History of the electric vehicle

Electric vehicles first appeared in

the mid-19th century. An electric
vehicle held the vehicular land
speed record until around 1900.
The high cost, low top speed, and
short range of battery electric
vehicles, compared to later internal
combustion engine vehicles, led to
a worldwide decline in their use;
although electric vehicles have
continued to be used in the form of
Modern mass market all-electric passenger cars. Clockwise from upper left: Nissan Leaf, Tesla Model S, BMW i3 and Tesla Roadster
electric trains and other niche uses.

At the beginning of the 21st

century, interest in electric and other alternative fuel vehicles has increased due to growing concern over the problems associated with hydrocarbon-fueled vehicles, including damage to the
environment caused by their emissions, and the sustainability of the current hydrocarbon-based transportation infrastructure as well as improvements in electric vehicle technology. Since
2010, combined sales of all-electric cars and utility vans achieved 1 million units delivered globally in September 2016,[1] and combined global sales of light-duty all-electrics and plug-in
hybrids passed 5 million in December 2018.[2][3]

Contents
Early history
Electric model cars
Electric locomotives
First practical electric cars
Golden age
Decline
1960s: Revival of interest
2000s: Modern highway-capable electric cars
2010s to present
Electric bicycle
Select historical production vehicles
See also
References
External links

Early history

Electric model cars

The invention of the first model electric vehicle is attributed to various people.[4] In 1828, Ányos Jedlik invented an early type of electric motor, and created a small model car powered by
his new motor. In 1834, Vermont blacksmith Thomas Davenport built a similar contraption which operated on a short, circular, electrified track.[5] In 1834, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of
Groningen, the Netherlands and his assistant Christopher Becker created a small-scale electric car, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.[6]

Electric locomotives
The first known electric locomotive was built in 1837, in Scotland by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen. It was powered by galvanic cells (batteries). Davidson later built a larger
locomotive named Galvani, exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841. The 7,100-kilogram (7-long-ton) vehicle had two direct-drive reluctance motors, with fixed
electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a wooden cylinder on each axle, and simple commutators. It hauled a load of 6,100 kilograms (6 long tons) at 6.4 kilometres per hour (4 mph)
for a distance of 2.4 km (1.5 miles). It was tested on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway in September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use.
It was destroyed by railway workers, who saw it as a threat to their security of employment.[7][8][9][10]

Between 1832 and 1839, Scottish inventor Robert Anderson also invented a crude electric carriage.[11] A patent for the use of rails as conductors of electric current was granted in England
in 1840, and similar patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in the United States in 1847.[12]

First practical electric cars

Rechargeable batteries that provided a viable means for storing electricity on board a vehicle did not come into being until 1859, with the invention of the lead–acid battery by French
physicist Gaston Planté.[13][14] Camille Alphonse Faure, another French scientist, significantly improved the design of the battery in 1881; his improvements greatly increased the capacity
of such batteries and led directly to their manufacture on an industrial scale.[15]
An early electric-powered two-wheel cycle was put on display at the 1867 World Exposition in Paris by the Austrian inventor Franz
Kravogl, but it was regarded as a curiosity and could not drive reliably in the street.[16] Another cycle, this time with three wheels, was
tested along a Paris street in April 1881 by French inventor Gustave Trouvé [17]

English inventor Thomas Parker, who was responsible for innovations such as electrifying the London Underground, overhead tramways in
Liverpool and Birmingham, and the smokeless fuel coalite, built the first production electric car in London in 1884, using his own specially
designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries.[18] Parker's long-held interest in the construction of more fuel-efficient vehicles led him to
experiment with electric vehicles. He also may have been concerned about the malign effects smoke and pollution were having in
London.[19] Electric car built by Thomas Parker,
photo from 1895
Production of the car was in the hands of the Elwell-Parker Company, established in 1882 for the construction and sale of electric trams. The
company merged with other rivals in 1888 to form the Electric Construction Corporation; this company had a virtual monopoly on the
British electric car market in the 1890s. The company manufactured the first electric 'dog cart' in 1896.[20]

France and the United Kingdom were the first nations to support the widespread development of electric vehicles.[11] The first electric car in
Germany was built by the engineer Andreas Flocken in 1888.[21]

Electric trains were also used to transport coal out of mines, as their motors did not use up precious oxygen. Before the pre-eminence of
internal combustion engines, electric automobiles also held many speed and distance records.[22] Among the most notable of these records
was the breaking of the 100 km/h (62 mph) speed barrier, by Camille Jenatzy on 29 April 1899 in his 'rocket-shaped' vehicle Jamais
Contente, which reached a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph). Also notable was Ferdinand Porsche's design and construction of an all-
wheel drive electric car, powered by a motor in each hub, which also set several records in the hands of its owner E.W. Hart. Flocken Elektrowagen, 1888
(reconstruction, 2011)
The first electric car in the United States was developed in 1890-91 by William Morrison of Des Moines, Iowa; the vehicle was a six-
passenger wagon capable of reaching a speed of 23 kilometres per hour (14 mph). It was not until 1895 that consumers began to devote
attention to electric vehicles, after A.L. Ryker introduced the first electric tricycles to the U.S.[23], by which point Europeans had been
making use of electric tricycles, bicycles, and cars for almost 15 years.

