What is Morphology?

- Greek word, morphos = form/shape + logos = study of

- embraces the study of the structure and function
- how structure and function becomes an integrated design
- how the design becomes a factor in the evolution of a new form

MORPHOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
A. SIMILARITIES
- parts are considered similar by means of three criteria namely:
1. Ancestry (Homology)
2. Function (Analogy)
3. Appearance (Homoplast)

1. HOMOLOGY
- applies to two or more features that share a common ancestry
a1. Serial Homology
- similarity between successively repeated parts in the same organism
-e.g. series of vertebrae, several of gill arches

2. ANALOGY
- features of two or more organisms that perform a similar function
- example:
- wings of a bat & wings of a butterfly
- same function however neither structure can be traced to a similar part in a common ancestry
- turtle & dolphin forelimbs
- function as paddles & can be traced to a common ancestor
- recognizes similarity based upon similar function

3. HOMOPLASY
- features in two or more organisms that look alike
- may or may not be homologous or analogous
- ex. Turtle & dolphin flippers

B. SYMMETRY
- balanced proportions or correspondence in size & shapes of parts on opposite sides of median plane
1. BILATERAL SYMMETRY
- a body in which right & left halves are mirror images of each other

2. RADIAL SYMMETRY
- a body that is laid out equally from a central axis so that any of several planes passing through the
center divides into equal or mirrored parts

3. SPHERICAL SYMMETRY
- any plane passing through the center dividing the body into equivalent or mirrored halves
- occurs chiefly among same protozoan group & is rare in animals
- best suited for floating & rolling

C. SEGMENTATION
- a body which is made up of repeating sections known as segments or metameres

TERMS USED FOR LOCATING REGIONS OF ANIMAL BODIES

 ANATOMICAL PLANES
 FRONTAL & CORONAL PLANE
- divides a bilateral body into a dorsal & ventral halves by running through the anteroposterior axis & the
right left axis at right angle to the sagittal plane
 SAGITTAL & MEDIAL PLANE
- the plane that divides the body into right & left halves
 TRANSVERSE PLANE & CROSS SECTION
- cuts through a dorsoventral & a right-left axis at right angle to both the sagittal & frontal planes
- separates the body into anterior & posterior portions
ORIGIN OF THE CHORDATES
 Chordate Phylogeny
 Chordate Characteristics
 Notochord
 Pharyngeal Slit
 Endostyle of Thyroid Gland
 Dorsal & Tubular Nerve Cord
 Post anal Tail
 Chordate Body Plan
 Protochordates
 General Protochordate Features
 Hemichordata
 Cephalochordata
 Urochordata
 Chordate Origin

CHORDATE PHYLOGENY
 Presence of coelom - fluid-filled cavity
 Part of a major radiation with Bilateria
- Animals built upon bilateral symmetrical body plan
- apparently with two distinct & independent evolutionary lines
- Protostomes - mollusks, annelids, arthropods &
many smaller groups

- Deuterostomes - ambulacranial echinoderms,

hemichordates & chordates

 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHORDATES
 DIFFERENCES
- presence of an endoskeleton for the vertebrates
- cephalochordates & urochordates have rods of collagenous materials for their support system

 SIMILARITIES
1. Notochord
- slender rod that develops from the mesoderm in all chordates
- axis for muscle attachment

2. Pharyngeal gill slits

- longitudinal series of openings that pierce the wall of the embryonic pharynx

* gill proper
- specialized, derived structure of fish & larval stage of amphibians
- composed of tiny plates or folds that harbour capillary beds for respiration in water

3. Endostyle or Thyroid Gland

- a glandular groove in the floor of the pharynx
*endostyle is involved in filter feeding
*both are involved in iodine metabolism
*endostyle is the predecessor of the thyroid
- example: in lampreys, true endostyle in the larval stage & becomes a true thyroid gland in
adult stage

4. Dorsal & Tubular Nerve Cord

- presence of a dorsal hollow nerve cord derived from the ectoderm
- CNS of all animals is ectodermal in origin
- however, it is only in the chordates does the nerve tube form by invagination

5. Post-anal Tail
- represents a posterior elongation of the body extending beyond the anus
- primarily an extension of the locomotor apparatus, the segmental musculature & notochord
 PROTOCHORDATES
- informal assemblage of animals including a prechordate (hemichordate) &
two primitive chordates (cephalochordates & urochordates)
- not a proper taxonomic group, however, a collection of convenience
where members share some or five features of the fundamental chordate body plan

 GENERAL FEATURES
 Marine animals that feed by means of cilia & mucus
 They are pelagic in there larval stage
 Benthic in the adult stage
* live on or bottom of a marine substrate
* some burrow into the substrate or are sessile
* some are solitary (live alone)
* some are dioecious (2 houses)
Others are monoecious (hermaphrodites)
 Protochordates w/ simple, unpaired photo receptors & statocysts;
vertebrates w/ well-developed paired sensory organs
>>for vision, chemo reception, hearing, balance, electroception, & vibration sensitivity

 PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA
 Most live in mucus-lined burrows
 Other species are suspension feeders,
extracting tiny bits of organic material & plankton directly from the water
 Muscular lip of the collar can be drawn over the mouth to reject/sort larger food particles
 Digestive system is complete
 Sets of adjacent slits open into a common chamber, the dorsally placed branchial pouch,
that in turn pierces the outer body wall to form the branchial pore
>> an undivided opening to the outside environment
 Single coelomic pouch in proboscis but paired pouches in collar & trunk triploblastic

