cements used in tests. Twenty-seven cements were selected f or

study . These represented the pr i ncipal cement-producing areas of the
United States and covered the range of chemical compositions commonly en-
countered in cements of the five ASTM types. The cements wer e made at
representative cement plant s under good operating conditions. free lime
in the clinker was uniformly low and the finished cement had autoclave
expansions well below the limits permitted in ASTM and other specifications.
A crew of trained observers was present to record data and take samples
at various stages-of the manufacturing process. Twenty-one clinkers were
made and ground with gypsum to make 21 cements. In addition, six of the
21 clinker s were ground with gypsum and an air-entraining agent, making
27 test cements in all. There were eight cements of type I composition
( identified as 11 to 18, inclusive ), five of type II ( 2l.to 25 , inclusive ),
three of type III (31, 33 , 34), f our of type IV ( 41 , 42 , 43, 43A) , and
one type V (51) . The six air-entraining cements aze identified by the
letter "T" following the cement number. (The term "Air-entraining
cement" had not come into use in 1939-40 when these cements were
manufactured, and the letter itT" was used to indicat e a "treated" cement.)(27)

36. Exposure to fresh and sea water . Concrete exposed to fresh and
sea water is under study in four locations. Por this investigation ooncrete
pile s, 12 inche s square in cross section and of different lengths , fabricated
by experienced contractors, were installed in widely separated sections
of the country. The effects of cement content and mixing water content
were made a part of the study. In t he East Mooring Basin of Cape Cod
Canal, Massachusetts, 66 30-foot piles representing 22 test cements were
exposed to salt water and severe conditions of freezing and thawing. To
provide a comparison in fresh water, 2O-foot piles identical with those
exposed at Cape Cod except in length were installed in Saugerties Harbor
at the confluence of Bsopus Creek and the Hudson River in New York State .
Heretbe conditions of freezing and thawing are somewhat less severe than
at Cape Cod Canal. for exposure to salt water in mild climate, locations
were selected at Salt Run near St. Augustine, florida and at Newport Beach
near Los Angeles , California. Sixty-six 30-foot piles using 22 test
cements were installed at the florida site and 24 piles 22 to 24 feet loog
with e ight cement s went into the California installatioo(6) .

A- 18
 37~
located a.Bach of tbe test piles was reinforced with eight stee l bars so
to baTe at least I inch of covering concrete. This 8lIlount of
cover ••• insufficient to protect the steel from attack by sea water
notwithstandtac the exceptionally careful construction procedures followed.
Por the three salt-water exposures, the effect of rusting and expansion
of the reinforcing .teel is a major deteriorating influence. It is
observed mostly above the mean tide level in the form of vertical crack~ in
the concrete parallel to the reinforcing steel, often with rust stains.
The fresh-water exposure has not had the 8aIIle effect.

38. Serious deterioration in addition to that which can be associated

with rusting of the reinforcing steel has developed only at the Cape Cod
exposure. Concrete piles of lower cement content have been much more,
severely damaged than those bf higber cement content . Several of the
test specimens of low-cement content concrete are approaching complete
disintegration if the supporting power of a pile is taken as a criterion.
At least one specimen has reached a conditiOn which would make it useless
in a structure . Among the non-au-entrained specimens, relations between
deterioration and oompoaition, fineness or other determinable properties
of the cement s have not bee~ found. In most cases air entrainment had a
definitely favorable influence in the reduction of softening and di sintegra-
tion, but its effect on cracking due to rust ing was -sUght .

39. The installation at Saugerties, New Yo~k, where t he exposure is

in fresh water , shows no visual sign of deterioration in any of the piles.
As of 1955, the two exposures to sea water in mild climates, at St.
Augustine, Plorida, and Newport Beach, California , showed no significant
deterioration, except for the cracking fr om rusting of the reinforcing
steel, This indicates that the concrete cover, wh ich ranges from 1 to
1-1/2 inches over the steel, is insufficient for sea-water exposure . The
data suggest an effect of mixture proportions and perhaps of air en-
trainment <table A-4 ).
40. There is overwhelming evidence to show that the proper use of
air entrainment enormously increases the ability of concrete to endure
freezing and thawing without deterioration. Air entrainment is found to
be particularly beneficial in preventing scaling when chloride salts are
used for ice control on concrete Pavements . These beneficial effects of
air entrainment extend to concretes of high slump or low-cemen t content .
Nevertheless, it should not be concluded that air entrainment nullifies
the need for good aggregates, proper mix design, or sound construction
practices.

41. Exposure to sulfate soils. A study of concrete exposed to

sulfate-bearing soils was undertaken at Sacramento, Ca1iforni~ . There a
thousand 6 x 6 x 34-inch concrete beams have been exposed to natural
alkali soils in two large shallow concrete tanks, one containing soil
from the vicinity which was very high in Na S0 , the other containing soil
2 4
from the same source but with about one-third of the Na S0 replaced by
2 4
MgS0 4 • The smdy , involving the same 27 cements as the test piles, included

A- 19
 TABLE A-4
Piles in Salt Run, St, Augustine, Plorida
Lineal Peet of Cracking in Each Pile (1954 and 1956 Inspections)

Cement Mix 1 Mix 2 Mix 3

No. 5 bagz 2-in. slut1I.2 7 baGa 2-in. slum2 7 bag I 8-in. slum2
1954 1956 1954 .!.2§2 1954 ~
11 3.0 5.0 0 3.0 1.5 0
12 6.0 8,5 0 0 0 0
13 1.0 2.5 0 0 0 0
14 0 0 6.5 7,5 0 2.0
15 0 .5 1. 0 0 1.0 0 0
16 11 .0 14. 0 0 0 0 0, 5
18 6.0 4.5 0 0 2.0 1.0

21 1.0 1.5 0 0 0 0,5

22 5.0 12 .0 0 0 o. o.
23 14.0 12 ,5 0 0 5,5 11,0
24 12 .5 13.0 3,0 5,0 10,0 12. 5
25 10 ,5 11,0 0 0 0 0

31 2 .0 2.5 0 0 2.0 2.0

33 0 0 0 0 0 0

41 9.0 12,0 4,0 4.0 0 0

42 9.5 10.5 0 0 0 0
43 6.0 9 .0 0 0 0 2.0
43A 2.0 3.0 0 0 0 0

51 8 .0 7.5 0 0 6.5 8.5

1Zf 0 0 0 0 0 0
16T 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0
21T --L 0 0 0 0 0
Total 108.5 131 . 5 13.5 20.5 27 . 5 40.0

Piles at Ne!2ort Beach z California

Lineal Feet of Cracking in Bach Pile (1955 Ins2ection)

Cement Mix 1 Mix 2 Mix 3

No . 5 bag, 2-in. slum2 7 bag, 2-in. slump 7 bag, 8-in. slump ·

11 4,2 0 0
18 12,5 0 3.5
23 7.0 0 6.5
28* 10. 0 0 9.9
34 5.2 0 11.0

43 4.0 0 6.5
43A 0 0
51 ~ 0 1.0
Total 52. 4 0 38.4

* " Loc al" cement , not one of the LTS series.

A-20
an investigation of cement content with respect to resistance of concrete
to the aggressive action of sulphates.

42. The resistance of oncrete to attack by solutions of sulfate

salt s increases with reduction of potential C3A content in the cement .
Air entrainment improved the performance of almost all of the specimens
exposed to alternate drying and soaking in solutions of sulfate salts.

CALIFORNIA HIGHWAY DEPARTMENT TESTS

43 • . Stanton in 1938 reported(3~) results of t est s begun in 1933 in

connection with the San Prancisco-Dakland Bay Bridge to determine the
relative resistance of commercial portland cement available in California
to attack by sea water. He stated that the durability of concrete exposed
to sea water is governed by three factors: <a) density ; <b) cement
composition; (c) soundness of aggregates . The aggregates used in this
test were sound and highly resistant to either sodium or magnesium sul-
fate attack; therefore. any lack of durability was due either to low
density of the mortar or composition of t he cement or to a combination
of low density and cement composition.

44. AU sea water used in these tests was secured from San Prancisco
Bay at the Municipal Pier. University Avenue. Berkeley . Water from the
ocean opposite San francisco has substantially the same chemical analysis
as shown below. The water- in which the specimens were stored was changed
monthly .

.Parts per Million

Low Tide High Tide
Residue at 110 degrees C •••••• 33, 304 33,774
Pree ammonia •••• • •••• ••• • as N .06 .08
Albuminoid ••••• •••••• ••••••• •• .37 .34
Carbonates •••• • •••••• • •••• • C0 Nil Nil
3
Bicarbonate s ••• •••••• •••• HOD 3 142 142
Chlorides • •••• • •••••• • •••• CI 16,300 16 ,500
Sulfates •••••• • •••••• • •••• S04 2, 403 2. 477
Sili~a •••••••••••••••••• Si0 2 14 7
Iron and alumina • •••••• oxides 8 7
Lime , • •••••••• • ••••••••••• • Ca 474 509
Magnesia •• ••• •••••• • •• •••• • Mg 1.149 1,138
Alkalies, calculated ••••••• Na 9,063 9 ,308
Total hardness ••• ••••• •• CaOO 3 5 ,896 5 ,937

45. To test for effect of density 1: 3 and 1 :2 mortar specimens were

fabricated using a poorly graded Ottawa sand and a well graded Russian
River sand. All of the Ottawa sand graded between the No. 20 and No . 30
sieves. whereas the Russian River sand had approximate l y 36 percent pass-
ing the No. 30. 20 percent passing the No. 50. and 32 percent retained
on the No. 10 sieve. Pollowing is the density of the specimens shown in
figures A-4 and A-S .