Golden age
Interest in motor vehicles increased greatly in the late 1890s and early 1900s. Electric battery-powered taxis became available at the end of
the 19th century. In London, Walter C. Bersey designed a fleet of such cabs and introduced them to the streets of London in 1897. They
were soon nicknamed "Hummingbirds" due to the idiosyncratic humming noise they made.[24] In the same year in New York City, the
Samuel's Electric Carriage and Wagon Company began running 12 electric hansom cabs.[25] The company ran until 1898 with up to 62 cabs
operating until it was reformed by its financiers to form the Electric Vehicle Company.[26] Columbia Electric's (1896-99)
"Victoria" electric cab on
Electric vehicles had a number of advantages over their early-1900s competitors. They did not have the vibration, smell, and noise Pennsylvania Ave., Washington D.C.,
seen from Lafayette Park in 1905.
associated with gasoline cars. They also did not require gear changes. (While steam-powered cars also had no gear shifting, they suffered
from long start-up times of up to 45 minutes on cold mornings.) The cars were also preferred because they did not require a manual effort to
start, as did gasoline cars which featured a hand crank to start the engine.

Electric cars found popularity among well-heeled customers who used them as city cars, where their limited range proved to be even less of
a disadvantage. Electric cars were often marketed as suitable vehicles for women drivers due to their ease of operation; in fact, early electric
cars were stigmatized by the perception that they were "women's cars", leading some companies to affix radiators to the front to disguise the
car's propulsion system.

Acceptance of electric cars was initially hampered by a lack of power infrastructure, but by 1912, many homes were wired for electricity,
enabling a surge in the popularity of the cars. In the United States by the turn of the century, 40 percent of automobiles were powered by
steam, 38 percent by electricity, and 22 percent by gasoline. A total of 33,842 electric cars were registered in the United States, and the U.S. German electric car, 1904, with the
became the country where electric cars had gained the most acceptance.[27] Most early electric vehicles were massive, ornate carriages chauffeur on top
designed for the upper-class customers that made them popular. They featured luxurious interiors and were replete with expensive materials.
Sales of electric cars peaked in the early 1910s.

In order to overcome the limited operating range of electric vehicles, and the lack of recharging infrastructure, an exchangeable battery
service was first proposed as early as 1896.[28] The concept was first put into practice by Hartford Electric Light Company through the
GeVeCo battery service and initially available for electric trucks. The vehicle owner purchased the vehicle from General Vehicle Company
(GVC, a subsidiary of the General Electric Company) without a battery and the electricity was purchased from Hartford Electric through an
exchangeable battery. The owner paid a variable per-mile charge and a monthly service fee to cover maintenance and storage of the truck.
Both vehicles and batteries were modified to facilitate a fast battery exchange. The service was provided between 1910 and 1924 and during
that period covered more than 6 million miles. Beginning in 1917 a similar successful service was operated in Chicago for owners of
Milburn Wagon Company cars who also could buy the vehicle without the batteries.[28]
Thomas Edison and an electric car in
1913
Decline
After enjoying success at the beginning of the 20th century, the electric car began to lose its position in the automobile market. A number of
developments contributed to this situation. By the 1920s an improved road infrastructure required vehicles with a greater range than that offered by electric cars. Worldwide discoveries of
large petroleum reserves led to the wide availability of affordable gasoline, making gas-powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances. Electric cars were limited to urban use by their
slow speed (no more than 24–32 km/h or 15–20 mph[27]) and low range (50–65 km or 30–40 miles[27]), and gasoline cars were now able to travel farther and faster than equivalent electrics.

Gasoline cars became even easier to operate thanks to the invention of the electric starter by Charles Kettering in 1912,[29] which eliminated the need of a hand crank for starting a gasoline
engine, and the noise emitted by ICE cars became more bearable thanks to the use of the muffler, which Milton O. Reeves and Marshall T. Reeves had invented in 1897. Finally, the
initiation of mass production of gas-powered vehicles by Henry Ford brought their price down.[30] By contrast, the price of similar electric vehicles continued to rise; by 1912, an electric car
sold for almost double the price of a gasoline car.[11]

Most electric car makers stopped production at some point in the 1910s. Electric vehicles became popular for certain applications where
their limited range did not pose major problems. Forklift trucks were electrically powered when they were introduced by Yale in 1923.[31] In
Europe, especially the United Kingdom, milk floats were powered by electricity, and for most of the 20th century the majority of the world's
battery electric road vehicles were British milk floats.[32] Electric golf carts were produced by Lektro as early as 1954.[33] By the 1920s, the
early heyday of electric cars had passed, and a decade later, the electric automobile industry had effectively disappeared. Michael Brian
examines the social and technological reasons for the failure of electric cars in his book Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in
America.[34]
1912 Detroit Electric advertisement
Years passed without a major revival in the use of electric cars. Fuel-starved European countries fighting in World War II experimented with
electric cars such as the British milk floats and the French Breguet Aviation car, but overall, while ICE development progressed at a brisk
pace, electric vehicle technology stagnated. In the late 1950s, Henney Coachworks and the National Union Electric Company, makers of
Exide batteries, formed a joint venture to produce a new electric car, the Henney Kilowatt, based on the French Renault Dauphine. The car
was produced in 36-volt and 72-volt configurations; the 72-volt models had a top speed approaching 96 km/h (60 mph) and could travel for
nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the Kilowatt's improved performance with respect to previous electric cars, consumers found it
too expensive compared to equivalent gasoline cars of the time, and production ended in 1961.

