THE NATURE OF
 Furthermore, philosophy is not confined to the
PHILOSOPHY
I. SOME COMMON MEANINGS
Ordinary meanings given to philosophy:
1. It refers generally to ideas, views, principles,
perspectives, or beliefs held either by
individuals or groups of individuals, regardless
of the specific nature (religious, cultural,
scientific, historical, or psychological, among
others) of these ideas, views, principles,
perspectives, or beliefs.
2. The activity of the philosopher—literally
translated in Filipino as “pilosopo”—being one
who engages in reasoning for the purposes of
covering up an obvious truth, annoying
someone, and engaging someone in an
unwelcome argumentation.
3. It refers to an academic subject or course that is
taught usually in colleges, universities and
seminaries. In this course, one usually studies
reasoning skills and different theories about the
nature of reality, morality, society and justice,
religious beliefs, and knowledge, among others.
These meanings indicate that philosophy has become
part of our everyday lives, but are only partially correct.
 First, philosophy does involve the activity of
reasoning, but philosophy distinguishes
between correct and incorrect forms of
reasoning, and engages in this activity only for
the purpose of knowing or determining what is
true.
 Second, philosophy does involve or refer to
ideas, beliefs, principles, and the like, but
philosophy deals with them on a certain level,
when they serve as frameworks or bases for
interpreting or making judgments about the
world.
 Third, philosophy, as an academic course, does
study reasoning skills and the nature of
morality, knowledge, social justice, and others,
but philosophy studies much more.
academe for it is primarily an activity that we
can do in various aspects of our life rather than
as a mere set of theories that we can study.
II. LOVE OF WISDOM
Etymologically, philosophy comes from the two Greek
words ‘philo’ and ‘sophia’. The former means love while
the latter wisdom. The original meaning of philosophy,
therefore, is love of wisdom. A philosopher,
consequently, is a lover of wisdom, or one who loves
wisdom.
Based on its etymological meaning, philosophy, first and
foremost, is a kind of love, one that is directed at
wisdom. Being characterized as love, the philosopher
pursues wisdom with great passion and seriousness.
Being a lover of wisdom, a philosopher aims to become
wise. So now, who is a wise person?
1. A wise person is one who is aware of (or who
knows) what he knows and what he does not
know.
2. A wise person holds beliefs that are not only
true but which he can also justify.
3. A wise person knows a lot about things that are
valuable in life.
4. A wise person can put his knowledge to
practical use.
5. A wise person does not only know what is true,
but also knows what is good or what ought to
be done in a given situation and acts
accordingly.
III. ASKING FRAMEWORK QUESTIONS
Philosophy is sometimes described as the umbrella
discipline, for most, if not all, of the other disciplines,
used to be under it. Philosophy is also sometimes called
the queen of the sciences for the different sciences,
both natural and social, originated from philosophy.
Today’s empirical or natural sciences were used to be
called “natural philosophies.” Isaac Newton called his
scientific research as a work in natural philosophy.
One distinct feature of philosophy is the kind of
questioning it asks about the many things it discusses.
Some philosophers refer to these questions as
framework questions, or sometimes as foundational
questions.
Science: What are the causes of earthquakes?
Philosophy: What is the nature of causation?
Mathematical: What is two and two?
Philosophy: What are numbers? Are mathematical rules
based on human agreement?
Legal question: Is Pedro free to use public funds for his
personal use?
Philosophical: Is Pedro free in his action of using public
funds for his personal use?
A historian may ask what happened at some
time in the past, but a philosopher will ask,
“What is time?” A mathematician may
investigate the relations among numbers, but a
philosopher will ask, “What is a number? A
physicist will ask what atoms are made of or
what explains gravity, but a philosopher will ask
how we can know there is anything outside of
our own minds. A psychologist may investigate
how children learn a language, but a
philosopher will ask, “What makes a word mean
anything?” Anyone can ask whether it’s wrong
to sneak into a movie without paying, but a
philosopher will asks, “What makes an action
right or wrong?”
(Thomas Nagel, 1987,
5)
IV. PHILOSOPHY AS AN ACTIVITY
There are two ways of understanding the nature of
philosophy according to Ludwig Wittgenstein: 1) as a
collection of theories; 2) as an activity
The first studies the end-products of philosophizing; the
second engages in the very process of philosophizing.
Philosophy studied as an activity emphasizes the
features of philosophy as dynamic, critical and creative
discipline.
It is dynamic because it does not stop at certain results;
it continues to search for new and better solutions to
the problems, old and new, that it deals with.
Philosophy’s search for truth is continuous process.
It is critical because it examines and analyzes the
assumptions of our frameworks or perspectives of
things, including those frameworks provided by
philosophy itself (philosophy as self-critical discipline).
It is creative because it leads us to the formulation of
new and better frameworks or perspectives.