A-21
 1:3 Ottawa sand •••••••••••••• 2 . 018
1:2 Ottawa sand ••••• • • • •••••• 2.218
1: 3 Russian River sand ••• •••• 2.328

46. To test for effect of cement composition, cements ranging from

high to low in C~ content were used. The results for two of these
brands, one normally high in C A (17.~) and one fairly low ( 7. 2%) are
shown in figure s A-4 and A-5. 3Analyses of these cements are given below.
f& ~
5i0 ••••••••••••••••••••••• 21.49 22.94
2
Pe 0 •••••• ••• •••• ••••• •••• 2. 27 2.03
2 3
A1 0 •••• ••••• •••••• • •• •••• 7.94 4.05
2 3
CaD •••••••••••••••••••••••• 63.81 65. 16
......•. ................ 1. 40 1. 63
...... ... ...•.•• ........ 1.67 1.55
Loss ••••••••• ••• ••••••••••• 1. 62 2.76
Ins •••.•..•••••••• • •..•..••• 0. 18 0.42
Free l ime ••• ••••••••••••••• 0.94 \0.50
C AF ••••••••••••••••••••••• 6.9 5.8
4
Cf •••••••• •••••••••• It • • • • • 17.2 7.2
C s ...... ... .............. . 32. 4 59.2
2
C s ....................... . 36. 7 20.0
3
Iron modulus ••••••••••••• _•• 3.50 1. 99
Specif ic gravity •• • •••• ••• • 3. 13 3. 10
Fineness
-100 ....•. .... •.......... 99 .2 99 .3
-200 • •• • •••••• • •• ••••• ••• 84.9 94.6

Surface area ............... 1200 1570

Normal consistency ..... .... 22. 8 23. 2
Soundness ••• •••• • •••••••••• OJ( 01:
Time of set (initial) 2 hr 30 min- 3 hr 00 min
(final) 2 hr 15 min 4 hr 15 min
Tensile strength
7 day ••••••••••••••••••• 320 350
28 day ~ ....•••...... .•.. 420 440

A- 2 2
 /flt;1: ( '.3 /1 t C,.'r/!,VT (c S J

A
S.t~ Ol'ow,J Y"YI.
/ :3Ir..: ·.

" . . , .

FIGURE A-5, EFFECT OF CEMENT

COMPOSITION; GRt-ATER DURABILITY OF
A LOW - DENSITY MORTAR IN WHICH A
REL AT IVELY LOW C3A CEMENT WA S USED.

FIGURE A- 4 . RE L ATIVE DURABILIT Y

OF VARIABLE DENSIT Y MIXES
USING A HIGH C 3 A CEME NT .

A- 23
 47 . The specimens in which the other brands were used followed
identically the same trend (figure A-6).

48. Cement ES is a standard commerc ial cement normal l y low in

C~ and not a modif i ed cement such as the Bay Bridge low C3A cements.
Even better result s have been had with Bay Bridge cements which are
lower in C ~ content, (Cement ESW , figure A-6 ) .

49 . The monthly inspection of the specimens showed that at about

15 months t he upper cap (placed for compression tests at time specimen
was fabr i cated) was being distorted and loosened for some of the specimens
cured in sea water. At 17 months the first action On the spe c imen
proper was not iced, subsequent to which the deter i oration of the affected
specimen progressed steadily .

50 . The tests emphasize that density has an effect on the durabil ity
of concrete equal to , if not greater , than that of cement composition.
Given a dense mixture in which sound aggregate, sound cement, and a
pr actical minimum of water has been used, concrete · can be expected to
re.s i st the disintegrat i ng effect of sea water over a long period of years,
regardl ess of CJA content, as i s evidenced not only by these test results
but al so by the actual service of much of the concrete in structures in
the San Prancisco Bay which shows 1i ttle t if any, deterioration after
thirty years or mor e, even though cement high in C~ was used .

51 . As opposed to this good service record, however, in numerous

instances a l ong the Pacific Coast marine structures have shown severe
distress in a relatively short time. Lack of density of a poorly or
at least inf eriorly fabricated concrete undoubtedly had a great deal to
do with such f ailures, but cement composition was likewise undoubtedly
a strong contributing f actor .

52. Specimen A (figure A-4 ) , a 1:3 Ottawa sand mixture had lost
98 .4 percent of its ~riginal weight in 4 years, whereas Spec imen C with
the same amount of high CJA cement but with a dense mortar in which well-
graded sand had been used showed no appreciable loss in the same period.
Specimen B in which increased density was accomp l ished by increasing the
cement . content but still using a poorly graded sand shows results inter-
medi_te between specimens A and C.

A-2.4
 .'"
MORTAR DURABILIT
,
Y TESTS
::, TAt lOA D u NGRADED OTTANA SAnD -CEMENT MOR TAR
SPEI....IMEN::' · STORE~ 48 MONTH$ ' AT TH E L ABORATORY, SACRAMEfno . IN
i-JOKMAL CONCE RJl TION SEA WA T E..R FROM SAN FRM·JCI sr:o BAY
1933 - 1937

I 2 MO TAR

1-3 MORTA .....

M '><.1 G WATER- ORM AL SEA WATER ··

-2 MORTAR

1-3 MORTAR

FIGURE A-G . RELATIVE SEA-WATER DURABILITY OF

SEVEN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA COMMERCIAL CEMENTS .

A- 25
 53. Figure A-5 shows the effect of .cement composition . Specimen A
(the same as specimen A in figure A-4) shows the low resistance of a 1:3
Ottawa sand, high C A cement mortar . Specimen B shows the greater
3
durability of the same low density mortar in which, however, a realtively
low C A cement was used. Specimen B lost 1.4 percent of its original
weigh~ in 48 months as compared with 98.4 percent for specimen A; other
1: 3 Ottawa sand mortar specimens in ~ich lower C A Bay Bridge cements
were used showed no loss at all at 48 months. 3

SA. Figure A-6 shows the relative sea-water durability of seven

northern California commercial cements, six of which range from 1 7.2 per-
cent to 3.7 percent C A; the seventh (DL ) being a portland-pozzolan
cement manufactured f~om a 14.2 percent ~3A clinker~ It will be noted
that the mortar from cement manufactured Dy the addition of 30 percent
silica compound to a high C A clinker developed considerable resistance
3
to sulfate attack. Whether this resistance developed from any pozzolanic
nature of the added silica or from a denser mix is not at present known.

55. While theoretically all proportioning was by volume , the amount

required for each beach was measured by weighing. Therefore, with weight
proportions fixed on the assumption that all cement was of uniform
apecific gravity, approximately 2S percent more by volume of the low-
specific-~avity, high-specific-surface portland-pozzolan cement was used
in each specimen than of the normal-specIfic-gravity cements.

56 . The results illustrated in figure A- 6 indicate that the durability

is affected to a much greater extent by the storage water than by mixing
water wben both mixing and storage waters are similar to San francisco
Bay water.

STUDIBS BY UNIVBIlSI1Y OF LIEGE, BELGIUM

57 . Description of test materials and samples. In 1947, Professor

F. Caapus reported(9) on studies of concrete deterioration at Ostend,
Belgium. The tests involved mortar and concrete cubes exposed in the
North Sea and in the laboratory at Liege. Laboratory exposures were in
tap water and in a solution of 15 grams of magnesium sulfate per liter.

58. The mortars were cOll1posed of 1500 kg of dry Rhine River sand,
and 300, 450, or 600 kg of cement. The quantity of water used was 11 per-
cent of the weight of the dry materials, except' the Case of cement X
(trass) , where 13.1 percent was necessary to attain the same consistency.
Al mortar samples using the same cement in the same proportions were made
in a single day in four beds with 100 forms, in groups of 10 samples. They
were prepared in accordance with the Swiss Standards for testing cement.
The concrete samples consisted of :
Meuse River gravel, S/20 •••• ••• 1250 kg
Rhine River sand, 6.2 ••• • • •• ••• 630 kg
Cement • ••• ••••••• •••••• • •••••• 350 kg
Water ••••••••••••••• ••• • ~..... 156 kg

A-26
 59. Ten cements were used as follows:
Igni-
tion
Cement Loss caO Si0 2 R203 MgO S03 S
I P .A.D.R. (quick 2.53 65.10 21.05 8.1 6 1.08 2.16
setting
II P. A.N. (standard) 5.2 61 . 10 19.55 12.2 0.44 1 .78
II I 2/3 P.A. N. t- 1/3
trass 6.8 41 . 40 30.62 17.88 0.55 1.2
IV N.F,N.R. (blast
f urnace slag ce-
ment , very strong) 3.92 51.90 22.40 16 . 25 1.39 2. 35 1. 60
V N.F.N. (standard slag) 2.50 41 .70 23.80 25 . 20 2. 11 2. 38 1. 85
VI Permet . N.(standard
"Meta11urgicar'
cement ) 3. 42 46.30 23 . 95 18 . 10 2.81 2.93 1.95
VII "Sur su1f ate" 8.80 38 .90 24.10 16.50 2.94 6.67 2. 12
VIII Lafarge fused 0.6 40.15 6.08 51 .70 0.20 1. 30
IX Marine (special
slag cement) 4.68 40 . 50 25 . 50 20.40 2 .10 2.95 2.19
X Trass cement ,50/S0 9.37 38 .60 32 .10 16.38 1.12 2.37

Trass 10.06 2.01 52 . 68 29 . 99 0.8

Alkalies
Trass 3.2

60. Al l the cements were tested wit h the exception of type X. At

the same time that the cubes were made , six cylindrical sample s were
made from each type of cement in accordance with American standards
(diameter 6 inches, height 12 inches) as reinforced 'concrete ( reinforcing,
4 rods of 10 rom 0: concrete covering 1, 2, 3, and 5 em ) . The samples of
mortar, concrete and reinforced concrete were placed in strong boxes which
were open at the side, and immersed together at a selected point at sea,
at approximately half-tide level. The samples were so divided among the
boxes that each cement was exposed to all the various conditions, and so
that each box contained a complete set of samples of al l the types of
cement ( except types IX and X which were later added to the original
program and placed in separate boxes) . It was thus only necessary to
remove a certain number of boxes for each examination and always the
same number . The mortar samples were so distribu t ed in the boxes that
most of the samples made with 300 kg of cement were placed in the center
of the box where they were protected as much as possible. Next to them
were placed the samples made with 450 kg of cement, wh ile those made with
800 kg of cement were in the exposed outer layer.