1960s: Revival of interest

East German electric vans of the
In 1959, American Motors Corporation (AMC) and Sonotone Corporation announced a joint research effort to consider producing an Deutsche Post in 1953
electric car powered by a "self-charging" battery.[35] AMC had a reputation for innovation in economical cars while Sonotone had
technology for making sintered plate nickel-cadmium batteries that could be recharged rapidly and weighed less than traditional lead-acid
versions.[36] That same year, Nu-Way Industries showed an experimental electric car with a one-piece plastic body that was to begin
production in early 1960.[35]

In the mid 1960s a few battery-electric concept cars appeared, such as the Scottish Aviation Scamp (1965),[37] and an electric version of
General Motors gasoline car, the Electrovair (1966).[38] None of them entered production. The 1966 Enfield 8000 did make it into small-
scale production, 112 were eventually produced.[39]In 1967, AMC partnered with Gulton Industries to develop a new battery based on
lithium and a speed controller designed by Victor Wouk.[40] A nickel-cadmium battery supplied power to an all-electric 1969 Rambler
American station wagon.[40] Other "plug-in" experimental AMC vehicles developed with Gulton included the Amitron (1967) and the
similar Electron (1977). The Henney Kilowatt, a 1961
production electric car
On 31 July 1971, an electric car received the unique distinction of becoming the first manned vehicle to drive on the Moon; that car was the
Lunar Roving Vehicle, which was first deployed during the Apollo 15 mission. The "Moon buggy" was developed by Boeing and GM
subsidiary Delco Electronics (co-founded by Kettering)[29] featured a DC drive motor in each wheel, and a pair of 36-volt silver-zinc
potassium hydroxide non-rechargeable batteries.

After years outside the limelight, the energy crises of the 1970s and 1980s brought about renewed interest in the perceived independence
electric cars had from the fluctuations of the hydrocarbon energy market. General Motors created a concept car of another of their gasoline
cars, the Electrovette (1976). At the 1990 Los Angeles Auto Show, General Motors President Roger Smith unveiled the GM Impact electric
concept car, along with the announcement that GM would build electric cars for sale to the public.
Three Lunar Roving Vehicles are
In the early 1990s, the California Air Resources Board (CARB), the government of California's "clean air agency", began a push for more
currently parked on the Moon
fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal being a move to zero-emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles.[41][42] In
response, automakers developed electric models, including the Chrysler TEVan, Ford Ranger EV pickup truck, GM EV1 and S10 EV
pickup, Honda EV Plus hatchback, Nissan lithium-battery Altra EV miniwagon and Toyota RAV4 EV. The automakers were accused of
pandering to the wishes of CARB in order to continue to be allowed to sell cars in the lucrative Californian market, while failing to
adequately promote their electric vehicles in order to create the impression that the consumers were not interested in the cars, all the while
joining oil industry lobbyists in vigorously protesting CARB's mandate.[42] GM's program came under particular scrutiny; in an unusual
move, consumers were not allowed to purchase EV1s, but were instead asked to sign closed-end leases, meaning that the cars had to be
returned to GM at the end of the lease period, with no option to purchase, despite leasee interest in continuing to own the cars.[42] Chrysler,
Toyota, and a group of GM dealers sued CARB in Federal court, leading to the eventual neutering of CARB's ZEV Mandate.

After public protests by EV drivers' groups upset by the repossession of their cars, Toyota offered the last 328 RAV4-EVs for sale to the
general public during six months, up until 22 November 2002. Almost all other production electric cars were withdrawn from the market The Honda EV Plus, one of the cars
introduced as a result of the CARB
and were in some cases seen to have been destroyed by their manufacturers.[42] Toyota continues to support the several hundred Toyota
ZEV mandate
RAV4-EV in the hands of the general public and in fleet usage. GM famously de-activated the few EV1s that were donated to engineering
schools and museums.[43]

Throughout the 1990s, interest in fuel-efficient or environmentally friendly cars declined among consumers in the United States, who instead favored sport utility vehicles, which were
affordable to operate despite their poor fuel efficiency thanks to lower gasoline prices. Domestic U.S. automakers chose to focus their product lines around the truck-based vehicles, which
enjoyed larger profit margins than the smaller cars which were preferred in places like Europe or Japan.