V. KINDS OF PHILOSOPHY

Accordingly, the various kinds of philosophy can be classified into five general types; namely:

1. The Thematic Types: under this classification are the kinds of philosophy that are distinguished from one another
according to the topic of the issues being addressed (Branches of philosophy), and to the disciplines or areas of
learning whose foundations are being examined (Disciplinal philosophies).

BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY (Traditional) Concern Question

Ethics Study of action What ought I do?
Metaphysics Study of existence What is being?
Epistemology Study of knowledge What can I know?
Aesthetics Study of art/beauty What is beautiful?
Logic Study of reasoning What is correct inference?
Politics Study of power What makes a just society

DISCIPLINAL PHILOSOPHY
  Philosophy of literature
 Philosophy of education
 Philosophy of mathematics
 Philosophy of law
 Philosophy of artificial intelligence
 Philosophy of history
 Philosophy of the social sciences
 Philosophy of psychology
 Philosophy of biology
 Philosophy of music
 Philosophy of sports
 Philosophy of economics

2. The Positional Types: under this classification are the kinds of philosophy that are distinguished from one
another according to the solution that is being proposed for a certain issue. (philosophical schools of thought or
philosophical views)

EXAMPLES OF PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT OR PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS

Branch of Philosophy PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS

Ethics Consequentialism, Deontology, Virtue Ethics
Metaphysics Materialism, Idealism, Dualism, Monism, Pluralism
Epistemology Rationalism, Empiricism, Critical Philosophy, Pragmatism
Aesthetics Platonic Aesthetics, Humean Aesthetics, Kantian Aesthetics,
Postmodern Aesthetics, Feminist Aesthetics
Logic Intensional Logic, Extensional Logic, Aristotelian Logic, Mathematical
Logic
Politics Socialism, Liberalism, Capitalism, Social Contractarianism

3. The Methodological Types: under this classification are the kinds of philosophy that are distinguished from one
another according to the method used to resolve a certain issue. (philosophical movements, approaches, and
traditions)

EXAMPLES OF PHILOSOPHICAL MOVEMENTS (APPROACHES/TRADITIONS)

 Analytic philosophy – uses the methods of linguistic analysis, logical analysis, and conceptual analysis
 Phenomenology – uses the methods of bracketing of presuppositions or suspension of judgments and direct
experiential analysis
 Hermeneutics – uses different forms of textual analysis as methods of interpretation
 Marxism – uses methods of historical and dialectical materialism
 Existentialism – uses the method of existential analysis or analysis that relates the question of life’s meaning
 Feminism – uses the method of gender analysis or analysis that considers the issue of gender inequality
 Postmodernism – uses the methods of deconstruction and power analysis (or analysis of power structures)

4. The Regional (or Geographical) Types: under this classification are the kinds of philosophy that are distinguished
from one another according to the geographical location in which philosophizing transpires or flourishes.
(Western and Eastern Philosophy)

REGIONAL OR GEORAPHICAL TYPES

Western Philosophy Eastern Philosophy
National Philosophies
Examples: Examples:
German Philosophy Indian Philosophy
French Philosophy Chinese Philosophy
Greek Philosophy Japanese Philosophy
British Philosophy Filipino Philosophy
American Philosophy

5. The Historical Types: under this classification are the kinds of philosophy that are distinguished from one another
according to the historical period in which philosophizing occurred. (Ancient, Medieval, Modern, Contemporary
—West; Vedic, Epic, Sutra, Commentary, Renaissance—East)

HISTORICAL PERIODS OF PHILOSOPHY

West East
Ancient Philosophy (600 BCE – 600 CE) Cosmocentric view (Indian Philosophy)
Medieval Philosophy (600 – 1500 AD) Theocentric view Vedic period
Modern Philosophy (1500 – 1900) Anthropocentric view Epic period
Contemporary (Postmodern) Philosophy Existential view Sutra period
Commentary period
Renaissance period

VI. THE CHARGE OF FUTILITY

Two main reasons behind the charge that philosophy is a futile activity:
1. The indefiniteness of philosophy with regard to answers that it provides to philosophical questions
2. Impracticality of philosophy

Philosophy is unlike science, which provides definite answers to the questions that it deals with; and through its
inventions and technologies, provides us with more efficient ways of satisfying our material and survival needs.