 CLASS PTEROBRANCHIA
- evolved from the acorn worms
- composed of 2 genera & live in secreted tubes of oceanic water
- small & colonial, & each individual known as a zooid
- they bear arms with tentacles containing extensions of the coelomic compartments of the mesozones

 PHYLOGENY:
- Echinoderms left an extensive fossil record with 20 currently recognized classes
- Only five classes survived today
- Ancestors of the extant (present) echinoderms were sessile,
became radial as an adaptation to that existence
& then gave rise to free moving groups
- the relationship with chordates is they share pharyngeal slit;
- with echinoderms, they share a similar ciliated larva,
a 3 part coelom &
a kind of filtration structure known as axial complex
- phylogenetic analyses of 18s rDNA sequences & Hox genes support a close relationship between
echinoderms & hemichordates
- Echinoderms & hemichordates from a clade known as Ambulacraria

EARLY CHORDATE EVOLUTION

 Ancestral chordates may have resembled lancelets
 Genome sequencing of tunicates has identified genes shared by tunicates & vertebrates
 Gene expression in lancelets holds clues to the evolution of the vertebrate form

WHAT ARE CHORDATES?

- neither the most diverse nor the largest animal phyla
- fourth in terms of the number of species trailing behind the arthropods, nematodes & mollusks
GENERAL FEATURES SHARED by CHORDATES
1. Eukaryote
2. Multicellular
3. Bilateral-deuterostomes
4. Heterotrophic

 Live in marine, freshwater, & terrestrial habitats;

many are capable of flight

 Free-living but very few fishes are ectoparasitic

 Bilateral symmetry:
Segmented but segmentation in incomplete in many
Three germ layers

 Well-developed coelom

 Triploblastic

 Epidermis present in all;

dermis in vertebrates;
keratinized or bony structures often present in vertebrate integument;
glands often diverse &
abundant in vertebrates

 Smooth, skeletal & cardiac muscles present;

segmented myomeres in fishes & amphibians

 Nerve cord hollow & dorsal;

distinct three-lobed brain present in vertebrates

 Respiration primarily via gills, lungs & skin;

swim bladder present in many fishes functioning in buoyancy

 Closed circulation;
chambered hearts & red blood cells in vertebrates;
distinct aortic arches in all except sea squirts

 Digestive system is complete;

muscular gut in vertebrates;
pharyngeal pouches present in early development erupting to outside as gill slits in aquatic form

 Paired glomerular kidneys & ducts in vertebrates

 Sexes usually separate;

hermaproditism in sea squirts & some fishes;
fertilization internal & external;
oviparous or viviparous;
distinct larval stage in some;
crocodilians, birds, mammals & some fishes & amphibians w/ parental care of the young

 Asexual reproduction by parthenogenesis in some fishes, amphibians & reptiles

3 Groups of Living Chordates:

 Cephalochordates
- amphioxi or lancets
 Urochordates
- tunicates or sea squids
 Vertebrates
- fishes, amphibians, reptiles & mammals
1. SUBPHYLUM CEPHALOCHORDATA
CEPHALOCHORDATES

 Lancelets originally bear the name amphioxus (Gk. Amphi, both ends + oxys, sharp)
but later the genus reverted to the older name Branchiostoma (Gk. Branchia, gills + soma, worth)

 Amphioxus is still used as a convenient CN in the approximately 29 species

 Despite the name cephalochordate, Cephalization is only moderately developed in amphioxus

1. They are built upon the characteristic chordate pattern that includes pharyngeal slits, tubular nerve cord,
notochord, & post anal tail

2. Nervous system is centered around a hollow nerve cord

*Nerve cord is not expanded anteriorly into a distinct brain
*No distinctive brain

3. Flow pattern is similar to the fishes although absence of a heart

*Closed system of circulation
*Blood is pumped forward in the ventral aorta by peristaltic
- like contraction of the vessel walls & pushes upward through the Branch arteries (aortic arches)
in pharyngeal arches to paired dorsal aortas
*Blood is distributed to the body tissue by capillaries & in veins which return it to the ventral aorta
*Blood circulates nutrients but not respiratory gases
- No erythrocytes & hemoglobin

4. Gas exchange occurs over the surface of the body

*No gills for respiration
*Lack the paired species sense organs that appear in vertebrates

5. Sense organs are simple, including an anterior, unpaired cellulose that function as photo receptors

6. Suspension feeding based on a pharyngeal filtering apparatus surrounded by an atrium

*Diet consists of microorganisms & phytoplantons
*Sexes are dioecious

7. Gametes are released in the atrium & then pass through the atriopore to the outside where fertilization
occurs
*Larvae soon hatch after the eggs are fertilized & gradually assume the shape of an adult

2. SUBPHYLUM UROCHORDATA
UROCHORDATES/TUNICATES
 Urochordate literally means “tail back string” a reference to the notochord
 All are marine organisms
 Tunicate also called “Sea Squirt”
 Free Swimming Larva
 Tunicates (Subphylum Urochordata) exhibit all four characteristics of other chordates during embryonic
development only
 No tail in adult

1. Possess a bag-like, simplified body especially in adults

2. Tunicates is inspired by characteristic flexible outer body cover the tunic secreted by the epidermis
*In a few species, the filtering apparatus is secreted by the epidermis & surrounds the animal

3.