A-27
 61. Summary of observed conditions of samples after 11 years. Data
on bending and compression tests of mortar samples are given in table A-5
and A-6 respectively. Data on compression tests of concrete cube s are
given in table A-7. Most of the mortar samples made with 300 kg of cement
to the cubic meter of Sand were badly disintegrated when removed from
the boxes. In the Case of samples 11 and 31 (cements I and III) it was
not even possible to collect enough small f ragments f or a Chemical
analysis. In al l other cases the ends of the samples, which ~re packed
in the compartment s of the boxes, were found to be intact, although they
Showed the effects of the mechanical action of the water and of the
weather and wind. Other samples (5 1, cement V) had become ver y thin in
the middle and some were broken at that point (101 , cement X and others) .
The samples of batch 41 ( cement IV ) were less affected, and still showed
some strength, but their shape had been so changed that their resistance
to bonding and especial ly to pressure was not very great .

62. The samples of batch 81 (cement VIII ) appeared intact to

the eye, but they broke easily and the fracture surfaces showed evidences
of deterioration.

63. The mortars made with 450 kg of cement to the cubic meter of
Sand were, in general , in a better state of preservation, but nevertheless
most of t hem were more or less affected. The samples of batches 12
( cement I), 32 (cement III) , 102 (cement X), and 22 (cement II) were
broken or their strength was approximately zero. The ones most affected
were 42 (cement IV) , 62 (cement VI), and 72 ( cement VII). Their edge s
had become rounded and even the side surfaces were affected,espec i ally
on the exposed sides. Bending tests were of some slight value in t he
case of these samples. Compression tests were of less significance
because of the irregular shape s. The samples of batch 52 (cement V)
were slightly affected at the edges . Those of batche s 82 (cement VIII)
and 92 (cement IX ) were intact , but a certain loss of compressive and
bending strength was noted .

64. The mortars made wit h 600 kg of cement per cubic meter of sand
gave the best results. Although the samples of batches 13, 33, and 103
(cements I, III, and X) appeared to be in good condition, they had
practically no strength, since the mortar had been affected . Samples 23,
whose edges were affected, showed a reduced strength . Samp l es 43, which
appeared to be intact, wer e affected , it is true, but they were st i ll
fairly strong. Samples 83 al so appeared to be in good condition, but
f racture surfaces showed deterioration, although the samples stil l showed
some strength. The samples of batches 53, 63 , 73, and 93 were intact
and showed great strength. The decrease in compressive strength as
compared with sample s stored in tap water was apparently attributable
to a slight difference in shape , while the decrease in bending strength
was attributable to the formation of hard cr usts on the surfaces - a
phenomenon which had a lready been noted by H. Ie Chatelier(2S).

