Desalination 284 (2012) 1–8

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Desalination
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/desal

Current trends and future prospects in the design of seawater reverse osmosis
desalination technology
Baltasar Peñate a,⁎, Lourdes García-Rodríguez b, 1
a
Water Department, Canary Islands Institute of Technology (ITC), Playa de Pozo Izquierdo, s/n 35119 Santa Lucía, Las Palmas, Spain
b
Departamento de Ingeniería Energética, Universidad de Sevilla, ETSI, Camino de Los Descubrimientos, s/n. 41092-Sevilla, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Seawater reverse osmosis technology is fully mature at industrial scale which has been installed in all coastal
Received 28 April 2011 areas around the world with limited natural hydrological resources. There are many technological advances
Received in revised form 9 September 2011 and innovations which are trying to improve the reverse osmosis desalination process. In particular, all pur-
Accepted 10 September 2011
sue to reduce the process energy consumption, as well as to minimize the harmful effects of scaling and foul-
Available online 13 October 2011
ing on membranes and to obtain higher water flux membranes. This paper presents a comprehensive review
Keywords:
of the main innovations and future trends in the design of seawater reverse osmosis desalination technology.
Reverse osmosis These are intended to improve the process performance and the efficiency of this technique for high produc-
Main innovations in seawater desalination tion. Special focus is placed on the use of renewable energies as an innovation in the medium-term for me-
Future prospects dium and large production capacities. It supports desalination with renewable energies as an attractive
Desalination driven by renewable energy combination in many regions with the possibility of reducing stress on existing water supplies.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Improvements and innovations on reverse osmosis membranes and rack design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1. Last generation membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2. Different membrane elements in the same pressure vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3. Nanocomposites for new RO membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4. Large diameter spiral wound elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.5. Low-biofouling feed-spacers for RO membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.6. Interconnection of endcap membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.7. Pressure vessels with eight elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. Seawater reverse osmosis desalination plant design innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1. High efficiency of energy recovery devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2. Energy optimization of existing SWRO plants with energy recovery turbine — retrofitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3. RO racks design with two passes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.4. Product water split partial design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.5. Hybridation of membrane processes in SWRO plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.6. Forward osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.7. Feasible variable recovery and capacity operation design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.8. New chemical products for anti-scaling and membrane cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.9. Permeate throttling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4. Energy supply innovations. Application of renewable energies in medium–high capacity seawater reverse osmosis plants . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 34 928727511; fax: + 34 928727590.

E-mail addresses: baltasarp@itccanarias.org (B. Peñate), lourdesg@esi.us.es (L. García-Rodríguez).
1
Tel.: + 34 954487231; fax: + 34 954487233.

0011-9164/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.desal.2011.09.010
2 B. Peñate, L. García-Rodríguez / Desalination 284 (2012) 1–8
1. Introduction
Desalination is an increasingly common solution to supply fresh
water in many regions of the world where this resource is scarce.
Among all desalination technologies, seawater reverse osmosis
(SWRO) is the most internationally widespread technology. It is
fully mature and is present in all coastal areas in the world with lim-
ited natural hydrological resources. Mainly for these reasons the ad-
vances and the R&D on this technology are continuous. Basically,
main recent innovations, as well as existing research lines, focus on
trying to further reducing the process energy consumption. In addi-
tion, researchers focus in minimizing the negative effects of scaling
and fouling on membranes and obtaining membranes with higher
permeate flux [1].
In the previous context, this paper focuses on the comprehensive
description of innovations and reliable future trends in the design of
SWRO desalination technology. In the compendium of previous inno-
vations, it cannot remain outside the consideration of using renew-
able energy for large-scale desalination plants as a highly innovative
trend. This should help to balance the progressive dependence on fos-
sil fuels.
SWRO has superseded distillation from entry into the XXI cen-
tury and will represent the technology with a highest degree of
current and future implementation. From 2005 to 2008, annual
worldwide contracted capacity of RO technology increased from
2.0 million to 3.5 million m 3/d, whereas the annual values of over-
all distillation processes were between 2.0 million and 0.5 million m 3/d
[2]. The 61.1% of the worldwide capacity installed, including sea-
water and brackish water desalination, is attributable to RO. The
status of desalination market is thoroughly reported in reference
[3].
At the end of the 1970s, SWRO plants consumed up to 20 kWh/m 3
[4], but thanks to the development of more efficient membranes, the
use of energy recovery devices, new materials with less friction and
variable-frequency drive devices, the energy consumption has been
reduced drastically. Excellent specific energy consumption (SEC) as
low as 1.80 to 2.20 kWh/m 3 could be obtained in new SWRO plants
[5,6], as follows: SWRO plants with capacities up to 1000 m 3/d have
led achievable energy consumption below 2.0 kWh/m 3 [7,8]. This is
due to the use of highest-efficiency energy recovery devices based
on isobaric chambers and positive displacement pumps that can
have yields over 90%. Currently, in medium–large capacity SWRO
plants the RO process energy consumption is usually between 2.2
and 2.5 kWh/m3 [9,10].
An example of installations with SEC lower than 2.00 kWh/m 3
is located in Sal Island — Cape Verde. 1000 m 3/d SWRO plant
(64.90 mS/cm seawater conductivity) equipped with a RO Kinetic®
energy recovery device obtains a specific energy consumption of
1.98 kWh/m 3 [8].
Besides that, the most relevant desalination experience is the fol-
lowing. Affordable Desalination Collaboration (ADC) is a Californian
non-profit organization composed of leading U.S. companies and
agencies in the desalination industry. The ADC, since 2004, has
agreed to pool its resources and to share its expertise in the mission
to achieve the affordable seawater desalination. Using a combina-
tion of energy efficient, commercially available RO technologies in-
cluding axial piston pumps, last generation membranes and ERI®
high-efficiency energy recovery equipment, the ADC has demon-
strated that SWRO can produce water at a cost and energy consump-
tion rate comparable to other alternative water supplies. With a
variable RO capacity of 200–300 m 3/d, the lowest RO process energy
consumption of 1.58 kWh/m 3 was demonstrated using the Filmtec
XLE membranes at a water flux of 244 l/(m 2 d) — 42.5% of recovery
rate [7].
Within this context, in the following sections the main inno-
vations detected are described. These are divided into three
categories — agreeing with which part of the technology process
affects:
• RO membrane and rack design improvements: These innovations will
ensure to obtain the best design of the main process unit, the pres-
sure vessel (PV). They are innovations that will modify membranes
in use, their constructive characteristics and dimensions as well as
how to locate them inside a PV.
• SWRO desalination plant designs: These enhancements will impact
mainly on external elements of the membranes rack or the process
in general. With these, lower energy consumption, specific water
quality or improvements in the pre-treatment and post-treatment
generally used are guaranteed.
• Energy supply — application of renewable energies in the medium–
high capacity SWRO desalination plants: This innovation, with a
view to the future, will enable an energy contribution in quality
and quantity of current energy supply based on fossil fuel.
2. Improvements and innovations on reverse osmosis membranes
and rack design
2.1. Last generation membranes
Current research regarding spiral wound membranes is focused
on providing greater filtration surface within the same volume.
These elements have an increased productivity as well as a higher
salts rejection [11–13]. At the present, membrane manufacturers
offer membranes of low-energy and high-productivity up to
47.5 m 3/d (12,500 gpd).
Besides that, membrane manufacturers work in developing mem-
branes with high boron rejection due to the requirement to reduce
the boron content in the permeate to comply new legislation of fresh-
water supply. This also causes some plants to adopt alternative or
complementary processes to the RO. Rodrigo and Peñate [14] expose
the different alternatives that are being used, thus generating an extra
cost for the water production. The most selective membranes exhibit
a stabilized boron rejection close to 90%.
Finally, there are seawater membranes appropriate to withstand
pressures higher than 7 MPa, ideal for working in a RO 2nd-stage
taking as feed water the brine from the 1st-stage. They give the op-
portunity to significantly increase the recovery rate of the overall
desalination process, thus resulting in reduction of the auxiliary
pumping consumption.
2.2. Different membrane elements in the same pressure vessel
Last generation membranes offer high salts rejection, low-energy
requirement and high-productivity. The best design of PVs based on
the use of these membranes consists in using different membrane
models in the same PV (Hybrid RO membrane Interstage Design,
HID). The HID in conventional SWRO plants proves advantages of op-
eration and maintenance as well as 5% to 8% of capital costs savings by
using membranes from the main manufactures, according to analysis
performed by the authors [15]. Other interesting analysis is presented
by García-Molina et al. [16]. The same design concept is called ‘Inter-
nally Staged Design’ (ISD) by Dow. The Dow Chemical Company has
patented this PV design concept for their membranes [17]. Some
plants based on this kind of design are reported in the literature
[18,19].
However, as a standard SWRO plant is divided in several indepen-
dent RO racks using only one RO membrane brand, it is possible to de-
sign a RO rack with different manufacturer membranes with the
objective of achieving the benefits of different element brands in
the same PV. Examples of this kind of designs are Jubail SWRO plant
[19] or Las Palmas III SWRO plant [15]. One inconvenience for the
 B. Peñate, L. García-Rodríguez / Desalination 284 (2012) 1–8
implementation of this innovation is that not all the manufactures are
using the same interconnection of endcap elements.
2.3. Nanocomposites for new RO membranes
It has been demonstrated that desalted water cost can be reduced
if membranes with high permeability are used, even if they exhibit an
increase of the salt passage. The water cost reduction can come from
either:
– energy savings, because of the lower operating pressures required,
or
– increasing in permeate production, since the plant is running at
increased flux and recovery.
The high permeability can be achieved through the proper incorpo-
ration of nanoparticles within interfacially formed thin film nanocom-
posite membranes. NanoH2O [20] is optimizing thin film composite
membranes which are being compared with current high water flux
SWRO elements. In general, this new materials have improved the
water flux with slightly improved rejection. Nanocomposite mem-
branes have shown performance exceeding that of existing commercial
products based on the standardized polymer chemistry used in RO
membranes for the last decades. Nanocomposite membrane technology
is now in the process of being commercialized with trials on a specially
designed full-scale manufacturing line underway for an early 2010
product release [21].
Moreover, other recent advances in membranes will provide fur-
ther improvements in energy efficiency and cost savings [22,23].
2.4. Large diameter spiral wound elements
8-Inch membrane elements have been the industrial standard size
for RO and NF elements in both, seawater desalination and water rec-
lamation. However, within large scale RO plants, there is poor econo-
my of scale for the 8-inch diameter membranes because the number
of elements, PVs, piping and connections must increase in direct pro-
portion to the increase in flow capacity. Therefore, a consortium of
membrane suppliers, comprised of Dow Filmtec, Hydranautics,
Toray Membrane America and Trisep, conducted a study in 2005 to
evaluate a new industry standard for RO elements of larger diameter
than the current 8-inch diameter standard.
Hallan et al. [24] show that large diameter spiral-wound modules
enable significant reductions in RO plant capital cost and lifecycle
cost. It was identified that 16-inches was the optimum diameter in
view of the trade-off between cost savings and the additional risk as-
sociated with even higher modules and PVs. Aforementioned diame-
ters allow membrane active area and module productivity increase to
4.3 times than that of standard SWRO modules.
On the other hand, only Koch Membranes has decided that 18-
inches will be the optimum diameter [25]. This different criterion
over the standard format has resulted in the commercial develop-
ment of elements and PVs of two dimensions. Dow Filmtec, Toray
and Hydranautics have developed 16-inch diameter × 40-inch
length RO elements, and Koch Membranes has developed 18-inch
diameter × 60-inch length RO elements. Today, large diameter RO
membranes are commercially available and are being installed in
demonstration SWRO plants [26].
Gottberg mentions that a typical 3789 m 3/d system with 8-inch
elements would use 25 PVs and 175 elements [27], in comparison
to a similar system with 18-inch elements, which would use only 5
PVs and 25 elements. The number of o-ring elements is reduced by
a factor of 14, which reduces the risk of downtime due to o-ring fail-
ures. The floor-space requirement for the 18-inch system is approxi-
mately 50% of that for the 8-inch system, which reduces building
size and hence civil costs associated with the project. Also, the
3
reduction in number of connections and size of the membrane rack
allows for some potential savings in capital cost.
Cost savings tend to be project specific and need to be evaluated
on a case by case basis. It is expected that for typical brackish water
RO systems the material cost savings on the membrane racks due to
the use of 18-inch elements would be approximately 15% [25].
2.5. Low-biofouling feed-spacers for RO membranes
The comprehension of fouling and critical flux concepts [29] may
assist in the design of spacers and definition of operating conditions
that minimize the formation of a permanent fouling layer. So the re-
duction of fouling and particle deposition should allow to operate at
higher critical and water fluxes in the PV.
The membrane performance can be also improved by the use of
special feed spacers that minimize pressure drop across the element.
These spacers have larger open cross section of feed channel than tra-
ditional spacers, thus reducing pressure drop and allowing more ef-
fective cleaning. The hydrodynamic condition in a membrane with
new spacers is different in comparison with a membrane with stan-
dard ones. These flow conditions reduce the bio-fouling process.
With higher cross flow velocity using large pores, low pressure drop
is possible to achieve lower fouling. These are used specifically for
problematic feed waters, such as surface brackish waters that are
high in colloidal materials and prone to biofouling. Feed spacers
used in most RO spiral wound elements will range between 0.66
and 0.86 mm thick. Traditionally, these spacers are made from poly-
olefin materials which tolerate both high and low pH required during
cleaning [28].
The operation at low fouling rates will reduce cleaning costs and
should also reduce overall operating costs and total plant costs [30].
In this sense, some new materials are being developed. Polypropylene
is being tested as spacers in RO membranes. This polymer is ubiqui-
tous in membrane filtration as a feed-spacer due to its high chemical
stability, low cost and versatile properties [31].