4. Pharynx is expanded into a complex straining apparatus known as branchial basket for most
 5. Urochordates are specialist at feeding on suspended matter, especially very tiny particulate plankton
6. Dorsal nerve cord is reduced to a single ganglion

7. The tubular nerve cord extends into a tail supported internally by a turgid notochord

8. Possess pharyngeal slits

9. The notochord & the tail disappear in the adult

- Notochord is confined to the tail
- Notochord is lost during metamorphosis into sessile adult
- Notochord present only in free swimming larva
- Notochord does not extend into head

 Reproduction - sexual (hermaroditic) & asexual (budding)

 Larvum is free-swimming but not feeding
 Larval form resembles a microscopic tadpole
 Adult: sessile filter feeder

 Settled Larva:
 Tail, notochord, dorsal nerve cord disappear
 Settle after brief free-swimming larval existence
 Attaches at anterior end
 Metamorphosis begins
 Body turns 180ᴼ

A. CLASS ASCIDIACEA
 Ascidians or Sea Squirts
 Sessile as adults, but have swimming larvae
 Solitary, colonial or compound
 Nervous System of adult is restricted to a nerve ganglion & a few nerves
 Circulatory system consists of a ventral heart & two large vessels
 Heart drives the blood in one direction for a few beats, pauses, reverses & drives the blood in
the opposite direction
 Hermaphroditic
 Gametes are carried out of the excurrent siphon into the surrounding water for fertilization
 With only 2 pharyngeal gill slits & an endostyle

B. CLASS APPENDICULARIA/LARVACEA
 known as larvaceans
 builds & inhabits its hollow transparent sphere of mucus
 inside the sphere feeding filter traps & ingest tiny planktons
 small tadpole-shaped forms resembling the larval stage of the ascidians

C. CLASS THALIACEA
 known as salps (free-swimming)
 Many have luminous organs & emit a brilliant light at night
 Barrel or lemon-shaped forms surrounded by circular muscle bands
 Ocean currents transport them as planktons

3. VERTEBRATE HIGHER CLASSIFICATION

 Superclass Agnatha - w/o jaws
 Class Myxini - hag fishes
 Class Cephalaspidormorphi - lampreys
 Superclass Gnathostoma - w/ jaws
 Class Chondricthyes - sharks, rays, chimera
 Class Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
 Class Sarcopterygii - lobe-finned fishes
 Class Amphibia - frogs, salamanders
 Class Reptilia - snakes, lizards, crocodiles
 Class Aves - birds
  Class Mammalia - mammals
CRANIATES: CHORDATES w/ a HEAD
 The origin of a head opened up a completely new way of feeding for chordates; active predation
 Craniates share some same characteristics: a skull, brain, eyes & other sensory organs

Derive Characteristic of Craniates:

 Craniates have two clusters of Hox genes, lancelets & tunicates have only one cluster
 Neural crest, a recollection of cells near the dorsal margins of the closing neural tube in an embryo
 Neural crest cells give rise to some of the bones & cartilages of the skull
 In aquatic craniates, the pharyngeal clefts evolved into gill slits
 Craniates have a higher metabolism & are more muscular than tunicates & lancelets
 Craniates have a heart w/ at least two chambers, red blood cells, w/ hemoglobin & kidneys

Vertebrates are craniates that have a backbone

 During the Cambrian Period, a lineage of craniate evolved into vertebrates
 Vertebrates became more efficient at capturing food & avoiding being eaten

Origins of Bone & Teeth

 Mineralization appears to have originated w/ vertebrate mouth parts
 The vertebrate endoskeleton became fully mineralized much later

Tetrapods are Gnathostomes that have limbs

 One of the most significant events in vertebrate history
 When the fins of some lobe-fins evolved into the limbs & feet of tetrapods

 Tetrapods have some specific adaptations:

 Four limbs & feet w/ digits
 Ears for detecting airborne sounds

 AMNIOTES ARE TETRAPODS that have a TERRESTRIALLY ADAPTED EGG

 Amniotes are group of tetrapods whose living members are the reptiles, including birds & mammals
 Named for the major derived character of the clade, the amniotic egg, which contains membranes that
protect the embryo
 The extraembryonic membranes are the amnion, chorion, yolk sac & allantois

EVOLUTION OF VERTEBRATES
 Vertebrates derive their name from vertebrae
 About 52,000 species of vertebrates, including the largest organisms ever to live on Earth
 Vertebrates have great disparity, a wide range of differences with in the groups

PHARYNGEAL SLITS
Function:
 Develop into parts of ear, head & neck in tetrapods
 Suspension - feeding structures in many invertebrate chordates
 Gas exchange in vertebrates (except vertebrates w/ limbs, the tetrapods)

MUSCULAR, POSTANAL TAIL

 Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals
 Chordates have a tail posterior to the anus
 In many species, the tail is greatly reduced during embryonic development
 The tail contains skeletal elements & muscles
 It provides propelling force in many aquatic species
 Internal bony skeleton
 Backbone encasing spinal column
 Skull-encased brain
 Deuterostomes

VERTEBRATES: FISH
Characteristics:
 Bone structure
  bony & cartilaginous skeleton
 paired jaws & paired appendages (fins)
 Scales

 Body function
 Gills for gas exchange
 2 chambered heart; single loop blood circulation
 Ectotherms

 Reproduction
 External fertilization
 External development in aquatic egg

OSTEICHTHYES (bony fishes)

 Scales of body origin
 Smooth cycloid
 Spiny ctenoid
 Swim bladder
 Operculum (gill cover)
 Homocercal tail