A- 28
 BllN!lr!(; TBSTS , PUS'i"IC >O\TAA

.
-. Aftu Imner:!.iaD Af hJ' I .-erdon
Strt' Dg t h 1.,,"'-='
>."'1;«0,,2_ _ _ _ __
Aft ~ r ! mef"!iol'1
""or- tar 47 Marlar Mor tar
~~~ ~ ~ ~
3 .... 0 )0,,1 28,4 28,1 l~ l
1l 32:, 0 U,O 4,18 a 0 1.:: .s Ll,~
.54 , 9
S5 . 5 38.1
n, 8
0
.5 1,9
a
74 8 n ,z 8 0. 1 81 .. 5
] ., 0 39. 9 42 .. Z "43 40 . 7
lJ 80. 0 67,0 7! • .5 7-4 , 8 n. 8
58,S S9 ... ~ bO, ) 02.. 9 tlt!.9 72.8 10.3 lB. 1 89.3 91.4)
34, 0 J~. 9 ll.~ :32 • .!! S~ .7 51.0 ~],) 61.. 0 !I.e
II 21 36, 7 2.1,5 10,9 0 0 11 , 0 71,5 72.9 85 , 1 n,9
.52,5 5 7.0 62 .... l2. 4 17. 9 17.0 23 71 .S 8 4. 0 92. 3 9 3.8 7Q.5
36, 3 38,2 ·11 , 2 4.5,6 46,3 ~] . 2 .54,6 62 . 6 6-4 . 6 70,3 10. 6 75.1 80. 5 90 , 1 Q2, J
37, 6 ..... 7 39 , 8 22, 9 .B ,2 52, 2 59 ,2 ~7 .0
III 31 30 ,2 28, 4 20,2 32.,B ~O , 7 :)3,8 70 .e; 80.3 83, 1 66.7 0
3, 47, 6 53 . 4 4.5,0 46. 0 40. 7 52 . 6
:37, 1 :.17,0 47 , 2 46. 4 Sl, ~
6 6,. 77 .4 atl. l 8 1.6 1.03,0
40, 2 50 , 6 j5. 6 0.2,. ' 6 4.0 67,0 t 2. J 71 ,9 72.9 78. 9
42,2 -43,5 49.6 .5 4. 0 u .a 6-.2..4 6 fl.,,5 71 ,5 7 6.] 3 6,4 80.A 130.0 39.Q 89 , 6 82 , 3
PI 41 30 ,4 3:5 . 4 5, 17 0 0 0 54.4 5 7,9 4~,S 39. 5 2e.7 .U.O 43 73, 3 78 , 2 8l, 4 98, 8 l OO, S
36, 1 39.5 4.5.1 41,2: 46.Z 5 .... 9 .H, ) 61, 9 69, 0 70, 3 tlf.l 09 . " 74 , 3 83 ,1 -85 , (;1
53, 7 5 3,0 5~.5 64, 1 06. 3 67, 3 711.4 80 , 9 77.0 70 . 11 8 1,1 QO,S tOS ,7 91 , .5
!i 1 34.7 4 ~ • .5 50" 61 , 4 bJ, l 79,0 ':P. 56,6 7 6, 9 68 , 3 78 _3 89, 4 9 1,1 80. 0 84. 5 9 .... 0 109.2 10 8, 8
37 , 7 42.. 8 ~9 . 3 st, l 03.2 62. 4 M. l b9, O 70 , 7 84.0 72 . ~ 68.1 79 ,4 82. 8 88 , 5
II1II1,.5 -45 , 4 51 ,1 60.2 .5 Q,4 67 ,2 74. 3 17.0 .57.3
vI 01 73,9 82.. 1) 93. 3 100, 1 75 , 0
29,0 43, 3 49,, 1 54.9 ~1.a 61,3 46 , 3 o!!IO. 2 .5Q. 3 71.2 7 4. 2 90.5 03 75 . 2 79 , 3 QO,2 9.5 . 0 1.06, 0
34, 0 3e, 1 ",5 " .5,'1 .5,5 5t. O 52.9 .58.6 5 8.6 70 . 0 M.4 D7.3 68 ,S 7], 7 79 ,S
52 , S 06. 1 7(~. O 79. 7 0 77. 6 86,a Q4.9 t o-4 . 9 79,8
vrr 71
88, 0 102. 6 121,0 1I 2.7 107, 1
44 , 4 6 1,1 65,.5 73 , S 18. 7 85.8 72 68.4 80. ] a2,6 9a. S 102 . 0 10 7 ,5 73 90 .2 96, 4 118. 0 116.8 127 , 3
5a.s 60 ..9 64. 7 70.0 73.l 7 6.5 ~1. B 84,9 ", ,0 '2,1 86 . 0 1U!i.8 9 2 . 4 97.!Ii 104 ,1
38.9 45.9 50 , 6 ~H .e: 39.1 4-8 .. 0 46,6 5 8 .1 .58 .5 .5 6 . 3
VIII 65 .1 07. 9 69 . 6 67. 0 .5 6. 0
81 ... a,8 41 . 3 ..a, O 46 . 8 5 6, 0 50,4 69 .5 56 . 7 59,S 62 . 2 13 .3 70. 5 8 1. 0 67 . 8 M. a 76.2 87. 8 8 4.5
39. 3 38 . S 41 .6 52. 9 45 . 6 .:55 .0 58 .. 2 6 4.1 71.8 08 . 0 67 . 4 74.3 7!1i .8 89, 2. 93 , 0

IX 01 J t-. 7
53 . 4
5 1,6
61. 1
5 1 ,6
69 , :2
!5 7 . 5
74, 5
6 3 ,6
0
7 2. a 46 . 8
69. 0
6.5 . 8
7-4 . J
68 .4
aJ . 9
75 . 7
!9 .0
82 . 6
84 . 1
84. 0 93
'e8.
ro."7 7S .t!
8~ .J
8S, 7 103,7 106 .. 8
QQ,7 108 ,2 105,0
43 . 0 <14 .4 46 .1 !i5.a 70,0 6 1, S '5 . 6 01 . 8 71. 2 7< .0 75 . 9 72 .B 7.5 .5 60 .5 93. 0
4J. 3 49 .. 6 .5 3.l 47.7 0 fI.t . 9 70 . 0 &1.5 7 8 .4 0 68. 0 78,S 92.9 95 .3 0
10 1 25 .3 39.3 47 .5 58.2 "8 . 7 72., 8 102 -12 • .'i 58 , 8 64. 9 79 . 6 8.2. . 9 l Ol, O 10 3 48 • .0 70 , 0 71 .. 4 8.5' . 2 B~ , 6 107 . 's
34, 6 3 9.7 5 1. 1 49. 1 65 . ] 50 . 7 .54.2 62.5 7'3 .4 78.5 59.0 6 1. 1 7 ...... 7-8 .1 86.0
Noh: I.ept in: 1 . Sea W.ter ; 2 • S"UUt S(),J.ui'ion ; :) • flUMl Water

TABUi A-6
CXlI\IFUSSIOII TlISTS, Pl.<ST IC )o'TAA

J
300 9 Ce.J1nt per J sand 450 KS c men.t pe r III pnd
2
Strength i n ks/e.

After h nl!rdon Af te r IDIIler8ion Aft'!'!:' I...erdo Jl

Nor taL' 11 23 47 11 Mortar 11 23 47 11 Mortu 11 23 47 U

~ Initia l !!2.!t. ~ ~ ~ i:!& ~ !ill!!! ~ ~ .!£!a. ~ I!b No. !!!!!!!l ~ ~ !2!& ~ l.!.!a.

11 20 3. S
I ••
164
186 184
43 . 7 0
120
0 a 3.2
399
345
427
,604
307
a
29 1
0 13 52 7
,'0
590
51 .
49Q
62J
597
54.
421 412
U~ 246 265 263 299 .... 0 479 5 42 5S2 57 • .?J 593 72. 73 3 7J 3
179 19 1 186 116 0 435 4]~ 4ZJ 3M 11 7 5 35 HI 62.6 $"'0 .05
II 21 200 199 1]9 0 o 0 J 7~ 434 408 371 27] 2 74 23 522 52 4 600 b.5 0 S'2Q 661
199 2047 27J Z70 286 430 454 S2.S !i4J 570 552 6.S2 t65 7 40 1<5
172 184 160 130 0 ~7J 287 301 2.47 0 <6, 4,sJ <402. 345 o
III 31 160 167 U 2. 2.20 12.6 22.1 314 3J~ 301 377 3 79 352 33 457 501 soa 619 ~9 ' 602
lOa 202 227 227 256 3.5~ 3S0 411 410 4] S ' 35 S 25 601 605 . 30
t89 U 7 208 2.0 .5 ~~ 437 416 403 3 60 S ~8 5ZZ '5 3 517 454
1. 3 19 4 107 a o ·, 2 361 40S 367 407 272 438 43 48] :562 576 643 t>-'H 002
19 6 l Q'J 244 245 H7 404 424 4:5 3 4j6 52$ 52 . 56 1 ~]b 6S 1 728

1 228 179 2H 119 420 3l1li4 388 380 "68 5>2 ~9 Q 514 5 46 591
2 51 1<>0 202 192 2 41 2 41 ;a.,4 3 bO .en 338 38.3 445 41B 467 52 1 46 3 616 604 600
3 165 19 1 22. 2.)0 247 )8 ) .5 2.0 491 ~9 .5 17 '69 SlJ 603 609 oSs

148 155 19 1 192 0 298 307 330 360 280 ,M 410 489 5{)3 .31
VI I16 116 195 224 240 270 2.56 300 314 437 437 423 03 38" 489 ~5 4 556 579 5 62
1&i() 174 220 2.22 2n 3 14 JS7 41) 427 498 " 1 570 588 58 1 622

23. 2.3 284 322 0 496 48 1 4QS .98 3--1 .. 010 410 489 503 433
VII 7~ 135 2.73 306 40 4 ,0(0 $46 ~11 508 675 .71 071 5 67 700 ". 556 579 5 6<.
246 30~ ')92. 43 7 502. 45 8 540 607 ~9 5 7 10 OOS 570 5!8 5"1 622.

3 •• 389 310 539 ''0 ,s zo 5 86 •• 1 747 77. 750 7S6 82~

VIII 01 353 3l. 409 . 24 lst (\08 72.4 696 58!! 8J 600 742 6~3 90" 89 3 .50
371 ....$2 )68 '79 683 7 12 711 006 78 7 71' 921 911 •• 8

230 263 262 319 a 4U 425 427 469 413 51' 512 52. 57 .23
179 no '1. 47
us
252
m
Z.50 :J 30 JSZ 4 II •• 7 509 538 ~3 , 26 53.
so.
5.'
,4>
68] .'5 663
Z3 ! 2.2.! 1M 419 367 493 508 <20 ""I .2.3 144

143 1M 175 159 0 <77- 340 31' 337 0 ]44 HO 410

101 ~16 1<4 1 78 206 171 22.5 102 30 7 JOt 3 73 312 424 103 383 40. 4~
15 7 183 191 2.03 25~. 7 304 l73 393 ]90 "'(,7 390 3.1 43.

~lot~: l.ep t in: 1 • Sea Wa t e r; 2 • SuUatc .!o l utioDj J .. Pl'esh w.. te.c

A-29
 TABLB A-7
Compression Tests on Concrete Cubes

Strength in kg/co em
Initial
(different After Being Immersed Por
Kept ages) 5 11 23 47 11
Cement !!!..- kg/cm2 Months Months Months Months Years

I 1 493 519 516 473 287

2 467 538 535 563 534 535
3 535 532 571 611 536

1 503 505 517 491 339

II 2 470 547 527 541 622 585
3 540 523 581 674 605

1 368 420 402 430 298

III 2 358 422 428 432 462 478
3 425 430 470 515 478

1 443 472 45 3 538 524

IV 2 396 474 488 468 538 476
3 482 468 534 590 587

1 400 466 462 531 588

V 2 334 435 445 449 511 539
3 423 432 466 508 557

1 360 428 43 3 499 548

VI 2 286 35 4 388 432 463 513
3 382 410 460 493 517

1 568 594 614 71 6 812

VII 2 402 550 594 613 666 612
3 5 62 579 642 621 639

1 609 659 622 769 702

VIII 2 551 608 623 611 659 291
3 580 599 622 671 316

1. 441 491 527 580 580

IX 2 341 427 459 487 561 418
3 442 459 505 533 469

Notes: 1 .: Fresh water (Tr . note: this is probably a typographical

error in orig inal, since in all other tables no. 1
has been " sea water".)
2 =
Sulphate solution
3 = fresh water

A- 30
 65. The concrete cubes were generally intact, except in the
case of cements I , II, and III, which were somewhat affected on t he
surfaces not protected by the box. The lo sses of weight were 3.65 per -
cent for cement I, 2.70 percent for cemen t II, and 2. 90 percent fo r
cement III.

66. Some of the re inforced concrete cylinders showed deterioration.

especially at the surf ace of the cylinder, and most of all in the case s
of cements I, II , and II I, which were affected to a depth of 5 to 8 mIn.
The damage was greatest at the outer side s of the boxe s - i.e •• where the
samples were most exposed to wave acti on. The grave l wa s exposed and the
mortar crumbled. However , t here were no fracture s and not one of t he
reinf or c ing r ods was exposed, e ven in the Cases where the concrete pro-
tection was only 1 cm thick .

67 . In the case of cement IV the surface became somewhat crumbly

to a depth of 1 to 2 rom. In the case of cement VI there was some slight
scouring away of the cement, exposing the gravel. The cylinder surfaces
of VII and IX became somewhat r ough; those of V and VIII remained smooth.
The surfaces became hard in all these cases. There was a great deal of
growth on the cylinders except in the cases or VII , VII I , and IX ,
which were the least covered with barnacles , etc . Th i s growth was
worst in the Cases of I. II, and III. It waS somewhat less in the Cases
of IV, V ~ and VI . The outer ends of the reinforcing rods were pr actically
rusted away _ This severe rusting was noted on 1938. However, the rust i ng
away of the metal ceased at the surf ce of the concrete and the metal
in the interior of the cylinders was not affected. The mortar showed
deterioration when observed in 1938, but much less so than in 1945 .
The concrete cubes showed no deformation and the compress ive strength
only gave reaSon to suspect incipient deteriorat i on in the cases of con-
cretes I, II, and III, and still less in the Cases of IV. The reinforced
concrete cylinders showed no deterioration . The extra period of 7 years
confirmed w at had been indicated by the observations of 1938, as published
in 1945. The reinforced concrete samples which had remained permanently
immersed in sea water, and those which were exposed t o the sea air .
were uninjured.

68. The mortar samples which were kept in tap water were intact .
Those which were kept in sulfate solution - at least those made of
cements I, II, III , and IV - had deteriorated, in that order. But they
differed in appearance from those which had been attacked by sea water .
There was deformation due to swelling and finally cracking. The other
mortar samples were intact, as were the concrete cubes and the concrete
cylinders, with the exception of the cubes of batch 10, made with cement
II, in which fine dune sand was substituted for the 2S percent Rhine River
sand . Those concrete samples were badly affected by the s ulfate solution ,
which can only be ascribed to th substitution of the fine sand for the
coarse-grained Rhine sand. The reStlts with this series are given Ii.
table A-8 . A comparison of the effects of immer sion in sea water and in
quiet fresh water is giVEn in table A-9.

A-3 1
 TABLE A-8

COMPARISON OF EFFECTS OP IMMERSION IN FRESH WATER AND SULFATE SOLtrrIONS

Strength in kg per sq. em.

- Periods
5 11 23 47 11
Immersion in Months Months Months Months ~

Presh water 433 455 471 532 312

Sulfate solution 404 443 363 217 250
Note: Strength after 28 days 350 kg per sq. em.

TABLE A-9

COMPARISON OF EFFECTS OF IMMERSION IN SEA WATER AND QUIET FRESH WATER

Ratio of the Strengths After 11 Year s

Cement Cement
per eu m I II III
- IV V
Mortar Bending Tests
....Y.!.... ...lli... VIII --
IX X

300 0 0 0 0.33 0 0 0 0.896 0 0

450 0 0.08 0 0.52 0.92 0.82 0.87 0.83 1.14 0
600 0 0. 4 0 0.96 1.03 0.95 1.03 0.60 1.15 0

Mortar Compression Tests

300 0 0 0 0.385 0 0 0 0.843 0 0

450 0 0 .21 0 0. 69 0 . 91 0.56 0. 49 1. 09 0 . 79 0
600 0 0. 55 0 0.63 0.87 0.70 0. 82 0. 88 0. 84 0

Concrete Comp~ession Tests

350 0.54 0. 56 0. 63 0. 90 1.06 1.06 1. 27 2. 22 1. 24

A-32
