AMIYA

GEOMETRY CONCEPTS &

THEOREMS
REMS COMPILATION
MATHS BY AMIYA
Amiya

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Barbier's theorem
In geometry, Barbier's theorem states that every curve of constant width
width* has perimeter π times its width,
regardless of its precise shape.

Curve of constant width :- In geometry, a curve of constant width is a convex planar shape whose width
(defined as the perpendicular distance between two distinct parallel lines each having at least one point in
common with the shape's boundary but none with the shape's interior) is the same regardless of the
orientation of the curve.

More generally, any compact convex planar body D has one pair of parallel supporting lines in any given
direction. A supporting line is a line that has at least one point in common with the boundary of D but no
points in common with the interior of D. The width of the body is defined as before. If the width of D is the
same in all directions, the body is said to have constant width and its boundary is a curve of constant width;
the planar body itself is called an orbiform.

The width of a circle is constant: its diameter. On the other hand, the width of a square varies between the


length of a side and that of a diagonal, in the ratio . Thus the question arises: if a given shape's width is
√
constant in all directions, is it necessarily a circle? The surprising answer is that there are many non-
non
circular shapes of constant width. A nontrivial example is the Reuleaux triangle. To construct this, take an
equilateral triangle with vertices ABC and draw the arc BC on the circle cen centered
tered at A, the arc CA on the
circle centered at B, and the arc AB on the circle centered at C. The resulting figure is of constant width.

The Reuleaux triangle lacks tangent continuity at three points, but constant
constant-width
width curves can also be
constructed without
thout such discontinuities (as shown in the second illustration on the right). Curves of
constant width can be generated by joining circular arcs centered on the vertices of a regular or irregular
convex polygon with an odd number of sides (triangle, penta
pentagon,
gon, heptagon, etc.).

The most familiar examples of curves of constant width are the circle
and the Reuleaux triangle. For a circle, the width is the same as the
diameter; a circle of width w has perimeter πw. A Reuleaux triangle
of width w consists of three arcs of circles of radius w. Each of these
arcs has central angle π/3, so the perimeter of the Reuleaux triangle
of width w is equal to half the perimeter of a circle of radius w and
therefore is equal to πw. A similar analysis of other simple exampl
examples
such as Reuleaux polygons gives the same answer.

The analogue of Barbier's theorem for surfaces of constant width is

false. In particular, the unit sphere has surface area , These Reuleaux polygons have
while the surface of revolution of a Reuleaux triangle with the same constant width, and all have the
constant width has surface area same width; therefore by
2

Barbier's theorem they also have

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equal perimeters.
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Brahmagupta theorem
In geometry, Brahmagupta's theorem states that if a cyclic quadrilateral is orthodiagonal (that is,
has perpendicular diagonals), then the perpendicular to a side from the point of intersection of the
diagonals always bisects the opposite side.

More specifically, let A, B, C and D be four points on a circle such that the
lines AC and BD are perpendicular. Denote the intersection of
AC and BD by M.. Drop the perpendicular from M to the line BC, calling
the intersection E. Let F be the intersection of the line EM and the
edge AD. Then, thee theorem states that F is the midpoint AD.

Proof :-
We need to prove that AF = FD.. We will prove that both AF and FD are in fact equal to FM.

To prove that AF = FM,, first note that the angles FAM and CBM are equal,
because they are inscribed angles that intercept the same arc of the circle.
Furthermore, the angles CBM and CME are both complementary to
angle BCM (i.e., they add up to 90°), and are therefore equal. Finally,
the angles CME and FMA are the same. Hence, AFM is an isosceles
triangle, and thus the sides AF and FM are equal.

The proof that FD = FM goes similarly: the

angles FDM, BCM, BME and DMF are all equal, so DFM is an isosceles
triangle, so FD = FM.. It follows that AF = FD, as the theorem claims.

Brahmagupta's formula
Brahmagupta's formula gives the area A of a cyclic quadrilateral whose sides have lengths a, b, c, d as

where s, the semiperimeter, is defined to be

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This formula generalizes Heron's formula for the area of a triangle.. A triangle may be
regarded as a quadrilateral with one side of length zero. From this perspective, as d
approaches zero, a cyclic quadrilateral converges into a cyclic triangle (all triangles are
cyclic), and Brahmagupta's formula simplifies to Heron's formula.

If the semiperimeter is not used, Brahmagupta's formula is

Another equivalent version is

Extension to non-cyclic
cyclic quadrilaterals

In the case of non-cyclic

cyclic quadrilaterals, Brahmagupta's formula can be extended by considering the
measures of two opposite angles of the quadrilateral:

where θ is half the sum of two opposite angles. (The choice of which pair of opposite angles is irrelevant: if
the other two angles are taken, half their sum is the supplement of θ. Since cos(180° − θ) = −cosθ, we have
cos2(180° − θ) = cos2θ.) This more general formula is known as Bretschneider's formula.
formula

It is a property of cyclic quadrilaterals (and ultimately of inscribed angles)) that opposite angles of a
quadrilateral sum to 180°. Consequently, in the case of an inscribed quadrilater
quadrilateral,
al, θ = 90°, whence the term
giving the basic form of Brahmagupta's formula.
It follows from the latter equation that the area of a cyclic quadrilateral is the maximum possible area for
any quadrilateral with the given side lengths.