A. SUPERCLASS AGNATHA (Jawless Fishes)

 Lack paired fins, scales & well-developed vertebrae
 Hag fish (slime eels)
 The least derived surviving craniate lineage is Class Myxini, the hag fishes
 Hag fishes have a cartilaginous skull & axial rod of cartilaginous derived from the notochord,
but lack jaws & vertebrae
 Mucus for protection
 Feed on decaying flesh
 Lampreys
 Lampreys (Petromyzontida) represent the oldest living lineage of vertebrates
 They are jawless vertebrates inhabiting various marine & freshwater habitats
 They have cartilaginous segments surrounding the notochord & arching partly over the nerve cord
 Parasitic
 Anadromous
 Marine adults, breed in freshwater

Characteristics of Hagfishes & Lampreys

1. Body slender;
No paired appendages

2. Skin lacks scales

3. Fibrous & cartilaginous skeleton;

notochord persistent;
vertebrate reduced or absent

4. …

5. Brain small but distinct;

10 pairs of cranial nerves

6. ….

7. Eyes poorly developed (hag fishes) or moderately developed (lampreys);

one pair (hag fishes) or two pairs (lampreys) of semi-circular canals

8. ….
9. Jaws absent;
Mouth w/ keratined plates (hag fishes) or teeth (lampreys);

10. Heart w/ a sinus venosus, atrium & ventricle;

Single circulation;
Accessory hearts in hag fishes

11. ….

12. No distinctive stomach

13. Excretory system of pronephric & mesonephric (hag fishes) or opistonephric (lampreys) kidneys;
kidneys drain via archinephric duct to cloaca;
ammonia is the main nitrogenous waste

14. Sexes separate;

External fertilization

15. Large yolky eggs & no larval stage in hag fishes;

Small eggs & long larval stage (ammocoete) in lampreys

16. Hag fishes w/ 5-16 pairs of gills;

lampreys w/ 7 pairs of gills

A1. CLASS MYXINI 14. Separate sexes;

1. Body slender, eel-like, rounded External fertilization

2. Naked skin containing slime glands 15. Large yolky eggs;

No larval stage
3. Fibrous & cartilaginous skeleton;
Notochord persistent 16. No paired appendages

4. . 17. 5 - 16 pairs of gills w/ variable number of gill

openings
5. Dorsal nerve cord w/ differentiated brain;
No cerebellum; 18. No dorsal fins
10 pairs of cranial nerves;
Dorsal & ventral nerve roots united A2. CLASS CEPHALASPIDOMORPHI
1. Body slender, eel-like, rounded
6. .
2. Naked skin
7. Eyes degenerate;
One pair semicircular canals 3. Fibrous & cartilaginous skeleton;
Notochord persistent
8. .
4. ….
9. Biting mouth w/ two rows of eversible teeth
5. Dorsal nerve cord w/ differentiated brain;
10. Heart w/ sinus venosus, atrium, & ventricle; Small cerebellu present;
Accessory hearts, aortic arches in gill region 10 pairs of cranial nerves;
Dorsal & ventral nerve roots separated
11. .
6. ….
12. Digestive system without stomach;
No spiral valve or cilia in intestinal tract 7. Eyes well-developed in adult;
Two pairs semicircular canals
13. Segmented mesonephric kidney;
Marine, body fluids is osmotic w/ seawater 8. ….
9. Suckerlike oral disc & tongue w/ well-developed
keratinized teeth 14. Sexes separate;
Single gonad without duct;
10. Heart w/ sinus venosus, atrium & ventricle; External fertilization;
Aortic arches in gill region Long larval stage (ammocoete)
11. ….
15. ….
12. Digestive system without stomach;
Intestine w/ spiral fold 16. One or two median fins, no paired appendages

13. Opistonephric kidney; anadromous & freshwater; 17. Seven pairs of gills each w/ external opening
Body fluids osmotically & ionically regulated

B. SUPERCLASS GNASTHOSTOMA
 are vertebrates that have jaws
 Today, they outnumber jawless vertebrates
 w/ jaws that might have evolved from skeletal supports of the pharyngeal slits
 Other characters common to gnathostomes
 Additional duplication of the Hox genes
 An enlarged forebrain associated w/ enhanced smell & vision
 In aquatic gnathostomes, the presence of a lateral line system, which is sensitive to vibrations

B1. CLASS ACTINOPTERYGII (RAY-FINNED FISHES)

1. Caudal fin heterocercal (ancestral condition) or homocercal;
paired pectoral & pelvic fins usually present, supported by bony rays;
muscle controlling fin movements w/ in trunk

2. Skin w/ garoid (ancestral condition), cycloid, or ctenoid

3. Skeleton w/ bone of endochondral origin, notochord present but reduced;

vertebrae distinct

4. …

5. Brain well-developed, but relatively small,

10 pairs of cranial nerves

6. Development of senses variable;

3 pairs of semi-circular canals

7. …

8. ….

9. Jaws present, usually w/ enameloid, polyphyodont (successive sets of teeth) teeth;

spiral valve present (ancestral condition) or absent

10. Heart w/ a sinus venosus, atrium & a ventricle;

single circulation;
nucleated red blood cells

11. Gills covered by a bony operculum;

swim bladder present usually functioning for buoyancy;
sometimes used for respiration

12. ….