 69. Discussion of results . It was very diffic ult to base any
positive conclusions upon the reSJ1ts of the 1938 te sts. However, af ter
the 1945 observations it was possible to form more definite conclusions.
because of the better results and more obvious ef f ect s upon the various
samples.

70. Comparison of results when the samples were immersed in sea

water and in the sulfate solution showed :

a. That the cements Which rapidly disintegrated i n the sulfate

solution (I , II, and IV) did so much less rapidly in sea water , and IV
was the only cement except VII I (fused cement) which sh owed any great
strength aftpr 11 years.

b. That the cements which were insensitive to the effects of

the sulfate solution had disintegrated after 11 years in sea water. Only
cement VIII was an exception, but one which confirms the rule to the
extent that the strengths of the samples were noticeably less than that
of the corresponding samples in the sulfat e solut i on.

71. The i nfluence of the sulfates is thus by no me ans the only one ,
nor is it even predominant. The results mentioned above under a and b
may be chiefly explained by t he meChanical effect of bre aker s, currents,
accretion, animal organiSAs, and weather ; e specially exposure to f ros t or
the heat of the sun. The mortars with 450 kg of cemen t, wh i ch are le ss
porous, and those with 600 kg, which are stil l le ss so, confirm the above
observations. With the exception of mort ar 12 ( 450 kg of cement I),
and ignoring a small number of abnormal var iations in the case of the
mortar s with 450 kg of cement, i t waS generally noted that the disinte gr a-
tion was more rapid and pronounced in se a wat er than in the motionless
su lfate solution. Thi s is true of the ceme nts wh ich are known to be
sensitive to the effects of sulfates, as we ll as of the other s. The
mixture with 450 kg of cement , which cannot be regarded as especial ly
rich, and still more that with 600 kg of cement , which is of a proper
density , are known to resist satisfactor i ly the ac t ion of a strong
sulphuric-acid solution, and in many case s to show some s trength after
11 years (for example, mortar s 32, 42 and 33) . Yet almost all the se
mortars were more or less damaged by sea water. Those most aff ected by
su l phuric acid (I. III, X, as well as II and to a lesser extent IV )
were completely destroyed or badly disintegrated. The influence of the
f actors "injury by sea water" and "chemical a ttack by me ans of magnesium
sulphate." as well as of the combined effec t of the two, is thus c1ar if ied.

72. The behavior of the concrete (table A-7) confirms t hese con-
cl usions. The density of th i s well-made concrete was suf fiC ient, regard-
less of t he cement used, to make all samples almo st inse nsit ive to the
action of the concentr ated magnesium-sulf ate s olution. The abnormal be-
havior of cement VIII after 11 years, which was also noted in the case
of the corresponding samples kept in fre sh water, may be attributable
to a well-known phenomenon called "fused- cement siCkness." On the other

A- 33
hand, in the cases of the cements most sensitive to the effects of
sulfate s (I , II and I I I , and to a lesser extent IV), sea water Caused
damage and more or less loss of weight . The combined effects of acids
and of sea water are thus clarified , as they are by the effect upon
the reinforced-concrete cylinder s placed at half-tide level. The proof
is furnished.

a. By the excellent behavior of the concrete cubes and con-

crete cylinders placed at half-tide level , which were made of cement
(V to IX) which of f ered the most resistance to the action of sulfates.
All the cubes Sh010red more strength than those which had been kept in
f r e sh water . The dete riorat i on in the case of the fused cement was
hardly not i ceable, especial ly after a slight weathering of the surfaces
of the samples.

b. By the absence of damage to the cylinders Wh i ch remained

constantly below low-t ide level and to those which wer e exposed to the
sea air . (The cylinders under water were naturally a lso exposed to the
effects of currents , the growth of barnacles , etc . )

In the introduct i on t o his above-ment i oned work , H. Ie

Chate l ier assumes that:

a. All hydraulic cement s which are brought into close contact

with sea water are , af ter a shorter or longer period of time, completely
disinte grated by the chemical action of magnesium salts.

b. The denser the mortar , the slower the disintegration.

c. The deter i oration is slowest when the hydraulicity is

greatest, util i zing the silicon and aluminum combined with the lime ,
either during the burning, or, in case pozzolan is added, during the
setting.

73. These te sts confirm po int a. due t o t he results obtained with

mortar sample s, in whi ch the cement could be regarded as in more or less
close contact with the sea water, but comparison with the corresponding
samples placed in dilute sulfuric acid shows that in sea water the chemical
action of magnesium salts is neither the only action, nor even the
preponderant action . It acts in combination with other influences, such
as t ides, currents, deposited materials, barnacles, etc ., and heat and
cold.

74. These tests also confirm points b and c except in the case of
admixtures of trass , which did not give very good results in sea water,
either in mortar or in concrete. The author did not wish any conclusions
concerning other pozzolans to be drawn from this, since they were not
used in his test s.

A-34
 75. If we consider ( see tables A-4 and A-5) the condition of
m~rtars 31, 32, 33, 101, 102 and 103 which contained tr as" at different
periods of time, it is apparent that , without exception, they were all
ruined by sea water . On the other hand their behavior in the sulfate
solution varied. In most cases their strength decreased during the first
4 years, but was remarkably restored at the end of the 1l-year period.
This shows the slowness of the chemical action in the case of certain
pozzo1ans, as well as of trass. In connection with corrosion phenomena
and the setting of mortar, we have often observed a conflict between
the opposing factors; the hardening with the passage of time on the one
hand, and the injurious chemical ' effects on the other . One of the two
overcomes the other. In the case of tras$, the chemical action is ex-
tremely slow, and it therefore affects th~ deterioration of the cement
very little at first. Moreover , trass delays the setting considerably .
This explains the unfortunate results in the sea-water t ests, where
continuous hardening is necessary, not only to resist chemical action but
also t o resist the other attack s to which the material is subjected in
the sea. In water cont a ining sulfuric acid, where the samples only had
to resist a more concentrated chemical action, the influence of the trass
overcame that of the chemical , but very slowly , so that the process re-
quired 11 years.

76. The unusually pessimistic attitude of H. Ie Chatelier, however

we ll justified from a purely chemical standpoint, should be modified
by these test result s. According to the test s:

a. The group of cements consisting of I and II, even when used

with trass (III), offer slight resistance to the deleterious effec ts of
sea water , not only in the case of the mortar s but also in the Case of
dense concrete containing 350 kg of cement per cubic meter of sand.
These are the cements with a high CaD 'content (more than 60 percent) .
We have already mentioned that trass cannot resi st the action of sea
water .

b. Cement IV, which is of another type, also contains too much

CaD (More than 50 percent). In mortar it gives fair results, but when
used in concrete the result s are dubious.

c. Cement s V to IX, with less than 50 percent CaD (most of

them have l ess than 45 percent and some less than 40 percent ) show the
most resistance in the case of mortars. They may be called good in the
case of fairly dense mortar s and very good in the case of dense concretes.
It is ver y easy and desirable to set up a maximum l imit for the CaO con-
tent instead of a minimum hydraulicity:

77. Group 3 consists of cements of various types , no. VIII being

entirely different from the other four . It is a cement wh ich hardens

A-35
quickly , and there is a great deal of setting heat. Its state after the
11 years was uncer tain and undependable, as shown in tables 4 to 10 .
These results agree with observations in practical cases(ll).

78. The remaining cemer.ts of the group are granulated blast-

furnace ( slag) cements. One of the se (VII) contains very little 'clinker"
and the least cao. These cements show marked peculiarities - a slow
but cont inuous hardeni ng which results in a high final strength, and a
slight setting heat. Together with the 10wCaO content ( to which they
are due ), these properties make s uch cements especially suitable for l arge
hydraulic structures (dams) as we ll a s for structur es exposed to the
action of sea water. The good r esist ance of cements containing a great
deal of slag and very little clinker to the action of sea water is due
to the f act that granulated slag acts as a slow cement and a very active
pozzo lan. The chemical effects upon the slag are comparatively slow,
and t he hardening spe ed is sufficient to win the race with these effe c ts,
especial ly if the hardening i s cont i nuous.

79. Moreover, the test results prove the correctness of the present
s pec if ications for concrete structures in salt water :

a. The necessity for a rich mixture and prope r grading re sult -

ing in a dense , waterproof concrete.

In the case of mortar it seems wise to use not less than 600 kg
ot cement per cubic meter of coarse , well-graine d sand. Fine sand shou l d
Dot be used at all. Por concrete , 400 to 450 kg of cement per cubic
meter of sand is usually used. As a result of the tests we may say that
350 kg is sufficient i n a dense concrete . This refers to a laboratory
concre te , it is true. However , this is. a rather ~nfavorabl e circumstance
because of the small dime nsions of the samples and the number of side
surfaces and edge~.

b. The necessity for careful placing in the structure, so that

a proper density and imperviousness to water may result. The surface
should also be carefully finished, making them dense and waterproof . The
use of steel forms and the vibr ation of these forms i s certai nly to be
recommended.

c. I n the case of concrete struc tures in salt water, a careful

checking of the concrete and inspection during construction is very necessary.
Beside s the proper storing of t he materials u sed in the concrete, the lr
quality should be checked in the usual ways. The "Br i dges and Highways
Administration of Belgium" has for some years checked the density of con-