A related formula, which

hich was proved by Coolidge,, also gives the area of a general convex quadrilateral. It

is
where p and q are the lengths of the diagonals of the quadrilateral. In a cyclic uadrilateral,
uadrilateral
according to Ptolemy's theorem,, and the formula of Coolidge reduces to Brahmagupta's formula.
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Butterfly theorem
The butterfly theorem is a classical result in Euclidean geometry,
which can be stated as follows:

Let M be the midpoint of a chord PQ of a circle, through

which two other chords AB and CD are
drawn; AD and BC intersect chord PQ
at X and Y correspondingly. Then M is the midpoint of XY.

Proof:-
Let the perpendiculars and be dropped from the point on the straight lines
and respectively. Similarly, let and be dropped
from the point perpendicular to the straight lines and
respectively.
Now, since

From the preceding equations, it can be easily seen that

since =
Now,
5

So, it can be concluded that or is the midpoint of

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Casey's theorem
In mathematics, Casey's theorem,, also known as the
generalized Ptolemy's theorem, is a theorem in Euclidean
geometry named after the Irish mathematician John Casey.

Let be a circle of radius . Let be (in

intersecting circles that lie inside and
that order) four non-intersecting
tangent to it. Denote by the length of the exterior common
tangent of the circles .
Then:

Note that in the degenerate case, where all four circles reduce
to points, this is exactly Ptolemy's theorem
theorem.

De Gua's theorem
De Gua's theorem is a three-dimensional
dimensional analog of the Pythagorean theorem and named for Jean Paul de
Gua de Malves.

If a tetrahedron has a right-angle

angle corner (like the corner of a cube), then the
square of the area of the face opposite the right
right-angle corner is the sum of
the squares of the areas of the other three faces.

The Pythagorean theorem and de Gua's theorem are special cases ((n = 2, 3) of
a general theorem about n-simplices
simplices with a right angle corner.
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Descartes' theorem
In geometry, Descartes' theorem states that for every four kissing, or mutually tangent, circles, the radii of
the circles satisfy a certain quadratic equation. By solving this equation, one can construct a fourth circle
tangent to three given, mutually tangent circles. The theor
theorem is named after René Descartes, who stated it
in 1643.

Definition of curvature
Kissing circles. Given three mutually tangent circles ((black), what radius can a
fourth tangent circle have? There are in general two possible answers ((red).
Descartes' theorem
rem is most easily stated in terms of the circles' curvatures.
The curvature (or bend)) of a circle is defined as k = ±1/r, where r is its
radius. The larger a circle, the smaller is the magnitude of its curvature,
and vice versa.

The plus sign in k = ±1/r applies to a circle that is externally tangent to the
other circles, like the three black circles in the image. For an
internally tangent circle like the big red circle, that circumscribes the other
circles, the minus sign applies.

If a straight line is considered a degenerate circle with zero curvature (and thus infinite radius), Descartes'
theorem also applies to a line and two circles that are all three mutually tangent, giving the radius of a third
circle tangent to the other two circles and the line.
If four circles are tangent to each other at six distinct points, and the circles have
curvatures ki (for i = 1, ..., 4), Descartes' theorem says:

..........................(1)
..........................
When trying to find the radius of a fourth circle tangent to three given kissing circles, the equation is best
rewritten as:
..........................(2)
..........................

The ± sign reflects the fact that there are in general two solutions. Ignoring the degenerate case of a straight
line, one solution is positive and the other is either positive or
negative; if negative, it represents a circle that circumscribes the
first three (as shown in the diagram above). Other criteria may
favor one solution over the other in any given problem.

SPECIAL CASE
If one of the three circles is replaced by a straight line, then
one ki, say k3, is zero and drops out of equation (1). Equation
(2) then becomes much simpler:
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Japanese theorem for cyclic polygons
In geometry, the Japanese theorem states that no matter how one triangulates a cyclic polygon,
the sum of inradii of triangles is constant.

sum of the radii of the green circles = sum of the radii of the red circles

Conversely, if the sum of inradii independent from the triangulation, then the polygon is cyclic.

Carnot's theorem
In Euclidean geometry, Carnot's theorem
theorem, named
after Lazare Crarnot (1753–1823),
1823), is as follows. Let ABC be
an arbitrary triangle. Then the sum of the signed
distances from the circumcenter D to the sides of
triangle ABC is

where r is the inradius and R is the circumradius. Here the

sign of the distances is taken negative if and only if the line
segment DX (X = F, G, H)) lies completely outside the
triangle. In the picture DF is negative and
both DG and DH are positive.
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Pitot theorem
A tangential quadrilateral ABCD is a closed figure of four straight
sides that are tangent to a given circle C. Equivalently, the circle C is
inscribed in the quadrilateral ABCD.

