AN ANALYSIS OF THE CONCEPT ENVIRONMENT

WITHIN NURSING THEORIES

Catherine Patricia O'Connor

RN RM Grad Dip Nursing

Minor thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the award

Master of Nursing (Advanced Practice)
Faculty of Nursing,
University of South Australia ITT...
8 November, 1997
Table of Contents
TITLE PAGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
LIST OF TABLES iv
DECLARATION v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS vii
ABSTRACT

Chapter 1: Nursing Theory and the Environment 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 "The Environment" 3

1.3 The Focus of the Study 4
1.4 Conceptual Framework 5
1.5 The Significance of the Study 6

Chapter 2: Health and the Environment 8

2.1 Overview 8
2.2 Health 9
2.3 Environment and Development 11
2.4 The Environment as an Infinite Source and Sink 13
2.5 Summary 23

Chapter 3: Research Process 24

3.1 Overview 24
3.2 Ethical considerations 25
3.3 Concept analysis 25
3.4 Method of data collection 32
3.5 Method of analysis 33
3.6 Presentation of results 35
3.7 Limitations 35

Chapter 4: Findings - Ecosystem 37

4.1 Overview 37
4.2 Identify and name the concept of interest 37
4.3 Identify surrogate terms and relevant uses of the concept 40
4.4 Identify and select an appropriate realm (sample) for data collection 43
4.5 Identify the attributes of the concept 44
4.6 Identify the references, antecedents, and consequences of the concept 49
4.7 Identify concepts that are related to the concept of interest 51
4.8 Identify a model case of the concept 52
4.9 Summary 53

Chapter 5: Findings - Nursing Theory and the Environment 54

5.1 Overview 54
5.2 Nursing Theory and the Environment 55
5.3 Summary 65

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Chapter 6: Analysis 66
6.1 Overview 66
6.2 The metaparadigm concept environment in Nursing theorists and their work 66
6.3 Analysis of nursing theory based on the ecosystem attributes 68
6.4 Overall analysis 74
6.5 Summary 75

Chapter 7: Discussion 76
7.1 Overview 76
7.2 The natural environment 76
7.3 The influence of Florence Nightingale 77
7.4 The influence of nursing texts 78
7.5 Nursing theory 78
7.6 Conclusion 79

APPENDICES
1 Sampling results of CINAHL, ACT Public Library Service, and Odum and
Lovelock 81
2 Attributes derived from the CINAHL, ACT Library Service, and Odum and
Lovelock Samples 100

REFERENCES 114

111
List of Tables
Table I: Examples of concept analysis 26

Table 2: Universities with undergraduate degrees in nursing 34

Table 3: Tansley's original definition of an "Ecosystem" 42

Table 4: Internal, external and created environment as described by Watson,

Levine and Neuman 67

Table 5: Attributes of ecosystem identified within individual nursing theories 69

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Declaration
I declare that this minor thesis does not incorporate without acknowledgment any
material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university; and that to the
best of my knowledge does not contain any materials previously published or written by
another person except where due reference is made in the text.

SIGNED: DATED:

V
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge the support and assistance provided by
my husband Bruce, without whose patience, love, care, and support this work would
never have been completed. His insightful comments and criticisms are very much a
part of this thesis, and are greatly appreciated; also my daughter Fionnuala (who is the
same age as this Masters degree), for her patience, love and laughter. I would also like
to acknowledge the support of Kay Price who was a godsend of an academic supervisor.
Her enthusiasm is much appreciated.

However, I also wish to acknowledge that, despite the above mentioned support and
advice, the opinions expressed in this work are uniquely my own, as are any errors.

vi
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
ABN Australian Bibliographic Network
ACT Australian Capital Territory
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
AIDS auto-immune deficiency syndrome
BCE Before the Common Era (anno domini 0 - present)
CFC' s chioroflurocarbons
DDT dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane
EU European Union
NSESD National Strategy forEcologically Sustainable Development
UN United Nations
LINEP United Nations Environment Programme
US / USA United States / United States of America
VAEE Victorian Association for Environmental Education
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WHO World Health Organisation

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Abstract
Within nursing theory, environment is one of four major concepts, or "metaparadigm
concepts" (others include person, health, and nursing). Although the nursing profession
has issued a number of environmental policy statements, nurse scholars have argued
that the metaparadigm concept environment has been poorly articulated in most nursing
theories.

Within nursing theory, the metaparadigm concept environment is generally understood

as the immediate surroundings or circumstances of the individual or family, and the
setting in which nursing occurs. However, the consequences of rapid ecological change
are likely to present significant and pressing challenges for both nursing theory and
practice, in that nursing's theoretical conceptualisation of environment may restrict
nurses' ability to address the global issues affecting health.

The aim of the study was to understand how the natural environment was described by
nursing theorists in nursing literature. The study focuses on the role and scope of the
natural environment within nursing theory. A clear understanding of the natural
environment was developed by defining, exposing, and elaborating the term ecosystem,
which was found to function as a synonym for the natural environment. This
understanding was achieved using Rodgers (1989) concept analysis techniques.
Through an exploration of diverse data sources, key attributes of the concept ecosystem
were obtained.

Marriner-Tomey's (1994) textbook on nursing theory (entitled Nursing theorists and

their work) provided the understanding of nursing theory utilised in this study. Nursing
theorists and their work was selected on the grounds that Marriner-Tomey (1994)
describes nursing theory in terms of each of the four metaparadigm concepts. This
meant that references to the metaparadigm concept environment could be readily
identified and isolated across most nursing theories. Manner-Tomey's (1994) textbook
is also widely available through university libraries to students in nursing.

viii
References to the natural environment in nursing theory were identified and isolated by
searching the theorists' works for the attributes of the concept ecosystem (as determined
though the concept analysis). The study identified a lack of representation of the natural
environment within nursing theory. The study also suggested that this lack of
representation may limit nurses' capacity to provide appropriate nursing care,
particularly in a context of environmental degradation and rapid environmental change.

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Chapter 1: Nursing Theory and the Environment
1.1 Introduction
The discipline of nursing is concerned with the wholeness or health of human
beings, recognising that they are in continuous interaction with their environment
(Fawcett 1993:3).
Contemporary nurse scholars attribute nursing's inspiration and interest in the
environment to Florence Nightingale (Chopoonan 1986; Kieffel 1991; Salazar and
Primono 1994; Avery 1996; Garman 1995). Nightingale believed that healthy
surroundings were necessary for proper nursing care (Marriner-Tomey 1994:75). The
five essential points emphasised by Nightingale as necessary for health in homes were:
pure air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness and light (Marriner-Tomey
1994:75). In essence, Nightingale believed that by providing an environment
antithetical to the one in which disease originated, disease could be prevented, or a cure
hastened (Marriner-Tomey 1994:77). Indeed, Meleis (1991:156) contends that as a
result of Nightingale's work, health, hygiene, environment, and care have become
central foci of nursing practice.

Since Nightingale, nursing theory has been developed and structured around four major
concepts: person, health, nursing, and environment (Flaskerud and Halloran 1980;
Meleis 1986; Parker 1991; Fawcett 1993). However, Fawcett (1993) and Chopoonan
(1986) have asserted that within nursing theory the concept of environment is generally
understood as the immediate surroundings or circumstances of the individual or family,
and the setting in which nursing occurs. If this general understanding is correct, and
nursing theory is in fact constrained within the physical parameters of the nurse-patient
perspective, then it is a highly significant issue for nursing. The issue is a significant
one because it is now well documented that the planet is facing rapid ecological change
(McMichael 1991; Miller 1992; Ponting 1992; Tolba 1992; Cortese 1993; McMichael
1994; Epstein 1995). The consequences of rapid ecological change are likely to present
significant and pressing challenges for both nursing theory and practice, in that
nursing's theoretical conceptualisation of environment and nurses' ability to address the
global issues affecting health may be limited.

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Within the discipline of nursing, theory is attributed to the role of describing,
explaining, and predicting phenomena, as well as informing and directing practice
(Chinn and Jacobs 1987; Meleis 1991; Fawcett 1993; Alligood and Choi 1994; Wotton
1996). Nurse scholars such as Fawcett (1993 :2) further contend that within the
hierarchical structure of nursmg theory, environment plays a prominent part as a
metaparadigm concept. Fawcett (1993:2) goes on to explain that a metaparadigm
concept is highly abstract and identifies phenomena of interest to the discipline of
nursing. Donaldson and Crowley (1978:113), support Fawcett's view of nursing
metaparadigms and write that there is 'remarkable consistency in the recurrent themes
that nurse scholars use to explain what they conceive to be the essence or the core of
nursing'. According to Fawcett (1993), this "essence or core of nursing" can be outlined
in four basic propositions. These propositions centre around the relationships between
the four metaparadigm concepts of person, environment, health, and, nursing within
nursing theory. The significance of these metaparadigm concepts within nursing theory
has been acknowledged and articulated in various ways. For example, a variety of
institutions have, through the release of policy and position statements, sought to
highlight and strengthen the linkages between environment, health, and nursing. Such
policy statements include:
• the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (1986),
• the International Council of Nurses Resolution (1991), Position Statement and
Guidelines (1992);
• the Royal College of Nursing, Australia Position Statement (1992 revised 1994); and
• the Australian Nursing Federation Policy Statement (1994).

In addition to these position and policy statements, it has also been well documented
that there is an inter-dependence between the state of our health and well-being and the
natural environment (Purdom 1980; McMichael 1991; Ponting 1992; Tolba 1992;
Cortese 1993; Griffith and Aldrich 1993; McMichael 1993; Beaglehole, Bonita and
KjellstrOm 1994; Chu 1994; Labonte 1994; McMichael 1994; Epstein 1995). The
natural environment refers to the physical, chemical, biological and social conditions in
which all organisms live (Meagher 1991:108). This vital inter-dependence is
increasingly being disrupted by humans through, for example: overpopulation., depletion

2
of non-renewable resources, emissions of toxic pollution, species extinction,
deforestation, loss of flora and fauna biodiversity, and loss of soil and water resources
(Miller 1992; McMichael 1993). Human disruption of the natural environment often
manifests itself in adverse human health outcomes and nurses are frequently required to
provide professional care for those individuals whose illnesses and injuries are
associated with these environmental changes. For example, air pollution is leading to an
increase in respiratory problems; climate changes are leading to an increase in insect
borne diseases such as Ross River fever, Dengue fever, and malaria; land use change is
leading to pathogen displacement (for example, people are being infected by the Lyssa
virus, Ebola virus, hantavirus, and emergent forms of Vibrio cholerae); eutrophication
of inland waterways is causing growth in blue-green algae, restricting access to clean
water; increased background radiation levels are causing cancers; and ozone thinning is
resulting in additional skin cancers (Miller 1992; Tolba 1992; Epstein 1993;
McMichael 1993). Given the involvement of nurses in the care of individuals with these
illnesses and injuries it is important to understand how, in nursing theory development,
the connection between health and the changing natural environment is made. It has
been recognised by nurse scholars (Brodie 1984; Chopoorian 1986; Meleis 1991; Parker
1991) that there has been little exploration of the metaparadigm concept environment.
This study seeks to address this deficit.

1.2 "The Environment"

Understandings of "environment" are varied and diverse. Miller (1992) and McMichael
(1993), for example, suggest the term refers to surroundings, whereas Meagher
(1991:108) defines environment as a 'very general term for all the conditions (physical,
chemical, biological and social) in which an organism or group of organisms exist'. The
Macquarie Dictionary (Delbndge 1982:60 1) defines environment as 'the aggregate of
surrounding things, conditions, or influences' and note that the term is derived from the
French word for surroundings. The Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current
English (Turner 1987:346) similarly defines the term, while the Encyclopaedia
Britannica (Goetz 1982:9 120) elaborates slightly by defining environment as the entire
range of external influences acting on an organism, including the physical and
biological forces of nature surrounding an individual organism. Thus the term

3
environment is used to refer to the aggregate of things, conditions, and influences that
surround an organism, or group of organisms, including chemicals and energy.
Importantly, these understandings of environment can include influences such as
political, cultural, economic, spiritual, and built surroundings as well as the biophysical
or natural environment.

Whereas various dictionaries and encyclopaedias do not differentiate between the

environment (that is, the totality of human surroundings) in general and the biophysical
or natural environment (natural surroundings) in particular, such a differentiation can be
found in nursing theory. According to Marriner-Tomey (1994), the term "environment"
signifies a metaparadigm concept within the discipline of nursing. That is, environment
as an abstract conceptualisation of the totality of our surroundings. Importantly, within
nursing theory this totality of surroundings includes spiritual, economic, political,
cultural, built, and natural elements. This is in contrast to "the environment" which
refers to the natural surroundings, consisting of biotic (flora and fauna) and abiotic (air,
water, rocks, and energy) elements. In this study, the use of the phrase "the
environment" refers to the natural environment, acknowledging "the environment" as an
aspect or subset of the nursing metaparadigm "environment". This acknowledgment is
in keeping with the use of metaparadigm within nursing theory construction.

1.3 The Focus of the Study

Given that environment features prominently in the structure of nursing theory, together
with the importance of the natural environment to health, this study examines nursing
literature and identifies the theoretical understandings of the concept environment. This
examination is done with a view to identifying how the natural environment, as a subset
of environment, is described in nursing theory. The natural environment (or "the
environment") is an important aspect of the nursing metaparadigm that needs to be
explored and understood by nurses so that it can be integrated into nursing theory,
education, research, and practice. There are, in addition, other dimensions to the
metaparadigm concept - such as spiritual, economic, political, cultural, and built
dimensions - that also require further exploration. However, given the inter-dependence
between human health and the natural environment, the researcher believes that the

4
natural environment constitutes an important component of the metaparadigm that
requires more detailed examination. Thus, the focus of this study was on the natural
environment within the metaparadigm concept. The aim of the study was to understand
how the natural environment was described by nursing theorists in nursing literature.

The study was guided throughout by the question: "how is the natural environment
described in nursing theory'?". The objectives of the study were to develop a clear and
coherent understanding of the natural environment, how the metaparadigm
concept environment was expressed within nursing theory and then to detect and
highlight references to the natural environment in specific nursing theory. After
any possible deficits in nursing's conceptualisation of the environment,
the significance of these findings for nursing were articulated.

1.4 Conceptual Framework

To provide a detailed examination of how nursing theorists describe the natural
environment, the metaparadigm concept environment was analysed utilising an
ecologically informed position. That is, environment - identified as an important
metaparadigm concept within nursing theory (Meleis 1986; Parker 1991; Fawcett 1993)
- was analysed utilising understandings derived from environmental science and
ecology. In particular, the study was informed by the concept of ecosystem, primarily
on the basis that this concept provides a theoretical guide for understanding, explaining,
and predicting the relationships between humans and their living and non-living
surroundings (VAEE, Preuss, and Duke 1996; Lovelock 1991). In addition, the term
ecosystem appears to function both linguistically and grammatically as a more refined
and developed synonym for the biophysical or natural environment (Bernard
1984:728.1; Tulloch 1991:94; Chapman 1992:1071.1).

Based on the rationale that the term ecosystem functions as a synonym for the natural
environment, it follows that the conceptual attributes of ecosystem should occur within
nursing's metaparadigm concept environment, as expressed by a broad variety of
nursing theorists. To determine if this was indeed the case, the term ecosystem was
explored using a concept analysis technique. The attributes identified by the concept

5
analysis were then sought within the metaparadigm environment of various nursing
theories. In taking this approach, the study is posited on the belief that contemporary
understandings of ecosystem, derived from ecology, provide a holistic framework for
understanding, interpreting, and theorising about the natural environment. The
attributes and the findings of this study are therefore discussed from within this
framework. Concept analysis and the criteria used are discussed in greater detail in
chapter 3. The term ecosystem is explored in detail in chapter 4.

1.5 The Significance of the Study

A review of nursing literature supports the view that theory is essential for the
development of a sound knowledge base, which in turn guides practice, education and
further research (Tones 1990; Chinn and Kramer 1991; Meleis 1991; Sims 1991).
Theory is also reported to help avoid an "ad hoc" or trial-and-enor approach to nursing
practice, and to enhance communication (Chinn and Kramer 1991). Thus, according to
Menke (1990), Chinn and Kramer (1991), and Stevens Barnum (1994), theory improves
patient care. Within the parameters of this study, "theory" is defined as:
a set of concepts, definitions, and propositions that project a systematic view of
phenomena by designing specific interrelationships among concepts for the
purposes of describing, explaining, and predicting' (Chinn and Jacobs 1987:79;
Marriner-Tomey 1994:4).
Inherent in this definition is the acknowledgment that concepts inform theory (Hardy
1974; Tones 1990; Meleis 1991; Sims 1991). In this context then, "concept" refers to a
complex mental formulation of an object, property, or event that is derived from
personal perceptual experience (Greenwood 1996). A concept is an idea, a mental
image, or a generalisation formed and developed in the mind. According to Chinn and
Jacobs (1987), Adam (1980) and Marriner-Tomey (1994), concepts provide abstract
labels for phenomena. Furthermore, Rodgers (1989:330) believes that:
concepts play an important role in the development of knowledge and even in the
conduct of everyday existence. They promote the organization of experience,
facilitate communication among individuals, and enable the cognitive recall of
phenomena that may not be immediately present.
Concepts are therefore constmcted 'to render experience meaningful and manageable'
(Greenwood 1996:17). They are 'mental representations of what is perceptually
experienced' (Greenwood 1996:29).

6
Various authors have discussed the role of "concepts" in the construction of nursing
theory (Hardy 1974; Meleis 1991; Sims 1991; Walker and Avant 1995; Paley 1996). In
Meleis' (1991) view, concepts provide succinct information in relation to an aspect of
nursing practice. Concepts have been described as constituting the building blocks of
theory (Hardy 1974; Sims 1991; Walker and Avant 1995) and as occupying 'niches'
within the structures of nursing theory (Paley 1996:577). However, according to
Rodgers (1989) and Walker and Avant (1995), to develop nursing theory, concepts must
first be adequately understood and their meanings clarified. Wotton (1996:138) asserts
that the 'definition of words and concepts is an essential component of theory
construction, because words and concepts mean different things to different
individuals'. This difference in understanding is because concepts, while contextualised
within theory structures, are entirely mediated through language. Simply, concepts are
intellectual abstractions formulated by each individual and expressed almost
exclusively through the changing and subjective media of language (Gibson 1991). The
process of systematically analysing the concepts deployed in nursing theory - the
concepts from which nursing theory is constructed - therefore provides a clarity of
meaning not possible through colloquial and "taken for granted" language (Gibson
1991). Systematic analysis also ensures that concepts are uniformly promulgated
throughout the nursing profession, and that concepts achieve coherent meaning within
nursing practice despite the vagaries and subjectivity of language. It is therefore
important to elaborate on those concepts fundamental to nursing theory. Environment is
one such fundamental concept (Meleis 1986; Parker 1991; Fawcett 1993; Wotton
1996). The natural environment as a subset of the metaparadigm concept environment,
was explored through a concept analysis of the term ecosystem in this study, with view
to detecting reference to the natural environment in nursing theory.

7
Chapter 2: Health and the Environment
2.1 Overview
This literature review revolves around the central theme that the state of human health -

of individuals, societies, and the species - is a reflection of the state of the environment;
and that despite the importance of this relationship, humans are adversely impacting on
the integrity and well-being of the supporting environment on an ever increasing scale.
The Stockholm Declaration (1972) succinctly articulates this concern:
Man [sic] is both a creature and moulder of his environment, which gives him
physical sustenance and affords him the opportunity for intellectual, moral, social
and spiritual growth. In the long and tortuous evolution of the human race on this
planet a stage has been reached when, through the rapid acceleration of science and
technology, man has acquired the power to transfonn his environment in countless
ways and on an unprecedented scale. Both aspects of man's environment, the
natural and the man-made, are essential to his well being and to the enjoyment of
basic human rights - even the right to life itself [Stockholm Declaration 1972 in
Tolba 1992, vii].
Given the acknowledgment that environment is essential to human well-being, together
with the above expressed concern about humanity's capacity to radically transform the
environment, it is important to examine the nature of the health-environment
relationship as expressed in environmental literature. This examination is particularly
important because the relationship appears to form what various ecologists refer to as a
synergistic feedback loop (Odum 1989; Miller 1992; Ehrlich 1993; Margulis and Hinkle
1993; Lovelock 1993). That is, while human health is considered a function of a healthy
environment, various human activities, patterns of consumption, and development are
adversely impacting on and degrading the environment. This, in turn, results in adverse
health outcomes.

The predominant theme of the literature reviewed was that human health and the
environment are inextricably linked, with environmental degradation manifesting in
adverse human health outcomes. A secondary theme revealed by this review was that
humanity is radically impacting on the environment by utilising it as an endless source
of natural resources and an infinite, bottomless sink for waste products. These themes
were particularly evident in discussions of air pollution, water pollution, erosion and
desertification, pesticides, nuclear wastes, climate change and ozone depletion,
deforestation, and biodiversity loss.
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2.2 Health
2.2.1 Definitions of Health
Before proceeding further, the term "health" requires exploration. Simmons (1989)
states that health is a difficult and complex term to define as it has multiple definitions
and interpretations. McMichael (1993:57) notes that each individual has a different
perception of the meaning of health, and that this meaning is both time and culture
specific. in attempting to provide a universal definition, the World Health Organisation
(WHO) states that health is 'a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being
and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity' (Simmons 1989:156). While this
definition has not been widely accepted (Capra 1982; Simmons 1989; Woods and
Edwards 1989; Ebersole and Hess 1990; McMichael 1993), it does emphasise positive
qualities associated with the concept of health. In addition, being healthy does not
necessarily mean being free from disease (McMichael 1993:62): people with chronic
disease often state that they are veiy healthy (Labonte 1994). Simmons (1989:159)
states that:
a reliance on measuring morbidity and mortality levels cannot be interpreted as
indices of health; such data are measuring health by its absence rather than as a
positive human condition.
Supporting Simmons view, Dubos writes that to be healthy 'means that you can
function, do what you want to do and become what you want to become' (cited in
McMichael 1993:62). Thus health can be viewed as something more than the mere
absence of disease or injury, and refers to a general sense of well-being. Broadening
these understandings of health, McMichael notes that an individual's health is not
solely dependent on personal behaviour and circumstances: there are other processes
occurring due to collective human impacts on the environment that influence health
(McMichael 1993:62).

2.2.2 The Environment and Human Health

The literature reveals a consensus of opinion supporting a profound inter-dependence
between the environment and personal and communal health, in that one directly
influences the other (Purdom 1980; Green, Harris and Throsby 1992; McMichael 1991;
Ponting 1992; Tolba 1992; Cortese 1993; Griffith and Aldrich 1993; McMichael 1993;
Beaglehole, Bomta and KjellstrOm 1994; Chu 1994; Labonte 1994; McMichael 1994;

9
Epstein 1995; Woodruff and Guest 1997). The environment-human health linkage is by
no means a new concept. The Greek physician Hippocrates, who believed that the
environment plays a crucial role in determining human health and well-being, wrote in
427 BCE:
Whoever wishes to investigate medicine properly should proceed thus: in the first
place consider the seasons of the year, and what effects each of them produces.
Then the winds, the hot and the cold, especially such as are common to all
countries, and then such as are peculiar to each locality. In the same manner, when
one comes into a city to which he is a stranger, he should consider its situation, how
it lies as to the winds and the rising or setting of the sun. One should consider most
attentively the water the inhabitants use, whether they be marshy or soft, or hard
and running from elevated and rocky situations, and then if saltish and unfit for
cooking; and the ground, whether it be naked and deficient in water, or wooded and
well watered, and whether it lies in a hollow confined situation, or is elevated and
cold; and the mode in which the inhabitants live, and what are their pursuits,
whether they are fond of drinking and eating to excess, and given to indolence, or
are fond of exercise and labour (Hippocrates in Krieger 1972:19).
The relationship between environment and human health has also been explored in
historical terms. Ponting (1992:224) states that 'the changing relationship between
humans and the environment has been crucial in determining the impact of disease on
human society'. As Ponting (1992) explains, over the past 10 000 years, human health
has been a function of the changing relationship between humans and their
environment. He states that the emergence of agnculture and settled societies marked a
profound change in the impact of disease in humans (Ponting 1992:223). This change
exposed people to a wide range of infectious diseases, many transmitted from the
animals they domesticated. Similarly, the gradual emergence of mercantile families and
then international trading empires, particularly after the expansion of Europe, enabled a
much greater variety of crops to be grown in many parts of the world. It also enabled
the spread of new diseases, often with shattering impacts on societies which had
previously been isolated from each other. Likewise, the rise of industrialised societies
also marked a significant change in disease patterns. As Ponting (1992) and McMichael
(1993) report, infectious diseases have declined in importance while people have been
increasingly affected by coronary disease, cancers, and other non-communicable
diseases which are directly related to industrialised, high-stress lifestyles, and polluted
environments. Ponting's (1992) and McMichael's (1993) works indicate that human
health is a reflection of the state of the environment, and human interactions with it at
any given point in time.