cer et used in hydraul i c struc tures by determining the quantity of warm
wat er absorbed unde r pressur e . This test shou l d certainly be used in con-
nect ion wi th maritime structure s.

A-36
 APPENDIX B

SERV ICE RECORDS

1. Wentworth-Sheilds(43) described the first mar i time reinforced

concrete structure in Great Britain, constructed a t Southampton in 1899 ,
and noted that very few failures have occurred , " generally due to
chemical action of sea water, especially on ' unsound' cement containing
uncombined lime". The 1899 structure was a je tty consisting of a 100 x
40- foot deck on piles. In 1902 Town Quay was built at Southampton -
a reinforced concrete structure 360 x 20 feet and 34 feet high. A few
years later longitudinal cracks appeared above the mean tide level along
lines of reinforcement caused by rusting of stee l. Repairs were made
with pneumatically applied mortar as described by Pannell . The rusting
of the steel has been ascribed to the permeability of the concrete, but
in the case of Town Quay electrolytic action was, if not the sole cause ,
a very important contributory cause. The 1899 structure which is stil l
in excellent condition was made with dry , low water-cement ratio concrete,
1he 1902 one with a "rather wet" mixture .

2. Service records of specific structures are briefly referenced

in geographic sequence in the following paragraphs.

~TH ATLANTIC COAST

3. Hampton Beach, N. H. Reinforced concrete seawall , built in

1934 . Occasional spalling; condition general ly good in 195 2.

Lynn. Mass. Curved-face. reinforced concrete gravity wall

4.
built in 1904; repaired extensively in 1933 . In 1945 345 feet recon-
structed, inspected 1952 and found badly worn, cr acked, spalled and
with damaged toe walls.

5. Revere, Mass. Gravity wall at Northern Circule built in 1904 ,

repaired in 1923 and 1928. Reported in reasonably good condition in
1949 , but repairs needed. Coping broken, construction joints spalled
and steel exposed. Steel sheet pi le wa l l at Roughan's Point . built 1936,
encased in 6 inches of concrete. Vertical with lip at toP. 1440 feet
long . Inspected 1952, being repaired. Much piling exposed and rusted.

6. Winthrop. Mass. Seawall built in 1927 at Winthrop Head reported

in good condition in 1947, no repairs reported. Massive curve d-face
reinforced concrete wall, over 1425 feet long, built in 1946 . Inspected
in 1949; conc~ete in curve had eroded to expose reinforcing steel but
otherwise in good condition.

7. GreenHill to Gunrock, Mass . Reinforced concrete seawall built

in 1908. Inspected 1952; poor condition, spalling, abraded by pounding
by rocks.

8- 1
 8. Cape May, N. 1. The ATLANTUS, the first concrete ship con-
structed under government supervision, ~as launched in 1918. It was
inspected at various times between 1918 and 1930. A report(32) of i ts
trial run in 1919 from Brunswick, Ga . to Charleston, S.C. , state s that
the concrete was "in a practically perfect state of preservation with
no important rust stains visible although there could be traced in
in certain places on the hull the faint markings of hairline cracks
which paralleled the system of reinforcing closest to the outer surface. "
°In 1927 it was stranded on a sand bar at Cape May . L. W. Walter in
1929(40) published a photograph of a specimen of concrete taken from
the ship in 1928 showing the imprint of a square bar 13/16 inch and a
round bar 5/16 inch from the outer exposed surface of the concrete and
stating that the steel was not corroded. On examination in 1928 it
was reported that a very pronounced rust stain had developed in the
bulkhead enclosing the afterquarters and in one spot the bars parallel
to the deck were clearly outlined over a space of 2 or 3 feet each way.
A close inspection of this area showed that the coverage of concrete
was almost nil. In some places the intended depth of coverage was 1/4
i nch , in some cases the actual coverage was less than 1/16 inch. A
disc of concrete 3 inches in diameter and 0.7 inch th i ck cut from
a fragment collec ted in 1928 was tested in the laboratory and found to
have very low water permeability ( 20 ) .

9. fort Monroe, Va., A concrete seawall 9,000 fee t long fr onting

Chesapeake Bay was built in 1934. It was in good condition when in-
spected in 1952.

SOlID{ ATIANTIC AND GULF roAST

10. Bermuda. In 1945 the Central Concrete Laboratory, now the

Concrete Division, Waterway s Experiment Station, investigated deteriora-
t ion of concrete in the Base Hospital , fort Bell, Bermuda. Although the
concrete was not exposed to the ocean water s, data thereon are presented
as an indication of the elfects of humid ocean air on concrete under
certain condit i ons . The date of construction is not known; however . the
building was probably only 3 or 4 years old when the investigation was
made . The concrete was constructed of coral fine and coarse aggregates
that had been thoroughly permeated by sea-salts, type I portland cement ,
and sea water . The reinforcing steel, corroded in varying degrees before
placement, was supported in the floor installations on galvanized iron
chairs, the legs of which rested on the form. Numerous co l umns contained
galvanized iron conduit for the electric wiring of the building. Sever e
progressive corrosion of the steel and of the galvanized inclusions
Caused expansion of these member s which in turn resulted in cracking
of the concrete cover. The corrosion of the steel i n the f loors and
beams Caused plane s of weakness to develop with the result that large
ar eas of concrete cover separated from the steel. The primary stress
was one of expansion of the metal inclusions and not shrinkage of the
concrete.

B- 2
 11 . The corrosion produc t was deliquescent and at tracted moisture
from the humid atmosphere in the building through the porous concrete
and, ultimately, through open cracks to cause the corrosion to be con-
tinuously progressive . Visual evidence of deterioration wa s most notable
in the basement of t he building, where the atmosphere is particularly
humid . The deliquescence of the corrosion produc t is e stablished by the
existence of brown-colored stalactites on the under s ide s of the f loor s and
beams in numerous places in the building - most notably i n the basement.
This deliquescence was also shown by chemical and microscope analy sis,
and physical tests made on samp l es brought to the laboratory , which
demonstrated the presence of de l iquescen t salt s (ca lc i um , sodium, and
magnesium chlor i de and ferrous chloride ) in all of the corrosion product s
tested. Particular importance is attached to the pr e sence of a relative ly
large amount of fer r ous chlor i de, because it i s a highly deliquescent salt
and would parti c ularly account for the marked localizati on of deliquescence
in the region of the steel .

12. The mechani sm by which ferrou s chloride (FeCI ) was formed by

reac tion between materials in the concrere and the steet to a very marked
ext ent in some areas and to a relatively negligible extent in other
adjacent areas is a f unction of variable e lectrolyt ic act i on caused by
variable galvanic and concentration ce ll ac t ion due to dissimilar concen-
tration of sea-sal t , moisture , oxygen, and dissimilar metals ( zinc in
contact with iron, minor variations in the composi t ion of tile stee l, etc .)
The arying degree of r ust f ormation and consequent destruc t ive expansion
is similarly a function of varying permutat i ons of conditions conducive
to corrosion such as porosity (aggravated later by open cr acks ), original
rust, moisture, oxygen, and chloride .

13. A zoning effec t in which the deep ly corroded area is bordered

by a completely noncorroded area typifies electrolyti c action. This
condition was quite noticeable in the reinforcing steel in the columns,
beams and flo or s.

14. The reactivity of the sea- salts with metal is demonst rated
further by the corrosion and ty pical electrolytic act i on when the sea-salts
present in the damp coral sand, and the oxygen in the a ir trapped in the
c an react with the me t a l sides of the container.

15. In summary, t he deterioration of the concrete is believed to

have occurred, as follows : Oxidation of the stee l commenced s imultaneously
with hardening of the concrete under favorable condi tions for e lectrolysi s
(sea-salts in solution being a good electrolyte ) and wit h ample oxygen
made available through the porous concrete . As the "water-of -convenience"
portion of the mixing water evaporated from the concrete , leaving it
essentially dr y, the formation of ferrous chloride in the reaction between
the sea-salt and the iron maintained adequate moisture , t hrough deliquesence,
to continue corrosion at a rapid rate . As expansion o f the steel opened
cracks in the concrete, moisture (through deliquescence) , and oxygen from
the air became more readily avai lable. Because of the presence of di s-
similar metals in galvanized chairs and condu i t s, e lectrolytic action and

B-3
subsequent corrosion was more rapid than in the case of the reinforcing
stee l in the environment of the chloride ion.

16. In view of the fact that presence of the chloride ion is felt
to be the ma jor cause of the deterioration, it i s believed that the
concrete in the Base Ho spit al would not have cracked and spalled had
salt-free aggregate and fresh water been used in the concrete. Further ,
the use of galvanized iron chairs in contact with the forms and in
contac t with steel was conducive to galvanic action and corrosion, and
contributed material ly to the deterior at ion. Finally , the abnormally
high porosity ( 18 . 8 percent) of the concrete permit t ed ready passage
of air (oxygen) and moisture (att racted by deliquescence) to cause the
corrosion . Had t he concrete been normally dense , corrosion e ven in the
presence of the Chloride ion would not have been serious. Galvanized
me t al is resistant to corrosion through sulfate action, but i s Dot
resistant to corrosion accompanying chloride ac tion.

17. It was doubted that remedial action in the hospital was

pract ical. Corrosion was expected to continue through constant re - supply
of the f errous chlor ide which attr acts moisture, and oxygen . Cutting
out all de t er i orated concrete above and below the stee l to remove the source
of the chloride ion and thorough cleaning of the steel ( to remove all
ferrous chloride ) wa s no t bel i eved to be e conomical or practicable. Lesser
measures of rehabi lit ation and maint enance would provide only temporary
aid.

18. The followi ng recommendati ons were made as a resul t of the

inve s tigation:

a. Where re habilitat i on is essential in certain areas it is

important for succe ss th at t he new concrete be f ree of sea water and of