This conclusion follows from the equality of the tangent segments

from the four vertices
ces of the quadrilateral. Let the tangent points be
denoted as P (on segment AB), Q (on segment BC), R (on segment
CD) and S (on segment DA). The symmetric tangent segments about
each point of ABCD are equal, e.g., BP=BQ=
BP=BQ=b, CQ=CR=c,
DR=DS=d, and AS=AP=a. But each side of the quadrilateral is composed of two such tangent segments

The converse is also true: a circle can be inscribed into every quadrilateral in which the lengths of opposite
sides sum to the same value.

This theorem and its converse have various uses. For example, they show immediately that no rectangle
can have an inscribed circle unless it is a square, and that every rhombus has an inscribed circle, whereas
a general parallelogram does not.

Japanese theorem for cyclic quadrilaterals

In geometry, the Japanese theorem states that the centers of
the incircles of certain triangles inside a cyclic
quadrilateral are vertices of a rectangle.

Triangulating an arbitrary concyclic quadrilateral by its

diagonals yields four overlapping triangle
triangles (each
diagonal creates two triangles). The centers of the
incircles of those triangles form a rectangle.

Specifically, let be an arbitrary concyclic

quadrilateral and let be the
incenters of the triangles
.
Then the quadrilateral formed by is a rectangle.
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Pick's theorem
Given a simple polygon constructed on a grid of equal
equal-distanced
distanced points (i.e., points
with integer coordinates) such that all the polygon's vertices are grid points, Pick's theorem provides a
simple formula for calculating the area A of this polygon in terms of the number i of lattice points in the
interiorlocated
located in the polygon and the number b of lattice points on the
boundary placed on the polygon's perimeter

In the example shown, we have i = 7 interior points and b = 8 boundary

points, so the area is A = 7 + 8/2 − 1 = 7 + 4 − 1 = 10 (square units)

Note that the theorem as stated above is only valid for simple polygons,
i.e., ones that consist of a single piece and do not contain "holes". For a polygon that has h holes, with a
boundary in the form of h + 1 simple closed curves, the slightly more complicated formula i + b/2 + h − 1
gives the area.

Ptolemy's theorem
In Euclidean geometry, Ptolemy's theorem is a relation between the four sides and two diagonals of
a cyclic quadrilateral (a quadrilateral whose vertices lie on a common circle).
The theorem is named after
the Greek astronomer and mathematician Ptolemy (Claudius
Ptolemaeus) Ptolemy used the theorem as an aid to creating his table
of chords, a trigonometric
tric table that he applied to astronomy.

If the quadrilateral is given with its four vertices A, B, C, and D in

order, then the theorem states that:

where the vertical lines denote the lengths of the line segments between the named vertices.

This relation may be verbally expressed as follows:

If a quadrilateral is inscribable in a circle then the product of the measures of its diagonals is equal to the
sum of the products of the measures of the pairs of opposite sides.

Moreover, the converse of Ptolemy's

olemy's theorem is also true:
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In a quadrilateral, if the sum of the products of its two pairs of opposite sides is equal to the product of its
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diagonals, then the quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle.

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Varignon's theorem
Varignon's theorem is a statement in Euclidean
geometry by Pierre Varignon that was first
published in 1731. It deals with the construction of a
particular parallelogram (Varignon
Varignon parallelogram
parallelogram)
from an arbitrary quadrangle.

The midpoints of the sides of an arbitrary

quadrangle form a parallelogram. If the quadrangle
is convex or reentrant, i.e. not a crossing
quadrangle, then the area of the parallelogram is
half as big as the area of the quadrangle
quadrangle.

Viviani's theorem
Viviani's theorem, named after Vincenzo Viviani, states that the sum of the
distances from any interior point to the sides of anequilateral triangle equals the
length of the triangle's altitude.

Proof

This proof depends on the readily-proved

proved proposition that the area of
a triangle is half its base times
es its height
height—that
that is, half the product of one side with the altitude from that
side.

Let ABC be an equilateral triangle whose height is h and whose side is a.

Let P be any point inside the triangle, and u, s, t the distances of P from the sides. Draw a line
l from P to
each of A, B, and C, forming three triangles PAB, PBC, and PCA.

Now, the areas of these triangles are , , and . They exactly fill the enclosing triangle, so the
sum of these areas is equal to the area of the enclosing triangle. So we can w
write:
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and thus u + s + t = h.
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Barrow's inequality
Barrow's inequality is an inequality relating the distances between an
arbitrary point within a triangle, the vertices of the triangle, and
certain points on the sides of the triangle.

Let P be an arbitrary point inside the triangle ABC. From P and ABC,
define U, V, and W as the points where the angle bisectors of BPC, CPA,
and APB intersect the sides BC,CA, ABAB, respectively. Then Barrow's
inequality states that

with equality holding only in the case of an equilateral triangle

Euler's theorem in geometry

Euler's theorem states that the distance d between the circumcentre and incentre of a triangle can be
expressed as

where R and r denote the circumradius and inradius respectively (the radii of the above two circles).

From the theorem follows the Euler inequality

inequality:

Weitzenböck's inequality
Weitzenböck's inequality,, named after Roland Weitzenböck, states that for a triangle of side lengths
, , , and area , the following inequality holds:

Equality occurs if and only if the triangle is equilateral.

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