13. Excretory system of opisthonephric kidneys which drain via archinephric duct or cloaca;
Main nitrogenous waste is ammonia
 14. Separate sexes; many hermaphroditic;
very few reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis;
fertilization usually external, internal in some

15. Oviparous or vivaparous;

embryo of vivaparous species nourished by placenta or yolk sac (ovoviviparity);
larval stage often greatly different from adult

B2. CLASS AMPHIBIA

Characteristics:
 Body structure
 Legs (tetrapods)
 Moist skin

 Body function
 Lungs (positive pressure) & diffusion through skin for gas exchange
 Three-chambered heart
 Double loop circulatory system: veins from heart to rest of body
 Ectothermic: maintain its temperature by absorbing heat from the environment

 Reproduction
 External fertilization
 External development in aquatic egg
 Metamorphosis (tadpole to adult)

Characteristics:
 Cold blooded
 Returns to water to breed
 Some are poisonous
 Estivation - dry & hot - summer dormancy
 Hibernation - cold - dormant state while reserves body fat

Characteristics of Modern Amphibians

1. Limbs usually four (quadrupedal) in two pairs w/ associated shoulder/ hip girdle.
*salamanders have limbs only
* caecilians no limbs; no true nails; feet often webbed;
forelimbs usually w/ four digits & hind limbs w/ five

2. Granular glands secrete defensive chemicals;

integument modified for cutaneous respiration;
pigment cells (chromatophores) common & varied;
Skin smooth, moist & glandular

3. Skeleton mostly bony w/ ranging numbers of vertebrae;

*salamanders usually have distinct head, neck, trunk, tail;
*adult frogs have a fused head & trunk & usually no tail;
*caecilians have an elongated trunk not strongly demarcated from the head & a terminal anus;

4. Skull relatively light;

less ossifies,
flattened in profile &
w/ fewer bones than other vertebrates

5. Tripartite brain including forebrain (telencephalon),

midbrain (mesencephalon) coordinating vision &
hindbrain (rhombencephalon) coordinating hearing & balance;
10 pairs of cranial nerves
 6. Ear w/ tympanic membrane & stapes for transmitting vibrations to the inner ear;

7. for vision in air, cornea rather than lens is principal refractive surface for bending light;
eyelids lachrymal glands protect & wash eyes

8. Paired internal nostrils open into a nasal cavity lined w/ olfactory epithelium at anterior part of
mouthy cavity
- incus - hammer
- malleus - anvil
- stapes - stirrup

9. Mouth usually large w/ small teeth in upper or both jaws & on the vomer/palate

10. Heart w/:

 A sinus venosus, two atria & one ventricle, conus arteriosus
 Double circulation through the heart in which pulmonary arteries & veins supply lungs
(when present)

11. Respiration by skin & in some forms by gills &/or lungs

varies among species by developmental state of the species

12. Excretory system of paired mesonephric or opistonephric kidneys;

main nitrogenous waste is urea

13. Separate sexes;

Fertilization internal in salamanders & caecilians;
Fertlization external in frogs & toads;

14. Fertilization mostly external in frogs & toads

but internal via a spermatophore in most salamanders & caecilians

15. Eggs moderately yolky (mesolecithal) w/ jelly-like membrane coverings;

aquatic larva often present w/ metamorphosis to a more terrestrial adult form;
predominantly oviparous; but some ovoviviparous or vivaparous

B3. CLASS AVES

Characteristics:
 Warm-blooded
 Horny bill
 Hard egg shell

1. Forelimbs modified as wings

Neck elongate & S-shaped

2. Epidermal covering of feathers & leg scales;

No sweat glands;
Oil glands at the base of the tail
Endothermic

3. Skull w/ one occipital condyle;

Many bones w/ air cavities;
Ribs w/ strengthening, uncinate processes;
tail short, caudal vertebrate reduced to a pygostyle;
pelvic girdle a synsacrum;
sternum usually large & keeled

4. Hollow Bones
 5. Brain well developed, w/ large optic lobes & cerebellum;
12 pairs of cranial nerves

6. Middle ear w/ a single bones

7. Eyes large w/ pectin

8. …

9. No teeth;
Each jaw covered w/ a keratinized sheath, forming a beak

10. Heart w/ two atria & two ventricles;

separate pulmonary & systemic circuits;
persistent aortic arch;
nucleated RBC

11. Lung of parabronchi w/ continuous air flow;

syrinx (vocal organ of a bird) present;
air sacs among visceral (internal) organs & skeleton

12. Gizzard (stomach) present

13. Excretory system of metonephric kidneys & ureters that open into the cloaca;
Uric acid main nitrogenous waste

14. Sex determined by chromosomes; Separate sexes;

Internal fertilization;
Copulatory organ only in paleognathids, ducks, geese & a few others;
Females w/ a functional left ovary & oviduct only

15. Fetal membranes of amnion, chorion & allantois;

Oviparous - eggs hatch outside the mother’s body
Eggs w/ much yolk & hard calcareous shells;
Extensive parental care of the young

B4. CHONDRICHTHYES (Cartilagenous Fishes)

- sharks, skates, rays, chimera
- Largest & most diverse group of chondricthyans includes the sharks, rays & skates
 Heterocercal tail
 Two dorsal fins
 Paired pectorals
 5-7 gill slits
 Ureoosmotic

Characteristics of Chondrichthyes

1. Body fusiform or dorsoventrally composed;

caudal fin is heterocercal (sharks & rays) or diphycercal (chimaeras);
paired pectoral & pelvic fins

2. Skin w/ placoid scales of dermal origin

3. Skeleton is cartilaginous;
notochord present but reduced;
vertebrae is distinct;
*cartilaginous skeleton evolved secondarily from an ancestral mineralized skeleton

4. ….
 5. Brain well-developed;
10 pairs of cranial nerves
6. ….

7. Vision & electroception are well-developed

8. Senses of smell, vibration reception (lateral line) ;

3 pairs of semicircular canals

9. Jaws present w/ polyphyodont teeth

10. Circulatory system of several pairs of aortic arches;

dorsal & ventral aorta, capillary & venous systems, hepatic portal & renal portal systems;
four-chambered heart w/ sinus venosus, atrium, ventricle and conus arteriosus

11. Respiration by means of five to seven pairs of gills leading to exposed gill slits in elasmobranchs;
four pairs of gills covered by an operculum in chimaeras

12. Stomach large (absent in chimaeras);

intestine w/ spiral valve;
liver often large & oil finned

13. Excretory system of opistonephric kidneys, which drain via archinephric duct to cloaca;
high concentration of urea & trimethylamine oxide in the blood;
rectal gland present

14. Sexes separate;

internal fertilization w/ claspers

15. Oviparous or vivaparous;

embryos of vivaparous species nourished by placenta, yolk sac (ovovivaparity) or cannibalism,
no larval stage

MOST SHARKS
 are carnivores
 have a streamlined body & are swift swimmers
 have acute senses
 have a short digestive tract; a ridge called the spiral valve increases the digestive surface area
 Shark eggs are fertilized internally but embyos can develop in different way:
 Oviparous: eggs hatch outside the mother’s body
 Ovovivaparous: the embryo develops w/ in the uterus & is nourished by the eggyolk
 Vivaparous: the embryo develops w/ in the uterus & is nourished through a yolk sac placenta
from the mothers blood

B6. CLASS MAMMALIA

Characteristics:
1. Four limbs adapted for many forms of locaomotion: terrestrial, aquatic, aerial

2. Body mostly covered w/ hair, but reduced coverage in some;

sweat, scent & sebaceous glands present;
skin underlain by a thick layer of flat keratinized cells/ squamous cells
Endothermic

3. …

4. Skull with two occipital condyles lower jaw w/ a single enlarged bone

5. Brain highly developed especially the cerebral cortex;

 12 pairs of cranial nerves

6. Fleshy external ears;

middle ears w/ three bones

7. Movable eyelids

8. Olfactory sense highly developed;

convulated turbinate bones in the nasal cavity

9. Mouth w/ diphyodont (growing baby & adult teeth) teeth;

teeth heterodont (different type) in most

10. Heart w/ two atria & two ventricles;

separate pulmonary & systemic circuits;
persistent left aortic arch;
non nucleated RBC’s

11. Lungs w/ high surface area from alveoli & ventilated by aspiration;
larynx present;
secondary palate separates air & food passages;
muscular diaphragm ventilate the lungs;

12. …

13. Excretory system of metanephros kidneys w/ ureters that usually open ito a bladder

14. Sex determined by chromosomes; Separate sexes;

internal fertilization;
copulatory organ a penis

15. Embryonic membranes of amnion, chorion & allantois;

mostly vivaparous (the embryo develops w/ in the uterus & is nourished through a yolk sac
placenta from the mothers blood) w/ embryos developing in a uterus w/ a placental
attachment

SUBCLASSES
 Protheria - Echidna & platypus
 Metatheria - Marsupial
 Eutheria - True mammals

B7. CLASS REPTILIA

Characteristics:
 Body structure
 Dry skin, scales, armour
 Body function
 Lungs for gas exchange
 Thoracic breathing: negative pressure
 Most have a three-chambered heart
 Ectotherms - maintain its temperature by absorbing heat from the environment
 Reproduction
 Internal fertilization
 External development in amniotic egg

 Nonavian Reptiles
1. Two paired limbs, usually w/ five toes;
limbs vestigial or absent in many
2. Body covering of keratinized epidermal scales & sometimes body dermal plates;
integument w/ few glands

3. Skeleton well ossified

4. Skull w/ one occipital condyle (rounded end of bone);

lower jaws of several bones usually two sacral vertebrae

5. Brain moderately well developed w/ expanded cerebrum;

12 pairs of cranial nerves

6. Middle ear w/ a single bone

7. Eyes w/ color vision in some;

*snakes & some lizard w/ highly developed chemoreception using olfactory epithelia & Jacobson’s organ;
*some snakes w/ heat sensitive pit organs

8. ….

9. Teeth polyphyodont or absent;

when present usually homodont w/ a single point;
gizzard in crocodilians

10. Heart w/ sinus venosus, two atria, & ventricle incompletely divided by three ventricles
*Crocodilian heart w/ sinus venosus, two atria & ventricles,
pulmonary & systemic circuits incompletely separated;
nucleated RBC’s

11. Respiration by skin;

in some forms by gills &/or lungs
*varies among species by developmental state of the species

12. …..

13. Excretory system of mesonephric kidneys & ureters that open into a cloaca;
uric acid is the main nitrogenous waste

14. Sex determined by chromosomes or by the environment;

internal fertilization;
Usually separate sexes
copulatory organ a penis, hemipenis, or absent;
*lizards reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis

15. Fetal membranes of amnion, chorion & allantois;

Oviparous - eggs hatch outside the mother’s body; or
vivaparous - the embryo develops w/ in the uterus &
is nourished through a yolk sac placenta from the mothers blood
eggs w/ leathery or calcareous shells;
parental care absent except in crocodilians
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 to trace the embryonic development of the vertebrate integument
 to describe the general features of the skin
 to explain the phylogeny of the integument of the fishes
 to compare and contrast the integument of the tetrapods
 to describe the specializations of the vertebrate integument

 Embryonic Origin
 General Features of the Integument
 Dermis
 Epidermis
 Phylogeny
 Integument of the fishes
 Primitive Fishes
 Chondrichthyes
 Bony Fishes
 Integument of Tetrapods
 Amphibians
 Reptiles
 Birds
 Mammals
 Specialization of the Integument
 Nails, Claws, Hooves
 Horns and Antlers
 Baleen
 Scales
 Dermal Armor
 Mucus
 Color

I. EMBRYONIC ORIGIN
- dermis arises from the dermatome
- segmented epimeres (somites) divide to give rise to the sclerotome medially & the dermatome laterally
- inner cells of the dermyotome becomes arranged into the myotome
- Epidermis derived from the ectoderm
- gives rise to glands
- Dermis derived from mesoderm
a) GENERAL FEATURES OF THE INTEGUMENT
i. DERMIS
- dermis of many vertebrates produces plates of bone directly through intramembranous ossification
- known as dermal bones
- prominent in the ostracoderm fishes
- collagen fibers is the most conspicuous component
- plies
- collagen fibers which are woven into distinct layers
- found in amphioxus
- in fishes & aquatic vertebrates, including cetaceans & aquatic squamates
- collagen fibers of the dermis are usually arranged in orderly plies that form a recognizable
stratum compactum
- in terrestrial vertebrates
- stratum compactum is less obvious because locomotion on land depends more on the limbs &
less on the trunk
- any wrinkling of the skin is less disruptive to a terrestrial vertebrate moving through air
ii. EPIDERMIS
- epidermis of many vertebrates produces mucus to moisten the surface of the skin
 - in fishes, mucus seems to afford some protection from bacterial infection & helps ensure the
laminar flow of water across the body surface
- in amphibians, mucus probably serves similar functions & additionally keeps the skin from drying
during the animal’s sojourns on land
 Keratinization & formation of a stratum corneum occur where friction or direct mechanical abrasion insult the
epithelium
 The stratum corneum may be differentiated into hair, hooves, horn sheathes, or other specialized cornified
structures
 Keratinizing system - elaborate interaction of epidermis & dermis that produces the orderly transformation
 Scales form within the integument of many aquatic & terrestrial vertebrates
 Scales are basically folds in the integument
 If dermal contributions predominate the form of ossified dermal bone is termed a dermal scale
 An epidermal fold, especially in the form of a thickened keratinzed laver produces an epidermal scale

II. PHYLOGENY OF THE FISH INTEGUMENT

 The skin of most living fishes is non-keratinized & covered instead by mucus
 The “teeth” lining the oral disk of lampreys, the jaw coverings of some herbivorous minnows, & the friction
surface on the belly skin of some semi-terrestrial fish are all keratinized derivatives
 In most living fishes, the epidermis is alive & active on the body surface, & there is no prominent keratinized
cells
 Two types of cells occur within the epidermis of fishes
 Epidermal cells
 Specialized unicellular glands
 Surface cells are often patterned w/ tiny microridges that perhaps hold the surface layer of mucus
 Mucous cuticle
 Mucous coat that resists penetration of the integument by infectious bacteria
 Probably contributes to laminar flow of water across the surface
 Makes the fish slippery to predators
 Often includes chemicals that are repugnant, alarming, or toxic to enemies
 Unicellular glands are single, specialized, & interspersed among the epidermal cell population
 Club cell is an elongate, sometimes binucleate, unicellular gland
 Granular cell is a diverse cell found in the skin of lampreys & other fishes
 Goblet cell is absent in lamprey skin but is usually found in other bony & cartilaginous fishes
 Sacciform cell that holds a large, membrane-bound secretory product that seems to function as a repellent
or toxin against enemies
 Collagen within the stratum compactum is regularly organized into plies that spiral around the body of the
fish, allowing the skin to bend without wrinkling
 In some fishes, the dermis has elastic properties
 The dermis often gives rise to dermal bone, & the dermal bone gives rise to dermal scales
 The surface of fish scales is sometimes coated with a hard, acellular enamel of epidermal origin & a deeper
dentin layer of dermal origin
 Enamel was thought to give way phylogenetically to “ganoin” & dentin to “cosmine”

a) PRIMITIVE FISHES
 In ostracoderms & placoderms, the integument produced prominent bony plates of dermal armor that encased
their bodies in an exoskeleton
 Dermal bones of the cranial region form the head shields; but more posteriorly along the body, the dermal
bones tended to be broken up into smaller pieces, the dermal scales
 Surface of these scales was often ornamented w/ tiny, mushroom-shaped tubercles
 The dermal bone supporting these tubercles was lamellar, organized in a layered pattern
 Skin of living hagfishes & lampreys lack dermal bones
 Skin surface is smooth & without scales
 Interpersed among them are unicellular glands, namely, the large granular cells & elongate club cells
 Skin of hagfishes includes thread cells that discharge thick cords of mucus to the skin surface when the fish is
irritated
 Within the dermis, hagfishes also possess multicellular slime glands that release their products via ducts to the
surface
b) CHONDRICHTHYES
 Dermal bone is absent, but surface dentricles, known as placoid scales, persist
 These scales give the rough feel to the surface of the skin
 Recent evidence suggests that these tiny placoid scales reduce friction drag as the fish swims forward
 Placoid scale itself develops in the dermis but projects through the epidermis to reach the surface
 A cap of enamel forms the tip, dentin lies beneath, & a pulp cavity resides within
 Chromatophores occur in the lower part of the epidermis & upper regions of the dermis