Most electric vehicles on the world roads are low-speed, low-range neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs). Pike Research estimated there were almost 479,000 NEVs on the world roads in
2011.[44] As of July 2006, there were between 60,000 and 76,000 low-speed battery-powered vehicles in use in the United States, up from about 56,000 in 2004.[45] North America's top
selling NEV is the Global Electric Motorcars (GEM) vehicles, with more than 50,000 units sold worldwide by mid 2014.[46] The world's two largest NEV markets in 2011 were the United
States, with 14,737 units sold, and France, with 2,231 units.[47] Other micro electric cars sold in Europe was the Kewet, since 1991, and replaced by the Buddy, launched in 2008.[48] Also
the Th!nk City was launched in 2008 but production was halted due to financial difficulties.[49] Production restarted in Finland in December 2009.[50] The Th!nk was sold in several
European countries and the U.S.[51][52] In June 2011 Think Global filed for bankruptcy and production was halted.[53] Worldwide sales reached 1,045 units by March 2011.[54] A total of
200,000 low-speed small electric cars were sold in China in 2013, most of which are powered by lead-acid batteries. These electric vehicles are not considered by the government as new
energy vehicles due to safety and environmental concerns, and consequently, do not enjoy the same benefits as highway legal plug-in electric cars.[55]
2000s: Modern highway-capable electric cars
California electric car maker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 on the Tesla Roadster, which was first delivered to customers in
2008.[56] The Roadster was the first highway legal serial production all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production
all-electric car to travel more than 320 km (200 miles) per charge.[57] Since 2008, Tesla sold approximately 2,450 Roadsters in over 30
countries through December 2012.[58] Tesla sold the Roadster until early 2012, when its supply of Lotus Elise gliders ran out, as its contract
with Lotus Cars for 2,500 gliders expired at the end of 2011.[59][60] Tesla stopped taking orders for the Roadster in the U.S. market in
August 2011,[61][62] and the 2012 Tesla Roadster was sold in limited numbers only in Europe, Asia and Australia.[63][64] Th!nk City and Buddy in Oslo,
Norway
The next Tesla vehicle, the Model S, was released in the U.S. on 22 June 2012[65] and the first delivery of a Model S to a retail customer in
Europe took place on 7 August 2013.[66] Deliveries in China began on 22 April 2014.[67] The next model was the Tesla Model X. In
November 2014 Tesla delayed one more time the start of deliveries to retail customers, and announced the company expects Model X
deliveries to begin in the third quarter of 2015.[68]

The Mitsubishi i-MiEV was launched in Japan for fleet customers in July 2009, and for individual customers in April 2010,[69][70][71]
followed by sales to the public in Hong Kong in May 2010, and Australia in July 2010 via leasing.[72][73] The i-MiEV was launched in
Europe in December 2010, including a rebadged version sold in Europe as Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-Zero.[74][75] The market launch in
the Americas began in Costa Rica in February 2011, followed by Chile in May 2011.[76][77] Fleet and retail customer deliveries in the U.S.
and Canada began in December 2011.[78][79][80] Accounting for all vehicles of the iMiEV brand, Mitsubishi reports around 27,200 units
sold or exported since 2009 through December 2012, including the minicab MiEVs sold in Japan, and the units rebadged and sold as The General Motors EV1, one of the
Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-Zero in the European market.[81] cars introduced due to the California
Air Resources Board mandate, had a
Senior leaders at several large automakers, including Nissan and General Motors, have stated that the Roadster was a catalyst which range of 260 km (160 miles) with
demonstrated that there is pent-up consumer demand for more efficient vehicles. In an August 2009 edition of The New Yorker, GM vice- NiMH batteries in 1999.
chairman Bob Lutz was quoted as saying, "All the geniuses here at General Motors kept saying lithium-ion technology is 10 years away,
and Toyota agreed with us – and boom, along comes Tesla. So I said, 'How come some tiny little California startup, run by guys who know
nothing about the car business, can do this, and we can't?' That was the crowbar that helped break up the log jam."[82]

2010s to present
The Nissan Leaf, introduced in Japan and the United States in December 2010, became the first modern all-electric, zero tailpipe emission
five door family hatchback to be produced for the mass market from a major manufacturer.[83][84] As of January 2013, the Leaf is also
available in Australia, Canada and 17 European countries.[85]
The Mitsubishi i-MiEV was launched
The Better Place network was the first modern commercial deployment of the battery swapping model. The Renault Fluence Z.E. was the
in Japan in 2009
first mass production electric car enable with switchable battery technology and sold for the Better Place network in Israel and Denmark.[86]
Better Place launched its first battery-swapping station in Israel, in Kiryat Ekron, near Rehovot in March 2011. The battery exchange
process took five minutes.[87] As of December 2012, there were 17 battery switch stations fully operational in Denmark enabling customers
to drive anywhere across the country in an electric car.[88] By late 2012 the company began to suffer financial difficulties, and decided to
put on hold the roll out in Australia and reduce its non-core activities in North America, as the company decided to concentrate its resources
on its two existing markets.[89][90][91] On 26 May 2013, Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel.[92] The company's financial difficulties
were caused by the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, about US$850 million in private capital,
and a market penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi. Less than 1,000 Fluence Z.E. cars were deployed in The first Nissan Leaf delivered in the
Israel and around 400 units in Denmark.[93][94] U.S. went to a customer in the San
Francisco Bay Area
The Smart electric drive, Wheego Whip LiFe, Mia electric, Volvo C30 Electric, and the Ford Focus Electric were launched for retail
customers during 2011. The BYD e6, released initially for fleet customers in 2010, began reatail sales in Shenzhen, China in October
2011.[95] The Bolloré Bluecar was released in December 2011 and deployed for use in the Autolib' carsharing service in Paris.[96] Leasing to individual and corporate customers began in
October 2012 and is limited to the Île-de-France area.[97] In February 2011, the Mitsubishi i MiEV became the first electric car to sell more than of more than 10,000 units, including the
models badged in Europe as Citroën C-Zero and Peugeot. The record was officially registered by Guinness World Records. Several months later, the Nissan Leaf overtook the i MiEV as the
best selling all-electric car ever,[98] and by February 2013 global sales of the Leaf reached the 50,000 unit mark.[85]

Models released to the market in 2012 and 2013 include the BMW ActiveE, Coda, Renault Fluence Z.E., Tesla Model S, Honda Fit EV, Toyota RAV4 EV, Renault Zoe, Roewe E50,
Mahindra e2o, Chevrolet Spark EV, Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG Electric Drive, Fiat 500e, Volkswagen e-Up!, BMW i3, and Kandi EV. Toyota released the Scion iQ EV in the U.S. (Toyota
eQ in Japan) in 2013. The car production is limited to 100 units. The first 30 units were delivered to the University of California, Irvine in March 2013 for use in its Zero Emission Vehicle-
Network Enabled Transport (ZEV-NET) carsharing fleet. Toyota announced that 90 out of the 100 vehicles produced globally will be placed in carsharing demonstration projects in the
United States and the rest in Japan.[99]

The Coda sedan went out of production in 2013, after selling only about 100 units in California. Its manufacturer, Coda Automotive, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on 1 May
2013. The company stated that it expects to emerge from the bankruptcy process to focus on energy storage solutions as it has decided to abandon car manufacturing.[100]

The Tesla Model S ranked as the top selling plug-in electric car in North America during the first quarter of 2013 with 4,900 cars sold, ahead of the Nissan Leaf (3,695).[101] European retail
deliveries of the Tesla Model S began in Oslo in August 2013,[102] and during its first full month in the market, the Model S ranked as the top selling car in Norway with 616 units delivered,
representing a market share of 5.1% of all the new cars sold in the country in September 2013, becoming the first electric car to top the new car sales ranking in any country, and
contributing to a record all-electric car market share of 8.6% of new car sales during that month.[103][104] In October 2013, an electric car was the best selling car in the country for a second
month in a row. This time was the Nissan Leaf with 716 units sold, representing a 5.6% of new car sales that month.[105][106]

The Renault–Nissan Alliance reached global sales of 100,000 all-electric vehicles in July 2013.[109] The 100,000th customer was a U.S. student who bought a Nissan Leaf.[110] In mid
January 2014, global sales of the Nissan Leaf reached the 100,000 unit milestone, representing a 45% market share of worldwide pure electric vehicles sold since 2010. The 100,000th car
was delivered to a British customer.[111]
As of June 2014, there were over 500,000 plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans in the world, with the U.S. leading plug-in electric
car sales with a 45% share of global sales.[112][113] In September 2014, sales of plug-in electric cars in the United States reached the
250,000 unit milestone.[114] Global cumulative sales of the Tesla Model S passed the 50,000 unit milestone in October 2014.[115] In
November 2014 the Renault–Nissan Alliance reached 200,000 all-electric vehicles delivered globally, representing a 58% share of the
global light-duty all-electric market segment.[116]

The world's top selling all-electric cars in 2014 were the Nissan Leaf (61,507), Tesla Model S (31,655), BMW i3 (16,052), and the Renault
Zoe (11,323). Accounting for plug-in hybrids, the Leaf and the Model S also ranked first and second correspondinly among the world's top
10 selling plug-in electric cars.[108] All-electric models released to the retail customers in 2014 include the BMW Brilliance Zinoro 1E, Retail deliveries of the BMW i3
Chery eQ, Geely-Kandi Panda EV, Zotye Zhidou E20, Kia Soul EV, Volkswagen e-Golf, Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive, and began in Europe in November
Venucia e30. 2013[107] The i3 ranked as the third
best selling all-electric car in
General Motors unveiled the Chevrolet Bolt EV concept car at the 2015 North American 2014.[108]
International Auto Show.[118] The Bolt is scheduled for availability in late 2016 as a model
year 2017.[119] GM anticipates the Bolt will deliver an all-electric range more than 320 km
(200 miles), with pricing starting at US$37,500 before any applicable government incentives.[120] The European version, marketed as the
Opel Ampera-e, will go into production in 2017.[121] In May 2015, global sales of highway legal all-electric passenger cars and light utility
vehicles passed the 500,000 unit milestone, accounting for sales since 2008. Out these, Nissan accounts for about 35%, Tesla Motors about
15%, and Mitsubishi about 10%.[122] Also in May 2015, the Renault Zoe and the BMW i3 passed the 25,000 unit global sales
Global sales of the Renault Zoe, milestone.[123] In June 2015, worldwide sales of the Model S passed the 75,000 unit milestone in June 2015.[115]
released in 2012, achieved the
50,000 unit milestone in June By early June 2015, the Renault–Nissan Alliance continued as the leading all-electric vehicle manufacturer with global sales of over
2016.[117] 250,000 pure electric vehicles representing about half of the global light-duty all-electric market segment. Nissan sales totaled 185,000
units, which includes the Nissan Leaf and the e-NV200 van. Renault has sold 65,000 electric vehicles, and its line-up includes the ZOE
passenger car, the Kangoo Z.E. van, the SM3 Z.E. (previously Fluence Z.E.) sedan and the Twizy heavy quadricycle.[124]

By mid-September 2015, the global stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the one million sales
milestone, with the pure electrics capturing about 62% of global sales.[126] The United States is the plug-in segment market leader with a
stock of over 363,000 plug-in electric cars delivered since 2008 through August 2015, representing 36.3% of global sales.[126] The state of
California is the largest plug-in car regional market, with more than 158,000 units sold between December 2010 and June 2015, representing
46.5% of all plug-in cars sold in the U.S.[127][128][129][129][130] Until December 2014, California not only had more plug-in electric
vehicles than any other state in the nation, but also more than any other country.[131][132]
As of December 2016, the world's
As of August 2015, China ranked as the world's second top selling country plug-in market, with over 157,000 units sold since 2011 (15.7%), two best selling all-electric cars in
followed by Japan with more than 120,000 plug-in units sold since 2009 (12.1%).[126] As of June 2015, over 310,000 light-duty plug-in history are the Nissan Leaf (left), with
more than 250,000 global sales, and
electric vehicles have been registered in the European market since 2010.[133][134] European sales are led by Norway, followed by the
the Tesla Model S (right), with over
Netherlands, and France.[126] In the heavy-duty segment, China is the world's leader, with over 65,000 buses and other commercial vehicles
158,000 units delivered.[125]
sold through August 2015.[126]

As of December 2015, global sales of electric cars were led by the Nissan Leaf with over 200,000 units sold making the Leaf the world's top
selling highway-capable electric car in history. The Tesla Model S, with global deliveries of more than 100,000 units, is the world's second best selling all-electric car of all-time.[135] The
Model S ranked as the world's best selling plug-in electric vehicle in 2015, up from second best in 2014.[136][137] The Model S was also the top selling plug-in car in the U.S. in 2015.[138]
Most models released in the world's markets to retail customers during 2015 were plug-in hybrids. The only new series production all-electric cars launched up to October 2015 were the
BYD e5 and the Tesla Model X, together with several variants of the Tesla Model S line-up.[139]

The Tesla Model 3 was unveiled on 31 March 2016. With pricing starting at US$35,000 and an all-electric range of 345 km (215 miles), the Model 3 is Tesla Motors first vehicle aimed for
the mass market. Before the unveiling event, over 115,000 people had reserved the Model 3.[140] As of 7 April 2016, one week after the event, Tesla Motors reported over 325,000
reservations, more than triple the 107,000 Model S cars Tesla had sold by the end of 2015. These reservations represent potential sales of over US$14 billion.[141][142] As of 31 March 2016,
Tesla Motors has sold almost 125,000 electric cars worldwide since delivery of its first Tesla Roadster in 2008.[143] Tesla reported the number of net reservations totaled about 373,000 as of
15 May 2016, after about 8,000 customer cancellations and about 4,200 reservations canceled by the automaker because these appeared to be duplicates from speculators.[144][145]

The Hyundai Ioniq Electric was released in South Korea in July 2016, and sold over 1,000 units during its first two months in the market.[146] The Renault-Nissan Alliance achieved the
milestone of 350,000 electric vehicles sold globally in August 2016, and also set an industry record of 100,000 electric vehicle sold in a single year.[147] Nissan global electric vehicle sales
passed the 250,000 unit milestone also in August 2016.[147] Renault global electric vehicle sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in early September 2016.[148] Global sales of the Tesla
Model X passed the 10,000 unit mark in August 2016, with most cars delivered in the United States.[149]

Cumulative global sales of pure electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the 1 million unit milestone in September 2016.[1] Global
sales of the Tesla Model S achieved the 150,000 unit milestone in November 2016, four years and five months after its introduction, and just
five more months than it took the Nissan Leaf to achieve the same milestone.[151] Norway achieved the milestone of 100,000 all-electric
vehicles registered in December 2016.[152] Retail deliveries of the 383 km (238 miles) Chevrolet Bolt EV began in the San Francisco Bay
Area on 13 December 2016.[150] In December 2016, Nissan reported that Leaf owners worldwide achieved the milestone of 3 billion km
(1.9 billion miles) driven collectively through November 2016, saving the equivalent of nearly 500 million kg (1,100 million lb) of CO2
emissions.[153] Global Nissan Leaf sales passed 250,000 units delivered in December 2016.[154][155] The Tesla Model S was the world's
best-selling plug-in electric car in 2016 for the second year running, with 50,931 units delivered globally.[125][156]
The first Chevrolet Bolt EVs were
In December 2016, Norway became the first country where 5% of all registered passenger cars was a plug-in electric.[157] When new car delivered to customers in the San
sales in Norway are breakdown by powertrain or fuel, nine of the top ten best-selling models in 2016 were electric-drive models. The Francisco Bay Area in December
Norwegian electric-drive segment achieved a combined market share of 40.2% of new passenger car sales in 2016, consisting of 15.7% for 2016[150]
all-electric cars, 13.4% for plug-in hybrids, and 11.2% for conventional hybris.[158] A record monthly market share for the plug-in electric
passenger segment in any country was achieved in Norway in January 2017 with 37.5% of new car sales; the plug-in hybrid segment
reached a 20.0% market share of new passenger cars, and the all-electric car segment had a 17.5% market share.[159] Also in January 2017, the electrified passenger car segment, consisting
of plug-in hybrids, all-electric cars and conventional hybrids, for the first time ever surpassed combined sales of cars with a conventional diesel or gasoline engine, with a market share of
51.4% of new car sales that month.[159][160] For many years Norwegian electric vehicles have been subsidised by approximately 50%, and have several other benefits, such as use of bus
lanes and free parking.[161] Many of these perks have been extended to 2020.[162]

In February 2017 Consumer Reports named Tesla as the top car brand in the United States and ranked it 8th among global carmakers.[164]
Deliveries of the Tesla Model S passed the 200,000 unit milestone during the fourth quarter of 2017.[165] Global sales of the Nissan Leaf
achieved the 300,000 unit milestone in January 2018.[166]

In September 2018, the Norwegian market share of all-electric cars reached 45.3% and plug-in hybrids 14.9%, for a combined market share
of the plug-in car segment of 60.2% of new car registrations that month, becoming the world's highest-ever monthly market share for the
plug-in electric passenger segment in Norway and in any country. Accounting for conventional hybrids, the electrified segment achieved an
all-time record 71.5% market share in September 2018.[167][168] In October 2018, Norway became the first country where 1 in every 10
Dedicated free parking lot for electric passenger cars registered is a plug-in electric vehicle.[163] Norway ended 2018 with plug-in market share of 49.1%, meaning that every
cars in Oslo. In October 2018, 1 in second new passenger car sold in the country in 2018 was a plug-in electric. The market share for the all-electric segment was 31.2% in
every 10 passenger cars on 2018.[169]
Norwegian roads was a plug-in.[163]
Tesla delivered its 100,000th Model 3 in October 2018.[170] U.S. sales of the Model 3
reached the 100,000 unit milestone in November 2018, quicker than any previous model
sold in the country.[171] The Model 3 was the top-selling plug-in electric car in the U.S. for 12 consecutive months since January 2018,
ending 2018 as the best-selling plug-in with an estimated all-time record of 139,782 units delivered, the first time a plug-in car sold more
than 100 thousand units in a single year.[172][173][174] The Tesla Model 3 was also the world's best selling plug-in electric car in 2018.[3] In
January 2019, with 148,046 units sold since inception in the American market, the Model 3 overtook the Model S to become the all-time
best selling all-electric car in the U.S.[175]

The global stock of plug-in electric passenger cars reached 5.1 million units in December 2018, consisting of 3.3 million all-electric cars The Tesla Model 3 was the world's
(65%) and 1.8 million plug-in hybrid cars (35%).[2][3] The global ratio between BEVs and PHEVs has been shifting towards fully electric best selling plug-in electric
passenger car in 2018.[3]
cars, it went from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, and rose to 69:31 in 2018.[3][176] Despite the rapid growth experienced, the plug-in
electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 motor vehicles on the world's roads at the end of 2018.[177]

Electric bicycle
The principal manufacturer of e-bikes globally is China, with 2009 seeing the manufacturer of 22.2 million units. In the world Geoby is the leading manufacturers of E-bikes. Pedego is the
best selling in the U.S. China accounts for nearly 92% of the market worldwide. In China the number of electric bicycles on the road was 120 million in 2010. Jiangsu Yadea, an electric
bicycle producer of renown in China, leads the ranking of China National Light Industry Council (CNLIC) electric bicycle industry for three years. It retains capacity of nearly 6 million
electric bicycles a year.

In 1997, Charger Electric Bicycle was the first U.S. company to come out with a pedelec.

Select historical production vehicles

Selected list of battery electric vehicles include (in chronological order):[178][179]

mpg US mpg US
Production Top
Name Number produced Cost Range L/100 km L/100 km
years Speed
(City) (Hwy)
14 mph 80 km (50
Baker Electric 1899–1915 ? US$2300 or €1,700
23 km/h miles)
Runabout - US$950,
Studebaker 3–18 mph Stanhope $1,303,
1902–1912 1,841 30-80 miles
Electric[180] 5–29 km/h Victoria $1,600,
Surrey - $1,800
20 mph >US$3,000 or €2,250 130 km (80
Detroit Electric[181] 1907–1939 13,000[182] 32 km/h depending on options miles)
60 mph
Henney Kilowatt[183] 1958–1960 <100
97 km/h
? ?

64 km/h 40–90 km
Enfield 8000[39] 1966–1976 112
(40 mph)
GB£2,000
(25–56 miles)

4,444 Approximately
Sebring-Vanguard 38 mph
1974–1982 ? 65 km (40
Citicar including variants[184] 61 km/h
miles)
15 mph 30 km (20
Sinclair C5 1985 14,000 £399
24 km/h miles)
Škoda Favorit 50 mph
ELTRA 151L & 151 <1,100, perhaps 20 < US $20,000, without 80 km (50
1992–1994 80 km/h
surviving subsidy miles)
Pick-Up[185] (limiter)

General Motors ~ US$40,000 or

80 mph 255 km (160
1996–2003 1,117 €30,000, without
EV1[186] 129 km/h
subsidies
miles)

Chevrolet S10 ~ US$40,000 or

73 mph 145 km (90
1997–1998 492 €30,000, without
EV[187] 118 km/h
subsidies
miles)

Honda EV Plus[188] 1997–1999 ~300 80+ mph US$455 or 130–175 km

 130+ km/h €340/month for 36- (80–110
month lease; or miles)
$53,000 or €40,000
without subsidies
US$40,000 or
78 mph 140 km (87 125 100
Toyota RAV4 EV[189] 1997–2002 1,249
125 km/h
€30,000 without
miles) 1.88 2.35
subsidies
~ US$50,000 or
1,500, perhaps 200 €37,600; subsidized 120 km (74
Ford Ranger EV[190] 1998–2002
surviving down to $20,000 or miles)
€15,000
56 mph 85 km (53 106 83
TH!NK City 1999–2002 1,000+
90 km/h miles) 1.59 2.83
£8,000[193],
45 mph 80 km (50
REVAi[191] 2001–2012 4,000+[192] 72 km/h US$15,000 or miles)
€11,900
40 mph
40 km (25
ZAP Xebra[194] 2006–2009 700+ 65 km/h, $10,000 or €7,500
miles)
$100[195]
130 mph US$109,000 or less than 2
Tesla 355 km (220 cents/mile
2008–2012 2,500 210 km/h €99,000 base price
Roadster[196][197][198] [199] [200] miles) off peak
recharge
Modern series production electric cars
160 km (100
miles)
Mitsubishi i MiEV ~37,600 US$29,125 base (Japanese
80 mph
(Peugeot 2009– cycle)
iOn/Citroën C-Zero) as of June 2016[201] 130 km/h price[202] 100 km (62
miles) (EPA
cycle)
350,000 175 km (109
as of miles) (New
Nissan Leaf 2010–
European
September 2018[203] Driving Cycle)
34,862
in China
BYD e6 2010– as of
December 2016[204][205]
25,205
Renault Kangoo Z.E. 2011–
as of December 2016[206]
5,524
Bolloré Bluecar 2011– as of July 2016
(in France)[207]
US$39,995 base price
(2012) 118 MPGe / 96 MPGe /
160 km (100
Ford Focus EV 2012- 6,764 as of Nov 2016[208] US$29,120 base price 1.99 2.45
miles)[210]
(2017) [209] l/100 km[210] l/100 km[210]

~9,000
Smart ED
2012– as of
(2nd and 3rd gen)
June 2014[211][212][213]
155 mph
(250 km/h) US$69,900 base price 89
200,000 for with 485 km (300 Combined
Tesla Model S[214] 2012–
as of November 2017[165] 90+kWh 60 kW·h battery pack miles) 2.64
version [216] Combined
[215]

61,205
Renault Zoe 2013–
as of December 2016[125]
9,157
Volkswagen e-Up! 2013– as of
October 2015[217][218][219]
130 to 160 km
~ 65,500
BMW i3 2013– (80 to 100
as of December 2016[125]
miles)[220]
150 km (93
Kia Soul EV 2014–
miles)[221]
Volkswagen e-Golf 2014– 12,653 in Europe 130 to 190
as of kilometres (81
October 2015[222][223] to 118 mi)[226]
and 3,980 in the U.S.
 as of
November 2015.[224][225]
Mercedes-Benz B- 140 km (87
2014–
Class Electric Drive miles)[227]
US$89,500 Base
425–575 km
25,524 Price, US$146,000
Tesla Model X 2015– (265–355
as of December 2016[125] Fully Upgraded
miles)[229]
(2019)[228]
17,065
in China
BYD e5 2015– as of
December 2016[205][230]
10,656
BYD Qin EV300 2016– in China
as of December 2016[205]
51,600 in US, Canada
Starting US$36,620 238 miles 128
Chevrolet Bolt 2017- and S. Korea as of end of 91 mph 110 MPGe
[231] (146 km/h) for the base LT[232] (383 km)[233] MPGe[234]
2018
355 km (220
miles) with
US$35,000 base price Standard
100,000 with version, 126 MPGe
Tesla Model 3[235] 2017–
as of October 2018[170] Standard battery 500 km (310 Combined
pack[236] miles) with
Long Range
version

See also
History of the automobile
History of plug-in hybrids
History of electric motorcycles and scooters
List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles

Country specific

Electric car use by country

Plug-in electric vehicles in Japan
Plug-in electric vehicles in the Netherlands
Plug-in electric vehicles in Norway
Plug-in electric vehicles in the United Kingdom
Plug-in electric vehicles in the United States

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187. Fleet vehicle only. General Motors collected and destroyed most
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NiMH batteries
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190. Some sold, most leased; almost all recovered and most destroyed. Ford
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External links
Alternative Fuel Vehicles Timeline (https://web.archive.org/web/20050419161945/http://www.newton.mec.edu/brown/te/ALTERNATIVE_FUEL/TIMELINE/timeline.html)
An Extensive Electric Vehicle History (http://www.econogics.com/ev/evhistry.htm)
Hybrid-Vehicle.org: Early Electric Cars (http://www.hybrid-vehicle.org/hybrid-vehicle-history.html)
Analysis by Richard H. Schallenberg for the IEEE Transactions on Education (http://sloan.stanford.edu/EVonline/schallen.htm)
1997 Dissertation by David A. Kirsch, Stanford University (http://sloan.stanford.edu/EVonline/kirsch.htm)
"1955 Business Analysis of Early Electric Vehicles", John B. Rae, Associate Professor of History, MIT (http://sloan.stanford.edu/EVonline/rae.htm)
History And Directory Of Electric Cars From 1834 to 1987 (http://www.didik.com/ev%5Fhist.htm)
Short Electric, And Other Vehicle History (http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarselectrica.htm)
Mikes Railway History, 1935: Electric Traction (http://mikes.railhistory.railfan.net/r066.html)
some Electric information as well (https://web.archive.org/web/20050901101724/http://www.hybridcars.com/history.html)
SVE Website (https://web.archive.org/web/20071006044337/http://www.dassault.fr/filiale.php?docid=82)
Electric Car Society (http://www.ElectricCarSociety.com/)
EV World -US Internet Journal about EVs (https://web.archive.org/web/20100718044715/http://www.evworld.com/index.cfm)
Timeline: History of the Electric Car (https://www.pbs.org/now/shows/223/electric-car-timeline.html), Public Broadcasting Service.
Watch how much electric cars have changed over time in one GIF (http://www.techinsider.io/electric-cars-history-gif-2016-5), Tech Insider, May 2016.

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This page was last edited on 12 June 2019, at 13:29 (UTC).

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