2.6. Interconnection of endcap membranes
The limitations of decades-old sliding coupler technology can re-
sult in lower quality permeate and higher operating costs, regardless
of membrane performance, attributable to O-ring leaks. These leak-
ages appear due to o-rings that are pinched and damaged during in-
stallation and routine maintenance or o-ring wear and abrasion
during operation.
Dow Water Solutions offers iLEC™ technology for connecting RO
membranes for a direct, leak-tight connection that enables higher
quality permeate throughout the life of the elements. The patented
design of iLEC™ technology consists of a single axially-compressed
o-ring seal in combination with a rotational (vs. an axial or radial)
mechanical connection.
Filmtec interlocking tabs around the periphery of each endcap pro-
vide a fixed mechanical connection between elements, compressing
the o-ring upon installation and maintaining a tight seal thereafter.
The injection-molded endcaps are made from ABS plastic, a material
widely used for such parts.
Elements with iLEC interlocking endcaps are commercially available
and offer the following benefits [11,32] on:
• Installation and handling. iLEC interlocking endcaps avoid o-rings
being rolled from their grooves or pinched and damaged during instal-
lation and protect themselves from possible damage due to element
handling.
• Leakages and abrasion. The single, non-sliding seal also greatly reduces
the number of potential leak sites and eliminates the abrasion that can
damage O-rings in a slip-fit connection.
4 B. Peñate, L. García-Rodríguez / Desalination 284 (2012) 1–8

• Sealing. The omission of o-ring lubricant will not compromise sealing elements configuration reconfirms the technological advantages
performance. cited here.
• Pressure drops. Internal couplers and PV adapters account for more The theoretical nine-element configuration could be technically
than 70% of the permeate-tube pressure drop in some systems. The and commercially an attractive option. This kind of PV is not yet
interlocking endcap design eliminates these restrictions, imposing commercially available and there are at the moment only a few
less permeate backpressure. speculations about its consideration as a possible alternative con-
figuration. Further experimental tests will be required before its
Modules of a SWRO plant are being replaced with new Filmtec el-
commercial use.
ements with ILEC interlocking [33].
Recently, Nitto Denko Corporation – manufacturer of Hydranau-
3. Seawater reverse osmosis desalination plant design innovations
tics elements – has released a vented seal carrier design for all RO el-
ements which prevents pressure shocks to the element shell and
3.1. High efficiency of energy recovery devices
reduces element burst risk. The design incorporates a series of
vents, or notches, in the anti-telescoping device that releases air
After more than a decade of using pressure exchange systems in
trapped between the membrane and the PV, preventing the occur-
desalination plants, the maturity of this technology is enabling the
rence of a pressure difference around the elements [34].
stable reduction of specific energy consumption of the desalination
process. Periodically, new systems with better materials come onto
2.7. Pressure vessels with eight elements
the market, achieving greater efficiencies and lengthen the equip-
ment lifetime. The challenge in these devices is to reduce the barrier
Design efforts to reduce power consumption and system cost
of the 2.00 kWh/m 3 in medium and large capacity plants in the desa-
resulted in the transition of SWRO plant design to a single-stage con-
lination process. To date, this barrier is only achieved in small or me-
figuration and increased the number of elements per PV. The majority
dium capacity facilities, provided that other high efficiency elements
of current system designs are seven-element RO racks and recovery
beyond the energy recovery device can be installed, i.e. high-pressure
ratios of 40–45%. Some very large capacity systems are designed
pumps with yields higher than 90% and modern variable-frequency
and operated with eight-element PVs while the system recovery
drive devices.
rate increased to 50% or more. An example is the 54,000 m 3/d Larnaca
In addition, other innovation that is still promoting slight reductions
SWRO plant in Cyprus, where eight-element configuration was firstly
in energy consumption is the use of last generation electronic variable-
used. Each of the five RO racks has a capacity of 9000 m 3/d with 120
frequency drive for starting and adjustable-speed of the engines of the
PVs arranged with eight membranes each [19]. There is an obvious
intake pumps, high pressure and booster pumps. Without them, the en-
cost advantage in the increased number of elements per PV. A RO sys-
gines starting were direct, very complex and they could not be regulated,
tem using six-element PVs will require 34% more PVs than a system
thus having to operate at a nominal operation point.
using the same membrane area but configured with eight-element
PVs [35].