VII. THE IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY

1. Most scientific questions did not start out as scientific questions. They started out as philosophical questions,
questions that were thought to be indefinitely answerable.

When philosophy deals with the unscientific questions (the indefinitely answerable questions), one primary goal is
precisely to determine whether such questions can eventually become scientific—whether they could be eventually
answered in some definite way.

In short, philosophy does the preliminary work for science in finding definite answers to certain questions. And so, if we
value science for the definiteness of its answers to the questions that it deals with, the more we should value philosophy
for making it possible for science to deal with such questions.

2. The charge that philosophy is an exercise in futility because of its impracticality is mistaken in two following ways. First,
it is simply wrong to limit what is valuable in life to the satisfaction of our material or practical concerns. Our nonphysical
needs, the needs of our mind, are equally valuable. If our material needs concern our physical existence and survival, our
nonmaterial needs concern the quality of our life and human relations. Second, it is also wrong to think that philosophy,
though focused on addressing our mental needs, cannot contribute to how we can best satisfy our material needs.
Satisfying our material needs would also require adequate reasoning skills, which can be provided by philosophy.
- Bertrand Russell

VIII. SOME MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS OF PHILOSOPHY 1. It supplements scientific explanations to come

up with holistic explanations.
 2. It contributes to the development of some 1. Primary reflection: breaks the unity of
disciplines. experience; instrument of scientific knowledge;
3. It provides ethical guidelines for the use of its answers and judgments are objective;
modern technology. interested with that which is outside of me or
4. It contributes to social transformation. before me; dissects the experience into parts. It
5. It expounds the boundaries of knowledge.
dissolves the unity of the experience by
emphasizing the parts, rather than approaching
IX. PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION
it as a whole (the dissolution of the whole into
Reflection, in everyday language, is used to refer to parts).
being engaged in thought, daydreaming, or
recollecting/remembering an event in our minds. 2. Secondary reflection: is synthetic; it unifies
Reflections can never be separated from life. The rather than divides. It is the instrument of
concern of reflection is everyday life, in which it is philosophical reflection; concerned with that
embedded. which is in me, which I am, or with those areas
where the distinctions “in me” and “before me”
Part of essentially being human is the capacity not only tend to break down; it attempts to recuperate
to live with hardly any self-awareness, but to experience the unity of the original experience. This is the
life in a reflective way. attempt to see the parts in relation to the
whole—to interpret the parts with the whole in
Only the human person is capable of questioning its
sight.
very existence. (Martin Heidegger)
Secondary reflection recognizes my incomprehensibility,
Reflection begins through a break from everyday
the refusal of myself to be reduced to categories but still
concerns and from everyday life. It is a discontinuity, or
referred by these categories. In here is the recognition
a jarring disturbance, in one’s experience. Reflection
of the mysterious I, a subject beyond my
recalls and reexamines experience in order to
comprehension.
understand and comprehend experience. In this sense,
experience transforms itself into reflection.

X. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REFLECTION

“…that reflection is still part of life, that it is one of the

ways in which life manifests itself, or, more profoundly,
that it is in a sense one of life’s way of rising from one
level to another.”

“If I take experience as merely a sort of passive

recording of impressions, I shall never manage to
understand how the reflective process could be
integrated with experience. On the other hand, the
more we grasp the notion of experience in its proper
complexity, in its active and I would even dare to say in
its dialectical aspects, the better we shall understand
how experience cannot fail to transform itself into
reflection, and we shall even have the right to say that
the more richly it is experience, the more, also, it is
reflection.” (Gabriel Marcel)

Two kinds of reflection of which Gabriel Marcel speaks: