Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
1
Introduction
Steel has made possible some of the grandest structures both in
the past and in the present days
Transmission towers
Industrial buildings
Bridges
Storage structures
Water tanks
Anatomy
Beams
Columns
Floors
Bracing
Systems
Foundation
Connections
3
Syllabus
Module 1: Introduction:
Steel as Structural Material; Advantages and disadvantages of
steel; Types of sections , I. S. Rolled Sections; Material
Overview, Basis for Structural Design; Loadings and Load
Combinations
Module 2: Connections:
Types of Connections, Bolted Connections; Advantages and
disadvantages of bolted joints Design of bolted connections;
Efficiency and design of joints; Welded Connections;
Advantages and disadvantages of welded joints, Design of
welded connections; Fillet and butt welds, Plug and slot welds
4
Module 3: Eccentric Connections
Types of eccentric connections, Bolted and weld connections,
load lying in plane of joint, load lying perpendicular to the plane
of joint, Design of eccentric connection using bolts and welds
5
Module 5: Compression Members
Types of failures, Strength calculation ; slenderness ratio, Design of
compression member; Design of eccentrically loaded compression
member; Built-up compression members; Design of built-up
compression members; Design of lacing system; Design of batten
plate
7
Text Books/References
Design of Steel Structures
by Elias G. Abu-Saba
– CBS Publishers and Distributors
Design of steel structures
by E.H. Gaylord, C.N. Gaylord
& J.E. Stallmeyer – McGraw Hill.
Structural Steel work: Analysis and Design
by S. S. Ray – Blackwell Science
8
Codes
Code of practice for general construction in
steel IS: 800 - 2007
Handbook for structural engineers
SP: 6(1) – 1964 (Reaffirmed 2003)
IS 808 : 1989 (Reaffirmed 2004)
Steel Tables of any standard publication.
10
ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS
I-Section
11
Channel – Sections
Indian Standard Junior Channel (ISJC) – JC
Indian Standard Light Channel (ISLC) – LC
Indian Standard Medium Weight (ISMC) – MC
Indian Standard parallel flange Channel (ISMCP)-MCP
12
Angle – Sections
Indian Standard Equal Angel (ISA)
13
Angle section
Tee – Sections
Indian Standard Normal Tee Bars (ISNT) – ISNT – NT
Indian Standard Deep Tee Bars (ISDT) – ISDT – DT
Indian Standard Light Tee Bars (ISLT) –ISLT – LT
Indian Standard Medium Tee Bars (ISNT) –ISMT – MT
Indian Standard Heavy Tee Bars (ISHT) –ISHT – HT
15
Rolled Steel Bar Section
Indian Standard Round Section-ISRO
16
Rolled Steel Sections are designated as follows
ISRO100 means a round section of diameter 100mm,
while ISSQ50 means a square section each side of
which is 50mm.
100mm 50mm
17
Rolled Steel sheets & strip
Indian Standard Steel Sheet Section- ISSH-SH
Indian Standard Steel Strip Section- ISST-ST
18
Square hollow section
Hollow section pipe
19
STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL
MATERIAL
1
Advantages of steel design
3
Chemical composition of steel:
Steel is an alloy which mainly contains iron and carbon. Apart from
the carbon a small percentage of manganese, silicon, phosphorus,
nickel and copper are also added to modify the specific properties of
the steel.
Chemical composition of structural steel (IS 2062-1992 & IS 8500)
Grade C Mn S P Si Carbon
Equivalent
Fe410WA 0.23 1.50 0.050 0.050 0.40 0.42
Fe410WB 0.22 1.50 0.045 0.045 0.40 0.41
Fe410WC 0.20 1.50 0.040 0.040 0.40 0.39
Fe 440 0.20 1.30 0.05(0.04) 0.05(0.04) 0.45 0.40
Fe 490 0.20 1.50 0.05(0.04) 0.05(0.04) 0.45 0.42
Fe 590 0.22 1.80 0.045(0.04) 0.045(0.04) 0.45 0.48
Notes:
1. Carbon Equivalent = (C+Mn)/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Ni+Cu)/15
2. The terms in the bracket denotes the maximum limit for the flat products. 4
Types of structural steel:
Different structural steel can be produced based on the
necessity by changing slightly the chemical composition and
manufacturing process.
6
Structural Steel
The steel used for structural works shall confirm to IS 2062 :
2011 (Hot Rolled Medium and High Tensile Structural Steel).
Most Commonly used grade is Fe 410.
Followings are few physical properties of structural steel (As
per clause 2.2.4.1 of IS 800 : 2007):
Unit mass of steel, ρ = 7850 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity, E = 2.0 × 105 N/mm2
Poisson’s ratio, µ = 0.3
Modulus of rigidity, G = 0.769 × 105 N/mm2
Co-efficient of thermal expansion, α= 12 × 10-6 /oc
Mechanical properties:
Following are the most important mechanical properties that are
frequently used in design of steel structures.
Yield stress, fy
Ultimate stress, fu
Minimum percentage elongation
These properties can be obtained by performing tensile tests of the steel
sample.
11
Stress-strain curve for mild steel
Stress-Strain diagram for steel specimen is generally plotted by
performing tensile test, in which a specimen having gauge length
L0 and initial cross sectional area A0 is taken.
E
fu
Cʹ
F
fy Stress, f B
C D
A
O
Strain, ɛ
12
Part OA- In this region the stress is proportional to strain, and is called the
limit of proportionality.
Part AB- After reaching ‘A’, change in strain is rapid compared to that of
stress but still the material behaves elastically up to elastic limit ‘B’.
Cʹ - represents the upper yield point
C - represents the lower yield point.
Part CD- Beyond yield point the material starts flowing plastically without
any significant increase in the stress and material undergoes large
deformation.
Part DE- After reaching point ‘D’, the strain hardening in the material begins
which necessitates requirement of higher load to continue deformation. This
phenomenon is called ‘strain hardening’.
E represents the ultimate stress fu.
Part EF- When the stress reaches point ‘E’ that is the stress corresponding to
the ultimate stress, the necking in material begins.
F - represents breaking stress – the stress corresponding to the breaking load.
13
LIMIT STATE DESIGN
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
Stability Against
Sway Stability
Overturning
Limit State of Strength:
These are associated with the failure of the structure under the action
of worst possible combination of loads along with proper partial
safety factor that may lead to loss of life and property. As provided
in IS 800: 2007, Limit state of strength includes –
• Loss of equilibrium of the structure as a whole or in part.
• Loss of stability of the structure.
• Failure due to excess deformation or rupture.
• Fracture due to fatigue.
• Brittle fracture.
Limit State Serviceability
Check for
Serviceability
Limit States
These are associated with the discomfort faced by the user while
using the structure.
• Excess deflection or deformation of the structure.
• Excess vibration of the structure causing discomfort to the
commuters.
• Repairable damage or crack generated due to fatigue.
• Corrosion and durability
Partial Safety Factor for Load
(Clause 5.3.3, Table 4, IS 800: 2007)
𝑄𝑑 = 𝛾𝑓𝑘 𝑄𝑐𝑘
𝑘
Where, 𝛾𝑓 = the partial safety factor for kth load or load effect, 𝑄𝑐
= Characteristic load or load effect, 𝑄𝑑 = Design load or load
effect.
Note
Characteristic values (loads/stresses) are defined as the values
that are not expected to be exceeded within the life of the
structure with more than 5% probability.
Class 1
Plastic
Class 3
Semi-Compact
Load and Load Combinations
𝑝𝑧 = 0.6𝑉𝑧2
1
Fabrication of structures between following
members:
Methods of Fabrications:
Rivet Joints
Bolt Joints
Weld Joints
The combinations of two or three of the above
3
Requirements of good connection
4
RIVET CONNECTION
Rivet Head
Head Diameter
Shank
Nominal Diameter
5
Advantages of Riveted connections
Ease of riveting process.
Rivet connection is permanent in nature
Cheaper fabrication cost.
Low maintenance cost.
Dissimilar metals can also be joined, even non-metallic joints
are possible with riveted joints.
Rivet connection is possible without electricity in remote area
Disadvantages of Rivet Connection:
(i) Necessity of pre-heating the rivets prior to driving
(ii) High level of noise
(iii)Skilled work necessary for inspection of connection
(iv)Cost involved in careful inspection and removal of poorly
installed rivets
(v)Labor cost is high
7
Rivet
1.6d 2d
0.7d 0.25d
Length Length
d
d
Snap Head
Flat head
9
Assumption:
1. Friction between the plates is neglected.
2. The shear stress is uniform on the cross section of
the rivet.
3. The distribution of direct stress on the portion of the
plates between the rivet holes is uniform.
4. Rivets in group subjected to direct loads share the
load equally.
5. Bending stress in the rivet is neglected.
6. Rivets fill completely the holes in which they are
driven
7. Bearing stress distribution is uniform and contact
area is d × t
10
BOLT CONNECTION
Clause 2.4: Bolts, nuts
and washers shall
conform as
appropriate to:
IS 1363-1967, IS 1364-
1967, IS 1367-1967, IS
3640-1967, IS 3757-
1972, IS 6623-1972 and
IS 6639-1972
Advantages:
• Less Manpower
• High strength bolts are much stronger than
rivet. Hence, bolted connections need less
fasteners than rivet joints
• Bolting operation is much faster
• Bolting operation is very silent in contrast to
hammering noise in riveting
• Bolting is a cold process; No risk of fire
• Architectural look
TYPES OF BOLT
• According to material and strength
(i) Ordinary structural bolt
(ii) High strength steel bolt
• According to Type of Shank
(i) Unfinished or black bolt
(ii) Turned bolt
(iii) High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolt
• According to pitch and fit of thread
(i) Standard pitch bolt
(ii) Fine pitch bolt
(iii) Coarse pitch bolt
• According to shape of head and nut
(i) Square bolt
(ii) Hexagonal bolt
Terminology
Pitch, p Pitch is the centre to centre distance of adjacent rivets or bolt holes
measured in the direction of stress.
Minimum pitch: 2.5 d (clause 10.2.2)
To prevent bearing failure between two bolts
Sufficient space to tighten bolts
16
Terminology
Maximum pitch: Desirable to place bolts sufficiently closed (clause 10.2.3)
(1) To reduce length of connection and gusset plate
(2) To have uniform stress
(Distance between two consecutive bolts) < 16 t or 200 mm in tension
< 12 t or 200 mm in compression
(Distance between two adjacent bolts) < 32 t or 300 mm
Edge distance, e The distance between the edge of a member or cover plate
from the centre of the nearest rivet/bolt hole.
17
Nominal diameter, d It is the diameter of the shank of the
rivet. For bolts the diameter of the unthreaded portion of the
shank is called its nominal diameter.
For rivet:
As per clause 3.6.1.1 of IS 800:1984
D = d + 1.5 mm for d < 25mm
= d + 2 mm for d 25mm
18
For Bolt:
Minimum and maximum edge distance and end distance are given in
clause 10.2.4.2 and 10.2.4.3
The minimum edge/end distances > 1.7 times the hole diameter
(In case of sheared or hand-flame cut edges)
> 1.5 times the hole diameter
(In case of rolled, machine-flame cut, sawn and planed edges.)
Bolt hole = bolt diameter + clearances of hole (Clause 10.2.1, Table 19)
12-14 1 3 4 2.5 d
16-22 2 4 6 2.5 d
24 2 6 8 2.5 d
>24 3 8 10 2.5 d
INTRODUCTION TO
BOLT CONNECTIONS
1
TYPES OF JOINTS
2
TYPES OF BOLT JOINTS
(i) Depending upon arrangement of bolts and plates
Lap Joint
Single line bolting
Chain bolting
Staggered or zig-zag bolting
Butt Joint
Single bolting
Chain bolting
Staggered or zig-zag bolting
3
Bolting pattern
Chain bolting
Zig-Zag bolting
Diamond bolting
(i) Depending upon arrangement of bolts and plates
Single bolted Lap Joint:
5
TYPES OF BOLT JOINTS
(ii) Depending upon the mode of load transmission
(a)Single shear
(b)Double shear
(c) Multiple shear
6
(ii) Depending upon the mode of load transmission
7
TYPES OF BOLT JOINTS
(iii) Depending upon nature and location of load
8
(a) Direct shear connection
9
(b) Eccentric connection
10
(c) Pure moment connection
11
(d) Moment shear connection
12
The following are the failure modes of a bolted joint:
14
Things to remember for bolted connections:
•Stress concentration results in a considerable decrement
in the tensile strength.
•Loose fit of the joint can reduce the stiffness which may
result in excessive deflections.
C
A