10
2.3 Environment and Development
The literature suggests that humanity's interaction with the environment over the past
10 000 years can be described in terms of development (Ponting 1992) - although
"development" is variously defined. According to Deibridge (1982:503) and Lipsey,
Langley and Mahoney (1985:866), development indicates growth and expansion.
However, according to the World Development Report 1991 any notion of development
must look beyond per capita growth to the reduction of poverty and greater equality, to
progress in education, health, nutrition, and the protection of the environment (World
Bank 1991:4). Expanding on this, De Souza and Porter (1974:3) contend that the
specific goals of development are:
a. A healthy, balanced diet in all seasons.
b. Adequate medical care.
c. Environmental sanitation and control of disease.
d. Labour opportunities of sufficient variety to harness the varied talents of
individuals.
e. Adequate opportunities for learning useful skills and for developing the mind.
f. Safety of person, freedom of conscience.
g. Adequate housing.
h. Systems of economic production that are in balance with the environment.
i. A social and political milieu wherein people enjoy equality and where
differentiation according to class, wealth, sex, colour and religion is absent, or at
least not degrading.
These views have been incorporated into contemporary understandings of sustainable
development, which Miller (1992) defined as 'forms of economic growth and activities
that do not deplete or degrade natural resources upon which present and future
economic growth depend'. Likewise, the World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED 1991:84) has articulated the notion of sustainable development
by stating that 'sustainable development seeks to meet the needs and aspirations of the
present without compromising the ability to meet those of the future'. Australia's
National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development (NSESD 1992) broadened
the meaning of sustainable development by linking economic development, thç
environment, and health. The NSESD (1992:86) called for 'a focus on health and
human and natural environments, and on the interrelationships and interactions which
sustain or threaten them'.

11
In 8 000 BCE the world human population was estimated to be approximately 8 million
people. Over the intervening 10 000 years the human population has multiplied to the
extent that by the year 2 000 it is estimated that the world population will reach 6 199
million people (Middleton 1995:19). Middleton (1995) believes that to succeed to this
extent, humans have appropriated an unsustainable proportion of the local and global
environment to feed, cloth, provide for, and satisfy all their real and perceived needs -

or, as De Souza and Porter (1974:3) describe them, human needs and wants. According

to Ehrlich (1993), as the human population has grown, so too have peoples skills at
harnessing, controlling, and "developing" the environment to suit those needs.

This increase in "development" effort led to the landmark report Our Common Future
(World Commission on Environment and Development 1991). In this report Brundtland
(1991: xv) states that 'the 'environment' is where we all live; and 'development' is
what we all do in attempting to improve our lot within that abode. The two are
inseparable'. Parker (1991), however, believes that the two are almost always separated,
with the result that "development" can be described as being based on two
environmentally exploitative perspectives: firstly, that a continuous, rapid, and
exponential increase in the throughput of natural resources equals growth; and
secondly, that our environment can function as an unending source of natural resources
and a limitless sink for human waste (Cortese 1993). In the literature reviewed, there
appears to be a consensus that the adverse affects of this kind of "development" can be
seen in the levels of pollution (atmospheric, terrestrial, and aquatic), climate change,
ozone depletion, land degradation and desertification, deforestation, loss of biological
diversity and, again, in the state of human health (Gordon and Suzuki 1990; Miller
1992; Tolba 1992; McMichael 1993; Middleton 1995). As an example, Quinn-Judge
(1997) reports that the declining lifespan of the average Russian citizen can be
attributed to the massive environmental damage caused by Soviet industry.

A review of the literature demonstrates the relationships between human impacts on the
environment and the affects of the environment on human health. Some of the key
concerns in this relationship are summarised below.

12
2.4 The Environment as an Infinite Source and Sink
2.4.1 Air: a global resource
Within the literature reviewed, it was suggested that with the advent of industnalisation
came a massive increase in air pollution. Combustion of timber and fossil fuels for
power generation (for domestic and industrial use), coupled with motor vehicle and
incinerator emissions, have been suggested as the main contributors to contemporary
outdoor air pollution (Miller 1992; Tolba 1992; Haynes 1995). Air is highly transient
due to atmospheric conditions, therefore pollution from industrial sources can affect
distant residential areas. Similarly, air pollution from one country can affect several
adjoining countries. Miller (1992) and Tolba (1992) suggest that the effects of acid rain
provide a good example of these transboundary impacts.
Acid rain is mainly made up of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide (predominantly the
result of industrial processes and motor vehicle emissions) which form an acid solution
when mixed with atmospheric water particles. When these fall to the ground as rain,
mist or fog, the resultant precipitation is ten times more acidic than normal (Tolba
1992:7). Miller (1992), Tolba (1992), and Christiani (1993) state that these chemicals
then enter the food chain in concentrations lethal to fish, plants and some insects.
Gordon and Suzuki (1990), Miller (1992), Tolba (1992), Christiam (1993), and
Middleton (1995) all agree that evidence of the effects of acid rain can now be seen in
the destruction of lakes, forestry, agriculture and wildlife in parts of Canada, Europe
(especially in Sweden and Norway where there is a partial or total loss of fish in many
lakes), and the north-eastern states of North America.

Miller (1992) observes that air is a global resource, while Tolba (1992) and Christiani
(1993) believe that atmospheric air pollution directly affects human health through
inhalation and skin absorption, and indirectly through food and water contamination.
Since the episodes of smog that occurred in London and New York in the 1950's and
1960's, Tolba (1992) and Christiani (1993) suggest that there is a direct link between
air pollution and mortality and morbidity. The World Health Orgamsation (WHO)
estimates that almost one fifth of the human population is exposed to health hazards
from air pollution (Miller 1992:589).

13
Long term exposure to air pollution has been linked to respiratory and cardiac
conditions in the elderly and children (Miner and Baker 1993). Tolba (1992:20) and
Christiani (1993: 14) state that 4 million children under the age of five die each year in
developing countries from acute respiratory disease, causally linked to atmospheric
pollution. A recently published study of 22 458 children in Great Britain, surveyed over
a period of 27 years, demonstrated a clear link between childhood cancer and proximity
to industry (Knox and Gilman 1997). Christiani (1993) notes that carbon monoxide
(emitted from motor vehicles) can lead to airway injury, heart and nervous system
damage and impaired lung function (carbon monoxide binds strongly with haemoglobin
and has the effect of reducing the carrying capacity by the body of oxygen). Lead
exposure from car emissions, paint, contaminated food and water, as well as from
smelters, have been demonstrated to cause a decrease in IQ and neurobehavioural
development in children (Bowen and Ru 1993; Lichtenstein and Helfand 1993;
McMichael 1993; Haynes 1995; Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 1997).
Bowen and Ru (1993:58) state that 'the U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry (ATSDR) estimates that a million U.S. children are exposed to enough lead in
food to cause lead poisoning'.

Further, according to Miller (1992), Miner and Baker (1993), Shaner (1994), and
Haynes (1995), indoor air pollution (from aerosol sprays, unvented stoves and heaters,
carpets, plastic products, insulation, and tobacco smoke) is believed to pose even
greater risks to health. The effects of tobacco smoke and asbestos are also documented
as being associated with lung cancers (Tolba 1992; Beaglehole, Bonita and KjellstrOm
1994). Thus there are an array of ambient indoor air contaminants that result in adverse
health outcomes in humans.

Despite the well documented risks associated with the various forms of air pollution,
the literature indicates that humanity is continuing to produce ever increasing quantities
of carbon, sulphur, lead, vehicle emissions, and other airborne contaminants and
particulates. Humans are, in effect, impacting on the integrity and well-being of the
supporting environment on an ever increasing scale.

14
2.4.2 Food and the use of chemicals
It is accepted that food derived from plants, animals, and minerals is necessary to
sustain human life, yet:
Agriculture uses more of the Earth's soil, water, plant, animal, and energy resources
and causes more pollution and environmental degradation than any other human
activity. By 2025, the worlds population is expected to reach at least 8.6 billion. To
feed these people, we must produce as much food during the next 30 years as was
produced over the last 10,000 years since the dawn of agriculture (Miller
1992 :3 57).

According to Miller (1992), the pressure to feed the world's burgeoning population led
to the "green revolution" of the 1 960s, where scientifically engineered varieties of
staple grains were bred to increase yields. This in turn involved an increase in the use of
pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, fertilisers, soil, and water, causing accelerated soil
erosion, salination, pollution of water resources, increased genetic resistance of pests to
pesticides, and pesticide poisoning in humans (Green, Harris and Throsby 1992; Miller
1992).

Tolba (1992:126, 127) states that only 50 per cent of fertilisers used benefit the plant,
and 90 per cent of pesticides do not reach target pests. Indeed, Miller (1992:638)
believes that as much as 98 to 99.9 per cent of pesticides may not reach its target. Tolba
(1992:204) suggests that as a consequence, '20 000 deaths a year occur as a result of
pesticide poisoning'. Middleton (1995:65) cites incidents of workers in contact with
pesticides becoming sterile, and hospitalisation and death occurring due to seeds being
eaten after spraying rather than being planted. Additionally, Middleton (1995 :65) links
pesticides and fertilisers to increased incidences of oesophageal cancers, congenital
deformities, and a shortened life expectancy. A study by South Australian researchers
reveals that there is a direct link between chemicals such as solvents and pesticides and
cancers such as leukaemia (Ewing 1 997:A2)

Insecticides, such as DDT (dichlorodiphenyl tnchloroethane), which are baimed in

many countries (for example, Australia, Canada, EU, and US) continue to be produced
and sold to countries like Mexico ('DDT damage' 1997). Breakdown products of this
insecticide have been found in food and breast milk. As a consequence, breast cancer is
cited as the second leading cause of death among Mexican women ('DDT damage'

15
1997). There is a suggestion by Berger and Kelly (1993) that many modern chemicals
may in fact be undermining the defence mechanism of the immune system. According
to Tolba (1992) and McMichael (1993), the effects of chemicals and other pollutants
are not necessarily restricted to the local environment. These authors (Tolba 1992;
McMichael 1993) point out that chemical run-off from agriculture can cause
eutrophication of major inland waterways and cause an increase in cyanobacteria or
"blue-green" algae, which leads to restricted access to clean water for both human and
animal consumption. Chemicals, pesticides, and other pollutants have also been shown
to bioaccumulate in the Arctic Circle and are present in air and water samples taken
hundreds of thousands of kilometres away from their source (Gordon and Suzuki 1990;
Miller 1992; Pearce 1997).

Once again, the literature demonstrates that humans are directly impacting on the
integrity and well-being of the supporting environment. These impacts have a
significant effect on human health.

2.4.3 Water: an essential source for life and "the ultimate sink"
Miller (1992:339) and Haynes (1995:335) state that although water is essential for life,
one fifth of the people in the world do not have access to clean water. The Woridwatch
State of the World Report 1990 discusses the decline of world water supplies (Gordon
and Suzuki 1990). Hu and Kim (1993) put forward the view that despite the warnings
contained in the State of the World Report 1990 and other reports (State of the Marine
Environment Report (Zann 1995); State of the Environment Australia: 1996), rivers,
streams, waterways and the oceans are still being polluted by humans on a daily basis.
Hu and Kim (1993) further contend that surface and ground water are being
contaminated by industry, chemical run-off from agriculture, storm water, discharges
from domestic septic tanks and sewage treatment plants (which remove some but not all
pollutants), and leaching from underground storage tanks (such as petrol or oil
reservoirs). Tolba (1992:35-36), in portraying an horrific picture of 6.5 million tonnes
of litter entering the sea each year, cites one study indicating that 70 per cent of litter
washed up on beaches was plastic (plastic persists for up to 50 years), while 3.2 million
tonnes of petroleum enter the marine environment annually from municipal waste, run-

16
off, and from maritime transportation. Other studies, according to Miller (1992:6 12)
have indicated that as many as 2 million seabirds and more than 100 000 marine
mammals die annually as a result of ocean rubbish. Miller (1992:611) describes the
world's oceans as 'the ultimate sink'.

According to Hu and Kim (1993), exposure to contaminants in water can occur directly
through drinking, food consumption (such as fish, or crops irrigated by contaminate
water), cooking, and swimming. These authors also state that chlorine, which is used to
disinfect water and is now a necessity in most domestic supplies, can increase the risks
of cancer (Hu and Kim 1993). Middleton (1995) believes that health problems such as
minor skin irritation, diarrhoea, bilharzia, and schistosomiasis can result from contact
with contaminated water. Water contaminated by human excreta, according to Tolba
(1992), can cause cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery. In coastal areas sewage is
responsible for the spread of enteric viruses and bacteria (McMichael 1994), leading to
eye and ear infections, gastroenteritis and hepatitis A (Beder 1989). Despite these health
risks, Miller (1992:611) notes that sewage from 98 per cent of Latin American, 85 per
cent of Mediterranean, and 35 percent of Umted States urban areas is dumped straight
into marine waters with little or no treatment. Similarly, much publicity was given to
the adverse health effects of sewage disposal off Sydney beaches (Beder 1989). In the
case of inland waterways, according to Miller (1992), the introduction of high levels of
phosphorus and nitrogen from fertilisers and waste water results in eutrophication of the
rivers and creeks. Eutrophication means that there is a depletion of oxygen in the water,
which causes the death of aquatic animals and fish, thereby depleting food resources
and biodiversity (Miller 1992).

2.4.4 Land: radically reshaped by human activity

Tolba (1992:58) states that:
Human activities have radically reshaped the world's natural land cover. The often
indiscriminate destruction of forests and woodlands, the overgrazing of vegetation
by increasing numbers of livestock, and the improper management of agricultural
land has all resulted in extensive degradation.
Indeed, Tolba (1992:59) estimates that 25 400 million tonnes of topsoil is lost
worldwide annually by excessive erosion, and that 15 per cent of the world's land area

17
has been degraded by humans. Tolba (1992), McMichael (1993), Williams, Dunkerley,
De Deckker, Kershaw and Stokes (1993), and Middleton (1995) concur and note that
the main causes are overgrazing, deforestation, agricultural activities, and over-
exploitation of the land.

Cultivation removes the natural vegetation that acts as a ground cover and protects the
soil from erosion. Many farming techniques involve maintaining unprotected soil
between crops, such as in vineyards and in horticulture (Tolba 1992; Middleton 1995).
Compounding the problem, Tolba (1992) and Middleton (1995) report that with the
advancement of farming technology steeper slopes and more marginal land are now
being cultivated, and that increasingly heavy farm machinery is compacting the soil and
causing increased rates of water run-off and accelerated erosion. Removal of hedges
and walls result in a larger catchment area for rainfall which also increase the incidence
of soil erosion (Tolba 1992; Middleton 1995).

Land degradation leads to reduced productivity which in turn leads to an increased

usage of fertilisers and their ensuing problems. Pimentel (1992) believes that sediment
in run-off from agricultural land is transported downstream causing damage to
waterways, harbours, and reservoirs; and that its chemical contents damage wildlife
habitats and kill fish. Eroded soils do not hold water very well and so intensifies water
shortages, notes Pimentel (1992). Tolba (1992) also observes that land degradation
often leads to a migration of subsistence farmers from their land to already
overcrowded cities, resulting in many social, political, economic and health problems.

Miller (1992) states that a combination of over-grazing, soil erosion, land degradation,
together with prolonged drought and climate change, can lead to desertification.
Desertification is defined by Williams et al. (1993:243) as a general deterioration of the
soil and vegetation cover caused by human occupation, and associated with falling
agricultural productivity. Middleton (1995) acknowledges that overgrazing in
commercial properties has lead to desertification in parts of Australia, where seedlings
are prevented from re-establishing by the trampling of hard hoofed animals (Miller
1992). Clearing of bushland and forests also reduces protection of the soil from the

18
harsh drying of the sun. Middleton (1995:5 1) estimates that 15 to 20 per cent of
Australia's irrigated land is affected by salination. Salination leads to a reduction in
crop yields and eventually renders the land unproductive. Williams et al (1993) and
Gray (1995) also observed that bore water, with a high salt content, is often used to
irrigate crops, even though this results in the transfer of salt onto the land. To reduce the
effects of salination, more water is used to dilute the concentration of salt in the soil.
Miller (1992) believes this eventually leads to waterlogging. Less fertile land and a
degraded environment mean a drop in world food production with all its associated
problems of malnourishment, malnutrition, and ill health.

2.4.5 Forests: a rapidly disappearing resource

Tolba (1992:68) reports that forest cover 'protects and stabilizes soils and local
climates, improves the soil's ability to hold water, and increases the efficiency with
which nutrients are cycled between the soil and vegetation'. Yet Miller (1992:256)
estimates that only about 2 per cent of the world's tropical forests remain, with 171 000
square kilometres disappearing each year. In addition to this, Tolba (1992:70) states that
pollution is damaging those areas not being logged, with 35 per cent of the forested area
of Europe damaged due to pollution. Forests have what Myers (1992:283) calls a
"sponge effect", whereby they soak up rainfall and release it in regular amounts during
dry seasons. Middleton (1995) and Myers (1992) predict that deforestation can
therefore lead to climatic upheavals with severe floods and severe droughts. Forests also
act as a 'huge natural sink for atmospheric carbon' (McMichael 1993:253). Large scale
deforestation leads to the release of carbon dioxide through decomposition of vegetable
matter and through "burning-off'. The release of carbon dioxide from forest fires
contributes to the greenhouse effect (Tolba 1992; McMichael 1993; Middleton 1995).
The destruction of rainforests dislocate and displace whole cultures of people and
greatly adds to the loss of biodiversity and extinction of many species, according to
Tolba (1992), McMichael (1993) and Middleton (1995). Bullough (1994), Associated
Press (1997) and Ryan (1997) report that the destruction of forests has also lead to
microbes and viruses (such as the Ebola, hantavirus and Lassa viruses, which have been
isolated in tropical rain forests), finding new hosts as humans intrude into previously
uninhabited areas.

19
2.4.6 Biodiversity: going, going,
Tolba (1992:77) predicts that in the next 20 - 30 years a quarter of the world's
biological diversity is at risk of extinction. Tolba (1992) and Middleton (1995) agree
that human activity is the main cause for species extinction. Lunn (1997:12) has
reported that an estimated 50 000 species of flora and fauna are disappearing worldwide
each year. Tolba (1992) and Middleton (1995) attribute this loss to: modification or loss
of habitat (especially due to settlement, agriculture or industry); over-exploitation of a
species (by hunters due to the high market value of the species); water and air pollution
(agrochemicals, acid rain); and the introduction of exotic species (such as goats and
rabbits). Tolba (1992:79) captures the impacts of the loss of biodiversity stating:
Wild species, and the genetic variation within them, make substantial contributions
to the development of agriculture, medicine and industry. Many species constitute
the foundation of community welfare in rural areas, by providing food, feed, fuel
and fibre. More importantly, perhaps, many species have been fundamental to the
stabilization of climate, the protection of watersheds, and the protection of soil,
nurseries and breeding grounds.

2.4.7 Climate and enhanced greenhouse effect

Tolba (1992) states that rapid climate change is creating additional threats to human
health. He points out that:
weather and climate are important deterrwnants of a region's energy use, it's
growth of vegetation, its means of transportation, its water supplies and its patterns
of habitation and development (Tolba 1992:24).
Ways in which humans are affecting the atmosphere have been discussed by Miller
(1992), the greatest being the production of greenhouse enhancing gasses such as
carbon dioxide, chioroflurocarbons (CFCs), methane, and nitrous oxide. Clayton (1995)
and Tebo (1997) explain that these gasses inhibit the transmission of some of the sun's
energy from the earth's surface to outer space, and hence accentuate global warming. In
Australia alone, it has been predicted by Lunn (1997) that there will be a 40 per cent
increase in carbon emissions between 1990 and 2010. Miller (1992) and Tebo (1997)
explain that the critical greenhouse enhancing gasses include: carbon dioxide, which is
produced through fossil-fuel burning and deforestation; CFCs which are released from
air conditioners, refrigerators, propellants in aerosol spray cans, production of plastic
foams, and industrial solvents; methane, which is produced by the world's billions of

20
ruminants and the decomposition of organic matter; and nitrous oxide, which is
released from the breakdown of fertilisers and livestock waste.

A report, produced by a panel of 2 500 eminent scientists predicts that the effects of
greenhouse gasses is likely to increase the average global temperature by I to 3.5
degrees (Lunn 1997:12). The report concludes that this increase is directly attributed to
human factors (Lunn 1997:12). Haines (1993) suggests that the result of global warming
will be an increase in the mortality rate for the elderly, and also those with
cardiovascular and respiratory problems. Green, Harris and Throsby (1992), Haines
(1993), McMichael (1993), Epstein (1995), Rodriguez (1995), and Kieffel (1996)
contend that it is also likely to create new and more favourable habitats for microbes
and viruses. They believe this will lead to an increase in communicable diseases such as
malaria, epidemis polyarthritis (caused by the Ross River virus), dengue fever, and
Murray Valley encephalitis (Green, Harris and Throsby 1992; Haines 1993; McMichael
1993; Epstein 1995; Rodriguez 1995; and Kieffel 1996).

According to Haines (1993), food production is particularly at risk, as it will be affected

by an increase in temperature together with reduced rain fall leading to heat stress and a
reduction in the growth rates of many crops. This may ultimately lead to
malnounshment and malnutrition (Haines 1993). Tolba (1992) believes that even
relatively small climate changes could result in serious water resource problems. A rise
in sea levels is also predicted, which would threaten the lives of many people in low
lying areas such as the Pacific Islands, Bangladesh, Egypt, Pakistan, and
according to Miller (1992), Haines (1993), and Lunn (1997). The literature reinforces
the view that rapid climate change threatens human health and well being.

2.4.8 The ozone "hole"

Leaf (1993) and Haynes (1995) state that the stratospheric ozone absorbs solar
ultraviolet radiation. These authors (Leaf 1993; Haynes 1995) report that the ozone
"hole", first identified in 1984, now results in an increase in the amount of harmful
ultraviolet-B radiation reaching earth. Chioroflurocarbons (CFCs) are held largely
responsible for this destruction (Leaf 1993; Haynes 1995). In many countries the

21
production of CFCs are already banned, and a world wide ban is intended by the year 2
000 (Leaf 1993). However, because of the lifespan of CFCs, it has been predicted by
Leaf (1993) that it will be another 100 years before the full effects of the CFCs
currently being discharged will be fully realised.

Green, Harris and Throsby (1992), Tolba (1992), Leaf (1993), McMichael (1993),
Shaner (1994), Haynes (1995) and Rodriguez (1995) all argue that the thinning of the
stratospheric ozone and consequent exposure to more harmful ultraviolet-B radiation
results in premature aging of skin, and an increase in the incidence of skin cancers and
cataracts. Ultraviolet-B radiation has also been suspected to suppress the immune
system, or more specifically the cellular immune responses resulting in suppressed T-
cell activity (Tolba 1992; Leaf 1993; McMichael 1993). The effect of this being that the
body is more susceptible to infectious diseases. The United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) warns that because of immune suppression, increased ultraviolet-B
exposure may facilitate the progression of auto-immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
(McMichael 1993:193). Tolba (1992), Leaf (1993), and McMichael (1993) believe that
ultraviolet-B radiation is toxic to most plants and aquatic organisms and consequently
will compromise food production. Tolba (1992) suspects that ultraviolet-B radiation
may also destroy micro-organisms in water and therefore reduce the efficiency of
natural water purification.

2.4.9 Radioactive contamination

As reported by Lichtenstein and Helfand (1993:114), since 1957 three major nuclear
accidents have caused radioactive contamination of plants, animals and humans.
Chernobyl, the most recent of these nuclear accidents, exposed 2.5 million people to
elevated radiation levels (Lichtenstein and Helfand 1993:114). Lichtenstein and Helfand
(1993:114) state that there is growing evidence to support the view that more and more
childrenin Russia and Ukraine are suffering from thyroid cancer (40 - 80 times the
normal incidence). The Chernobyl nuclear power accident resulted in radioactive
fallout being dispersed as far away as Italy, Sweden, and Wales. 5.5 million hectares
were reported contaminated and agriculture and dairy products had to be destroyed
(Lichtenstein and Helfand 1993).

22
Although there is ongoing debate about the effects of low-dose radiation, Lichtenstein
and Helfand (1993: 111) believe 'that there is no threshold level below which radiation
exposure is safe'. They also state that side affects such as cancers and leukaemia may
not be revealed for up to 30 years after exposure (Lichtenstein and Helfand 1993:111).
the true health effects according to the literature are therefore difficult to measure.
Bowen and Hu (1993) give an example where consumption of contaminated fish can
occur many thousands of kilometres away from the source of the contamination.
McMichael (1993:231) believes that this has serious implications given that
approximately one quarter of the worlds consumption of animal proteins is obtained
from fish.

2.5 Summary
The literature supports Cortese (1993) belief that most humans have treated the
environment's natural resources as free and abundant: there to be used for all humans
needs and wants. Technology has been used to enhance human life with little thought
for other species. The environment has been used to dump and hide waste and when
necessary technology again has been used to try and correct environmental problems.
The literature also substantiates Cortese (1993) claim that the environment is used as a
source and a sink: a source for all human needs and a sink to dispose of the waste.
Furthermore, the literature supports Green, Harris and Throsby (1992) and McMichael's
(1993) view that the human population now faces the health consequences of these
disruptions to the world's natural systems. This point is reinforced by Beaglehole,
Bonita and KjellstrOm's (1994:117) who conclude that 'most diseases are either caused
or influenced by environmental factors'. It is therefore vital, that as carers of people
who suffer from these diseases and health consequences, that nurses are not only aware
of environmental issues but incorporate this knowledge into nursing theory and
practice.

23
Chapter 3: Research Process
3.1 Overview
The purpose of the study was to identify and examine nursing's theoretical
understandings of the natural environment, which is considered to be a subset of the
nursing metaparadigm concept environment. To achieve this, a clear and coherent
understanding of the natural environment was developed by defining, exploring, and
elaborating the concept ecosystem utilising concept analysis techniques. In undertaking
this concept analysis, a number of key attributes of ecosystem were identified. Twenty
nine nursing theorists works were reviewed to identify how they expressed the
metaparadigm concept environment within nursing theory. The attributes identified by
the concept analysis were then sought within the metaparadigm environment of the
various nursing theories. The examination was undertaken to detect references to the
natural environment in nursing theory. This process identified a number of deficits in
nursing's conceptualisation of the environment. The significance of these deficits was
then discussed.

The study was guided by the following question:

"How is the natural environment described in nursing theory?"

The objectives of this study were to:

• collect and review relevant literature;
• develop a clear and coherent understanding of the natural environment by defming,
exploring, and elaborating the term ecosystem utilising Rodgers (1989) technique
of concept analysis;
• identify how the metaparadigm concept environment was expressed within nursing
theory by reviewing the twenty seven nursing theories presented in Marriner-
Tomey's (1994) book Nursing theorists and their work,
• detect references to the natural environment in nursing theory by comparing the
theorists works with the attributes of the concept ecosystem, as determined through
the concept analysis;
• identify any possible deficits in nursing's conceptualisation of the environment;
and

24
• articulate the significance of these findings for nursing.

3.2 Ethical considerations

This research involved access to literature only and not human subjects. Confidentiality
was not an issue as the material that was analysed and reviewed in this minor thesis was
publicly available in libraries. This eliminated the need to inform the authors referred to
in the study. Copyright regulations, particularly in relation to reproduction, have been
adhered to throughout and all references made in the study are acknowledged. The
researcher has recorded and reported the findings honestly, and has not knowingly
misquoted other persons work. This minor thesis does not incorporate without
acknowledgment any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any
university; and does not contain any materials previously published unless appropriately
acknowledged.

3.3 Concept, analysis

Concept analysis has over the past 35 years become an accepted technique in the
development of nursing theory. Diverse aspects of nursing have been analysed using
this technique [see Table 1: Examples of concept analysis]. Wilson (1963) provides the
fundamental model for concept analysis. Wilson's (1963) technique of concept analysis
was adapted by Walker and Avant (1995) for examining and analysing nursing
concepts. However, most of the earlier techniques of concept analyses which were
based on Wilson's methodology (such as Chinn and Jacob 1987; Meleis 1991; Walker
and Avant 1995) come from an overly reductionist and positivist epistemology, with the
aim of the analysis being to reduce the concept to its various elements (Rodgers 1989).
Indeed, Morse (1995:32) believes that the technique of concept analysis developed by
Wilson (1963) results in trivialising concept development. Rodgers (1989:33 1) criticises
Walker and Avant's (1995) techniques and states that the aim is to 'isolate the apparent
essence of a given concept rather than focusing on the vast interrelationships that exist
in the world'. Refuting this reproach, Walker and Avant (1995:50) state that this had
never been their intent.

25
Table 1: Examples of concept analysis

Xear
health promotion Maben and Macleod Clark Journal of advanced nursing 1995
collaboration Heinneman, Lee, and Cohen Journal of advanced nursing 1995
expert Jasper Journal of advanced nursing 1994
dignity Mains Journal of advanced nursing 1994
failure to thrive in elderly Newberry and Krowchuk Journal of advanced nursing 1994
people
quality of life Meeberg Journal of advanced nursing 1993
respect Browne Journal of advanced nursing 1993
mobility Rush and Ouellet Journal of advanced nursing 1993
grief Jacob Journal of advanced nursing 1993
feminism Allan Journal of advanced nursing 1993
spiritual perspective, Hasse, Britt, Coward, Leidy, Image 1992
hope, acceptance, self and Penn
transcendence
preventive health Kulbok and Baldwin Advances in nursing science 1992
behaviour
pain management Davis Advances in nursing science 1992
knowing the patient Jenny and Logan Image 1992
hypothermia Summers Nursing diagnosis 1992
fear Whitley Nursing diagnosis 1992
empathy Morse, Anderson, Bottorif, Image 1992
Yonge, O'Bnen, Solberg,
and Mcllveen
serenity Roberts and Fitzgerald Scholarly inquiry of nursing practice 1991

power Hawks Journal of advanced nursing 1991

experience Watson Journal of advanced nursing 1991
empowerment Gibson Journal of advanced nursing 1991
comfort Kolcaba Image 1991
sorrow Teel Journal of advanced nursing 1991
therapeutic reciprocity Marck Advances in nursing science 1990
quality of life Oleson Image 1990
feeling Beyea Nursing diagnosis 1990
family management style Knafi and Deatrick Journal of pediatric nursing 1990
reassurance Teasdale Journal of advanced nursing 1989
health Simmons International journal of nursing 1989
studies
aggregate Schultz Advances in nursing science 1987
normalisation Knafi and Deatnck Research in nursing and health 1986
intuition Rew Advances in nursing science 1986

mother-daughter Boyd Advances in nursing science 1985

identification

Source: Rodgers 1989; Gibson 1991; Maben and Macleod Clark 1995; Morse 1995; Walker and Avant
1995; Paley 1996.

26
Paley (1996:577) is likewise critical of conductmg concept analyses in isolation from
the theoretical or linguistic context in which the concept is embedded. Wotton (1996)
identifies the weakness in such rigid approaches to concept analysis. She states that in
the past concepts were 'perceived not to change over time or context' and that this
'presents a static view of the world' (Wotton 1996:137). Rodgers (1989), and indeed
Walker and Avant (1995), also support the view that concepts change over time.
Following Walker and Avant's (1995:37) suggestion then, the intent of a concept
analysis should be to capture the critical attributes of a concept at a given point in time,
in a given linguistic and social context.

Concept analysis, according to Wilson (1963:20), is a 'sophisticated form of

communication'. Chinn and Kramer (1991 :viii) believe that creating conceptual
meaning (or concept analysis as stated in previous editions of their book) is a 'tool to
create useful meaning rather than to prescribe a definition'. Closely following Wilson's
(1963) original intent, Walker and Avant (1995) believe that concept analysis can be
understood as a formal, linguistic exercise to determine the attributes or characteristics
of a concept. Rodgers (1989), however, disagrees and states that it is more than just a
linguistic exercise, basing her concept analysis on an expanded philosophical
perspective.

3.3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of Rodgers concept analysis technique

Both Rodgers' (1989) concept analysis technique and her terminology have been used
in this study. Although other authorities (such as those of Chinn and Jacob 1987; Meleis
1991; Walker and Avant 1995) use differing terminology to label the various phases or
steps in concept analysis, they are all remarkable similar to those of Rodgers. The
position of this researcher was that those labels described by Rodgers (1989) were
clearer and more coherent. Having said that, the major limitation of Rodgers' (1989)
technique is her lack of guidance and explanation of what actually constitutes each
phase. Therefore, although the criteria used in this study were those described by
Rodgers (1989), the technique has drawn on insights provided by Wilson (1963) and
Avant and Walker (1995).

27
As already stated Paley (1996) is critical of conducting concept analysis in isolation
from the theoretical or linguistic context in which the concept is embedded. According
to Avant and Walker (1995) and to Wotton (1996), time and context are of great
importance in concept analysis. Rodgers' (1989) addresses this criticism by devoting a
phase solely to identifying and selecting an appropriate realm (sample) for data
collection. Her technique therefore allows aspects of context and time to be more fully
considered (Rodgers 1989).

In undertaking a concept analysis of ecosystem utilising Rodgers (1989) technique, the

researcher countered the above criticisms by extracting attributes from samples within
three quite disparate realms. Additionally, the attributes were identified from within the
context and time frame of each individual article or publication [see Appendix 1:
Sampling results of CINAHL, ACT Public Library Service, and Odum and Lovelock].
The samples cover a diverse range of interests, disciplines and eras (publication dates
ranged from 1969 to 1996); and are targeted towards a broad spectrum of readers (from
junior to adult, and from fiction to scientific literature). It is a combination of attributes,
incorporating the various contexts and times, that provide the key attributes of the
concept ecosystem that are utilised in this study.

Rodgers' (1989) technique of concept analysis was also selected on the grounds that a
model case can only be identified when the attributes have been explored. When
conducted in this sequence, the identification of a model case 'enhances the degree of
clarification offered as a result of analysis' [my emphasis] (Rodgers 1989:334). In the
context of this study, the identification of attributes assisted in determining the model
case, as Rodgers' (1989) had suggested.

3.3.2 Technique of concept analysis

The concept analysis technique used in this study to explore the concept ecosystem was
that described by Rodgers (1989:333). The 'phases' (Rodgers 1989:333) are:
1. Identify and name the concept of interest.
2. Identify surrogate terms and relevant uses of the concept.
3. Identify and select an appropriate realm (sample) for data collection.
4. Identify the attributes of the concept.

28
 5. Identify the references, antecedents, and consequences of the concept, if
possible.
6. Identify concepts that are related to the concept of interest.
7. Identify a model case of the concept
Rodgers' (1989) phases of concept analysis are discussed in detail below. The findings
of the concept analysis are set out in Chapter 4 and Appendices 1 and 2.

Phase 1: Identify and name the concept of interest.

While Rodgers (1989) is largely silent on how to identify and name the concept of
interest, a description can be discerned from the work of others (Wilson 1963; Chinn
and Jacobs 1987; Adam 1980; Marriner-Tomey 1994; Walker and Avant 1995). Wilson
(1963 :23-24), for example, states that to identify a concept it must be separated from
questions of moral opinion or value and from fact. Wilson's (1963:24-27) belief is that,
concept analysis cannot be used to analyse questions of moral value or descriptions of
fact. As already stated a concept is a complex mental formulation of an object, property,
or event that is derived from a series of personal perceptual experiences (Greenwood
1996). A concept is an idea, a mental image, or a generalisation formed and developed
in the mind. It provides abstract labels for phenomena (Chinn and Jacobs 1987:79;
Adam 1980:116; Marriner-Tomey 1994:4). The concept must therefore be isolated from
considerations of fact or value [see 4.2.2].

Walker and Avant (1995:40) advise against using primitive, umbrella, or trivial
concepts, but fail to define these terms or to specify what they might entail. None the
less, they recommend using a concept of interest to the researcher, and a concept that is
important and useful to nursing research (Walker and Avant 1995:40). Simmons (1989),
Gibson (1991), Watson (1991), and Maben and Macleod Clark (1995) utilise
dictionaries to define the concept of interest. The concept chosen for this study is
ecosystem, which functions as a synonym for the natural environment.

Phase 2: Identify surrogate terms and relevant uses of the concept.

Rodgers (1989:333) believes that identifying surrogate tenns is an important step in
concept analysis. She states that several terms may serve as manifestations of the

29
concept in question (that is, there may be synonymous terms) (Rodgers 1989:333). In
addition, a word may be used to convey more than one meaning (homonymous terms).

Rodgers (1989:333) believes that it is important to separate differences in terminology

from inappropriate uses of a concept. Contrastingly, Walker and Avant (1995:40-41)
assert that all uses should be explored, including physical aspects, psychosocial,
ordinary and scientific, and implicit and explicit uses. Wilson (1963:33) believes that
the circumstances in which the concept is used is of importance. He highlights the who,
why and when, in relation to the concept's use (Wilson 1963:33). These aspects of
ecosystem are discussed in 4.3.

Phase 3: Identify and select an appropriate realm (sample) for data collection.

Rodgers (1989:333) asserts that to select an appropriate sample for data collection for
the concept analysis, the researcher should use computerised data bases so that the
analysis is a representative sample of the total population. The sample for data
collection should also represent a broad spectrum across time and contexts (Rodgers
1989:333). Walker and Avant (1995:40-41) believe that extensive reading from many
different sources is necessary. Restricting reading to just nursing or medical literature
may therefore severely limit the usefulness of the outcome. Chinn and Kramer
(1991:88-89) suggest music, visual images, and oral sources may be utilised. Details of
the data collected for the concept analysis is discussed in 4.4.

Phase 4: Identify the attributes of the concept.

Rodgers (1989:333) asserts that the attributes of a concept are those characteristics that
repeatedly recur. Walker and Avant (1995 :41) agree. According to Delbndge
(1982: 149), attributes are characteristics that serve to limit, identify, particularise,
describe, or supplement a form or word. For example: in discussing dogs most data
sources would acknowledge that dogs bark, and pant when hot. If bark and pant are
found across most, if not all data sources, then bark and pant can be considered as
attributes of a dog. Throughout this study, attributes can therefore be considered to be
those characteristics that: firstly, occur repeatedly throughout the data source and across
the three realms; and secondly, are subordinate in a grammatical and linguistic sense to

30
the concept ecosystem, serving to limit (that is, identify, particulanse, describe, or
supplement) its meaning, scope, or form.

Phase 5: Identify the references, antecedents, and consequences of the concept.

Rodgers (1989:334) writes that references 'clarify the range of events, situations, or
phenomena over which the application of a concept is considered to be appropriate'.
Walker and Avant (1995 :46) state that references provide 'observable phenomena by
which to "diagnose" the existence of the concept'. They define empirical references as
'classes or categories of actual phenomena that by their existence or presence
demonstrate the occurrence of the concept itself (Walker and Avant 1995:46).

Antecedents of a concept are the events or phenomena that precede an instance of the
concept and consequences follow an occurrence of the concept (Rodgers 1989; Walker
and Avant 1995). Consequences may highlight further new research directions (Rodgers
1989:334; Walker and Avant 1995:46) and shed light on the social context in which the
concept is generally used (Walker and Avant 1995:46). In general then, antecedents and
consequences serve to inform and add meaning to the concept by categorising the
phenomena preceding and following an instance of the concept. They also guide the
identification of a model case, in that the model case should have the same antecedents
and consequences as the concept in question.

Phase 6: Identify concepts that are related to the concept of interest.

Rodgers (1989:333) asserts that by identifying concepts that are related to the concept
of interest, the researcher acknowledges the interconnectedness of the world and the
likelihood of change. Walker and Avant (1995 :44) state that related concepts are those
that are associated with the concept of interest but do not have the critical attributes. No
indication or advise is given on how to find related concepts. The researcher therefore
used various thesaurus to find related concepts.

Phase 7: Identify a model case of the concept

Rodgers (1986:334) states that a model case is constructed on completion of the

analysis and that this 'enhances the degree of clarification offered as a result of the

31
analysis'. Wilson (1963:28), on the other hand, believes that it is an important
beginning to identifying an instance of the concept that the researcher believes is an
ideal example. All other cases can then be compared to that model case. Accordingly,
when a concept has been analysed the result is a meaning for the concept that is most
sensible and useful, and a concept meaning that can then be used to its fullest advantage
(Wilson 1963:37). Walker and Avant (1995:42) assert that a model case is a
'paradigmatic example' of the concept. Meleis (1991:224) believes that model cases
may include empirical results that are related to the concept. As suggested by Rodgers
(1989), a model case of the concept ecosystem, was constructed on completion of the
concept analysis in this study.

3.4 Method of data collection

The nursing textbook Nursing theorists and their work edited by Marriner-Tomey
(1994), was the main data source for this study. References to the concept environment
were identified and isolated within each of the relevant chapters of Marnner-Tomey's
(1994) book. Either the theorist's own writings, or Marriner-Tomey's (1994)
interpretation of their work, was assessed to determine how the concept was expressed.

This book was chosen because of its comprehensive representation of nursing theory. In
particular, the editor (Marriner-Tomey 1994) deals specifically with the concept
environment as it is described by individual nursing theorists. Also, according to the
editor, the theorists themselves have critiqued the individual chapter describing their
work to ensure that 'the content could be current and accurate' (Marriner-Tomey
1994:xi). The contents can therefore be considered a reasonably accurate reflection of
the theorists views. Furthermore, the theories discussed in the book have been
recognised as influential in the development of nursing (Yura and Tones 1975; Fawcett
1978; Chinn and Kramer 1991; Alligood and Choi 1994). Importantly, these theories
have been built upon by nurses and utilised in contemporary nursing practice (Fawcett
and Tulman 1990; Faucett, Ellis, Underwood, Naqvi and Wilson 1990; Magan and
Morzek 1990).

32
The textbook Nursing theorists and their work (1994) may not be representative of all
nursing theory literature, but it is indicative of a large number of similar textbooks
describing nursing theory. Marriner-Tomey's textbook is widely available in Australian
nursing libraries and is utilised in issues concerned with the education of students in
nursing. To substantiate this claim all thirty universities across Australia that currently
have undergraduate courses in nursing were contacted [see Table 2: Universities with
undergraduate degrees in nursing]. This list of universities was obtained from the Good
universities guide to Australian universities 1996 (Ashenden and Milligan 1995) and
cross checked with Roberts (1996:5). University libraries were then accessed
electronically using the Australian Bibliographic Network (ABN) through the
University of South Australia's library facilities. A list of forty different organisations,
including numerous hospitals, was generated. This listing identified institutions holding
copies of Nursing theorists and their work (1986, 1989, 1994). Universities which
currently have undergraduate nursing courses but were not identified by the ABN listing
were contacted by phone. Nursing theorists and their work (1986, 1989, 1994) is
available in the libraries associated with all universities who currently have
undergraduate courses in nursing. This nursing textbook is therefore accessible to a
large number of students in nursing in Australia, and has the potential to influence their
perspectives on nursing practice, and in the future on the environment.

Specific individual theorists works or other authors of similar textbooks have been
excluded for a combination of three reasons:
• because they focus on specific or narrow aspects of nursing care;
• they fail to identify the concept environment in their articulation of theory; and / or
• they are not considered part of the dominant nursing paradigm.

3.5 Method of analysis

The dominant attributes of the concept ecosystem were determined through the data
collected in phase three of the concept analysis. These attributes were then sought in the
theorists works. This was done to determine the degree of congruency between
contemporary understandings of the natural environment (derived from the literature
reviewed in the concept analysis), and nurse theorists interpretations of the

33
Table 2: Universities with undergraduate degrees in nursing.

State I Territory University

New South Wales Australian Catholic University
Avondale
Charles Sturt University
Southern Cross University
University of New England
University of Newcastle
University of Sydney
University of Technology, Sydney
University of Western Sydney
University of Wollongong

Victoria Australian Catholic University

Ballarat University
Deakin University
La Trobe University
Monash University
Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
Victoria University of Technology

Queensland Australian Catholic University

Central Queensland University
Griffith University
James Cook University
Queensland University of Technology
University of Southern Queensland

South Australia Flinders University of South Australia

University of South Australia

Western Australia Curtin University

Edith Cowan University

Tasmania University of Tasmania

Territories Northern Territory University

University of Canberra

Sources: Ashenden and Milligan 1995; Roberts 1996:5.

34
metaparadigm concept environment (as determined from the text Nursing theorists and
their work (1994)).

Using the standard word processing search tool embedded in Word 6.0 for Windows, a
search was conducted for the ecosystem attributes explicit in Mamner-Tomey's (1994)
articulation of the various nurse theorists works. The results were then presented in a
table of nursing theories, cross-referenced with the attributes of ecosystem.

3.6 Presentation of results

The attributes of the concept ecosystem detected in the nursing theories are discussed
and interpreted in detail in Chapter 6. Whether the theorists included the various
attributes, and the context in which the attributes were used, was interpreted. The
attributes detected in each of the theories were explored utilising the explication of the
various attributes in the context of ecosystem [see 4.5]. In doing so, reference to the
natural environment was sought from within the theones. An appraisal of how
comprehensively the natural environment has been incorporated within each theory was
undertaken and the results discussed in Chapter 6. An overall evaluation of the theories
was also undertaken.

3.7 Limitations
3.7.1 Method selection

The researcher acknowledges that there are other methodologies and designs that could
achieve the aims and objectives of this study. This particular approach has been chosen
because the researcher believes that concept analysis is a relatively well accepted
technique within nursing. This form of analysis can also provide greater clarity and
understanding of the concept ecosystem, and subsequently the role and scope of the
natural environment within the nursing metaparadigm environment. The chosen
methodology was also considered the most appropriate by the researcher because of:
limited access to resources, libraries and teaching staff, as a consequence of being a
distance education student; as well as time and word limits of a minor thesis. These
constraints were mitigated by using a highly structured approach to data sampling and
analysis.

35
The researcher acknowledges that theory is politically derived and that no one theory
can stand unchallenged over time (Kuhn 1970). It is also acknowledged that no single
theory can explain every facet of nursing, and at best theory informs practice and is not
a substitute for it. It is therefore unrealistic to expect any single nursing theory to
encompass all the attributes of ecosystem while adequately addressing the other three
metaparadigms. Additionally, each of the theories examined is capable of being adapted
to include ecosystem attributes. Regardless of the articulation of the metaparadigm
environment in nursing theory nurses may already be incorporating an environmental
understanding into practice (Abbey 1991; Paech 1991; Shaner 1994; Avery 1996;
Ciarman 1995; Rodriguez 1995).

3.7.2 Nursing theory as represented by Marriner-Tomey

Multiple textbooks have been written in relation to nursing theory (such as, for
example, Fawcett 1978; Chinn and Kramer 1991). In this study only one nursing
textbook was analysed to identify and examine how the metaparadigm concept
environment was expressed within nursing theory. However, this book is not just the
writings of one person (that is, Marriner-Tomey): some chapters are written by up to
eight people and there are one hundred and thirty eight authors in total contributing to
the book.

36
Chapter 4: Findings - Ecosystem
4.1 Overview
The findings of the study are divided between two chapters: chapter four contains the
results of the concept analysis of ecosystem, while chapter five explores the concept
environment within nursing theory. The question guiding this study, "how is the natural
environment described in nursing theory?", is further explored throughout these
findings.

The literature review demonstrated that there is a direct relationship between human
health and the environment. Indeed, McMichael (1991:499) believes that 'good health
is the living manifestation of a species' biological compatibility with its ecosystem'.
Therefore, the aim of this chapter is to define, explore, and clarify the concept
ecosystem in order to illustrate the importance of the natural environment, as a subset of
the metaparadigm concept environment. In turn this exploration will inform a
discussion on the implications of the findings to the discipline of nursing. The
framework for presenting the fmdings in this chapter follow Rodgers' (1989:333)
criteria for concept analysis. These phases are:
1. Identify and name the concept of interest.
2. Identify surrogate terms and relevant uses of the concept.
3. Identify and select an appropriate realm (sample) for data collection.
4. Identify the attributes of the concept.
5. Identify the references, antecedents, and consequences of the concept, if
possible.
6. Identify concepts that are related to the concept of interest.
7. Identify a model case of the concept

Each of these criteria will now be discussed as distinct phases of the concept analysis.

4.2 Identify and name the concept of interest

To complete the first phase of the concept analysis (that is to correctly identify and
name the concept), it was necessary to do four things: select an interesting concept of
relevance to nursing research; ensure that the concept is adequately separated from any
questions of fact or value; ensure the selected concept is a complex mental formulation
derived from personal perceptual experiences; and actually name the concept in

37
question by providing a number of dictionary definitions. Each of these will now be
discussed.

4.2.1 Select an interesting concept of relevance to nursing research

The concept identified for analysis was "ecosystem". The term is a significant one for
nursing given that ecosystem functions both linguistically and grammatically as a
synonym for the natural environment (Bernard 1984:728.1; Tulloch 1991:94; Chapman
1992:1071.1). The fact that ecosystem as a synonym for the natural environment is of
fundamental importance because the natural environment is a subset of one of the major
metaparadigm concepts in nursing (Meleis 1986; Parker 1991; Fawcett 1993; Wotton
1996). A concept analysis of ecosystem is relevant for other reasons too. Concept
analysis as a research technique provides a means of systematically analysing and
comparing the concepts from which nursing theory is constructed (Gibson 1991). This
systematic analysis helps ensure that key concepts within nursing theory are uniformly
promulgated throughout the nursing profession, and that these concepts achieve a
coherent meaning within nursing practice unimpeded by the vagaries and subjectivity of
language.

4.2.2 Ensure that the concept is adequately separated from any questions of çact
or value
The focus of the analysis was on the concept ecosystem. This concept, while not
independent of factual reality or moral value, is sufficiently separated to allow an
analysis under Rodgers' (1989) criteria. In support of this view, the analysis is
performed from the perspective of ecosystem as an abstract term or complex mental
formulation for the natural environment. Conversely, the analysis did not seek, for
example, to map actual ecosystems or validate the existence of Lovelock's (1991) Gaia,
which would involve questions of fact [for an explanation of Gaia see 4.3. 1(iii) and
Appendix 1.3]. Nor is the analysis attempting to determine whether Gaia is good or bad
in human terms, which is clearly a question of moral opinion.

38
4.2.3 Ensure the selected concept is a complex mental formulation derived from
personal perceptual experiences
The status of ecosystem as a concept is verified by Sabath and Quinnell (1981:9) in
their textbook of Australian ecology. Sabath and Quinnell's (1981) views are supported
by Major (1969:11), Odum (1989:39), and Walker (1989:93) who state that ecosystem
is a concept. Extrapolating from these and other views (Bernard 1984:728.1; Tulloch
1991:94; Chapman 1992:1071.1), ecosystem may be considered an abstract tenn
developed to systematically label and categorise what humans see around them: the
enviromnent. Ecosystem is a way of mentally organising surroundings according to
abstract categories. Ecosystem therefore qualifies as a complex mental abstraction
derived from perceptions of our surrounds and the interrelationships involved.

4.2.4 Name the concept in question

The Macquarie Dictionary (Delbndge 1982:573) defines ecosystem as
a community of organisms, interacting with one another, plus the environment in
which they live and with which they also interact, as a pond, a forest.
The Australian concise Oxford dictionary of current Enghsh (Turner 1987:346) and
Webster's dictionary of the English language (1979:574) similarly define the term,
while the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Goetz 1982:28 1) elaborates slightly by defining
ecosystem as:
any unit - including all the organisms (biological factors) - interacting with the
environment (physical factors) so that a flow of energy within a system leads to a
clearly defined trophic (nutrient-requiring) structure, to biotic diversity, and to an
exchange of matenals between living and non-living sectors.
Meagher (1991:104) provides a very comprehensive definition for ecosystem as an:
aggregate of animals, plants, and other organisms and non-living parts of the
environment, that interacts and which requires no external source of energy and
matter (other than sunlight and, perhaps, precipitation). An ecosystem has many
internal recycling systems, for example a food chain, an energy cycle, a carbon
cycle, an oxygen cycle and a nitrogen cycle. The true, virtually perfect ecosystem is
the Earth, but within that ecosystem there are other, imperfect, ecosystems, such as
rainforests, oceans and deserts. Even microscopic ecosystems can be considered to
exist.

39
4.3 Identify surrogate terms and relevant uses of the concept
The second phase of the concept analysis was completed by identifying relevant
homonyms and synonyms, and then separating them from the unrelated, inappropriate
uses of the term. Within the explanation of surrogate terms identified in the following
sections, the who, why and when (Wilson 1963:33) in relation to the concept's use is
also discussed.

4.3.1 Surrogate terms: Homonyms and synonyms

Various English dictionaries (The Mac quarie Dictionary (Deibridge 1982); The
Australian concise Oxford dictionary of current English (Turner 1987) and Webster's
dictionary of the English language (1979)), plus The Macmillan dictionary of the
Australian environment (Meagher 1991) were consulted. There were no homonyms
found. In contrast, three terms were identified as synonyms: biogeocoenosis,
holocoenosis, and Gaia. These terms are explained below:

(i) Biogeocoenosis
Allaby and Allaby (1990:12 1) state that biogeocoenosis is found in the literature of the
Soviet and central European countries and that it describes the same concept as
ecosystem. Goetz (1982:28 1) concurs and states that biogeocoenosis can be considered
a synonym for the word ecosystem. Odum (1989:27) similarly asserts that it is a parallel
term which translated means 'life and Earth functioning together'. In contrast, Majors
(1969:13), discussing Sukachev's (1960) work, attempts to differentiate between
ecosystem and biogeocoenosis but fails to provide a clear and unambiguous method for
doing so. In this analysis biogeocoenosis therefore represents a surrogate term or
synonym for ecosystem

(ii) Holocoenosis
Major (1969:13) states that holocoen is 'another term equivalent to the ecosystem'.
Meagher (1991:149) defines holocoenosis as:
the consideration of the environment as a vast but coherent complex in which all the
parts interact with all other parts, and are not independent. The principle of
holocoenosis is critical to the science of ecology.

40
Based on Major (1969) and Meagher's (1991) views, holocoenosisis also represents a
surrogate term for ecosystem.

(iii) Gala
According to Kirkpatrick (1987) and Lovelock (1991), Gaia is a synonym or surrogate
term having the same or nearly same meaning as ecosystem. The Gaia theory originated
with James Lovelock, who named his theory after the ancient Greek goddess of the
Earth. Lovelock's (1991) concept of Gaia is based on the view that organisms do not
just passively adapt to their physical surroundings but interact to change and control the
physical and chemical conditions surrounding them. He hypothesised that 'the Earth's
atmosphere is actively maintained and regulated by life on the surface, that is, by the
biosphere' (Lovelock 199 1:9). The controversial aspect of Lovelock's hypothesis is that
rather than accepting that geological processes produced favourable conditions for life,
he contends that organisms themselves produced a homeostatic environment favourable
to their continued growth (Lovelock 1991). Organisms work together to maintain the
balance and to regulate atmospheric gases (Lovelock 1991). This interdependence
between organisms and material to maintain life and preserve the status quo is
indistinguishable from the definitions provided for the concept ecosystem and hence
can be seen as a surrogate term for ecosystem.

4.3.2 Uses of the term ecosystem - who, what and when

The term ecosystem was first proposed by the botanist and ecologist Arthur George
Tansley in 1935 [see Table 3: Tansley's original definition of "Ecosystem"]. The
concept was originally a scientific term (Sabath and Quinnell 1981; Odum 1989).

According to Sabath and Quinnell (1981), Tansley and others were seeking a term to
describe their conceptualisation of the interaction and integration of all organisms with
their environment. Odum (1989:38) believes that the word system indicates that Tansley
was considering a complex, organised unit rather than just a catchall word for
everything in the environment. While Goetz (1982) and Tulloch (1991) state that the
term is relatively new, the notion of a unity of organisms and environment has been a
recurrent theme throughout history and is the basis of many religions (Goetz 1982;

41
Table 3: Tansley's original definition of an "Ecosystem".

I have already given my reasons for rejecting the terms 'complex organism' and biotic community'.
Clements earlier term 'biome' for the whole complex of organism inhabiting a given region is
unobjectioriable, and for some purposes convenient. But the more fundamental conception is, as it seems
to me, the whole system (in the sense of physics), including not only the organism-complex, but also the
whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment of the biome - the habitat factors
in the widest sense. Though the organisms may claim our primary interest, when we are trying to think
fundamentally we cannot separate them from their special environment, with which they form one physical
system.

It is the systems so formed which, from the view of the ecologist, are the basic units of nature on the face
of the earth. Our natural human prejudices force us to consider the organisms (in the sense of the
biologist) as the most important parts of these systems, but certainly the inorganic 'factors' are also parts
- there could be rio systems without them, and there is constant interchange of the most various kinds
within each system, not only between the organisms but between the organic and inorganic. These
ecosystems, as we may call them, are of the most various kinds and sizes.

The fundamental concept appropriate to the biome considered together with all the effective inorganic
factors of its environment is the ecosystem, which is a particular category among the physical systems
that make up the universe. In an ecosystem the organisms and the inorganic factors alike are
components which are in stable dynamic equilibrium.

Source: Sabath and Quinnell (1981)

Bertel, Dyer, and Gray 1995). Despite this recurrent historical theme, Goetz (1982)
states that it was not until the 1960's that Western science developed a more robust
conceptualisation of ecosystem, and that ecosystem was seen as incorporating humans.
Up until the 1960's, with the exception of Tansley and his colleagues, each segment of
the environment, such as a forest or an ocean, was seen as a separate and independent
unit rather than an integrated dependant whole (Goetz 1982:28 1). By the 1960's a
number of authors considered ecology (the study of ecosystems) as representing what
Kuhn (1970) refers to as a paradigm shift within the discipline of biology, and
commented on ecology's intrinsically critical and subversive nature (Sears 1964;
Bookchin 1970). These views indicate that the concept ecosystem was both
controversial and political. Ecosystem challenged what was, in the 1960's, the dominant
understanding of how humans perceived and categorised the environment. The concept
also challenged the way that humans relate to their environment and how they use or
value the environment. Additionally, the concept has recently become a part of
everyday language (Goetz 1982; Odum 1989). Ecosystem is now a common term in
many school textbooks (Sabath and Quinnell 1981; Miller 1992).

42
4.4 Identify and select an appropriate realm (sample) for data
collection.
To obtain as broad a sample as possible, three distinct and quite separate realms were
identified: the entire Australian Capital Territory (ACT) Public Library Service
holdings, all texts from the CINAHL database, and selected works by Odum
(1989) and Lovelock (1987, 1988, 1991).

Given that ecosystem is now a word in common use, the researcher chose to analyse the
concept as it is employed and understood in "everyday" language. To achieve this, the
Australian Capital Territory (ACT) Public Library Service was utilised. The researcher
elected to examine material readily accessible on an everyday basis to a broad spectrum
of interests (rather than restricting the analysis to an examination of how the term is
deployed within scientific literature alone). To ensure the concept analysis maintained a
nursing focus and remained appropriate for nursing, the CINAHL CD-ROM database
was accessed. Writings by Odum (1989) and Lovelock (1987, 1988, 1991) have been
chosen for the following reasons: their thoughts are pervasive in the environment
discipline; they are widely acknowledged as "authorities" in the area of ecosystem
studies; and they have made significant contributions to our understanding of global
ecosystems over a significant period of time.

The ACT Public Library Service catalogue was accessed, and a list was generated by
searching the libraries catalogue using ecosystem both as a key word and as a word in
the title. The list generated included junior non-fiction, juvenile, and adult literature, a
computer file and educational videos. Publication dates ranged from 1969 to 1996. An
examination of the available works from this list provided literature-based data
spanning a broad spectrum of contexts and time. To procure a nursing perspective,
ecosystem as a keyword was accessed using the CINAHL CD-ROM database (the
database covered dates from 1982 to May 1997 only). This data base revealed only two
items. The third realm included sample writings by Odum (1989) and Lovelock (1987,
1988, 1991). These three realms, together with various dictionaries and encyclopaedia
(see 4.2 and 4.3.1), informed the concept analysis [for a complete list of titles and a

43
synopsis of each text's definition and attributes of ecosystem, see Appendix 1:
Sampling results of CINAUL, ACT Public Library Service, and Odum and Lovelock].

4.4.1 Limitations of the realm and sampling technique

Because of library restrictions, and time and word limits of this minor thesis, only
literature was examined (videos, films, computer files, and visual and performing art
were therefore excluded from the study). Although a list of nineteen books was
generated by searching the library's catalogue, only fifteen were available for public
use. Apart from these fifteen books the researcher believes that others which discuss
ecosystem existed in the ACT Public Library Service. One such book was found whilst
browsing the shelves. It was not used in this analysis as it was not identified by the
sampling technique. Although all the relevant books may not have been identified, the
researcher believes that those listed cover a diverse range of interests, disciplines and
eras; and are targeted towards a broad spectrum of readers from junior to adult, and
from fiction to scientific literature.

4.5 Identify the attributes of the concept

Attributes are the often repeated characteristics associated with an example of the
concept (Rodgers 1989). In the samples obtained for this study, the attributes vary from
data source to data source [see Appendix 1: Sampling results of CINAHL, ACT Public
Library Service, and Odum and Lovelock]. Although each data source has a slightly
different set of attributes, the attributes of the concept ecosystem presented in
Appendix 2 are the most frequently occurring characteristics across all the data sources
[Appendix 2: Attributes derived from the CINAHL, ACT Library Service, and Odum
and Lovelock samples]. The following were the characteristics that repeatedly recurred:
components, concept, cycles (biogeochemical or nutrient), diversity, energy,
equilibrium, evolution, food chain and food web, trophic level, system, and
relationships.

To achieve greater clarity of meaning, each of these attributes was further explored and
defined utilising various environmental textbooks. The results of this exploration are
provided below.

44
4.5.1 Components
Within an ecosystem there are both biotic and abiotic components. Biotic components
are the living things or biological matter of an ecosystem, such as the flora and fauna.
Abiotic components are the non-living components such as air, water and rocks. The
Earth comprises of the atmosphere (gases), biosphere (flora and fauna), lithosphere
(rocks and soil) and hydrosphere (oceans, seas and lakes) (Meagher 1991; Miller 1992;
Victorian Association for Environmental Education (VAEE), Preuss and Duke 1996).

4.5.2 Concept
A concept has already been described elsewhere in this thesis (see 1.5 and 4.2.l(iii)).

4.5.3 Biogeochemical or nutrient cycles

There is a fixed supply of elements on Earth, so a continuous cycling of these elements
is essential. This cyclical path of chemical elements and nutrients between organisms
and the abiotic components is essential to an ecosystem. These cycles are referred to as
biogeochemical cycles or nutrient cycles and consist of gaseous (for example, carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur), hydrologic, and sedimentary cycles
(Meagher 1991; Miller 1992; VAEE, Preuss and Duke 1996).

Each of the gases are now discussed in detail, to provide a clear understanding of their
importance within an ecosystem. A understanding of the cycling of each of these gases
also assists in the establishment of a model case. Furthermore, a detailed understanding
of role played by the cycling of gases in an ecosystem is necessary for an effective
analysis of the attributes detected within nursing theory in chapter 6.

(1) Carbon
Carbon is the basic building block of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids

(DNA and RNA). There are a number of key carbon compounds that are essential for
life. For example, carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants from the atmosphere. Through
photosynthesis, plants release oxygen and convert the carbon to complex organic
compounds such as glucose. Humans and animals then consume the plants and break
down the glucose and other organic compounds. Plants also release carbon dioxide

45
during aerobic respiration. Photosynthesis, aerobic respiration, decomposition, and the
sedimentation and release of carbon through geological action, circulates carbon over
time and is essential to the functioning of an ecosystem (Meagher 1991; Miller 1992;
VAEE, Preuss and Duke 1996).

(ii) Oxygen
Circulation of oxygen occurs principally through respiration, transpiration,
decomposition, photolysis of water vapour and combustion (Meagher 1991). The
oxygen and carbon cycles are linked, because, in effect, the respiration of oxygen is an
integral part of the photosynthetic process. Both of these processes are essential for the
cycling of oxygen and carbon dioxide (Miller 1992; VAEE, Preuss and Duke 1996).

(iii) Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an essential part of the basic units of life: DNA, proteins and amino acids.
Atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2) is converted to nitrate ions (N03) and ammonium ions
by certain kinds of bacteria (mostly cyanobactena) in soil and water, and by
rhizobium bacteria in legume plant roots. Plants convert the inorganic nitrate ions and
ammonium ions into proteins, DNA, and other organic compounds, which are then
consumed by animals. Through plant decomposition and animal waste (death and
excretion), the nitrogen-containing organic compounds are converted by specialised
decomposer bacteria back into simpler inorganic compounds and then to nitrite (N02)
and nitrate (N03) ions in the soil. The nitrite and nitrate ions are eventually converted
to nitrogen gas (N2) which is released into the atmosphere to recommence the cycle
(Miller 1992; VAEE, PreUss and Duke 1996).

(iv) Phosphorus and sulphur

Phosphorus has a similar and equally essential cycle. Phosphorus is part of DNA
molecules and is required for cellular respiration, growth of membranes, and for growth
of teeth and bones. Released by weathering or the slow breakdown of rocks, phosphate
is absorbed by plants, which are eaten by animals and humans, and then returned to the
land or ocean to recommence the cycle. Sulphur has a similar cycle (Miller 1992;
VAEE, Preuss and Duke 1996).

46
(v) Water
The hydrologic cycle purifies and recycles water through evaporation, condensation,
transpiration, precipitation and run-off This cycle is linked to the other biogeochemical
cycles because water is essential for the movement of nutrients in and out of the
ecosystem. All the cycles are driven either directly or indirectly by energy from the sun
(Miller 1992; VAEE, Preuss and Duke 1996).

4.5.4 Energy
Energy is what Odum (1989:67) calls the single common denominator of life on Earth.
Without energy organisms would not be able to exist. All organisms require a constant
flow of energy for molecular synthesis. The ultimate source of energy is the sun.
Autotrophs (that is plants and some bacteria) use solar energy to produce organic
matter. This organic matter, often referred to as biomass, feeds the world's populations,
including humans. Energy (in the form of food) is passed from one trophic level to
another and eventually back to the lowest level through decomposition. Energy is lost
from an ecosystem, mainly in the form of reflected heat (Miller 1992; VAEE, Preuss
and Duke 1996).

4.5.5 Equilibrium and dynamic balance

A state of dynamic balance is called homeostasis. Homeostasis is not a static
unchanging condition - it is a dynamic but steady state. Internal processes change
continuously in response to changes in the external environment. This process is in
response to negative or positive feedback. Negative feedback helps to control or restore
the balance and maintain a steady state, whereas a positive feedback occurs when a
change in the system induces an effect that enlarges the change (Miller 1992; VAEE,
Preuss and Duke 1996).

4.5.6 Diversity
Diversity in an ecosystem is often associated with stability (Miller 1992:157), although
Middleton (1995 :3) suggests that minor disturbances actually promote diversity by
preventing a small number of highly successful species from dominating and excluding
others. in a diverse ecosystem, there are numerous paths for the flow of energy and

47
nutrients, so that disruption of one path does not jeopardise the health and functioning
of the ecosystem as a whole (Miller 1992; VAEE, Preuss and Duke 1996).

4.5.7 Evolution
Evolution, according to Meagher (1991:113-114), results from a process of natural
selection. Genetic mutation or environmental change alters the probability of an
individuals survival in the population. There is continual change, competition, and a
need to adapt and develop. Interacting species can also exert selective pressures on each
other within an ecosystem. This interaction between species is called coevolution.
Changes in the environment can lead to speciation where, as a result of divergent
natural selection in response to environmental changes, two species are formed from
one. Biological diversity therefore develops over billions of years as a result of
speciation and extinction operating through natural selection (Miller 1992).

4.5.8 Food chain, food web, trophic levels

The transfer of food energy from one group of organisms to another is called a food
chain. Each link feeds on and obtains energy from the previous link, and provides
energy and nutrients for the next link. Food chains often span more than one trophic
level. More complex transfers involving numerous food chains are called food webs
(Meagher 1991; Miller 1992; VAEE, Preuss and Duke 1996).

4.5.9 Relationships
Over time there is a constant cycling of nutrients from the non-living environment to
living organisms and back again. This continual flow of energy and matter is essential
for the survival of each organism within the ecosystem. There is a constant interaction
and interdependence required to maintain the balance of nutrients. When this balance is
disturbed the health of the ecosystem deteriorates (Miller 1992; VAEE, Preuss and
Duke 1996). For example, the burning of fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and gas) and an
increase in the destruction of forests results in an increase in the amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. This additional atmospheric carbon dioxide along with other
chemicals, is altering climate patterns, enhancing the greenhouse effect, and altering
global food production, with all the ensuing health and welfare problems.

48
4.5.10 System
Systems, according to Lovelock (1991:64) and VAEE, Preuss and Duke (1996:20),
consist of a number of components which must interact in a certain way in order to
work. So a change in one component flows on to other parts of the system. One system
is also influenced by another system; and no system can exist in total isolation. There is
a relationship between systems and between the components within a system (VAEE,
Preuss and Duke 1996). Ecosystems reflect these general characteristics. For example,
chemical, hydrological, and energy cycles are all examples of "systems". There are
complex interrelationships within the components of each cycle and between the cycles
themselves (Middleton 1995:9). Yet all of these components and cycles come together
to form a single complex, dynamic system.

4.6 Identify the references, antecedents, and consequences of the

concept
4.6.1 Reference
The references clarify the range of events, situations, or phenomena over which the
application of the concept ecosystem is considered to be appropriate (Rodgers
1986:334). Numerous data sources identified by this study refer to various terrestrial
regions as ecosystems. For example, Lovelock (1991:55) refers to tropical humid
forests, temperate forests, temperate needle-leaf forests, tropical dry forest I woodland,
temperate broadleaf forest, evergreen sclerophyllous forest, warm deserts, cold winter
deserts, tundra, savanna, temperate grasslands, mountain systems, island systems, and
lakes as ecosystems. Each of these terrestrial regions have specific biotic and abiotic
components that interrelate. There is an ever changing network of biological, chemical,
and physical interactions that maintain the community and allow it to respond to
enviromnental changes.

By way of example, a river is a specific observable phenomena, or reference. It has

rooted plants as producers, which absorb energy from the sun. Phytoplankton are also
producers. Zooplankton are primary consumers and fish and tortoise, for example, are
secondary and tertiary consumers respectively. Bacteria and fungi on the floor of the
pond are decomposers, and dissolved chemicals are reabsorbed from the pond sediment.

49
This river has all the attributes of an ecosystem. A river can be observed and used to
"diagnose" the existence of the concept ecosystem and can be considered as a
reference.

4.6.2 Antecedents
Antecedents of a concept are the events or phenomena that precede an instance of the
concept (Rodgers 1989; Walker and Avant 1995). The antecedents of the concept
ecosystem can be viewed from two perspectives, a biogeophysical and a philosophical
perspective. At the biogeophysical level, ecosystem can be interpreted as the complex
and systematic interrelationships within and between biotic and abiotic components.
Based on this interpretation, the antecedent of an ecosystem would be the development
of a stable atmosphere, a steady temperature, and chemical and hydrological cycles.
The contentious issue of this perspective is that this development is intimately and
inseparably coupled with the coevolution and diversification of life. Ecosystems have
evolved over time, thus at the biophysical level it is problematic to identify a
meaningful antecedent.

On a more philosophical level, ecosystem as a concept is a mental construct for

labelling and explaining our surroundings. From this perspective it is less difficult to
identify factors that have preceded or lead to the concept. The term ecosystem, as
already noted, was first proposed by the botanist and ecologist Arthur George Tansley
in 1935. Tansley was seeking a term for his conceptualisation of the way organisms and
their physical surroundings related together to form a single but complex ecological
system (Sabath and Quinnell 198 1;Odum 1989). Prior to Tansley, biologists had
focused almost exclusively on individual organisms and species, while geologists -
independent of biologists - studied the Earth's soils and rocks. This very reductionist

and mechanistic approach to understanding the enviromnent restricted any

conceptualisations of the interrelationships between these two components. Tansley's
more holistic approach facilitates a much richer understanding of how the Earth's biotic
and abiotic components interact and interrelate. His concept also allows more revealing
and discerning insights into the relationships between humans and their environment,
and between the environment and human health. At this level then, the antecedents of

50
the concept ecosystem are the individual species, organisms, chemicals, and reactions
that, when taken as a whole, constitute an ecosystem.

4.6.3 Consequences
A consequence of ecosystem is a healthy environment that is capable of sustaimng life
over evolutionary periods of time. The complex and interdependent relationships within
an ecosystem mean that, for example, carbon dioxide, respired by humans and animals
is required by plants for photosynthesis; while oxygen is respired by plants and is
essential for human existence. Major disruptions to these interdependent relationships
can diminish the life support capacity of the ecosystem as a whole. This diminished life
support capacity can adversely effect human health. For example, removal of forests
and other vegetation, combined with the burning of carbon-containing fossil fuels such
as coal, changes this natural balance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and can result
in altered climate patterns, enhanced greenhouse effect, and disruptions to food
production. Thus a stable atmosphere, continuing human existence, and health and
well-being are all a consequence of a healthy, functioning ecosystem.

4.7 identify concepts that are related to the concept of interest

No indication or advise is given by Rodgers (1989) or Walker and Avant (1995) on how
to find related concepts. The researcher has therefore chosen to use various thesaurus,
such as those by Bernard (1984), Delbndge (1984), Kirkpatrick (1987), Tulloch (1991),
and Chapman (1992), to find related concepts. Related concepts identified through the
use of thesaurus include: biosphere, ecosphere, surroundings, environment, organism,
and nature. These terms are discussed and indications of why they are related to the
concept of interest but not considered as synonyms is given below.

Biosphere is the part of the Earth and its atmosphere where organisms can exist
(Meagher 199 1:40). Ecosphere includes the biosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere
(Meagher 1991:104). Both of these terms, biosphere and ecosphere, are technical terms
indicating a geographical spread, that is they are questions of scale, and can be
measured in distance. They do not indicate any form of interrelationship between the
various spheres, or between the constituent parts of the spheres. Surroundings and

51
environment are defined from the perspective of the organism itself, and again indicate
a geographical spread free from any notion of interrelationships. Nature and organism
indicates biota, flora and fauna, and the living things that are not human. This is in
contrast to ecosystem, which encapsulates both biotic (including humans) and abiotic
components. All these terms have specific linguistic meanings that are considered
related concepts but do not discuss or imply interrelationships or cycles.

4.8 Identify a model case of the concept

Although it is not explicit in the definitions obtained in the samples, Meagher's
(1991: 104) definition for ecosystem states that an ecosystem requires no external source
of energy and matter other than sunlight and precipitation. A lake or a tropical rain
forest are often referred to as ecosystems, yet it is not possible to draw clear and
definite boundaries around them due to the continual input of energy, water, chemicals,
and flora and fauna. Only the Earth can therefore be considered as a near ideal model
case. But no system exists in total isolation. So although Earth is a near ideal model
case, even this ecosystem's boundaries are not readily defined, as there is a flux of
energy from the sun and the moon (Miller 1992; VAEE, Preuss and Duke 1996).

The Earth is considered as a model case by many writers (Sabath and Quinnell 1981,
Goetz 1982, Odum 1989, Meagher 1991; Miller 1992; VAEE, Preuss and Duke 1996).
In stating his case for the Earth as a global ecosystem, Odum (1989) likens the Earth to
a spacecraft, with a closed and self sufficient life-support system. Lovelock (1987,
1988, 1991) similarly views the Earth as a model case. The entire Earth, according to
his theory, is a living organism, or homeostatic system (Lovelock 1987, 1988, 1991).
Complex positive and negative feedback ioops regulate environmental conditions so
that life could establish and evolve on Earth. Within this self-regulating system
organisms interact with chemicals and geophysical conditions to maintain a dynamic
steady state. This dynamic steady state maintains, for example, the temperature and
chemical composition of the atmosphere which allows life to exist and evolve. In this
way the entire Earth functions as a complex system of interactions between biotic and
abiotic components, with only minimal inputs from outside the system.

52
4.9 Summary
The concept ecosystem was explored utilising Rodgers (1989) concept analysis
techniques. Three distinct and quite separate realms were identified: ACT Public
Library Service holdings, CINAHL CD-ROM database entries, and selected works by
Odum (1989) and Lovelock (1987, 1988, 1991). Data was collected and the following
attributes were determined: components, concept, cycles - biogeochemical or nutrient,
diversity, energy, equilibrium, evolution, food chain and food web, trophic level,
system, and relationship. The Earth was identified as a model case.

This analysis of ecosystem provided a theoretical guide for understanding, explaining,

and predicting the relationships between humans and the natural environment - that is,
their living and non-living surroundings. The attributes, determined through the concept
analysis, were utilised to detect references to the natural environment in nursing theory,
detailed in Chapter 5.

53
Chapter 5: Findings - Nursing Theory and the
Environment
5.1 Overview
Nurses are frequently required to provide professional care for individuals whose
illnesses and injuries are associated with environmental degradation. As nursing theory
guides practice (Tones 1990; Chinn and Kramer 1991; Meleis 1991; Sims 1991), the
aim of this chapter is to how the metaparadigm concept environment is
expressed within nursing theory. This review is done with view to detecting references
to the natural environment, as defined within the concept analysis of ecosystem. The
theories reviewed are those discussed in Marriner-Tomey's (1994) book, Nursing
theorists and their work.

The third edition of Nursing theorists and their work (previous editions were
copyrighted in 1986 and 1989) is a 530 page volume, including an index. The first six
chapters discuss nursing theory in general, with the remaining twenty seven chapters
each dealing with a specific nursing theory. Only chapters seven to thirty three were
included in the study. These chapters are divided into three units: philosophies,
conceptual models: grand theories, and middle range nursing theories.

In the preface of the book Marriner-Tomey (1994:xi) states that 'many of the scholars
identified in this book do not consider themselves theorists and never intended to
develop theory'. None the less, she proceeds to refer to them as theorists - even in the
title of her book. It is on this basis that the researcher also referred to these writers as
theorists.

In total, the book outlines twenty seven separate theories developed by twenty nine
nurse theorists (one chapter, "Modeling and role modeling", is credited to three
theorists). Some chapters are written by up to eight people. For ease of reference and
reading, all quotes and references are attributed to the editor, and are therefore referred
to as "Marriner-Tomey (1994)".

54
To facilitate cross referencing, the theorists and their work has been organised
alphabetically. It should be acknowledged that the following synopsis are extracts from
Marriner-Tomey's (1994) interpretation of the theorists works. In some instances, the
individual theorists make only minimal references to the environment.

5.2 Nursing Theory and the Environment

Abdellah
In Abdellah's model of 21 nursing problems, Marriner-Tomey (1994:12 1), believes that
Abdellah is suggesting that the atmosphere created by the nurse constitutes the
environment, as does 'the home and community from which the patient comes'. In this
model, environment is the least discussed concept, according to Marriner-Tomey
(1994). In personal correspondence with the authors Abdellah stated that in '1988 she
would "give greater emphasis to environment and health promotion" (Mamner-Tomey
1994:121). This statement is not clarified any further in this chapter.

Adam
According to Marriner-Tomey (1994:500), Adam views the environment as the
sociocultural dimension of human needs. In Adam's conceptual model for nursing 'the
concept of environment is specifically addressed in only one of the fundamental needs'
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:500). Environment is implicit in all the other fundamental needs
because the sociocultural dimension is integral to each need (Marriner-Tomey
1994:500).

Barnard
'Environment is an essential aspect of Dr Barnard's theory' of parent-child interaction,
according to Marriner-Tomey (1994 :41 1); although later in the chapter she states that
Barnard fails to clearly define the concept environment (Marriner-Tomey 1994:4 12).
Marriner-Tomey (1994:4 12) believes that Barnard's theory focuses on 'the crucial
mother-child-environment interactive process'.

"Environment" is a major heading in an illustration of Barnard's child health

assessment interaction model, with the sub-headings - inanimate, animate and

55
supporting (Marriner-Tomey 1994:4 1 1). The inanimate environment refers to the
objects available to the child for exploration and manipulation and the animate includes
the activities of the caretaker (Mamner-Tomey 1994:4 1 1). A definition for supporting
is not given. Barnard writes that 'in essence, the environment includes all experiences
encountered by the child: people, objects, places, sounds, visual and tactile sensations'
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:4 1 1). Barnard believes that environmental factors are important
in determining child health outcomes and should be included in any child health
assessment model (Marriner-Tomey 1994:4 1 1).

Benner
In her novice to expert model, Benner 'used the term situation rather than environment
because situation conveys a peopled environment, with social definition and
meaningfulness' (Marriner-Tomey 1994:170). The term environment is not used
elsewhere in the chapter. To be situated, according to Benner, 'implies that one has a
past, present, and future and that all of these aspects ... influence the current situation'
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:170). Situation is influenced by personal habits, interpretations,
meaning and perspective (Marriner-Tomey 1994:170).

Erickson, Tomlin and Swain

In Erickson, Tomlin and Swain's theory of modeling and role-modeling, 'environment
is not identified ... as an entity of its own' (Marriner-Tomey 1994:382). It is seen as the
'interaction between self and others both cultural and individual' (Marriner-Tomey
1994:382). Biophysical stressors are seen as part of the environment (Marriner-Tomey
1994:3 82) but a definition for biophysical stressors is not given. The nurse's role is that
of a facilitator and aids in 'coping with one's circumstances and environment'
(Mamner-Tomey 1994:380).

Fitzpatrick
Fitzpatrick's life perspective rhythm model 'is complex in its concepts and
interrelationships' according to Marriner-Tomey (1994:464). Indeed, Marriner-Tomey
(1994:464) states that the interrelationship between person and environment is not
easily understood in Fitzpatrick's work. Fitzpatrick's model is based on ideas from

56
Roger's conceptual model of unitary human beings (Marriner-Tomey 1994:46 1). The
concept of environment is 'drawn from von Bertalanify and others who question the
failure of physical laws to explain evolution of life' (Mamner-Tomey 1994:461).
Health is seen as the interaction of persons with their environment, both of which are
'open systems, continually exchanging matter and energy with each other' (Marriner-
Tomey 1994:462).

Hall
In the chapter addressing Hall's core, care, and cure model, Mamner-Tomey
(1994:144) states that 'the major concepts and relationships are limited and clear'.
Environment is mentioned as a major assumption, and under the heading environment
Marriner-Tomey (1994:142-143) discusses 'hospital nursing services' and the 'phases
of medical care practiced in medical centers'. Elsewhere Marriner-Tomey (1994:142)
mentions that the patient brings 'with him the influences of his culture and
environment', but does not elaborate further on what this may mean.

Henderson
Henderson's work includes 14 identified human needs which comprise the components
of nursing care (Marriner-Tomey 1994:106). The human needs identified by Henderson
include, for example, the need to breath normally, food and fluids, elimination,
maintenance of body temperature, avoidance of danger, and communication with others
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:105). According to Marriner-Tomey (1994:106), Henderson
believes that part of the nurses role is to 'alter the environment', because illness may
interfere with the patients ability to control their own environment. Although
environment is one of Henderson's major concepts the definition she provides is that of
Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary (1961), which states that the environment is 'the
aggregate of all the external conditions and influences affecting the life and
development of an organism' (Marriner-Tomey 1994:105). Another aspect of the
environment highlighted by Marriner-Tomey (1994:106) in Henderson's work on
nursing involves safety of the nurse and patient. It also includes cultural issues
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:106).

57
Johnson
Johnson's behavioural system model encompasses the patterned, repetitive, and
purposeful ways of behaving which:
form an organised and functional unit that determines and limits the interaction
between the person and his [sic] environment and establishes the relationship of the
person to the objects, events, and situations within his environment (Marriner-
Tomey 1994:233).
According to Johnson, an achievement subsystem is an attempt to 'manipulate' the
environment in an effort to control or master 'an aspect of self or environment to some
standard of excellence' (Mamner-Tomey 1994:233-234). Energy is required to re-
establish the behavioural system balance - energy which is normally required to assist
biological processes and recovery (Mamner-Tomey 1994:234). When the environment
is stable the person is then able to continue with successful behaviours (Marriner-
Tomey 1994).

King
King, in her theory of goal attainment also discusses the interaction between person and
the environment in an effort to maintain health (Marriner-Tomey 1994:305-322).
According to King, this interaction between person and environment is the focus of
nursing (Marriner-Tomey 1994:309). Interaction between person and the environment
leads to a state of health, which King believes is an ability to function in social roles
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:309). Health, according to King, implies continuous adaptation
to stress (Marriner-Tomey 1994:3 10). King defines stress as 'a dynamic state whereby a
human being interacts with the environment'(Marriner-Tomey 1994:309). Stress, as
viewed by King,
involves an exchange of energy and information between the person and the
environment for regulation and control of stressors ... an energy response of an
individual to persons, objects, and events (Mamner-Tomey 1994:309).
According to Marriner-Tomey (1994:3 10), King is inferring that the environment is
constantly changing.

Leininger
Leininger examines environmental factors related to transcultural nursing perspectives
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:427). She believes that 'care has a biophysical, cultural,

58
psychological, social, and environmental dimension ...' (Marriner-Tomey 1994:430).
Mamner-Tomey (1994:436) believes that:
because of its [Leininger's cultural care theoiy] holistic and comprehensive nature,
several concepts and constructs related to social structure, environment, and
language are important to understand to see how care and health are influenced by
these dimensions.
Marriner-Tomey (1994 :432) also states that Leininger uses a holistic approach to study
human behaviour 'in diverse environmental contexts'. Leininger's Sunrise Model
contains the heading "environmental context" (Mamner-Tomey 1994:433). Marriner-
Tomey (1994:432) explains that 'the upper half of the circle depicts components of the
social structure and world view factors that influence care and health through language
and environment'.

Levine
Levine's theory on conservation states that the individual requires a balance of energy
and a constant renewal of energy to maintain life activities (Marriner-Tomey 1994:201).
Healing and illness challenges that energy and requires adaptation on the part of the
patient (Mamner-Tomey 1994:201). Environment is a major concept in Levine's
theory, and is described as 'where we are constantly and actively involved' (Marriner-
Tomey 1994:202). People are active participants in the environment according to this
theory (Marriner-Tomey 1994:203). Levine believes that the person's relationship to the
environment is what counts (Marriner-Tomey 1994:202). She describes an internal and
external environment. The former being the pathophysiological and physiological
aspects of the patient, and the latter including that which can be experienced by the
senses, and 'things that affect us physically' (such as microorganisms) (Marriner-Tomey
1994:202). The external environment also includes 'cultural patterns, characterized by a
spiritual existence, and mediated by the symbols of language, thought, and history'
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:202). The nurse is an active participant in the patient's
environment, according to Marriner-Tomey (1994:203), and 'supports his (sic)
adjustments' to the illness.

Mercer
Although Mercer, in her maternal role attainment theory, does not define environment,
Mamner-Tomey (1994:395) believes that Mercer too views the individual's culture (as

59
well as mate, family and I or support network) as being encompassed by the term
environment. Mercer divides the environment into the microsystem, exosystem and
macrosystem (Marriner-Tomey 1994:395-396). The microsystem includes the family,
family functioning, mother-father relationship, social supports, and stress (Marriner-
Tomey 1994:394). Stress, in Mercer's, view is the 'positively and negatively perceived
life events and environmental variables' (Marriner-Tomey 1994:394). The exosystem
involves influences from day care, parent's work setting and school, and macrosystem
refers to transmitted cultural consistencies (Marriner-Tomey 1994: 395-396).

Neuman
In Neuman's systems model, 'internal and external forces affecting and being affected
by the client at any time comprise the environment' (Mamner-Tomey 1994:27 1). There
is an interaction between the client and the environment which is reciprocal (Marriner-
Tomey 1994:279). Neuman believes that there are five variables of interaction -
physiological, psychological, sociocultural, developmental and spiritual which
comprise the whole system of the client (Marriner-Tomey 1994:27 1). Clients interact
with the environment by either adjusting to it or by adjusting the environment to
themselves (Marrrner-Tomey 1994:275). There is also an exchange of energy, matter
and information between humans and the environment, which Neuman refers to as
input and output (Marriner-Tomey 1994:27 1). A system is open when this exchange is
occurring (Marriner-Tomey 1994:27 1). Neuman discusses internal (all interactions
contained within the client), external (all interactions occurring outside the client), and
created environments (Marriner-Tomey 1994:274). Created environment, according to
Neuman, is:
the client's unconscious mobilization of all system variables toward system
integration, stability, and integrity and is in perpetual adjustment to an increase or
decrease in the weilness state of the client' (Marriner-Tomey 1994:271 and 275)
in this model stressors (intrapersonal, interpersonal and extrapersonal), are identified as
'environmental forces that may alter system stability' (Marriner-Tomey 1994:273).

Newman
Newman's model of health states that 'the patterns of interaction of person-environment
constitute health' where pattern is what identifies an individual as a particular person

60
(genetic pattern is given as an example) (Marriner-Tomey 1994:476). Pattern is
'somehow intimately involved in energy exchange and transformation' (Marriner-
Tomey 1994:476). Health is viewed as a process of 'developing awareness of self and
environment together with increasing ability to perceive alternatives and respond in a
variety of ways' (Marriner-Tomey 1994:476). Marriner-Tomey (1994:479) claims that
environment is not explicitly defined, but is described as being 'the larger whole, that
which is beyond the consciousness of the individual'.

Nightingale
Although the word environment does not appear in Nightingale's work, Marriner-
Tomey (1994:75) states that Nightingale's grand theory focused on the environment.
The assumption portrayed in this chapter is that the environment 'is capable of
preventing, suppressing, or contributing to disease, accident, or death,' and 'is all the
external conditions and influences affecting the life and development of an organism'
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:75). According to Marriner-Tomey (1994:75), Nightingale did
not differentiate between the physical, emotional and social aspects of the environment.
However, Marriner-Tomey (1994) believes that Nightingale did place more emphasis
on the physical environment, and that healthy surroundings were necessary for proper
nursing care (Marriner-Tomey 1994:75). The five essential points emphasised by
Nightingale as necessary for health in homes were: pure air, pure water, efficient
drainage, cleanliness and light (Marriner-Tomey 1994:75). By providing an
environment antithetical to the one in which disease originated, disease could be
prevented or a cure hastened (Marriner-Tomey 1994:77). The patient, according to
Mamner-Tomey (1994:76), is passive and does not seem to influence the environment.
Fitzpatrick and Whall (in Marriner-Tomey 1994:76) state that the environment also
includes 'everything from the patient's food and flowers to the nurse's verbal and non
verbal interactions with the patient'. Marriner-Tomey (1994:78) notes that
Nightingale's theory contains three major relationships - environment to patient, nurse
to environment, and nurse to patient. Marriner-Tomey (1994:79) also asserts that one of
the basic principles of Nightingale's writings includes 'environmental manipulation'.

61
Orem
In her self-care deficit theory of nursing, Orem states that self-care is:
behaviour that exists in concrete life situations directed by persons to self or to the
environment to regulate factors that affect their own development and functioning
in the interests of life, health, or well-being (Marriner-Tomey 1994:182).
The first of Orem's five assumptions underlying her general theory of nursing includes
the notion that humans require continuous deliberate inputs to themselves and their
environment 'to remain alive and function in accord with natural human endowment'
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:185). 'Maintenance of air, water, food, elimination, activity and
rest and solitude and social interaction, prevention of hazards, and promotion of human
functioning' are listed as the universal self-care requisites (Marriner-Tomey 1994:183).

Orlando
Orlando, in her nursing process theory, does not define environment (Mamner-Tomey
1994). According to Mamner-Tomey (1994:344), one of the reasons a person may
require nursing care is when they have a negative reaction to an environment. Marriner-
Tomey (1994:344) quotes Orlando as stating that it is possible for the patient to 'react
with distress to any aspect of an environment which was designed for therapeutic and
helpful purposes'. The nurse's reaction then precipitates nursing actions (Marriner-
Tomey 1994:345).

Parse
Parse deals with the interrelationship between humans and the environment to achieve
or maintain health (Marriner-Tomey 1994:445-459). Marriner-Tomey (1994:447) states
that Parse, in her theory "man-living-health", views environment as a construct, and any
attempt 'to force Parse's assumptions into categories labelled man, environment, health,
and nursing would wrench them out of context and distort their meaning'. Later in the
chapter Marriner-Tomey (1994) does in fact provide headings man, environment,
health, and nursing. Under the heading "environment" she quotes Parse as stating that
'man and environment, ... interchange energy to create what is in the world, and man
chooses the meaning given to the situation he creates' (Marriner-Tomey 1994:449).
Humans and the environment are inseparable and are constantly changing and
influencing one another (Marnner-Tomey 1994:448). Unlike many other theorists,

62
according to Marriner-Tomey (1994:448) , Parse states that, health 'is not man adapting
to or coping with the environment'. Humans create unique ways of living in mutual
energy interchange with the environment (Marriner-Tomey 1994:450).

Pender
The term "environment" is only mentioned twice in the chapter regarding Pender's
health promotion model (Marriner-Tomey 1994). Marriner-Tomey (1994:5 11) states
that 'Pender has responded to the political, social, and personal environment of her time
to clarify nursing's role in delivering health-promotion to persons of all ages'. In
discussing the acceptance within nursing practice of Pender's theory, Marriner-Tomey
(1994:5 10) acknowledges that '... the environmental cost to society for individuals who
do not engage in health prevention and promotion has been high'. The depiction of
health promotion model includes 'biologic characteristics' and 'interpersonal
influences' (Mamner-Tomey 1994:509). Neither of these terms are discussed within the
chapter and their meanings cannot be inferred.

Peplau
Peplau relates environment to culture in her theory of psychodynamic nursing. She
defines the environment as 'existing forces outside the organism and in the context of
culture', Marriner-Tomey (1994:329) adds that this is where 'mores, customs, and
beliefs are acquired'. Peplau's work discusses the transformation of energy into action,
where experiences such as needs, frustration, conflict and anxiety provide that energy
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:328). These experiences compel destructive or constructive
responses from nurses and patients (Marriner-Tomey 1994:328).

Riehi-Sisca
Although the environment is only mentioned three times in the chapter regarding Riehi-
Sisca's theory of symbolic interactiomsm, it is one of the five parameters included in
the interaction model assessment tool (Marriner-Tomey 1994:372). According to
Marriner-Tomey's (1994:37 1) portrayal of Riehi-Sisca's theory, environment is the
hospital setting and:

63
 the nurse interprets the patients response to the new environment and thereby helps
the patient acquire the necessary perceptual changes or new roles in the health care
system.

Rogers
Rogers believes that nursing promotes interaction between humans and the environment
with view to maximising health potential (Marriner-Tomey 1994:2 14). In her
conceptual model of unitary human beings, Rogers defines environment as
an irreducible, pandimensional energy field identified by pattern and manifesting
characteristics different from those of the parts. Each environmental field is specific
to its given human field. Both change continuously and creatively (Marriner-Tomey
1994:2 16).

There is a continuous exchange of energy and matter between humans and the
environment (Marriner-Tomey 1994:2 16). Rogers states that nursing services extend
into all areas where there are people 'on this planet or in the outer reaches of space'
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:214, 217).

Roy
Roy discusses 'adaptation to environmental and organismic forces', where adaptation is
a positive process (Marriner-Tomey 1994:249). In Roy's adaptation model "person" is a
biopsychosocial being in constant interaction with a changing environment (Marriner-
Tomey 1994:250). Environment is 'all the conditions, circumstances, and influences
surrounding and affecting the development and behaviour of persons or groups'
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:250). People are constantly scanning the environment for
stimuli so that they can respond and adapt (Marriner-Tomey 1994:250). The freeing of
energy from ineffective coping attempts can promote healing and enhance health
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:250). Nursing's role is 'managing the environment' and thereby
helping the patient attain optimum weliness (Marriner-Tomey 1994:250-25 1).

Travelbee
Although Travelbee, in her human-to-human relationship model, 'does not explicitly
define environment', Marriner-Tomey (1994:3 57) states that suffering, hope, pain and
illness 'can be equated to the environment'.

64
Watson
Watson discusses the need for a caring environment in her theoiy of the philosophy and
science of caring (Marriner-Tomey 1994). 'Provision for supportive, protective, and! or
corrective mental, physical, sociocultural, and spiritual environment' is necessary,
according to Marnner-Tomey's (1994:152) interpretation. The environment is divided
into the internal and external environment, where the internal environment includes the
mental, spiritual and sociocultural aspects (Marriner-Tomey 1994:152).
The external environment in this theory includes comfort, privacy, safety, clean
aesthetic surroundings and epidemiological variables (Marriner-Tomey 1994:152).

Wiedenbaci,
Wiedenbach, in her model (the helping art of clinical nursing), does not 'specifically
address the concept of environment' (Marriner-Tomey 1994:93). Marriner-Tomey
(1994:93) claims that 'it is inferred that the environment may produce obstacles
resulting in a need-for-help experienced by the person'. The nurse then makes a plan to
meet those needs (Mamner-Tomey 1994).

5.3 Summary
The aim of this minor thesis was to determine how the natural environment is described
in nursing theory. References to the metaparadigm concept environment in each of the
theories discussed in Marriner-Tomey's (1994) book have been detected and presented
in this chapter. Having identified references to the natural environment in nursing
theory, each of these references will be examined in the next chapter. This examination
will be informed by the attributes of ecosystem, and will be undertaken to determine the
role of the natural environment within the theories discussed in Nursing theorists and
their work (Marriner-Tomey 1994).

65
Chapter 6: Analysis
6.1 Overview
This study was guided by the question: "how is the natural environment described in
nursing theoiy?" To answer this question, references to the natural environment in
nursing theory were analysed by comparing the theorists works (chapter 5) with the
attributes of the concept ecosystem (chapter 4). An examination of the theorists
depiction of the metaparadigm concept environment is first presented below. An
evaluation of the various attributes detected in nursing theory, and the context of their
use within the various theories, then follows.

6.2 The metaparadigm concept environment in Nursing theorists and

their work
The theories discussed in Nursing theorists and their work (1994) are centred on the
person and the nurse, with the object of the theories being to provide better
understanding of the person and their state of health or ill health (Chopoorian 1986). In
this book, the term environment is used in different contexts, and with different
meaning by the various theorists. In some cases, neither the theorists (such as Abdellah,
Hall, Orlando, Wiedenbach), nor Marriner-Tomey (1994) provide an adequate
definition to determine the meaning of environment. In other theories the concept
environment encompasses a broad spectrum of understandings, ranging from the
ambience created by the nurse to the hospitai surroundings Riehi-
Sisca), and the social and cultural aspects of the patient's life (Adam, Barnard, Erickson
et al, Levine). Indeed, several of these understandings are incorporated under the
heading of environment within an number of individual theories (for example, Levine,
Watson, Abdellah, and Orem).

Within various nursing theories, emotions or social constructs such as suffering, hope,
and pain (as in Travelbee); comfort and privacy (in Watson); rest and solitude (Orem);
mores, customs, and beliefs (Peplau); the atmosphere created by the nurse (Abdellah);
and 'the larger whole, which is beyond the consciousness of the individual' (Newman in
Marriner-Tomey 1994:479) are all equated to the environment (Marriner-Tomey 1994).

66
Three theorists divide the environment into the internal and external environments
(Watson, Levine, and Neuman). In addition Neuman also refers to a third category: the
created environment (Mamner-Tomey 1994) [see Table 4: Internal, external and
created environment as described by Watson, Levine and Neuman].

Table 4: Internal, external and created environment as described by Watson,

Levine and Neuman

Environment Watson Levine Neuman

internal mental, spiritual, pathophysiological, interaction within the
sociocultural physiological client
external comfort, privacy, safety, experienced by the interactions outside the
clean aesthetic senses, 'things that client
surroundings and affect us physically'
epidemiological (microorganisms),
variables 'cultural patterns,
characterized by a
spiritual existence, and
mediated by the
symbols of language,
thought, and history'
created combination of internal
and external

Source: Mamner-Tomey (1 994:152, 202, 274)

Stress and stressors are featured in association with the environment. Erickson, Tomim
and Swain discuss biophysical stressors (Marriner-Tomey 1994:376-389). Stress
consists of environmental variables, according to Mercer (Marriner-Tomey 1994:390-
405). King defines stress as 'a dynamic state whereby a human being interacts with the
environment' (Marriner-Tomey 1994:309).

A frequent theme within nursing theory is that humans must deal with the environment
in some fashion: either to manipulate (as in Johnson and Nightingale), alter (in
Henderson), cope with (Erickson, Tomlin and Swain), manage (Roy). or control
(Henderson and Johnson) (Marriner-Tomey 1994). The environment is also seen as a
threat in some cases, and the person must be against that threat, as
'the environment may produce obstacles' (such as Wiedenbach in Marriner-Tomey
1994:93).

67
6.3 Analysis of nursing theory based on the ecosystem attributes
The attributes of the concept ecosystem, as a synonym for the natural environment,
were: components, concept, cycles - biogeochemical or nutrient, diversity, energy,
equilibrium, evolution, food chain and food web, trophic level, system, and
relationship. Any reference to these attributes and / or to other associated terms derived
from the concept analysis{see Appendix 2: Attributes derived from the CINAHL, ACT
Libraiy Service, and Odum and Lovelock samples] were noted and included in a table
cross-referencing nurse theorists with the attributes of an ecosystem [see Table 5:
Attributes of ecosystem identified within individual nursing theories]. The purpose of
this table is to clearly illustrate which theorists included ecosystem attributes, and the
number of attributes used by each theorist. The context in which these attributes were
used is discussed below and compared with the concept of ecosystem. This comparison
was done in an effort to determine if the theorists include the natural environment, as a
subset of the metaparadigm concept environment, in their work.

6.3.1 Components

The components mentioned by the theorists in Nursing theorists and their work
(Marriner-Tomey 1994) were water, food, life, matter, air and biologic characteristics.
The chapter outlining Pender's theory of health promotion contains a label titled
'biologic characteristics' (Marriner-Tomey 1994:509). Neither this label nor the model
containing the label were discussed or explained by Mamner-Tomey (1994). Because
the word 'biologic' indicated biota it was included in Table 5, but without explanation
or further elaboration status of this label is ambiguous.

Ecosystem components were mentioned by Fitzpatrick (matter), Johnson (biological

processes), Neuman (matter), Nightingale (air and water), and Orem (air and water).
The theorists believe these components to be essential for human existence. However,
both the theorists and Marriner-Tomey (1994) fail to indicate that these components are
also necessary for other forms of life, such as plants and animals. More significantly
perhaps, they also fail to acknowledge that the plants and animals which constitute the
biosphere as a whole are just as essential for human health as matter air and water.

68
Table 5: Attributes of ecosystem identified within Individual nursing theories
theorists components concept cycles diversity energy equilibnum evolution food system relationship trophic
r
(environment) :
Abdellah yes
Adam yes
Barnard yes yes
Benner
Erickson et al yes
Fitzpatrick yes yes yes yes yes yes
Hall yes
Henderson yes yes yes yes yes yes
Johnson yes yes yes yes yes yes
King yes yes yes yes
Leininger yes
Levine yes yes yes yes yes yes
Mercer yes yes
Neuman yes yes yes yes yes yes yes
Newman yes yes yes yes
Nightingale yes yes yes yes yes
Orem yes yes yes yes
Orlando
Parse yes yes yes yes
Pender yes yes
Peplau yes yes yes
69
Table 5 (continued): Attributes of ecosystem identified within individual nursing theories
theorists components concept cycles - diversity - energy equilibrium evolution rood system - relationship trophic
- I level
- (environment) (nutrition) -
Riehl-Sisca yes yes yes
Rogers yes yes yes yes yes
Roy yes yes yes
Travelbee yes
Watson yes yes
Wiedenbach
70
Components such as the lithosphere (soil and rocks) is not mentioned in any of the
theories.

6.3.2 Concept

Concept was identified as an attribute of ecosystem. Ecosystem as a concept is not

mentioned by any the theorists, nor by Marriner-Tomey (1994). In some chapters (as
indicated in Table 5), the word concept is mentioned and therefore included in the
table. However the term concept is not used in a way that corresponds with the attribute
of ecosystem. As already noted above (in 6.2), the term environment encompasses a
broad spectrum of meaning, from the ambience created by the nurse, to the hospital
surroundings, to the social and cultural aspects of the patient's life. This spectrum does
not necessarily indicate a mental abstraction or image of the natural environment, for
which ecosystem is a synonym.

6.3.3 Cycles

The following references were made in the nursing theories to the attribute cycle.
Neuman, Rogers and Fitzpatrick all discuss an exchange of energy and matter between
humans and the environment (Marriner-Tomey 1994).. This .indicates.a ro'.!nd of events
or a cycle. Although Orem states that humans require continuous deliberate inputs to
themselves and their environment to remain alive and function in accord with natural
human endowment (Marriner-Tomey 1994:185), there is no indication of output, and
therefore no indication of a cycle. Roy believes that the environment effects humans
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:250) but does not indicate a cycle by also stating that humans
effect the environment. Henderson identified breathing normally as a human need
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:105). This indicates a cycling of oxygen, carbon dioxide and
nutrients, but other essential aspects of a cycle within an ecosystem (such as
photosynthesis, for example) were not mentioned. Neuman, Rogers and Fitzpatrick
were therefore the only theorists who discuss cycles as described within an ecosystem.

71
6.3.4 Diversity

Species and population diversity were identified as attributes of an ecosystem. Neither

this attribute nor any associated term was found in Nursing theorists and their work
(Marriner-Tomey 1994).

6.3.5 Evolution

The word evolution was only used once in Nursing theorists and their work: in
Fitzpatrick's work. Marriner-Tomey (1994:461) states that Fitzpatrick's concept of
environment is drawn from the works of those who question the evolution of life. None
of the other associated terms derived from the concept analysis were found within
Fitzpatrick's work. Rogers states that both the environment and person change
continuously and creatively (Marriner-Tomey 1994:2 16). This implies a sense of
coevolution or evolving together (see 4.5.7).

Words derived from the concept analysis associated with evolution, such as adapt,
change, balance and development were found in other theories [see Table 5: Attributes
of ecosystem identified within individual nursing theories]. Although twelve of the
works contained these words, adaption, change, balance and development were used in
relation to humans only. These terms were not used in relation to ecosystem or the
natural environment.

6.3.6 Food chain, food web, food pyramid

Food was mentioned by Orem, Nightingale, and Henderson. The use of this word
corresponds to the idea of a transfer of food energy from one group of organisms to
another. However, there is no implication of food chains or trophic levels. Food is
simply seen as a requirement essential for human life. In this sense food, (that is,
nutrition) was viewed as a component and included under the component heading.
None of the theories were therefore considered to possess this attribute.

72
6.3.7 Relationship
The notion of relationship was the most frequently found attribute, appearing in twenty
different theories. Six of these theories (Barnard, Erickson et a!, Mercer, Pender, Riehi-
Sisca, Travelbee) refer to a person to person relationship. An additional three theories
were added to the list as the theorists (Hall, Pender, Peplau) discuss culture which
would also indicate a person to person relationship. The remaining eleven works
(Fitzpatrick, Johnson, King, Levine, Neuman, Newman, Nightingale, Orem, Parse,
Rogers, Roy) involve human - environment relationship. Although twenty theorists were
included in Table 5, only ten contain the attribute as viewed from an ecosystemic
perspective.

6.3.8 System

System was used in many contexts within the theories. Mercer divides her concept of
environment into microsystem, exosystem and macrosystem (Marriner-Tomey
1994:395-396). The relationships between these systems involve only humans.
Johnson's behavioural system model indicates an interaction between the person and
the environment (Marriner-Tomey 1994:233). Johnson believes that energy re-
establishes a system balance, and when the environment is stable the person is able to
continue with successful behaviours (Marriner-Tomey 1994). System, in this case, is
explicitly human focused. Riehl-Sisca's theory refers only to the health care system
(Marriner-Tomey 1994:37 1). Neuman's systems model acknowledges that there is an
exchange of energy, matter and information between humans and the environment,
which Neuman refers to as input and output (Marriner-Tomey 1994:271). A system is
open when this exchange is occurring, according to Neuman (Marriner-Tomey
1994:271). Fitzpatrick views both persons and their environment as open systems.
These systems are continually exchanging matter and energy with each other (Mamner-
Tomey 1994:462). VAEE, Preuss and Duke's (1996:20) argue that a system consists of
a number of components which must interact in a certain way in order to work. A
relationship exists between a system and the components within the system. Both
Neuman and Fitzpatrick's notion of a system correspond to this definition.

73
6.3.9 Trophic level

A trophic level consists of either producers (plants and some bacteria), consumers
(herbivores and carnivores), or decomposers (bacteria and fungi) (Meagher 1991).
Levine and Watson mention pathophysiology and epidemiological variables
respectively. These references are made solely in relation to disease in humans rather
than decomposers as an essential trophic level in an ecosystem.

6.4 Overall analysis

Only three (Benner, Orlando and Wiedenbach) of the twenty seven theories do not have
any of the attributes identified through the concept analysis. Intriguingly, Benner,
Orlando and Wiedenbach's theories all deal specifically with nursing practice. All of
the others mention at least one of the eleven attributes. Five attributes were detected in
Nightingale's work. While Fitzpatrick, Henderson, Rogers, Johnson, and Levine each
include six attributes. Seven attributes were detected in Neuman's work.

Although only five attributes were detected in Nightingale's work, it was Nightingale,
who stimulated nursing interest in the environment by placing a strong emphasis on the
physical environment. Nightingale believed that healthy surroundings were necessary
for proper nursing care (Marriner-Tomey 1994:75). She also acknowledged that an
unhealthy environment was related to disease (Marriner-Tomey 1994:77). Components
such as pure air and water were important to Nightingale's theory (Marriner-Tomey
1994:75). Nonetheless, it is assumed in her theory that pure air is available through
adequate ventilation. Regardless of the adequacy of ventilation, without "pure" air
circulating in the atmosphere, pure air is not available to ventilate homes.

Although six attributes were identified in Johnson and Henderson's work, they are
patient directed theories, with no indication in Nursing theorists and their work
(Marriner-Tomey 1994) that the theorists were interested in constructing a theory that
encompassed the natural environment. Levine acknowledges the importance of the
environment to a greater extent, but views the environment only as it influences the
well being of the patient rather than as a system that exists in its own right. The
environment is something to be experienced by the patient, rather than a system of
74
interrelated components. Neuman believes that if clients cannot adjust to the
environment they can it to suit their needs (Marriner-Tomey 1994:275). This
indicates a certain dominance and right to adjust the environment for the benefit of the
patient. Rogers also portrays the idea that the environment exists solely for human
benefit, where interaction between humans and the environment is promoted with view
to maximising human health potential (Marriner-Tomey 1994:2 14).

6.5 Summary
The analysis presented has revealed that while some of the attributes of the concept
ecosystem appear in the nurse theorists works, the emphasis is on humans. There is a
view implicit in these theorist's works that the metaparadigm concept environment (if
the concept exists at all within the theory) exists as a threat to human health or,
alternatively, as a commodity to enhance human health and well-being. The importance
of the environment as an entity in its own right is not acknowledged. The relationship
between humans and the environment is addressed but it is not seen as a reciprocal
relationship. There is no acknowledgment that humans depend on a healthy
environment - that is, a functioning ecosystem - to maintain their own health. Nor is
there any acknowledgment that it is important for humans to care for the environment,
because the state of human health is a reflection of the state of the environment.

75
Chapter 7: Discussion
7.1 Overview
The purpose of this study was to analyse the concept environment within nursing theory
on the basis that environment is one of nursing theory's metaparadigm concepts
(Fawcett 1993). The study focused on the role of the natural environment as it is
portrayed in a textbook - Nursing theorists and their work - which is widely available to
Australian students in nursing. The research was guided by the question "How is the
natural environment described in nursing theory?". A clear and coherent understanding
of the natural environment was achieved through a concept analysis of the term
ecosystem. The attributes determined though the concept analysis were cross-referenced
with the theories discussed by Marriner-Tomey (1994). The subsequent analysis
indicated that nursing theory did not incorporate a concern for the natural environment.

7.2 The natural environment

The concept analysis of ecosystem indicated that the natural environment consists of,
among other things, components and cycles. These components and cycles constitute a
system of interrelationships that have evolved as a tightly coupled unit over an extended
period of time. As Bormann and Likens (1969:50) write:
Knowledge of these components and the links involved leads to an understanding
of the interrelationships within the systems and of the ramifications of any
manipulation applied at any point in the system.
According to the literature, human growth and development over the ages has involved
'manipulation' of many aspects of the environment, leading to a degraded environment
and a degraded environment adversely effects human health. The literature further
indicates that risks to human health:
arise from the disruption of natural systems because we are exceeding the
biosphere's carrying capacity - ie. we are overloading the planet's 'metabolic'
capacity to absorb, replenish and restore (McMichael 1993:1).
McMichael (1993:xiv) also observes that overloading the biosphere reduces the stability
and productivity of the natural systems that support life.

Nursing issues are rarely considered from a global environmental perspective

(Chopoonan 1986; Rodriguez 1995). Yet there are global changes occurring as a direct

76
result of human impacts upon the world's ecosystems. Tolba (1992:205), for example,
states that 'there is now widespread agreement that roughly 85 per cent of all cancers
are caused by environmental factors'. As McMichael (1993) states, human impacts on
the environment are resulting in increased risks to human health. Nurses are frequently
required to provide professional care for individuals whose illnesses and injuries are
associated with environmental changes. To be able to provide appropriate care, nurses
need to be made aware of the causes of such illnesses and injuries. Given that theory
guides practice, nursing theory needs to acknowledge and highlight this aspect of
environment.

7.3 The influence of Florence Nightingale

During her life time Florence Nightingale continuously emphasised the importance of
the environment to health and well being (Meleis 1991; Marriner-Tomey 1994). Meleis
(1991:156) believes that as a result of Nightingale's focus on these concerns, health -
incorporating hygiene, environment, and care - became the central concern of nursing
practice, but this was replaced by the more dominant, more developed and powerful
medical domain. The medical profession is and has been a strong, influential force that
has restricted and even exterminated the voice of others involved in health care (Capra
1982; Russell and Schofield 1986; Allan and Hall 1988). Nursing has been one of these
casualties and as a result has adopted many aspects of this scientific, reductionist model
(Emden 1991; Lawler 1991; Meleis 1991; Avery 1996). Due to the dominance of
biological systems, nursing focused intently on healing malfunctions and injuries of
organs within the human organism, according to Norris (1982), Meleis (1991), and
Parker (1991). In addressing malfunctions and "healing processes", nursing's focus has
narrowed, and Allan and Hall (1988:23) argue that:
this paradigm, in short, has blocked a vision of the person, health and environment
and has prevented a view of health as a complex, multidimentional phenomenon,
not merely the absence of disease.

As a consequence of this narrowed focus, nursing has largely evolved around the
hospital setting where the emphasis has been on the individual's illness and their
immediate surroundings (Chopoorian 1986; KIeffel 1991; Smith and Whitney 1991;
Avery 1996). Chopoorian (1986:41) believes that, as a result, environmental issues are

77
analysed from the perspective of the individual or the family's specific situation: 'it is
the person that holds the paramount place in the conceptualization of nursing by
practitioners, researchers, and educators alike'. This has been highlighted by the
analysis undertaken in this study of Marriner-Tomey's (1994) book.

7.4 The influence of nursing texts

This study is not a criticism of Nursing theorists and their work, it merely highlights a
deficit in nursings conceptualisation of the environment. As previously stated, Marriner-
Tomey's (1994) book was chosen because it is available in all the universities across
Australia that currently have undergraduate courses in nursing. Marriner-Tomey's
(1994) book and other similar texts have the potential to influence students in nursing.
Koutroulis (1990:74) points out that textbooks:
impart not only the formal curriculum of content necessary for the effective
technical practice of the occupation in question but also a 'hidden' curriculum of
attitudes, values, assumptions and ideologies which influence the subsequent
practise of that occupation.
The nursing theories analysed in this study indicate that the natural environment has not
been considered by theorists, yet nursing theory guides practice, education and research
(Tones 1990; Chinn and Kramer 1991; Meleis 1991; Sims 1991).

To adequately understand and address environmental issues that directly and indirectly
affect human health, nurses must go beyond just treating "the cancer patient" and their
family and begin to understand the global causes of such cancers and illness; and to
incorporate this knowledge into their theory, education and practice. In short,
the concept of environment needs to move into a place of prominence in nursing
thought. To understand the dilemmas and issues that influence human beings and
hence create conditions for health or illness, nurses must reach beyond the
privatized concerns of the individual to the surrounding world for explanation and
action. Nurses need to turn their attention to the conditions that control, influence,
and produce health or illness in human beings (Chopoonan 1986:53).

7.5 Nursing theory

It has been argued that concepts are the building blocks of theory (Hardy 1974; Sims
1991; Walker and Avant 1995), and theory is vital for the guidance of education,
practice and research (Tones 1990; Chinn and Kramer 1991; Meleis 1991; Sims 1991).

78
It has also been stated elsewhere in this study that the meaning of concepts change over
time and context (Rodgers 1989; Walker and Avant 1995; Wotton 1996). The nursing
theories described by Marriner-Tomey (1994) have provided guidance and inspiration
to many nurses and have made a major contribution to the discipline of nursing (Yura
and Tones 1975; Fawcett 1978; Chinn and Kramer 1991; Alligood and Choi 1994).
This must be clearly and strongly acknowledged. None the less, given that nursing's
metaparadigm concepts can change over time and context (Rodgers 1989; Walker and
Avant 1995; Wotton 1996), nursing must move forward and embrace the enviromnental
crisis that humans now confront. It is important not to ignore what has already been
written but to add and incorporate new developments and knowledge. The natural
environment is not only important to how nursing is practiced in the future but also to
the future health of each nurse personally, and that of their family. Awareness now by
nurses of these monumentally important aspects of the environment will not only lead
all nurses to practice more environmentally friendly nursing (such as that described by
Abbey 1991; Paech 1991; Shaner 1994; Avery 1995; Garman 1995; Rodriguez 1995),
but will also encourage nurses to be more politically aware and active in this sphere.
Nurses will then be in a position to play a vital role in teaching other nurses, patients,
administrators, and the public of the importance of the natural environment to their
health, and that of their children and grandchildren. With regards to research, because
of nurses holistic approach to health care, nurses are well positioned to research
multiple aspects of the natural environment, such as preventative health care. Given the
interdependence between the natural environment and the state of human health and
well-being, concern for and about "the environment" is an imperative for nursing.

7.6 Conclusion
The aim of the study was to determine how nursing theorists described the natural
environment. This goal represents a particularly pressing concern for nursing, given the
interrelationship between human health and the natural environment. The aim was
based on the belief that nursing theory informs and directs the delivery of nursing care.
To achieve the aim, a text accessible to a large number of students in nursing in
Australia - one that has the potential to influence these students perspectives on nursing
practice - was reviewed. Having undertaken the review and discovering that little has

79
been incorporated into nursing theory regarding the natural environment, it is
considered imperative that this issue is explored and brought to the fore in nursing
thinking. Nursing has for too long focused on environment as the immediate
surroundings or circumstances of the individual or family and the setting in which
nursing occurs. It is time to move on and acknowledge in nursing theory, and
consequently in education, research, and practice that the environment-nursing
relationship is much broader than the immediate surroundings or circumstances of the
individual or family, and the setting in which nursing occurs (Fawcett 1993; Chopoorian
1986).

It is recognised that this study is only a small step towards a better understanding of the
issues encompassed by the nursing metaparadigm environment (in this case, as it was
portrayed within one textbook). To substantiate and validate the claims made in this
study, similar analyses of other textbooks need to be completed. Analyses of the
theorists' original works would also provide further useful insights into the role and
scope of the metaparadigm environment in nursing theory. Nurses need to conduct
further research into the environment-health-nursing relationship with view to providing
clearer understandings of the impacts of rapid environmental degradation on human
health and the implications that this has for nursing. The findings presented in this
minor thesis will, hopefully, assist such explorations.

80
Appendix 1: Sampling results of CINAHL, ACT Public
Library Service, and Odum and Lovelock
Al.! Ecosystem titles generated by the CINAHL CD-ROM database
• 2 titles were generated using ecosystem as a key word;
• 2 articles were retrieved and used in the study:

Realm: CINAHL

Sample: Epstein, Paul R (1995). 'Emerging diseases and ecosystem

instability: new threats to public health'. American journal of
public health, volume 85, number 2, pages 168-172.

Context: Epstein's article appears in a professional journal (public

health), and presents a compelling analysis of the links between
disease and rapid climate change. His article represents a well
referenced scientific paper based on a coherent and well
supported argument.

Definition: explicit Epstein does not define ecosystem in his article, despite the term
appearing five times.

Definition: implicit It can be inferred from the text of his article that important
aspects of ecosystem include: stability, resilience, diversity, and
vigour; food chains, global systems; interrelationships between
ocean, atmosphere, climate, and energy; and distinctive
biological associations (marine ecosystems). The text of his
article demonstrates interrelationships between micro-
organisms, flora and fauna, energy cycles, and hydrological
cycles in the atmosphere and aquatic environments.

Definition: referred Nil.

Attributes: stability, resilience, diversity, and vigour; food chains, global
systems; interrelationships between ocean, atmosphere, climate,
and energy; and distinctive biological associations (marine
ecosystems); interrelationships between micro-organisms, flora
and fauna, energy cycles, and hydrological cycles in the
atmosphere and aquatic environments.

Realm: C1NAHL

Sample: Seckinger, Cristina (1994). 'Evaluating the real environmental

health and social justice status of your community'. Family and
community health, volume 17, number 2, pages 64-66.

81
Context: Seckinger's article appears in a professional journal (family and
community health). In her article she provides a short,
descriptive narrative about an international advocacy
organisation (Women's Environment and Development
Organisation) that she is actively involved in.

Definition: explicit Seckinger does not define ecosystem in her article.

Definition: implicit Seckinger does not use the term ecosystem in her article.

Definition: referred "Environment" functions as a synonym for ecosystem in

Seckinger's article. She provides an implicit definition for the
environment. Her work can be interpreted to define the
environment as being concerned with 'humanity's relationship
with humanity and the planet' (Seckinger 1994:64). Her
understanding also involves development, the physical elements
(water, land, air), and economic and political systems.

Attributes: relationships within and between species, and between species

and the abiotic environment; development, the physical
elements (water, land, air), and economic and political systems.

A1.2 Ecosystem titles generated by the ACT Library Service

• 26 titles were generated using ecosystem both as a key word and as a word in the
title;
• 1 title was discarded by the library service during the course of the study;
• 2 titles were "held" by the library and were unavailable for public use;
• 6 were videos and only available to schools;
• 1 was a computer file and only available to schools;
• 1 was unable to be traced by the library service and was presumed lost; and
• 15 books were retrieved and used in the study:

Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: James, Geoffrey (1996). Business wisdom of the electronic elite:

34 winning management strategies from CEOs at Microsoft,
COMPAQ, Sun, Hewlett-Packard, and other top companies.
New York: Random House.

Context: Adult non-fiction: an easy to read, relatively uncomplicated

book on contemporary business practice and management
methods.

82
Definition: explicit James provides a clear articulation of his understanding of
ecosystem. He defines ecosystem as: a community of living
organisms that have complex and finely balanced symbiotic
relationships. While the members often compete for resources,
they must always maintain the balance. The death of a predator
species, for example, might cause the destruction of an entire
ecosystem through overgrazing by herbivores. Ecosystems that
are homogenous - that contain only a few species - are fragile.
Any unusual event will upset the balance. Ecosystems that are
diverse and contain a variety of species are robust and more
likely to remain viable over long periods (1996:27). James
explicitly states that diversity, generations, and symbiosis are
also key aspects of ecosystem.

Definition: implicit Nil.

Definition: referred Nil.

Attributes: diversity, generations, and symbiosis; balance; diversity;
symbiotic relationships; balance;

Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: Eldredge, Niles (1995). Dominion. New York: Henry Holt and
Company, Inc.

Context: Adult non-fiction: an easy to read, relatively uncomplicated

book on popular science, explaining various relationships
between human evolution, human ecology, population
dynamics, and global carrying capacity.

Defmition: explicit Eldredge uses the term ecosystem repeatedly but does not
provide a single, complete definition.

Definition: implicit His explication for ecosystem is based on carbon, nitrogen,

sulphur, and phosphorous cycles; the production of oxygen and
other resources; symbiosis between organisms; and the role of
particular species in their local ecosystems. He states that the
earth / Gaia / the global ecosystem is: a dynamic system with
complex reactions going on between 'its biological systems - the
biosphere - and the hydrosphere (its surface waters),
atmosphere, and lithosphere (its crustal and lower rocks)'
(1995:12 1). He also states that 'the global system is the sum of
all those local ecosystems the world over - systems which.
interact regionally, and ultimately globally' (1995:164).

Definition: referred He refers to ecosystem services, local ecosystems, the global

ecosystem, and Gaia. He describes the earth as a global

83
 ecosystem and utilises Lovelock's terminology - Gaia - to defme
his concept of the earth as a global ecosystem. However, he
rejects the contention that Gaia is a single organism.

Attributes: interaction; the biosphere; dynamic system; carbon, nitrogen,

sulphur, and phosphorous cycles; the production of oxygen and
other resources; symbiosis between organisms; and the role of
particular species in their local ecosystems; Gaia;

Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: Sheals, JO (editor) (1969). The soil ecosystem: systematic

aspects of the environment, organisms and communities. A
symposium. London: The Systematics Association.

Context: Adult non-fiction: the proceedings of a British soil association's

symposium held in the UK. Papers detail technical and scientific
aspects of soil dynamics research.

Definition: explicit Although the term ecosystem appears in the title of the book, its
use is limited in the text. No definition is given.

Definition: implicit Definitions for ecosystem are problematic in this book. The
various authors and the editor imply that soil is both an
ecosystem and that the soil is part of an ecosystem. Taken
collectively, the authors imply that soil is intimately related to
the cycling of chemicals, water, and energy via biotic (aerobic
and anaerobic) processes by micro- and macro-organisms.

Definition: referred Nil.

Attributes: food chains, trophic levels, interrelationships between biotic and
abiotic components, energy, nitrogen, water, and oxygen cycles,

Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: Hetzel, Basil S and Frith, Harry J (editors) (1976). The nutrition
ofAborigines in relation to the ecosystem of central Australia.
Papers presented at a symposium CSIRO 23 -26 October 1976,
Canberra. Melbourne: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Orgamsation.

Context: Adult non-fiction: proceedings of a symposium involving an

Australian Government research organisation, which was held in
Canberra. Papers detail technical and scientific aspects

84
 associated with Aboriginal nutrition and relationships with the
country.

Definition: explicit Although ecosystem is mentioned several times in the papers

presented in Hetzel and Frith's (1976) book, nowhere is an
actual definition given.

Definition: implicit Ecosystem is discussed in relation to many diverse topics. They

include transport and distribution of food; the community store;
income, family budgeting and employment; land, plants,
animals, wildlife; water and energy; culture; and changes in life
style due to the presence of 'white man' (hunter / gatherer life
style, life on a reserve and a mixed sedentary and nomadic
lifestyle) (Hetzel and Fnth 1976).

Definition: referred Nil

Attributes: transport and distribution of food; the community store; income,
family budgeting and employment; land, plants, animals,
wildlife; water and energy; culture; and changes in life style;

Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: Van Dyne, George (editor) (1969). The ecosystem concept in

natural resource management. New York: Academic Press.

Context: Adult non-fiction: an American book containing technical

articles discussing research, training, and management of living
and non-living natural resources.

Definition: explicit In this collection of papers, Tansley and Odum's definition for
ecosystem are used (Van Dyne 1969). According to this text
ecosystem is: 'a basic functional unit of nature which includes
both organisms and their non-living environment, each
interacting with the other and influencing each other's
properties, and both necessary for the maintenance and
development of the system' (Bormann and Likens 1969:50). The
author then elaborates by stating that: 'an ecosystem, then, may
be visualized as a series of components, such as species
populations, organic debris, available nutrients, primary and
secondary minerals, and atmospheric gases, linked together by
food webs, nutrient flow, and energy flow' (Bormann and
Likens 1969:50). Other attributes of ecosystem identified
throughout this book include: accumulation of matter and
energy, cycles of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorous,
the hydrological cycle, food webs and nutrition flow,

85
 interrelationship and mterdependence within systems (Van
Dyne 1969).

Definition: implicit Nil

Definition: referred Nil

Attributes: accumulation of matter and energy, cycles of carbon, nitrogen,
sulphur, and phosphorous, the hydrological cycle, food webs
and nutrition flow, interrelationship and interdependence within
systems, nutrient cycle, grasslands, watersheds, attic tundra,
forestry, game parks, and fisheries as ecosystems.

Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: Gibbons, Gail (1994). Nature 's green umbrella: tropical rain
forest. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc.

Context: Juvenile non-fiction: a short, illustrated children's book by an

American writer and publishing house. The language is aimed at
primary school level, illustrated with pen, pencil, and ink
labelled diagrams. The text covers tropical, mangrove, and
temperate rain forests from all around the world.

Definition: explicit Gibbons uses the term ecosystem numerous times. The author
gives the origin of the term ('comes partly from a Greek word
meaning "house" or "place" (Gibbons 1994)). She also
provides the following explanations for the term: an ecosystem
is a community in nature, including all its living and nonliving
parts (Gibbons 1994), and defines it in terms of processes and
the cycling of energy, air, water, and soil.

Definition: implicit Nil.

Deflnition: referred "Environment" functions as a synonym for ecosystem.

Attributes: rain forest as an ecosystem, oxygen, carbon dioxide, sun,
energy, air, water, soil, trophic levels, food chains and webs,
cycles, nutrients, interrelations between forest ecosystems and
atmospheric gases, hydrological cycles, and climate,
interrelations between forest flora and fauna, greenhouse effect
and rapid climate change, sustainable use, different kinds of rain
forests, diversity, balance.

86
Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: Barton, Miles (1991). Vanishing species. London: Gloucester

Press.

Context: Juvenile non-fiction: a 36 page illustrated children's book by a

radio producer at Britain's BBC Natural History Unit. The
writer and publishing house are British. The language is aimed
at junior high school level students. It is illustrated with
numerous colour photographs.

Definition: explicit The author mentions ecosystem six times. Barton (1991:35)
defines ecosystem as 'a natural community of animals and
plants that interact with each other and the environment around
them' and 'the relationship between plants and animals and
their habitat' (Barton 1991:4).

Definition: implicit Nil.

Definition: referred Both "habitat" and "enviromnent" function as a synonym for

ecosystem.

Attributes: web of life, system, nature's balance, energy, nutrients, soil,

trophic levels, food chain, living and non-living things, lakes,
forests, prairies, grasslands, gardens as ecosystems, cycling of
water, carbon dioxide, sunlight, evolution.

Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: Tesar, Jenny (1991). Shrinkingforests. Our fragile planet,

number 3. Series editor Bernard S. Cayne. New York: Facts on
File, Inc.

Context: Juvenile non-fiction: a medium length high school textbook,

written and printed in the USA. According to the publisher, the
book is intended to provide young adults with an understanding
of environmental problems - and potential solutions - from a
"scientific" point of view. The book 'explores the crucial role of
the forest ecosystem and how its valuable resources are
endangered by pollution, development, and a lack of careful
observation' (catalogue-in-publication data).

Definition: explicit - Ecosystem is defmed in the book's glossary as 'all the

organisms in an area and their interactions with one another and
with their non-living surroundings' (Tesar 1991:106). The term
is identically defined within the body of the text; and the term
appears at least six times throughout the book.

Definition: implicit - Nil.

87
Definition: referred - Nil.

Attributes: Area, interactions between biotic and abiotic components,

sunlight, wind, air, water, rocks, soil, forests as an ecosystem,
habitat, nutrient cycles, species diversity, temperate deciduous
forests, tropical rain forests, and tropical deciduous forests as
ecosystems, development, regulation and moderation of climate
and atmosphere, conservation of soil and water, oxygen, carbon,
and water cycles, sustainable development, biodiversity, climax,
pollution, deforestation, desertification,

Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: Morrison, Marion (1993). The Amazon rain forest and it's
people. People and places, number 1. Series editor Cally
Chambers. East Sussex: Wayland (Publishers) Ltd.

Context: Juvenile non-fiction: a short junior high school book published

in the UK. The book examines the ecosystem of the Amazon
rainforest and how traditional people live in harmony with this
ecosystem. The book explores the history of the rubber industry
and recent large-scale projects. It assesses the consequences of
forest clearance by industries and people seeking new homes in
the region, and the global consequences of this.

Definition: explicit The term ecosystem is used twice in the text (both times in
connection with 'richness' (Morrison 1993:10 & 41)).
Ecosystem is defined in the book's glossary as 'the web of plant
and animal life that lives off and affects its particular
surroundings. Ecosystems can cover different-sized areas - from
a rock pool to a rainforest' (Morrison 1993:46).

Definition: implicit Nil.

Definition: referred Despite defining ecosystem in the glossary, Morrison uses

ecosystem interchangeably with the environment throughout the
text. Ecosystem and the environment can therefore be
considered synonyms in this case.

Attributes: Amazon rain forest as an ecosystem, layers, fragile balance,

nutrient cycles, soil, species diversity, biodiversity, evolution,
living in harmony with the environment, sustainable use,
pollution, deforestation, erosion, habitat, water and hydrological
cycles, carbon cycles, carbon dioxide, sun's energy, atmosphere,
climate change, sea level rise, richness.

88
Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: Hare, Tony (consultant editor) (1994). Nature worlds. UK:

Macmillan Reference Books.

Context: Juvenile I general non-fiction: a senior high school textbook,

also suitable for general adult audiences, written by various
American and British authors, and published in the UK.
According to the publisher, the book pictorially describes the
complex relationships between species, in a range of settings
based on 14 major ecosystems. Text, colour photos, and pen and
ink watercolour diagrams help explain the biosphere's complex
biotic and abiotic relationships in general terms.

Definition: explicit Ecosystem is defined in the book's glossary as 'the totality of

interactions between a community and its non-living
environment' (Hare 1994:138). The glossary also defines biome
as 'a major regional ecological community, usually defined
according to the dominant plant type present' (Hare 1994:138).
Important aspects of the term ecosystem are identified in the
forward: 'To conserve nature, and the complex
interrelationships between species ... , a shift is needed to a
different model - one in which we acknowledge that we live
within ecosystems, and that our activities can be carried out in
ways that maintain ecosystem integrity. It means maintaining
ecosystem processes, the natural recycling of elements, energy
and water which our economic system treats as if they are free.
It means maintaining the flow of goods (products of natural
origin, including many medicines), as well as the services (such
as the cycling of nutrients and water) and the characteristic
biodiversity of the ecosystem in question' (Lovejoy in Hare
1994:6). Tn the opening pages of this text, Hare (1994) notes that
the concept of ecosystem functions at various levels or scales:
from the cellular level to the earth as a whole.

Definition: implicit The author explicitly states that 'On the global scale, the
ecosystem concept is usually, and most usefully, applied to
biomes. A biome is a major community extending over large
areas with similar climatic conditions. Deserts are biomes. So,
too, are tropical rainforests, tundra, and various others' (Hare
1994:8). Thus, in this authors view, the ecosystem concept is a
way of thinking about particular biomes. Despite adopting this
position at the outset, the author then uses the two terms, biomes
and ecosystems, throughout the remainder of the text
interchangeably in his discussions of taiga, tundra and polar,
ocean, coastal, swamp and mangrove, temperate grassland,
temperate forest, savanna, rain forest, mountain, river and lake
desert, scrubland, and coral reef ecosystems.

Definition: referred Nil.

89
Attributes: determined by climate and dominant species, change over time,
evolution, species distribution, diversity, interactions between
living and non-living things, dynamic, manage, conserve,
protect, energy, nutrient circulation, inputs and outputs, balance,
sustainable balance, energy, energy budget, sunlight, biomass,
food web, trophic level, food chain, recycling of resources
(carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium,
calcium, sulphur, etc.), competition, perdition, pressure,
succession,

Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: Victorian Association for Environmental Education (VAEE),

Preuss, Peter and Duke, Geoff (1996). Investigating Australian
ecosystems. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.

Context: Adult non-fiction, textbook: a senior high school textbook for

Australian environmental studies students, written by members
of the Victorian Association for Environmental Education. The
textbook contains a significant number of test questions, photos,
line diagrams, guest essays, case studies, research projects, and
role play activities.

Definition: explicit This textbook, which focuses on understanding Australian

ecosystems, provides detailed and insightful explanations of the
term. The term ecosystem is used repeatedly and with consistent
meaning throughout the text. Ecosystem is defined in the
following way: 'The concept of ecosystems helps us understand
and appreciate the wide range of natural environments in
Australia. Ecosystems are made up of organisms, their
interactions with one another, and their physical surroundings'
(VAEE, Preuss, & Duke 1996:31).

Definition: implicit While maintaining a consistent definition and usage of the term
throughout their text, the authors often equate "ecosystem" with
"the environment": 'the complex interactions between plants,
animals, and the abiotic (non-living) components of our
environment ...', '... we begin to consider some of the
interactions within natural systems ...', and '... we often think of
natural environments as systems or ecosystems ...' (VAEE et al.
1996:20).

Definition: referred Nil.

Attributes: fine balances, complex interactions, systems, living and non-
living components, interactions, swamps and marshes, rivers,
tropical forests, temperate forests, cultivated land, temperate
grasslands, deserts, lakes, streams, open oceans, and coral reefs,

90
 as ecosystems, inputs and outputs, systems, interaction,
processes, negative and positive feedback, ecosystem as a
concept for understanding and appreciating the natural
environment, based on interactions between the biosphere,
hydrosphere, lithosphere, and energy from the sun and moon,
Autotrophs (producers) and heterotrophs (consumers,
decomposers), productivity measured in terms of biomass,
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, biomes, habitats, ecological
niches, competition, biogeochemical cycles, nutrient cycles,
recycling, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, water cycles, food
chains and food webs, energy flows, changes in ecosystems over
time, dynamic, succession, stability, diversity, degradation,
deforestation, erosion, dryland degradation, impacts, pollution,
greenhouse gases, extinction, management, utilising, sustainable
yield, carrying capacity, preservation, restoration, conservation.

Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: DeFelice, Cynthia C (1994). Lostman 's River. New York:

Macmillan Publishing Company.

Context: Young adult fiction by an American "professional storyteller"

(DeFelice 1994:fly cover). The novel is set in the early 1900s
and narrated by a thirteen-year-old boy who lives in the
backwaters of the Everglades, Florida. He becomes involved
with vicious hunters who threaten the wildlife of the area. The
"Authors Note" (DeFelice 1994:159-160) at the end of the book
indicates that the story is based around a true scenario that
occurred prior to the establishment of the Everglades National
Park in 1947.

Definition: explicit The term ecosystem is not mentioned within the body of the text
- it appears only in the "Authors Note" (DeFelice 1994:159-
160), and then a definition is not given.

Definition: implicit DeFelice states that the Everglades ecosystem consists of

habitats for birds and other creatures and requires a continuous
flow of fresh water. This ecosystem is fragile and complex and
is suffering because of human disruption of the Everglades fresh
water supply, and because of human generated pollution.

Definition: referred Nil.

Attributes: habitat, flora and fauna, hydrology, hydrological cycle, fragile,
complex, disruption, pollution, toxic pesticides, fertilisers,
health.

91
Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: Goldschmidt, Tijs (1996). Darwin's dreampond. drama in Lake

Victoria. Translated by Sheny Marx-Macdonald. Massachusetts:
The MIT Press.

Context: Adult non-fiction, popular science: originally written in Dutch

by an internationally recognised expert on the evolutionary
biology and ecology of cichlids (small perchlike fish) in Lake
Victoria, Central Africa. Although this book discusses the
principles of neo-Darwinian evolution, speciation, aquatic
ecology, and the history of Lake Victoria, it is a well written,
easy to read book. Narrated in the first-person, scientific theory
is intermingled with stories of the everyday life of the writer as
he conducts his field research.

Definition: explicit Ecosystem is defined in the glossary as: 'The plants and
organisms occurring in a specific environment (lake, forest,
desert), including the physical factors to which they are
exposed' (Goldschmidt 1996:246). The author describes Lake
Victoria as an ecosystem. In so doing, he is clearly considering
the Lake in terms of the relationships within and between the
biotic and abiotic components.

Definition: implicit Nil.

Definition: referred Nil.

Attributes: complex, damaged, destruction, disruption, dynamic, energy

flows, stability, transition, evolution, resilience, niche,
competition, complexity, system, trophic levels, species
richness, diversity, energy, food chain, food web, stressed, flora
and fauna, manipulation, irreversibility, pollution, poisoning,
extinction, life, disaster, vulnerable, cycles, equilibrium,
efficient, energy from sunlight, biomass, food pyramid,
population, collapse.

Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: O'Riordan, Timothy (editor) (1995). Environmental science for

environmental management. UK: Longman Scientific and
Technical

Context: Adult non-fiction, undergraduate textbook: a textbook for

undergraduate students of environmental science, environmental
management, environmental studies, and geography; written and
published in the UK. The textbook is written by a team of
lecturers at the University of East Anglia, UK and edited by

92
 Professor Timothy O'Riordan. The book adopts an
interdisciplinaiy, policy-oriented approach, and considers the
relationships between science, politics, ethics, and the
environment. The book is illustrated with numerous black and
white charts, tables, and graphs; and a small number of black
and white photos.

Definition: explicit ecosystem is used in various sections throughout the text, but is
defined by only one author. Barkham defines ecosystem as '... a
useful shorthand word meaning the plants and animals living on
land and in water, interacting together and with the inanimate
substances of air, water, and soil' (in O'Riordan 1995:82).
Barkham expands on this definition by noting that 'System
indicates that these are dynamic interactions, constantly
changing, with each element and species having an impact on
the others, either directly or indirectly. The idea of a global
ecosystem is an acknowledgment of the fact that, taken to its
limits, everything in the natural world is mutually dependent -
and of course human beings are part of this system too' (in
O'Riordan 1995:82).

Definition: implicit In the absence of any other definitions for the term, the above
definition is implied to hold throughout the entire text with only
one exception. O'Riordan provides a modified version of the
above definition: 'Another, very different approach to creating a
fresh look at human relationships to the natural world is to
examine scientifically the tight coupling of biota and the
material existence of chemical and energy flows into a
combined dynamic system that acts to retain life on Earth. This
notion is termed Gaia' (O'Riordan 1995:352).

Definition: referred Nil.

Attributes: biodiversity, species diversity, human impacts, extinction,
resilient, evolution, adaption, stress, forests, grasslands,
heathiands, coral reefs, oceans, and the globe as ecosystems,
water, sulphur, nitrogen, and carbon cycles, nutrient cycles, food
chains, flora and fauna, habitat, interactions, dynamic, change,
dependent, biomass, negative feedback, contaminants,
sustainable use, natural and semi-natural ecosystems, integrity,
chemical and energy flows, system, a totality of physical and
biological processes, homoeostasis, climate, Earth as an
ecosystem.

93
Realm: ACT Library Service

Sample: Thornton, Ian W (1996). Krakatau: the destruction and

reassembly of an island ecosystem. Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press.

Context: Adult non-fiction, zoology and evolution: A quite technical

report by the Emeritus Professor of Zoology, La Trobe
University. This book analyses the colonisation of the island
Krakatau by a variety of flora and fauna after all life had been
obliterated by a volcano eruption. The book examines the re-
creation of the island ecosystem over time.

Definition: explicit Ecosystem is defined in the glossary as 'the physical

environment and biotic community of a discrete habitat or area'
(Thornton 1996: 292). The author also refers to tropical forest
ecosystems, developing ecosystems, functional ecosystems, a
natural ecosystem, and endangered ecosystems.

Definition: implicit Thornton uses ecosystem occasionally throughout the text. In so

doing, he is using the island as a model for more complex
ecosystems.

Definition: referred Nil.

Attributes: Tropical forest, energy (sea, wind, rain), flora and fauna,
complex, biota, system, interrelationships, community, food
web, abiotic components, succession, energy (biomass),
extinction, dynamic, equilibrium, habitat, trophic level,
immigration, invasion, colonisation, competition, ecological
niches, species, chance and determinism, food chain, diversity,
endangered.

A1.3 Ecosystem titles selected from the works of Odum and Lovelock
• 4 titles were selected based on the researchers assessment of their capacity to inform
the concept analysis; and
• 4 books were used in the study:

Realm: Selected works by Odum and Lovelock

Sample: Odum, Eugene P (1989). Ecology and our endangered

support systems. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
Context: Adult non-fiction: an American book by an American author
and publishing house. The author, an ecologist at Georgia
University, states in his preface that this book serves various
audiences: it is for beginning students, a citizens guide to the

94
 principles of ecology, and suitable for an array of interested
professionals. It is an easy-to-read book written in a non-
technical style with numerous drawings, graphs, diagrams and
photographs.

Definition: explicit Odum uses the term ecosystem extensively throughout the book,
and defines ecosystem in various ways. The closest Odum
comes to an actual definition of ecosystem is when he states
that 'the community [all of the populations living in a
designated area] and the nonliving environment function
together as an ecological system or ecosystem' (Odum 1989:27).
Odum uses models to depict an ecosystem, with energy as an
input, water, air and nutrients entering and leaving, and
processed energy and materials, together with an emigration of
organisms.

Definition: implicit Odum views ecosystem as being a synonymous subset of the

environment (which he refers to as a Life-support environment
and life-support system). Odum defines biomes as 'large, easily
recognised terrestrial community units' (1989:234), and uses
biomes interchangeably with ecosystem - but restricts biomes to
the terrestrial environment (Odum 1989:221).

Definition: referred Nil.

Attributes: system, processes, natural environments, life support
environment, life-support system, natural system, spaceship
earth, ecological system, biogeocoenosis, open systems, biotic
and abiotic components, producers and consumers, food webs,
energy, water, air and nutrients, energy flow, material cycles,
biochemical cycles, nutrients, diversity, species and genetic
diversity, resilience, resistance, and stability, Gaia and Gaia
hypothesis, conceptual model, hydrological cycle, nitrogen
cycle, phosphorus cycle, sulphur cycle, carbon cycle,
succession, development, climax, equilibrium, evolution, time,
freshwater, marine, and domesticated ecosystems, biomes

Realm: Selected works by Odum and Lovelock

Sample: Lovelock, James E (1987). Gaia: a new look at life on earth.

Second edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press [First
published 1979].
Context: Adult non-fiction: written and published in the UK and televised
on BBC Television's Horizon. The author, an independent
scientist specialising in marine biology and atmospheric
chemistry, articulates his hypothesis that 'the Earth's living
matter, air, oceans, and land surfaces form a complex system

95
 which can be seen as a single organism and which has the
capacity to keep our planet a fit place to live' (1987:x).
Lovelock also states that he 'frequently used the word Gaia as a
shorthand for the hypothesis itself, namely that the biosphere is
a self-regulating entity with the capacity to keep our planet
healthy by controlling the chemical and physical enviromnent'
(1987:xii). The book is illustrated with a small number of tables,
graphs, and black and white photographs. Although easy to read,
the text is strongly based on cotemporary Earth sciences.

Definition: explicit Lovelock uses the term ecosystem six times in the text of his
book, but does not provide an identifiable definition. He does,
however, refer to algal ecosystems, natural and man-made [sic.]
ecosystems, tropical forest ecosystems, and grassland
ecosystems.

Definition: implicit Lovelock appears to be equating biomes with ecosystems when

he refers to algal, natural and man-made [sic.], tropical forest,
and grassland ecosystems. However, his concept of Gaia appears
to draw heavily on - and extend - the concept of ecosystems: 'we
have since defined Gaia as a complex entity involving the
Earth's biosphere, atmosphere, oceans, and soil; the totality
constituting a feedback or cybernetic system which seeks an
optimal physical and chemical environment for life on this
planet' (Lovelock 1987:11). Lovelock is defining the biotic-
abiotic relationship in global terms, based on global carbon,
oxygen, energy, water, and sulphur cycles. He clearly sees the
global ecosystem as evolving over extended periods of time.

Definition: referred Nil.

Attributes: Gaia as a living entity, the Earth as Gaia, life, sulphur, carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and hydrogen cycles, biotic and
abiotic components, complex system, biosphere, atmosphere,
lithosphere, climate, solar energy, carbon dioxide, aerobic and
anaerobic, oxidation and reduction, positive and negative
feedback loops, hydrological cycles, evolution, fragile,
pollution, toxic wastes, ozone layer, DDT, biomes as vital
organs of Gaia, planetary homoeostasis, equilibrium and steady
state

Realm: Selected works by Odum and Lovelock

Sample: Lovelock, James E (1988). The ages of Gala: a biography of our

living Earth. Second edition. New York: W.W. Norton and Co
Context: Adult non-fiction: written and published in the UK as part of the
Commonwealth Fund Book Program series. The author, an

96
 independent scientist specialising in marine biology and
atmospheric chemistry, refines and restates his Gaia hypothesis
as concept or theory: that the Earth is a coherent system of life,
self-regulating, self-changing, a sort of immense organism. The
book is illustrated with a small number of black and white
photographs, line diagrams, and graphs. Although easy to read,
the text is strongly based on cotemporary Earth sciences.

Definition: explicit Lovelock uses ecosystem numerous times throughout the text
but fails to provide a clear and unambiguous explanation of the
term. Lovelock clearly sees biomes as ecosystems, and names
tropical rain forests and continental shelves as ecosystems
(1995:xiv, 167 & 169). Lovelock also describes the
photosynthetic algae of the artic and temperate oceans, and the
bacteria of the terrestrial anaerobic sediments and soils, as
instituting the worlds great ecosystems. Additionally, Lovelock
unequivocally states that the biosphere and biota are not
synonyms for Gaia (1995:19).

Definition: implicit Lovelock's Gaia theory is based on an extension of the concept

ecosystem. When he states that 'Living organisms and their
natural environment are tightly coupled. The coupled system is a
super organism, and as it evolves there emerges a new property,
the ability to self-regulate climate and chemistry' (1995:2 13). In
saying this, Lovelock is drawing on and further developing
traditional understandings of the concept of ecosystems. His
clearest articulation of Gaia theory is as follows: 'through Gaia
theory I now see the system of the material Earth and the living
organisms on it, evolving so that self-regulation is an emergent
property. In such a system active feedback processes operate
automatically and solar energy sustains comfortable conditions
for life. The conditions are only constant in the short term and
evolve in synchrony with the changing needs of the biota as it
evolves. Life and its environment are so closely coupled that
evolution concerns Gaia, not the organisms or the environment
taken separately' (1995:20). Lovelock's contribution to Odum's
concept of ecosystems is to account for time in evolutionary
terms, and to include evolutionary time spans in his explanation
of how ecosystems develop. Lovelock clearly demonstrates that
the Earth as a whole can be perceived as operating as a single
ecosystem.

Definition: referred Nil.

Attributes: thermostasis, algal ecosystems, plant ecosystems, forest
ecosystems, system, biotic and abiotic components evolving
together, Earth as a living organism, natural ecosystems, cycles,
relationship between atmosphere and biota, temperature, carbon
cycles, oxygen cycles, sulphur cycles, life, lithosphere,

97
 biosphere, atmosphere, energy from sunlight, populations,
trophic levels, pollution, disruption, deforestation,
overpopulation, overgrazing, nutrient cycles.

Realm: Selected works by Odum and Lovelock

Sample: Lovelock, James E (1991). Gaia: the practical science of

planetary medicine. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
Context: Adult non-fiction: written in the UK and published in Australia.
The author, an independent scientist specialising in marine
biology and atmospherics, explores the earth through the eyes of
an imaginary planetary physician. The book is extensively
illustrated with colour photographs, line diagrams, and
watercolour illustrations. Although easy to read, the text is
strongly based on cotemporary Earth sciences. In this book,
Lovelock substantiates his theory that the Earth can be
considered as a single ecosystem - a living planet, capable of
evolution, perturbation, sickness or injury, and health.

Definition: explicit Ecosystem is mentioned several times throughout the text.

Lovelocks understanding of ecosystems is twofold: biomes
(defined by distinctive communities and climate) as ecosystems;
and the Earth as a single, integrated living ecosystem. The
author expressly states that he conceives 'the planetary
ecosystem, Gaia, as alive, because it behaves like a living
organism to the extent that temperature and chemical
composition are actively kept constant in the face of
perturbations' (Lovelock 199 1:6). Lovelock explains his
understanding of ecosystem in the following way: 'Conventional
science defines an ecosystem as a stable, self-perpetuating
system, composed of a community of living organisms and their
non-living environment. According to this view, organisms do
not alter their environment, they merely adapt to it. The Gaian
view of an ecosystem, however, sees the two as tightly coupled
interactive forces, each one shaping and affecting the other'
(Lovelock 1991:50). However, he also states that: 'Ecosystems
comprise living organisms and their environment, tightly
coupled as single evolving domains. They can be seen as
superorganisms, having some of the characteristics of living
entities: self-regulation, homeostasis, metabolism. They are also
the organs of Gaia - each with a distinct identity, yet ultimately
interlinked with all the other ecosystems; and with a vital role in
the whole organism' (Lovelock 199 1:50).

Definition: implicit In Lovelock's view, Earth, as represented by Gaia, can be

considered as a living ecosystem based on interdependent
components (living biomes and non-living environments):' ...

98
 Gaia is the Earth seen as a single physiological system, an entity
that is alive at least to the extent that, like other organisms, its
chemistry and temperature are self-regulated at a state
favourable for life' (Lovelock 199 1:1 1). Lovelock describes
Gaia in the following terms: 'Gaia is an evolving system, a
system made up from all living things and their surface
environment, the ocean, atmosphere, and crustal rocks, the two
parts tightly coupled and indivisible' (Lovelock 1991:11).
Implicitly, Lovelock is defining Gaia - the Earth - as a single,
self-regulating, evolving ecosystem.

Definition: referred Nil.

Attributes: system, evolving, comprising biotic and abiotic components,
reciprocal evolution, atmosphere, energy flows, water, rocks and
soil, euphotic zones of the oceans, anaerobic sediments, and
aerobic soils as major ecosystems, tropical humid forests,
temperate forests, temperate needle-leaf forests, tropical dry
forest / woodland, temperate broadleaf forest, evergreen
scierophyllous forest, warm deserts, cold winter deserts, tundra,
savanna, temperate grasslands, mountain systems, island
systems, lakes, and human contrived systems as terrestrial
biomes, complexity, positive and negative feedback, carbon
dioxide, oxygen, carbon, methane, nitrogen, trace gases,
sulphur, chloride ion cycles, interaction between biotic and
abiotic components to regulate climate, pollution, stress,
disease, agriculture and deforestation, acid rain, ozone
depletion, global warming, harmony.

99
Appendix 2: Attributes derived from the CINAHL,
ACT Library Service, and Odum and
Lovelock Samples
A2.1 Combined Attributes from Appendix 1

accumulation of matter and energy biome as vital organs of Gaia

adaption biomes
animals biomes
area carrying capacity
autotrophs (producers) chance and determinism
balance change
balance change over time
balance changes in ecosystems over time
balance changes in life style
balance = fine climate
balance = fragile climate
balance = nature's climax
balance = sustainable climax
biodiversity collapse
biodiversity colonisation
biodiversity community
biomass competition
competition
biomass competition
biome = cold winter desert competition
biome = evergreen sclerophyllous forest complex
biome = human contrived systems complex
biome = island system complex
biome = lake complex interactions
biome = mountain system complexity
biome = savanna complexity
biome = temperate broadleaf forest component = abiotic
biome = temperate forest component = air
biome = temperate grassland component = air
biome = temperate needle-leaf forest component = air and nutrients
biome = tropical dry forest / woodland component = atmosphere
biome = tropical humid forest component = atmosphere
biome = tundra component = atmosphere
biome = warm desert component = atmosphere

100
component = biosphere cycle = carbon
component = biosphere cycle = carbon
component = biosphere cycle = carbon
component = biota cycle = carbon
component = biotic and abiotic cycle = carbon
components
cycle = carbon
component = biotic and abiotic
components cycle = carbon

component = biotic and abiotic cycle = carbon dioxide

components cycle = carbon dioxide
component = biotic and abiotic cycle = carbon dioxide
components evolving together
cycle = carbon dioxide
component = flora and fauna
cycle = carbon dioxide
component = flora and fauna
cycle = chemical flows
component = flora and fauna
cycle = chloride ion
component = flora and fauna
cycle = energy
component = lithosphere
cycle = global
component = lithosphere
cycle = hydrogen
component = living and non-living
components cycle = hydrogen
component = living and non-living things cycle = hydrological
component = rocks cycle = hydrological
component = rocks and soil cycle = hydrological
component = soil cycle = hydrological
component = soil cycle = hydrological cycles and climate
component = water cycle = hydrology
component = water cycle = material
component = water cycle = nitrogen
component = water cycle = nitrogen
component = water cycle = nitrogen
concept cycle = nitrogen
conceptual model cycle nitrogen
conservation cycle = nitrogen
conservation of soil and water cycle = nitrogen
conserve cycle = nitrogen
culture cycle = nitrogen
cycle = biochemical cycle = nutrient
cycle = biogeothemical cycle = nutrient
cycle = calcium cycle = nutrient
cycle = carbon cycle = nutrient
cycle = carbon cycle = nutrient
cycle = carbon cycle = nutrient
cycle = carbon cycle = nutrient circulation

101
cycle = nutrients development
cycle = nutrients disaster
cycle = nutrients disease
cycle = oxidation and reduction disruption
cycle = oxygen disruption
cycle = oxygen disruption
cycle = oxygen diversity
cycle = oxygen diversity
cycle = oxygen diversity
cycle = oxygen diversity
cycle = oxygen diversity
cycle = phosphorous diversity
cycle = phosphorous diversity
cycle = phosphorous diversity
cycle = phosphorus diversity and vigour
cycle = phosphorus dynamic
cycle = phosphorus dynamic
cycle = potassium dynamic
cycle = recycling dynamic
cycle = recycling of resources dynamic
cycle = sulphur ecological niches
cycle = sulphur ecological niches
cycle = sulphur ecosystem (major) = aerobic soils
cycle = sulphur ecosystem (major) = anaerobic sediments
cycle = sulphur ecosystem = a totality of physical and
biological processes
cycle = sulphur
ecosystem = algal
cycle = sulphur
ecosystem = Amazon rain forest
cycle = sulphur
ecosystem = artic tundra
cycle = the production of oxygen and other
resources ecosystem = coral reef
cycle = trace gases ecosystem = coral reef
cycle = water ecosystem = cultivated land
cycle = water ecosystem = desert
cycle = water ecosystem = determined by climate and
dominant species
cycle = water
ecosystem = different kinds of rain forests
cycle = water
ecosystem = distinctive biological
cycle = water and hydrological associations (marine ecosystems)
cycles ecosystem = domesticated
cycles ecosystem = euphotic zones of the oceans
cycles ecosystem = fisheries
dependent ecosystem = forest
development

102
ecosystem = forest energy
ecosystem = forest energy
ecosystem = forestry energy
ecosystem = forests energy
ecosystem = freshwater energy
ecosystem = game parks energy
ecosystem = garden energy
ecosystem = grassland energy = biomass
ecosystem = grassland energy = productivity measured in terms of
biomass
ecosystem = grassland
energy = sea wind rain
ecosystem = heathiand
energy = solar
ecosystem = lake
energy = sun
ecosystem = lake
energy = sun's energy
ecosystem = marine
energy = sunlight
ecosystem = natural
energy = sunlight
ecosystem = natural
energy = sunlight
ecosystem = ocean
energy = sunlight
ecosystem = ocean
energy = sunlight
ecosystem = plant
energy = temperature
ecosystem = prairie
energy = wind
ecosystem = rain forest
energy budget
ecosystem = river
energy flow
ecosystem = semi-natural
energy flows
ecosystem = soil
energy flows
ecosystem = soil
energy flows
ecosystem = stream
energy flows
ecosystem = swamp and marsh
equilibrium
ecosystem = temperate deciduous forest
equilibrium
ecosystem = temperate forest
equilibrium
ecosystem = temperate grassland
equilibrium and steady state
ecosystem = terrestrial and aquatic
evolution
ecosystem = the Earth
evolution
ecosystem = the globe
evolution
ecosystem = tropical deciduous forests
evolution
ecosystem = tropical forest
evolution
ecosystem = tropical forest
evolution
ecosystem = tropical rain forest
evolution
ecosystem = watershed
evolving
ecosystems = aerobic and anaerobic
extinction
efficient
extinction
endangered
extinction

103
extinction I use = DDT
family budgeting and employment use = deforestation
fertilisers use = deforestation
food chain use = deforestation
food chain use = deforestation
food chain use = degradation
food chain use = desertification
food chains use = destruction
food chains use = dryland degradation
food chains use = erosion
food chains and food webs use = erosion
food chains and webs use = global warming
food pyramid use = greenhouse gases
food web use = human impacts
food web use = overgrazing
food web use = overpopulation
food webs use = ozone depletion
food webs and nutrition flow use = poisoning
fragile use = pollution
fragile use = pollution
Gala use = pollution
Gaia use = pollution
Gaia = regulation and moderation of use = pollution
climate and atmosphere
use = pollution
Gaia as a living entity
use = pollution
Gala hypothesis
use = pollution
generations
use = sea level rise
habitat
use = toxic pesticides
habitat
use = toxic wastes
habitat
impacts
habitat
income
habitat
inputs and outputs
habitats
inputs and outputs
harmony
integrity
health
invasion
heterotrophs (consumers decomposers)
irreversibility
immigration
land
use = acid rain
layers
use = agriculture and deforestation
life
use = climate change
life
use = contaminants
life
use = damaged

104
life support environment ecosystems and atmospheric gases

living in harmony with the environment relationship = interrelations between forest

flora and fauna greenhouse effect and
manage rapid climate change
management relationship = interrelationship and
interdependence within systems
manipulation
relationship = interrelationships
methane
relationship = interrelationships between
natural environments biotic and abiotic components
niche
relationship = interrelationships between
ozone layer micro-organisms flora and fauna energy
cycles and hydrological cycles in the
perdition atmosphere and aquatic environments
plants relationship = interrelationships between
ocean atmosphere climate and energy
population
relationship = planetary homoeostasis
populations
relationship = relationships within and
preservation
between species and between species and
pressure the abiotic environment development the
physical elements (water land air) and
processes economic and political systems
processes relationship = symbiosis
producers and consumers relationship = symbiosis between
organisms
protect
relationship = symbiotic relationships
reciproôal evolution
relationship = between atmosphere and relationship = the role of particular species
biota in their local ecosystems

relationship biogeocoenosis
relationship = thermostasis
resilience
relationship = feedback (negative and
positive) resilience
relationship feedback (negative) resilience
relationship = feedback (positive and resilient
negative)
resistance
relationship = feedback loops (positive and
negative) restoration

relationship = homoeostasis richness.

relationship = interaction species

relationship = interaction species and genetic diversity

relationship = interaction between biotic species distribution

and abiotic components to regulate climate
species diversity
relationship = interactions
species diversity
relationship = interactions
species diversity
relationship = interactions between biotic
species richness
and abiotic components
stability
relationship = interactions between living
and non-living things stability
relationship = interactions between the stability
biosphere hydrosphere lithosphere and
energy from the sun and moon stability

relationship = interrelations between forest stress

105
stress utilising
stressed vulnerable
succession web of life
succession wildlife
succession
succession
sustainable development
sustainable use
sustainable use
sustainable use
sustainable yield
system
system
system
system
system
system
system
system = complex
system = dynamic
system = ecological
system = global
system = life-support
system = natural
system = open
Systems
systems
the community store
the Earth = a living organism
the Earth = Gaia
the Earth = spaceship
time
transition
transport and distribution of food
trophic level
trophic level
trophic levels
trophic levels
trophic levels
trophic levels
trophic levels

106
A2.2 Attributes thematically grouped to identify and highlight
repetition

biome = cold winter desert component = biota

biome = evergreen sclerophyflous forest component = biotic and abiotic
components
biome = habitat
component = biotic and abiotic
biome = habitat components
biome = habitat component = biotic and abiotic
biome = habitat components

biome = habitat component = flora and fauna

biome = habitats component = flora and fauna

biome = human contrived systems component = flora and fauna

biome = island system component = flora and fauna

biome = lake component = life

biome = mountain system component = life

biome = savanna component = life support environment

biome = temperate broadleaf forest component = lithosphere

biome = temperate forest component = lithosphere

biome = temperate grassland component = living and non-living

components
biome = temperate needle-leaf forest
component = living and non-living things
biome = transition
component = ozone layer
biome = tropical dry forest / woodland
component = plants
biome = tropical humid forest
component = rocks
biome = tundra
component -= rocks and soil
biome = vital organs of Gaia
component = soil
biome = warm desert
component = soil
biomes
component = water
biomes
component = water
component = abiotic
component = water
component = air
component = water
component = air
component = water
component = air and nutrients
components = land
component = animals
concept
component = atmosphere
conceptual model
component = atmosphere
cycle = biochemical
component = atmosphere
cycle = biogeochemical
component = atmosphere
cycle = calcium
component = biosphere
cycle = carbon
component = biosphere
cycle = carbon
component = biosphere
cycle = carbon

107
cycle = carbon cycle = nutrient
cycle = carbon cycle = nutrient
cycle = carbon cycle = nutrient
cycle = carbon cycle = nutrient
cycle = carbon cycle = nutrient circulation
cycle = carbon cycle = nutrients
cycle = carbon cycle = nutrients
cycle = carbon cycle = nutrients
cycle = carbon dioxide cycle = oxidation and reduction
cycle = carbon dioxide cycle = oxygen
cycle = carbon dioxide cycle oxygen
cycle = carbon dioxide cycle = oxygen
cycle = carbon dioxide cycle = oxygen
cycle = chemical flows cycle = oxygen
cycle = chloride ion cycle = oxygen
cycle = conservation cycle = oxygen
cycle = conservation of soil and water cycle = phosphorous
cycle = conserve cycle = phosphorous
cycle = energy cycle = phosphorous
cycle ='global cycle = phosphorus
cycle = hydrogen cycle = phosphorus
cycle = hydrogen cycle = phosphorus
cycle = hydrological cycle = potassium
cycle = hydrological cycle = processes
cycle = hydrological cycle = processes
cycle = hydrological cycle = recycling
cycle = hydrological cycles and climate cycle = recycling of resources
cycle = hydrology cycle = sulphur
cycle = material cycle = sulphur
cycle = methane cycle = sulphur
cycle = nitrogen cycle = sulphur
cycle = nitrogen cycle = sulphur
cycle = nitrogen cycle = sulphur
cycle = nitrogen cycle = sulphur
cycle = nitrogen cycle = sulphur
cycle = nitrogen cycle = the production of oxygen and other
resources
cycle = nitrogen
cycle = trace gases
cycle = nitrogen
cycle = water
cycle = nitrogen
cycle = water
cycle = nutrient
cycle = water
cycle = nutnent
cycle = water

108
cycle = water dominant species

cycle = water and hydrological ecosystem = different kinds of rain forests

cycles ecosystem = distinctive biological
associations (marine ecosystems)
cycles
ecosystem = domesticated
cycles
ecosystem = euphotic zones of the oceans
cycles = inputs and outputs
ecosystem = fisheries
cycles = inputs and outputs
ecosystem = forest
diversity
ecosystem = forest
diversity
ecosystem = forest
diversity
ecosystem = forestry
diversity
ecosystem = forests
diversity
ecosystem = freshwater
diversity
ecosystem = game parks
diversity
ecosystem = garden
diversity
ecosystem = grassland
diversity = biodiversity
ecosystem = grassland
diversity = biodiversity
ecosystem = grassland
diversity = biodiversity
ecosystem = heathland
diversity = community
ecosystem = integrity
diversity = population
ecosystem = lake
diversity = populations
ecosystem = lake
diversity = richness
ecosystem = marine
diversity = species
ecosystem natural
diversity = species and genetic diversity
ecosystem = natural
diversity= species distribution
ecosystem = ocean
diversity = species diversity
ecosystem = ocean
diversity = species diversity
ecosystem = plant
diversity = species diversity
ecosystem = prairie
diversity = species richness
ecosystem = rain forest
diversity = vigour
ecosystem = river
ecosystem (major) = aerobic soils
ecosystem = semi-natural
ecosystem (major) = anaerobic sediments
ecosystem = soil
ecosystem = a totality of physical and
biological processes ecosystem = soil

ecosystem = algal ecosystem = stream

ecosystem = Amazon rain forest ecosystem = swamp and marsh

ecosystem = arctic tundra ecosystem = temperate deciduous forest

ecosystem = coral reef ecosystem = temperate forest

ecosystem = coral reef ecosystem = temperate grassland

ecosystem cultivated land ecosystem = terrestrial and aquatic

ecosystem = desert ecosystem = the Earth

ecosystem = determined by climate and ecosystem = the Earth as a living organism

109
ecosystem = the Earth as a spaceship equilibrium
ecosystem = the Earth as Gala equilibrium = dynamic
ecosystem = the globe equilibrium = fine balance
ecosystem = tropical deciduous forests equilibrium = fragile balance
ecosystem = tropical forest equilibrium = homoeostasis
ecosystem = tropical forest equilibrium = nature's balance
ecosystem = tropical rain forest equilibrium = planetary homoeostasis
ecosystem = watershed equilibrium = resistance
ecosystems = aerobic and anaerobic equilibrium = steady state
energy' equilibrium = thermostasis
energy evolution
evolution
energy evolution
energy evolution
energy evolution
energy evolution
energy evolution
energy = biomass evolution = adaption
energy = biomass evolution = balance
energy biomass evolution = balance
energy evolution = balance
energy = productivity measured in terms of evolution = balance
biomass
evolution = chance and determinism
energy = sea wind rain
evolution = change
energy solar
evolution = change over time
energy = sun
evolution = changes in ecosystems over
energy sun's energy time
energy '= sunlight evolution = climax
energy = sunlight evolution = climax
energy = sunlight evolution = colonisation
energy = sunlight evolution = competition
energy = sunlight evolution = competition
energy = temperature evolution = competition
energy = wind evolution = competition
energy budget evolution = complexity
energy flow evolution = complexity
energy flows evolution = development
energy flows evolution = dynamic
energy flows evolution = dynamic
energy flows evolution = ecological niches
equilibrium evolution = ecological niches
equilibrium evolution = endangered

110
evolution = extinction Gala
evolution = extinction Gala
evolution = extinction Gala = a living entity
evolution = extinction Gaia = hypothesis
evolution = generations Gaia = life
evolution = immigration Gaia = regulation and moderation of
climate and atmosphere
evolution = invasion
relationship = between atmosphere and
evolution = irreversibility biota
evolution = niche relationship = biogeocoenosis
evolution = perdition relationship = biotic and abiotic
evolution = resilience components evolving together

evolution = resilience relationship = climate

evolution = resilience relationship = climate

evolution = resilient relationship = complex interactions

evolution = stability relationship = dynamic

evolution = stability relationship = dynamic

evolution = stability relationship = feedback (negative and

positive)
evolution = stability
relationship = feedback (negative)
evolution = succession
relationship = feedback (positive and
evolution = succession negative)
evolution = succession relationship = feedback loops (positive and
negative)
evolution = succession
relationship = fragile
evolution = time
relationship = fragile
evolution = vulnerable
relationship = harmony
evolving
relationship = interaction
food chain
relationship = interaction
food chain
relationship = interaction between biotic
food chain
and abiotic components to regulate climate
food chain
relationship = interactions
food chains
relationship = interactions
food chains
relationship = interactions between biotic
food chains and abiotic components

food chains and food webs relationship = interactions between living

and non-living things
food chains and webs
relationship = interactions between the
food pyramid biosphere hydrosphere lithosphere and
energy from the sun and moon
food pyramid = accumulation of matter and
energy relationship = interrelations between forest
ecosystems and atmospheric gases
food web
relationship = interrelations between forest
food web
flora and fauna greenhouse effect and
food web rapid climate change
food webs relationship = interrelationship and
interdependence within systems
food webs = nutrition flow

111
relationship = interrelationships trophic level = producers and consumers
relationship = interrelationships between trophic levels
biotic and abiotic components
trophic levels
relationship = interrelationships between
micro-organisms flora and fauna energy trophic levels
cycles and hydrological cycles in the trophic levels
atmosphere and aquatic environments
trophic levels
relationship = interrelationships between
ocean atmosphere climate and energy use = acid rain
relationship = reciprocal evolution use = agriculture and deforestation
relationship = relationships within and use = balance
between species and between species and
the abiotic environment development the use = climate change
physicaF elements (water land air) and use = collapse
economic and political systems
use = contaminants
relationship = symbiosis
use = damaged
relationship = symbiosis between
organisms use = DDT
relationship = symbiotic relationships use = deforestation
relationship = the role of particular species use = deforestation
in their local ecosystems
use = deforestation
relationship = web of life
use = deforestation
system
use = degradation
system
use = desertification
system
use = destruction
system
use = development
system
use = disaster
system
use = disruption
system
use = disruption
system = complex
use = disruption
system = complex
use = dryland degradation
system = complex
use = erosion
system = complex
use = erosion
system = dynamic
use = global warming
system = ecological
use = greenhouse gases
system = global
use = human impacts
system = life-support
use = impacts
system = natural
use living in harmony with the
system = open environment
systems use = manage
systems use = management
trophic level use = manipulation
trophic level use = overgrazing
trophic level = autotrophs (producers) use = overpopulation
trophic level = heterotrophs (consumers use = ozone depletion
and decomposers)
use = poisoning

112
use pollution use = stress
use = pollution use = stress
use = pollution use = stressed
use = pollution use = sustainable development
use = pollution use = sustainable use
use = pollution use = sustainable use
use = pollution use = sustainable use
use = pollution use = sustainable yield
use = pressure use = toxic pesticides
use = protect use = toxic wastes
use = restoration use = utilising
use = sea level rise

113
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