sea- s a lts and that it be as de nse as possible, and that the steel be
freed comp l etely of rust containing ferrous chloride .

b. In f uture construction where aggre gate cont aining se a-salts

and se a water mu st be use d, the concrete should be especially dense ; the
s t eel shou ld be embedded at least 3 i nches and no metal connections per-
mitted from the surface to the s tool. Galvanized f itt ings and conduits
should not be used.

19. Jacksonville, Fla. Seawa ll built between 1915 and 1917 along
St. J ohn s River, 5700 fe e t long, 2 f eet thick and 8 feet high, founded
on stee l sheet pil ing with bottom of concrete 3 fee t below mean low
wate r . In spec t ed 1929 : was then in good condition.

20. Nept une Beach, Fl a. Precast . reinforced-concr ete sheet pile

wall 7 inche s t hic k, 27 i nc he s wide, 14 feet l ong, wi th a lO-inch by
20-inch concrete cap built in 1936. Inspected 1952: in good condi tion,
exce pt for sec tions dest royed by severe storms which caused topping and
washing out of baCkfi ll and fail ure of wall and supports.

8-4
 21. Key West, PIa . Revetment prote cting Roosevelt Boulevard,
built in 1951 by Florida State Road Depar tment to replace part of a sea-
wal l that was on a -l-to-l slope. The reve tment i s unreinforced and on
a 4-to- l slope . Portland Cement Association report 340 covers an
inspection by R. L. Harr is of the Beach Erosi,on Board of the seaWall in
1952. The wall was in generally good condition , but local ly some cracks
had formed and some spalling had developed at the top . The Flor ida East
Coast Railway Docks, constructed in 1910 ~er e inspect ed by F. R. McM illan
in 1929 (PCA report 346) and by R. L. Harr is in 195 2. The doc ks were
in good condition. Poul Nerenst reporti ng on h i s trip to the United
States, showed a photograph of Bahia-Honda bridge rai ling in whi ch cr acking
had deve loped .

22 . Fort Myers, PIa. Seawall constructed in 1923 or 1924 of precast

concrete sheet piling made with Belgian cement, sand, and no Coarse
aggregate. Inspected 1929; showed 'no indication of disintegration.

23. Long Key, Fla. East revetment wall along nort h approach to
Long Key Viaduct, constructed in 1915-1916, about 1/8 mi le long, abo ut
2 f eet thick at the top, and ranged in height from 2 f eet above the
water at the north end to 5 to 6 feet at the south end . Inspected 1929;
the concrete was judged to be of excellent quality with no tendency to
dust or ravel .

24. St, PeterSburg. Fla. Concrete municipal pi er cDnstructed in

1926 and various nearby seawalls built about 1915 . Inspec ted 1929. The
concrete in the pier appeared to be in excellent condit ion but showed a
number of cracks in the underside along r e inforc ing rods. It waS concluded
that the initial cover of 1-1/2 to 2 inche s was inadequate for this
exposure and mixture . The seawalls showed concre te in good condition
although some cracking of the walls had occurred owing to se ttlement.

25& Mississippi(15 ) . About 1 mile of concrete seawall was bui lt at

Bay St . Louis, Hancock County between 1915 and 1920. Between 1925 and 1929,
39 .5 mi l es of seawall were built in Jackson, Harrison and Hancock CoUntie s.
Minor surface spalling was probably the only deterioration due to physical
or chemical attack . Cracking due to loss of fil l and settlement exposed
r einforcement to rusting. Cumulative deteriorat i on and damages to the
Harrison County wall resulting from the 1947 hurricane were repaired in
1950 .

26. Galveston, Texas. The SELMA, a World War I concrete ship

(t anker) now stranded near Galveston, Texas, was inspected and reported
on by Mr. Ralph Rogers(32) at the 1953 Regional Meeting of the American
Concrete Institute. The SELMA was built in Mobile j.n 1918 and sunk at
Galveston about 1923. Samples of the concrete tested in 1953 showed a
compressive strength of about 10,000 psi. No corrosion of steel was
observable even though less than an inch of cover was provided .

8-5
 27. The init i al sec t ion of the concrete seawall(1 4) along the Gulf
of Mexico waS comp l eted in 1904. Other sections were completed in 1905
and 1927. No maintenance due to deterioration of the concrete has been
reported.

PACIP IC OOAST

28. Hadley in 1941 publi shed ( 17) the result s of an extended survey
of the durability of concrete in shore structures along the Pacific Coast
of the United States and Canada. He found no evidence of sulfate attack
from sea water and no evidence of deterioration due to freezing and
thawing since. as he observes. freezing seldom, if eve r . occurs along the
Pac ific Coast of the United States. The most striking and character i stic
forms of deter ioration he found were er osion and abrasion due to mechanical
wear ; the second most common trouble was caused by r usting of reinforcement.

29 . Occasionall y evidence was found indi cating some solvent action .

Hadley l i sted the following as representative older structures showing
no evidence of sulfate attack:
Built
Perry Pier. North Vancouver, B. C.
-
1909
Da llas Road Sea Wall, Victoria , B. C. 1911
Seawall South of Madison Street, Seattle, Wash. 1916
Quay Wall E, Puget Sound Navy Yard, Bremerton,
Wash. 1896
Quay Wall D, Puget Sound Navy Yard. Bremerton,
Wash. 1902
Cy l inder Substructure, Pier 38, San Francisco ,
Cali f. 1909
Precast Pi le Struc t ure , Pier 17, San Francisco,
Calif • 1912
Lig~thouse Base , San Pedro Breakwater , Los
Angele s, Cali f. 1910
Pier s of South Pacif ic Railway Bascule Bridge ,
West Basin, Los Angeles. Calif. 1912
Broadway Pier , San Diego, Calif . 1912

30 . Stanton, also in 1941, described(37) the phenomenon now known

as alkali or cement-aggregate reac tion and listed among the more important
f ailures at tributed to such action sections of seawalls in Ventura and
Santa Barbara Counties, Califcr nia. Wakeman , in 1955 , concluded(40) that ,
except in unusual cases involving lean or porous concrete, Chemical
reactions between concrete and sea water are of only academic interest.

GREAT LAKES

31. As previously noted, concrete exposed on the shores of the

Grea t Lakes is regarded as being subjected principally to physical rather
than chemical attack.Local chemical attack, however, may be expected from
i ndustrial wastes.

8 -6
 32. Milwaukee, Wise. Concrete permeable groins built in 1933
were found in excellent condition in 1955.

PACIFIC ISLAND NAVAL INSTALLATIONS

33 . The U. S. Navy in 1948 reported(39 ) results of inspections

of structures at i ts advance bases in the Pacific. Th i s repor t concluded
that brackish water of low-degree salinity used in concrete mixing had
no apparent adverse effect on the compressive strength of concrete or
on the corrosion of reinforcing steel , and is not a di rect cause of
cr acking and spa11ing of the surface.

34. Naval Air Station, Midway Island. Concre te structure s were

pr obably built during 1941 to 1944. The largest concrete job required
4, 700 cubic yards of reinforced concrete. Water was obtained from a
brackish well (average salinity 57 grains per gallon ). but usually
no water was needed because the aggregate containe d so much. Concrete
strength was held to 3,000 pounds at 21 days; 7 bags of cement normally
were required, but on less important work 6 bag s were used . An in-
spection of existing concrete structures showed t he f ol lowing : (a) .the
present condition of all concrete is good : (b) there is no sign of
deterioration of the surface : (c) there ar e no serious example s of
cracking, crumbling, spa11 i ng of concrete, or expo sure of reinforcing
steel ; (d) the reinforcing steel exposed by digging i nto the concr e te
was found to be in good condition with no signs of r usti ng.

35. Naval Air Station, Wake Island . No extensive concrete con-

struction was employed on Wake . However , two basketball COU1ts and a
few conc r ete quonset decks were buil t , using brackish water. These
items have been inspected and conditions noted a s fol lows: (a) Prese nt
condit ion of concre te is poor ; (b) sur f ace beginning to deteriorate;
(c ) number of large cracks and spalling evidenced : (d) steel reinforcing
exposed by digg i ng found to be slightly rusted; (e) curing conditions:
average temperature 78 degrees F, average rainfal l per month 3. 32 in .,
relative humidity 78 p~cent . A number of other concrete structures
in which fresh water WaS used in ' mixing the concrete are sti ll in good
condition.

36. Naval Operating Base, Saipan. There are several examples of

Japanese concrete construction and such structures as were examined are
in good condition. I t was assumed tha t fresh water was used since
there is a plenti f ul supply.

37 . Naval Air Station, Johnston Island. Existing concrete structures

on Johnston and Sand Islands are as follows: Recreation halls: ( a )
Present condition of concrete is poor; (b) surface i s deter i orating;
(c) concrete crumbling in spots and is very powdery when chipped; (d )
rein f orcing steel slightly rusted. Concrete placed in June 1946 around
base of Quonsets for typhoon protection: (a) Condition of concrete is

8-7
fair; (b) slight signs of dete rioration; (c) minor cracks and spalling
qu ite evident; (d) reinf orcing stee l slightly rusted. Concre te made
here wi th brackish water is not good. It cracks and spa ll s easily and
crumble s very easily under impact. The cond ition of steel rei nf orcing
does not give an ind ication of t he action of brackish water on steel,
as it is believed that bars were placed with a coat of rust on them .
Though no t according to best pract ices, this condi tion is extremely
difficult to avoid in such a climate. To place cle an, non- rusted bar s
would have entailed extensive sandblasting with increased time of
completion of the job. Other miscel laneous struc tures built from 1941
to 1945 were found in excellent condition with practically no deterior a-
tion of the surfaces, including those exposed to t he weather. Very
little cracking, crumbling or spalling was apparent but the usual
hairline cracks were ob se rved . Reinforcing steel, exposed by drilling
i nto the walls, showed a smal l amo unt of rust ing, but the concre te was
not stained.

38. Conclusions. A st udy of the foregoing comment s indicates that:

(a) br ack ish water of low-degree salinity ( 57 grains NaCl per ga l as
compared to 1,638 grains in ordinary sea water) has no apparent adverse
eff ect on the concrete compre ss ive strength when employed in the mix;
(b) the amount of brackish water used in concre te mixes at Mi dway,
J ohnston, and Wake probably had it s saline propertie s considerably
reduced by the large moisture content of the aggregate: (c) use of
bracki sh water does not r esult in any appreciable increase in corrosion
of reinforcing steel; (d ) crack ing and spalling are not a di rect re sult
of the use of brackish water; (e) curing concrete fabricated wit h
brackish mixing water at an aver age relative humid ity of 75 to 80 per-
cent and an average temperature of 80 degrees F apparently is no
guarantee that cracking or spall ing wi ll be prevented.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

39. J L. Harrison, District Engineer at Iloilo, Phi lippine I slands,

r epor ted(20 ) that cracking of re inforced concrete st ructures is markedly
prevalent in the Philippine s. The accumulation of evidence of this
tr ouble became so ser ious that the authorit i es decided to make some
st udies of the cause. They proce eded f irst on the assumption that the
rusting was wholly chemical - stimulated by appreciable quantit ies of
some determinable material ; and a number of samples of concrete t aken
fr om structures in trouble wer e subjected to chemical analysis.

40. The samples submitted showed one f oreign substance - chlorine -

and that indic ated the pre sence of salt. At first not much at tention
was paid to this, as it was known that it Was largely used in the United
Stat es to prevent freezing of concrete dur i ng se tting; but it was soon
realized t hat the climatic condit ions in the Philippine Islands are so
different fr om those in the Un ited States t hat the effect of the salt
could not be neglected. The colle ction of samples was con tinued for
somet hing over 2 years and not a single str ucture showin g r usted steel

8-8
was found free from salt . The percentage of th is salt varied considerably
f rom that high enough to show that beach sand and sea water must have been
used in making the concrete, to a figure l ow enough to ind icate that
e ithe r brackish water was used or that salt water was used t o wet down
fresh-water concrete after the forms had been taken off . A typical
sample (fr om the Constabulary Headquar ters build ing, I loi lo ) showed 0 .07
percent chlorine . This was computed to be equival ent to 1.44 percent
sa lt in the water , assuming 12.5 pounds of water 'used per cubic foot of
concrete. This is considered fair ly salty water.

41. The presence of 0.10 percent" chl orine in the iron rust indi cated
too small a percentage of ferric chloride to exp l ain all the indicat i ons
of rusting to be observed; but it was realized that fe rric chloride is not
stable and that it readily oxidizes to ferric oxide, releasing the
chlorine for further attack . High temperature and moisture are the only
conditions necessary for the indefinite continuation of the process,
and both of these conditions prevail throughout the Phil ippine Islands.
Not every structure in which salt water was used, or in which salt was
found, went to pieces in t his way. Several such bui ldiqgs were in good
condition. However, the concrete in them was unusually dense, and
their success in withstanding the influence of the Salt was attributed
to the density of the concrete. Engineer s in the Philippines were
accordingly advised (in 1916) that all use of salt water in concrete
structures is dangerous and that the use of beach sand and beach gravel
should be permitted only after thorough washing with f resh water. The
Philippine exper ience again points out the potent ial ity of trouble
due to corrosion of steel when the concrete cover over it is eithe r in-
adequately thick or inadequately dense and impe(meable .

8-9
 APPENDIX C

REFEREl'CES

Note: The following list is not intended to be a bibliography

on the durability of concrete in coastal structures, since
such a bibliography could well include several hundred items.
Se veral bibliographie s in closely related fields exist and
can be consulted. The f ollowing references include the
specific works cited in the report.

1. Abrams, Duff A. , "Tests of Impure Water s for Mixing Concrete, "

Am. Conca Inst. Proc •• Vol . 20, p. 422, 1924
2. American Concrete Institute. "Sea Water for Mixing Concrete,
Job Problems and Practices," Journal, Am. ConC a Inst. Proc. ,
Vol . 36, pp. 313-314, (Jan . 1940)

3. Am.erican Society for Testing Mater i als, Book of ASTM Standards,

Phi ladelphia. Penna ., 7 vols •• 1955.

4. Beach Erosion Board, Durabili ty of Steel She~t Pi ling in Shore

Structures. Technical MemorandUM No. 12. February 1952.

5. Beach Erosion Board, Shore Protect i on Planning and Design, Tech-

nical Report No. 4, June 1954. Superintendent of Document s,
U.S. Government Printing Office , Washington 25, D. C.
Pri~e , $2. 25.

6. BlankS, R. F. and others, "Ten-Year Report on the Long-Time Study

of Cement Performance in Concrete ," J ournal Am. Conca I nst .
Proc. , Vol . 49, P. 601, 1953.

7. Bogue , R. H., Studie s of the Volume Stability of Portland Cement

Pa stes, Paper No. 55 , Portland Cement Association Fellowship ,
National Bureau of Standards, Dec . 1949, PP . 1-90.

8. Bogue, R. H•• The Chemistry of Portland Ce ent , 2d Edition,

Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York , New York, 1955.

9. Campus, P., "Prooven Betreffend de outbinding van morte1s on

boten in seawater sinis 1934 uitgevoerd in der veerhaven van
Oestende," De Ingenieur, PP . 41-49 , (4 July 1947 ).

10. Carver, G. D. , "Concrete Viaducts on the K.ey West Extension of

the Florida East Coast Railway, " Eng. Rec. (Oct . 20, 1906 ).

c-!
11 . Cavanel, R. , ''Reparat ion du pont de la Gorde eur 1a Penzc, pres
de Carantec, Pinistere," Anna1es des Ponte s et Chausees,
Pa ris (Mar-April 1944) .

12. Cook , Herbert K., " Experimental Exposure of Concrete to Na t ural

Wea theri ng in Mar ine Loc at ions," Proc . ASTM, Vol . 52 (1952) .

13. Dahl, L. A. , "Cemen t Per formance in Concrete Exposed to Sulfate

So il s," Journal , Am. Conc. Inst. Proc . Vol . 46 , PP. 257-272
(D!?c. 1949).

14. Dav i s, Albert B., Jr ., "H i s t ory of the Galveston Sea Wall ," Proc -
eedings of Second Confe rence on Coastal Engineering, Counc il
on Wave Research, -PP. 268-280 (1952 ).

15. Escoffier , Franci s P., "Design and Performance of Sea Walls in

Mississippi Sound ," Proceedings of Second Conference on
Coa s tal Enginee r ing, Council on Wave Re ;earch, pp . 25 7-267
( 1952 )

16. Pranci s, W., "Resistance of Concrete Structures to Saline Waters,"

Consulting Engineer, Vol. II, No. 6, PP. 134-141 ( 1955 ).

17 . Hadley, Homer M., "Concrete in Sea Water : A Revised Viewpoint

Needed , " Proc. ASCE, Vol. 107, PP . 345-395 (1 942) .

18 . Halstead, S. and Woodwor th, L. A. , "The Deter i oration of Rein-

forced Concrete St ructures Under Coastal Conditions," Trans-
act i ons of the South Afr i can Inst i tution of Civil Engineer s,
Vol. 5 (Apri l 1955 ). (Discussion, October 1955 ).

19 . Hansen, W. C. , "Influence of Sands, Cements , and Manipulation

Upon the Resistance of Concrete to Freezing and Thawing, "
Journal , Am. Conc . Inst . Proc. , Vol . 39, p. 105 (Nov. 1942).

20. Harr i son, J. L., " Bad Effec t s Result i ng from Use of Salt Water
in Reinforced Co ncrete Structures Build in Tropical Countries,"
Ab s t racts, Eng . News, Col . 76, p. 1047 (Nov. 30, 1916).

21. Joint Committee on Standard Specifications for Concre te and

Re inforced Concrete, Re port of ,1937.

22 . Kennedy , Thomas B. , and Mather , Katharine, "Correlation Between

Lab~ratory Accelerated P reezing and Thawing and Weathering
at Treat Island, Maine , " Journal , Am. Conc. Inst . Proc., Vo l . 50,
P. 141 (1953 ).

23. Lea, p. M. , "Deterioration of Concrete Owing to Chemical Attack ,"

Cement and Concrete Manufacture, p. 130 , (June 1936 .

C-2
24. Lea, F . M. and Desch, C. H., "Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, "
Edward Arnold and Company, London, 1937.

25. Ie ChateUer, H., '"Observations Preliminaires au suj et de la

d ecomposition des ciments a la mer ," . Buned, Par is, 1904.

26. McMillan, F. R., "Concrete for the Architect ," Bulletin, Illinois
Society of Architects, p. 4 (Nov. 1928 ).

27. McMillan, P. R., and Tyler , I. L., " Long-Time Study, Chapter I -
History and Scope," Journal, Am. Conca Inst . Proc., Vol. 44,
p. 441 ( 1948)

28. Miller, D. G., "Report of Concrete Alkali I nvestigations in

Minnesota ," Minnesota Department of Dr ainage and Water s,
Po' 1-74, July 1921 .

29. Miller, D. G. , and Manson, p. W., "Laboratory "and Pield Te sts

of Concrete Exposed to the Action of Sulfate Wa·ters," USDA
Techni cal Bulletin No. 358, PP. 1-80, 1933.

30. Mil ler, D. G. and Manson, p. W., "Long-Time Te sts of Concre te

and Mortars Exposed to the Action of Sulfate Waters , " Technical
Bulle tin No. 194, Agricultural Experiment Station, University
of Minnesota, May 1951, pp. 1-111.

31. Mil ler , D. G., Manson, W, and Chen , T. H. , 'tBibli ography OD

Sulfate Resistance of Portland Cements, Concrete s, and Mortars,
with Abstracts," ASTM April 1952.

32, Port land Cement Association, .iscell aneous unpublished inspect i on

reports.

33. Powers, T . C., "The Air Requirement of Prost Re sistant Concrete ',':
Proceedings HighWJ.Y Research Board, Yol . 29 (1949).

34. Shelton, G. R., "Action of Sodium and Magne sium Sulfates on Con-
st itue nts of Portland Cement ," Journal of Indu strial and Engineer-
i ng Chemistry, Yolo 17, P. 589 (1925) .

35. Smeaton , John, "Narrative of the Bui lding and a De scription of

the Construction of the Eddystone Lighthouse wi th Stone," Lond on,
H. Hughes, 198 PP . 2nd ed, 1813

36. Stanton, Thomas B., "Tests Show Resistance to Sea Water of Calif-
ornia Cements," California Highways and Public Work s (reprinted
in Shore and Beach), Apr il 1938 , PP. 34-36

37 . St anton, Thomas B. , "Expansion of Concrete Through React ion Be tween

Cement and Aggregate",',' Proc . ASCE (Dec . 1940 ); Trans. ASCB,
Vol. 107, pp.54-126 (1942).

C- 3
38. Tuthill, Lewis H., "Resistance to Chemical Attack,',' ASTM
Special Technical Publication No. 169, Significance of Tests
and Properties of Concrete, PP. 188-200 (1956).

39. U. S. Navy, Civil Engineer Corps Bull., Vol. 2, No. 21, Abstract
in Civil Engineering (New York), PP. 637-674, Oct. 1948.

40. Wakeman, C. M., "Use of Concrete in Mar ine Environments,'~ Unpub-

lished laboratory report No. 7407, Los Angeles Harbor Dept.
Testing Laboratory, 28 March 1955.

41. Walter, L. W., "Thirty Years' Field Experience with Concrete,"

Proc. Am. Conc. Inst., Vol. 25, (1929)

42. Warren, L. R., "Some Notes on the 1953 Congress of the Permanent
International Association of Navigation Congresses," Trans.
South African Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 6, No. 10,
PP. 289-294 (October 1956).

43. Wentworth-Sheilds. p. E., "Early Marine Structures," Concrete

and Constructional Engineering, Vol. 51, No.1, PP. 25-29,
(Jan. 1956).

44. Wuerpel, C. E., and Cook, H. K., "Automatic Accelerated Freezing-

and-Thawing Apparatus for Concrete·~tt ASTM, Vol. 45, P .. 813,
(1945) •

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L C-4 C67619