3.2. Energy optimization of existing SWRO plants with energy recovery
In the past the eight-element-single-pass configuration was
turbine — retrofitting
criticized because it resulted in uneven water flux distribution:
lead elements operating at very high flux, which may result in ex-
For existing installations with energy recovery systems consist-
cessive fouling (see Section 2.2). However, if it is examined the
ing in Pelton turbines, the most significant challenge is how to re-
feed salinity and pressure distribution, it is evident that the water
duce energy costs with more efficient energy recovery devices
flux difference between the lead and tail position in a single-stage
designed by using isobaric chambers. The objective is achieving
system is lower than in a two-stage system operating at the same
major savings in energy consumption in the desalination process
recovery rate. Results from operation of the current eight-element
and/or to increase the output capacity of the installations, by taking
PVs, large-scale SWRO plants (such as Larnaca, Tampa in Florida,
full advantage of the plant equipment. Different configurations and
Ashkelon in Israel and Escombreras in Spain) have indicated a stable
retrofits are possible and different isobaric chamber devices could
performance, justifying this design approach [36].
be installed. According to the analysis performed by the authors,
Number of elements inside a PV cannot be increased indefinitely
more than 40% of capacity increasing or 24% of energy saving can
due to technical obstacles. These include:
be achieved, depending on the retrofit adopted [38,39].
– difficulty of moving elements through the PV during loading,
– parts expansion due to feed water temperature variation and 3.3. RO racks design with two passes
– potential subsequent elements impact damage.
The new high-productivity modules represent important advan-
On the positive side, a system with high number of elements per tages in terms of energy savings for SWRO plants with two passes.
PV has significant benefits: In these installations the required permeate quality is relatively
high, mainly due to Boron limitation, and a second pass is needed in
– The feed-concentrate flow rate is higher and therefore results in
order to further treat the permeate water obtained in the 1st-pass.
lower concentration polarization and better performance.
With the installation of high productivity modules in the 1st-pass,
– The lower number of PVs per rack results in lower investment
the feed pressure and thus the total energy consumption of the
cost.
plant can be significantly reduced. Due to the lower rejection of
Brusilovsky and Faigon showed that an extra investment or capital these modules compared to standard seawater modules, the required
cost of 24.67% and 10.48% would have been required if the Ashkelon size of the 2nd-pass may increase. However, the benefit obtained
SWRO plant had been designed with six and seven elements respec- from the reduction of the operation expenses compensates the in-
tively, instead of eight-element PVs [37]. In addition, if the plant crease in the capital expenses.
had been designed with a hypothetical nine-element PVs, an extra
saving of 7.98% on the capital cost would have been expected. For 3.4. Product water split partial design
this case, the overall annual cost will depend on the specific operation
conditions and energy demand versus the capital cost return. Good A two-pass configuration is necessary for RO systems with strin-
performance of plants working for a considerable period with eight gent limits on permeate quality, such as very low chloride
 B. Peñate, L. García-Rodríguez / Desalination 284 (2012) 1–8
concentration or low boron limits. For RO system design as a full two-
pass configuration, a partial two-pass process may be sufficient dur-
ing the operating period when membranes still maintain sufficiently
high rejection or during the seasons of low feed water temperatures.
The conventional partial two-pass system operates in the same way
as a full two-pass design. The split partial configuration is based on
collecting permeate from both ends of PV in RO systems that require
partial 2nd-pass processing.
Permeate water from the 1st-pass is collected and the required
fraction is processed by the 2nd-pass. It is known that permeate
salinity along the system increases parallel to the increase of feed
salinity. It is the lowest at the feed end of the PV and the highest
at the concentrate outlet.
It is possible to have an advantage of this salinity distribution by
collecting permeate from separate stages or from both ends of PVs
in a given membrane stage. The use of this salinity gradient in RO de-
vices to produce permeate water of different salinity was proposed by
Donald T. Bray in 1977. Now, it has been implemented in some large
SWRO plants [19,40].
This design is only feasible in RO systems designed as a single-pass
stage rack. The split partial configuration provides additional incen-
tive to design SWRO systems as single stage rack with increased num-
ber of element per PV.
3.5. Hybridation of membrane processes in SWRO plant
The design of an adequate pre-treatment process for SWRO
plants is extremely important as it will impact the overall perfor-
mance and operating costs. Membranes currently considered for
pre-treatment are Micro-Filtration (MF) and Ultra-Filtration (UF).
Unlike standardized RO membrane systems, each UF/MF mem-
brane system tends to have its own proprietary technology with
little or no directly interchangeable products and provides an ade-
quate treated water quality for RO. However, membrane filtration
as a pre-treatment is not the solution to all seawater applications.
Boudinar et al. propose for small to medium capacity plants a pre-
treatment based on UF/MF for installations with beach well intake
[41]. For large capacity plants with open intakes or horizontally
sub-sea wells the use of membrane for pre-treatment is recom-
mended, either independently or in conjunction with other standard
processes.
In general, Nano-Filtration (NF) membranes have been success-
fully used in various applications in desalination and wastewater
treatment. The use of NF arises as an attractive pre-treatment for
SWRO desalination. NF membranes have a very high rejection of di-
valent anions, while the rejection of monovalent ion is limited. This
solution was applied successfully in Umm-Lujj SWRO plant at 65%
recovery utilizing eight-inch six-element NF racks [42]. The last
generation NF membranes can achieve higher TDS rejection at
lower feed pressure. However, this alternative membrane solution
still shows limitations with high TDS seawater, high hardness and
also residual bacteria which can be accumulated on membrane
surface.
3.6. Forward osmosis
Forward osmosis is an emerging osmotic process that uses a
semi-permeable membrane to effect separation of water from dis-
solved solutes by an osmotic pressure gradient. Unlike RO, forward
osmosis does not require high pressure for salt separation, allowing
low energy consumption to produce water. The main advantages of
using forward osmosis are that it operates at low or no hydraulic
pressures, it has high rejection of a wide range of contaminants,
and it may have lower membrane fouling propensity than pres-
sure-driven membrane processes [43]. As the only pressure in-
volved in the forward osmosis process is due to flow resistance in
5
the membrane module, the equipment used is very simple and
membrane support is less of a problem. Furthermore, for food and
pharmaceutical processing, forward osmosis has the benefit of con-
centrating the feed stream without requiring high pressures or tem-
peratures that may be detrimental to the feed solution.
Several patents have been awarded for different methods
and systems for water desalination by forward osmosis [44,45].
All the practical experiences, yet limited, work on forward osmo-
sis as an alternative desalination process has exposed the two
major limitations of forward osmosis — lack of high-performance
membranes and the necessity for an easily separable draw solu-
tion. Moreover, when considering seawater desalination, especial-
ly when high water recovery is desired, forward osmosis can
be utilized only if the draw solution can induce a high osmotic
pressure.
3.7. Feasible variable recovery and capacity operation design
Significant opportunities for cost reduction are found in optimizing
plant design and operation to utilize variable recovery, attain higher re-
liability through fail-safe design and modularity, and minimize periodic
and costly unplanned maintenance [10].
3.8. New chemical products for anti-scaling and membrane cleaning
Membrane scaling and fouling are important issues in the proper
operation of SWRO plants. Progressively, innovations related to spe-
cific chemicals designed to inhibit the membrane fouling and also to
clean them are reported in the literature. Research is done on specific
products to suppress scaling, mainly barium sulfate and strontium
[46].
Boron has played an important role over the last years. The limit
for Boron in drinking water is fixed by the EU at 1 mg/l. The WHO
recommended a value of 0.5 mg/l and this limit is expected to be in-
creased in the near future. Historically, in some countries a 2nd-
pass was needed in SWRO plants in order to ensure a permeate
Boron content within the limits. Nowadays and thanks to the recently
developed Boron rejection membranes, it is possible to achieve Boron
limits below 1 mg/l in single pass configurations with the consequent
cost savings [47].
3.9. Permeate throttling system
A different design, known as Permeate Throttling, has been used
in some SWRO plants [48]. In them, a permeate backpressure control
valve is used in the permeate side of the 1st-stage for control the per-
meate flux in different feed water temperature seasons. However, an
increase of feed pressure is produced in the RO rack. The system gives
a constant consumption against the other systems with control valves
at the discharge of high pressure pumps. It is due to the feeding pres-
sure of membranes, which is always constant, as well as the feeding
pressure of the energy recovery devices [19]. The permeate control
valve gives different backpressures in case of variation of temperature
or salinity so the net driving pressure is controlled through the mem-
branes for different conditions but always with the same operating
points for the pumps.
4. Energy supply innovations. Application of renewable energies in
medium–high capacity seawater reverse osmosis plants
Like water, energy is a scarce resource in many countries of the
world and is becoming a source of instability in many regions.
About 80% [49] of the energy produced in the world comes from
greenhouse gas emitting sources (coal, oil, natural gas…) which con-
tribute to the planet-global warming and air pollution. Since desalina-
tion processes exhibit intensive energy consumption, the desalination
6 B. Peñate, L. García-Rodríguez / Desalination 284 (2012) 1–8
worldwide capacity – more than 60 million m 3/d – results in signifi-
cant energy consumption. From this point of view, the development
of renewable energy powered desalination is of major interest. Re-
search on increased energy efficiency of desalination process and use
of renewable energy is achieving important results and is expected
to make this option reliable and cost-effective.
Many of the feasible combinations of Renewable Energy Sources—
DESalination (RES-DES) process systems have been taken into prac-
tice. García-Rodríguez and Charcosset report comprehensive reviews
of the experiences done [50–52]. Commercial desalination systems
(Multi-Effect Distillation, MED; Multi-Stage Flash, MSF; RO and
Vapor Compression, VC) driven by renewable energies have been
built. Most of them are small capacity systems and have been devel-
oped within the framework of R&D or international cooperation
projects.
Among the renewable energies suitable for driving a SWRO sys-
tem, wind energy is the most cost-effective option. If adequate wind
resources are not available, the use of solar photovoltaic energy is
recommended for small capacity plants and solar thermal energy is
recommended for the medium–large capacities. If electricity genera-
tion is not demanded, it is recommended to drive the SWRO by
means of a solar organic Rankine cycle. The aforementioned technol-
ogies are briefly described below:
• Wind-powered RO desalination. Normally, wind resource is linked to
coastal areas. Besides that, wind power is more cost-effective than
solar energy. Moreover, SWRO powered by wind power is a mature
technology, according to the respective expertise and literature re-
view of the authors [53,54]. Therefore, this is the best RES-DES option.
The coupling of a wind system to a SWRO plant could use either,
mechanical or electrical energy. Only the second option is viable
to trigger a medium or large scale plant. In the case of mechanical
coupling RO systems high-pressure pumps must be connected di-
rectly to a wind turbine through a mechanical coupling or by a hy-
draulic system. Interesting experimental research has been done
without reaching satisfactory results for small and medium capac-
ities [55,56].
The SDAWES project (Seawater Desalination with an Autono-
mous Wind System) was the first initiative which intended to
test SWRO (8 × 25 m 3/d) fed directly with wind power, alongside
other technologies (electrodialysis and mechanical vapor compres-
sion). Subiela et al. discuss the lessons learnt from this experience
[57]. Basically, it is concluded that SWRO was the best desalination
technology, of the assayed, using wind power. Concerning the case
of RO, product water flow and conductivity are slightly affected by
the variations in frequency of the electrical grid. The daily average
conductivities are practically unaffected as the acceptable decrease
in electrical frequency (52–48 Hz) does not produce large in-
creases in the permeate conductivity. However, punctual fluctua-
tions were detected in the short periods with unstable frequency
(operation under minimum wind speed) [53]. The appropriate de-
signs to make the most of available electricity should be further
analyzed.
• RO systems driven by solar photovoltaic. This combination has been
developed extensively for small isolated systems and all technical
limitations have been already overcome. The biggest drawback is
the considerable initial investment and land availability, although
the cost of photovoltaic solar panels has decreased within the last
few years.
RO technology powered by photovoltaic solar energy is currently
in commercial state. In this sense, there are several small capacity sys-
tems installed in isolated locations [53,58–60]. Its economic viability
goes through assessing the distance of the isolated system to the elec-
tricity grid, the necessary plant capacity and the raw water salinity. As
a matter of cost and space required it is discarded for medium and
high capacities.
• Solar organic Rankine cycles for driving RO systems. Solar thermal
energy has been used to generate mechanical energy by means
of a thermodynamic cycle. The most commonly used cycle is the
Rankine cycle, using as working substance either, water or an or-
ganic compound [61]. The status of solar thermal-driven RO desa-
lination has been reviewed [62]. Only three experimental systems
have been implemented [63–65], all of them based on stationary
solar collectors. Nevertheless, the use of parabolic trough collec-
tors permits to achieve a significantly higher overall performance.
Different designs of solar thermal-driven RO systems have been
proposed by García-Rodríguez and Delgado-Torres for parabolic
trough collectors [66,67] and for stationary solar collectors [68].
Peñate and García-Rodríguez have compared a Rankine organic
cycle-SWRO to most efficient solar distillation technologies, i.e., a
double effect absorption heat pump driven by parabolic trough
collectors and coupled to a multi-effect distillation unit, and a
multi-effect distillation unit driven by parabolic trough collectors
[69]. The comparison analysis proves the advantages of the
SWRO combination in comparison with solar distillation. All rele-
vant criteria compared, i.e. solar field size, capital cost and conven-
tional energy supply in isolated conditions, showed that Rankine
cycle for RO systems is superior for the medium range capacities.
Regarding competitor technologies of RO process driven by RES,
only two technologies should be considered for medium to large ca-
pacities. The first option is conventional distillation processes used
at industrial scale. Solar distillation based on such systems is a fully
developed technology. The second option would be a developing
technology consisting in a membrane distillation system connected
to a solar thermal field. The status of both technologies is briefly
reported below:
• Solar thermal energy coupled with MED technology. Solar thermal
energy can be used directly to operate a MED plant. MED systems
are more flexible and inexpensive, less sensitive for scaling and ex-
hibit better performances than MSF systems. The most important
test facility is the Plataforma Solar de Almería — CIEMAT (PSA,
Spain). It gained experience integrating a MED plant with two
solar fields consisting in parabolic trough collectors [70] and com-
pound parabolic concentrators [71], respectively. In addition, the
MED unit has also been connected to thermo-compressors and to
a Double-Effect Absorption Heat Pump (DEAHP) [72–74] within
the framework of different research projects. The technology
MED-DEAHP driven by parabolic trough collectors exhibits the
highest performance and has proved to be reliable [75,76]. Other
interesting solar distillation technology is the MED process pow-
ered by salinity gradient solar ponds. Several systems have been
built based on either, MED or MSF processes [77–79]. Although
this is not an efficient technology [80], the cost of the energy deliv-
ered by solar ponds is low. Moreover, the distillation system can be
operated even continuously along the year, thus resulting in a cost-
effective technology.
• Solar membrane distillation (MD) (with solar thermal collectors or
solar ponds). MD technology evolution is reported in several review
papers [81–83]. The MD was introduced in the late 1960s [82] but
has failed to compete with the commercial membrane processes
due to the impossibility of manufacturing membranes with identi-
cal efficiency [83]. In the 1980s the process received renewed inter-
est in the scientific community when membranes and distillation
modules research allowed obtaining higher yields. In addition, the
possibility of using waste heat or renewable energies as energy
source stimulated the interest and the research in searching new
applications and improvements in the technology possibilities.
However, this technology has only been implemented throughout
 B. Peñate, L. García-Rodríguez / Desalination 284 (2012) 1–8
the pre-commercial level and still in prototype stage [84,85] with
limited efficiency.
If adequate wind energy sources are not available, solar thermal-
powered RO is the best technology. Some of the challenges for the de-
sign, installation and operation of SWRO plants driven by RES at me-
dium–large capacity are the reduction of:
• RO plant investment
• energy consumption, making use of more robust energy recovery
systems. Isobaric devices deliver higher efficiencies than centrifugal
devices, but centrifugal devices are generally better characterised
and are easier to maintain and operate.
• capital costs in solar thermal and wind energy generation systems
[86,87].
As well as to improve:
• control systems to ensure the adequate operation of RO systems
driven by discontinuous energy sources. Gradual capacity systems
for wind-powered RO have been designed [88].
• energy storage systems to be used with intermittent energy sources.
• the behavior of weak electricity networks to withstand heavy vari-
able loads, especially in islands.
5. Conclusions
Seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) technology is fully mature and
commonly used at industrial scale at present in all coastal areas
around the world that have limited natural hydrological resources.
It has superseded distillation processes from the beginning of the
XXI century and will continue to be the technology with the highest
degree of current and future implementation.
There are many technological advances and innovations which
achieve significant improvements in the process. In particular, all of
them try to:
o reduce the specific energy consumption of the desalination process
o reduce harmful effects of scaling and fouling on membranes
o obtain higher water flux membranes.
The improvements or applied research on desalination plants
which will entail a decrease in energy consumption will be always
an advantage for obtaining the lowest water cost.
To date, energy consumption has been reduced dramatically.
There are even cases that have lowered the barrier of 2.00 kWh/m 3.
This has been possible because of the development of more efficient
membranes, the use of energy recovery systems, new materials
with less friction and variable speed engines.
In general, the innovations that are promoting continuous process
improvement can be classified thus: those which directly affect RO
membranes or RO rack, those which allow improving design or pro-
cess operation in general, and finally, the introduction of alternative
energy sources for driving the desalination process.
Desalination with renewable energies is an attractive combination
in many regions as it should help to balance the progressive depen-
dence on fossil fuels. Certainly, the use of renewable energies for
large capacity desalination must be considered as a highly innovative
trend. This is supported by the existing activities at a small-scale,
countless jobs and experience gained. However, its use for medium
or high production has hardly been analyzed and much less tested
in real cases. From the existing renewable energies for coupling
with a SWRO system, wind energy is the most cost-effective option.
If adequate wind resources are not available, the use of solar thermal
energy is recommended. If electricity generation is not demanded, it
is recommended to drive the SWRO by means of a solar organic Ran-
kine cycle. In both cases, wind and solar thermal powered desalina-
tion, a key factor is to design an energy efficient desalination plant
with minimal energy consumption.
7
Considering a future scenario with scarcity or flashing in the fossil
fuel supply, it becomes necessary to obtain the required energy for
seawater desalination from other alternative energy sources. Within
this context, the availability of efficient and reliable designs of RO
plants driven by renewable energies for medium to large capacity de-
salination is essential for the sustainable development.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the European Commission for their fi-
nancial assistance with the POWERSOL project — Mechanical power
generation based on solar heat engines (FP6-INCO2004-MPC3-
032344) within the International Cooperation Activities Programme.
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