Types of scales of fishes

1. Placoid Scales
- consists of basal plate embedded in the dermis with caudally directed spine projecting through the epidermis
- plate & spine are compose of dentin
- each spine is also covered w/ enamel
2.
c) BONY FISHES
 Dermis of bony fishes is subdivided into a superficial layer of loose connective tissue & a deeper layer of
dense fibrous connective tissue
 Chromatophores are found within the dermis
 The scale most important structural product of the dermis
 Dermal scales do not actually pierce the epidermis, but they are so close to the surface they give the
impression that the skin is hard
 Several types of scales are recognized among bony fishes:
 Cosmoid Scales
 Cycloid Scales
 Ganoid Scales
 Teleost Scales
III. INTEGUMENT OF TETRAPODS
a) AMPHIBIANS
 Most primitive tetrapods had scales like the fishes from which they arose
 Among living amphibians, dermal scales are present only as vestiges in some species of tropical
caecilians (Apoda)
 Frogs & salamanders lack all traces of dermal scales
 Skin of the aquatic larvae of salamanders includes”
 A dermis of fibrous connective tissue, consisting of superficial loose tissue over a compact deep layer
 Cellular components of the epidermis:
 Surface apical cells
 Deep basal cells
 Leydig cells
 Scattered through out the epidermis
 Thought to secrete substances that resist entry of bacteria or viruses
 In terrestrial adults
 Dermis is similarly composed of fibrous connective tissue
 Presence of a thin stratum corneum
 Protection from mechanical abrasion
 Retards loss of moisture from the body without unduly shutting off cutaneous gas exchange
 Distinct regions of the epidermis
 Strata basale, spinosum, granulosum, & corneum
 Breeding season, nuptial pads may form on digits or limbs of male salamanders or frogs
*Nuptial pads - raised calluses of cornified epidermis that help the male hold the female during mating
 Two types of multicellular glands in the skin of frogs & salamanders
 Mucous glands
 Tend to be smaller,
 Each being made up of a little cluster of cells that release their product into a common duct
 Poison glands (Granular glands)
 Tend to be larger,
 Often contain stored secretions within the lumen of each gland
b) REPTILES
 Epidermis is generally delineated into three regions: stratum basale, stratum granulosum, & stratum
corneum
 Stratum intermedium, a temporary layer between old & new skin which is invaded by white blood cells
 The dermis of reptilian skin composed of fibrous connective tissue
 Reflects their greater commitment to a terrestrial existence
 Keratinization is much more extensive
 Skin glands are fewer than in amphibians
 Many lizards possess rows of femoral glands along the underside of the hindlimb in the thigh region
 Crocodiles & some turtles have scent glands
 In alligators, one pair of scent glands opens into the cloaca, another pair opens on the margins
 In some turtles, scent glands can produce quite pungent odors, especially when the animal is
alarmed by handling
 Most integumental glands of reptiles are thought to:
 To play a role in reproductive behaviour
 To discourage predators, but the glands & their social roles are not well understood
 Scales are present, but these are fundamentally different from the dermal scales of fishes, which are built
around bone of dermal origin
*reptilian scale - a fold in the surface epidermis, hence, an epidermal scale
*hinge - junction between two adjacent scales
*scute - large platelike epidermal scale
 Epidermal scales may be modified into crests, spines or hornlike processes
 Gastralia
 A collection of bones in the abdominal are are found in reptiles
 Not associated with dermal bones
 Osteoderms
 Dermal bones that support the epidermis
 Found in crocodilians, some lizards and some extinct reptiles
c) BIRDS
 Epidermis
 Comprises of the stratum basale & the stratum corneum
 Between them is the traditional layer of cells transformed into the keratinized surface of the corneum
 Principally of the epidermis & the keratinizing system
 Laid out along distinctive tracts, termed pterylae, on the surface of the body
 Dermis
 Near the feather follicles, is richly supplied with blood vessels, sensory nerve endings, & smooth
muscles
 Dermis in the breast of some birds becomes increasingly vascularized during the brooding season
forming a brood patch
- provides warmth to the incubated eggs
 Feathers
 The feathers of birds have been called nothing more than elaborate reptilian scales
 The feather is an example of yet another more fundamental homology of the underlying interaction of
the epidermal-dermal layers producing such a skin specialization
 Feathers are nonvascular & non-nervous products of the skin
 Presence of epidermal scales along the legs & feet of birds testifies to their dept to reptiles
 Modern bird feather is built from a tubular central shaft, the rachis, which carries on either side a vane
a series of barbs w/ interlocking connections termed barbules (hooklets).
 The rachis & attached vanes constitue the spathe
 The rachis continues proximally as the barbless calamus, or quill, which anchors the feather to the
body & often is moved by attached dermal muscles
 Flight feathers are long & the vanes asymmetrical about the stiffening rachis;
 Flight feathers on the wings are remiges (s. remix) & those on the tail are rectrices (s. retrix)
 Contour feathers, or pennaceous feathers
 cover the body and usually have symmetrical vanes about a rachis.
 Down feathers, or plumulaceous feathers
 lack a distinctive rachis and non-interlocking barbs extend out from the calamus as a fluffy
feather important in insulation

 Functions of the Feathers:

• Contour feathers aerodynamically shape the surface of the bird.
• Down feathers lie close to the skin as thermal insulation.
• Filoplumes are often specialized for display, and flight feathers constitute the major
aerodynamic surfaces.
• Flight feathers of the wings are a type of contour feather.
- characterized by a long rachis and prominent vanes
 - primary function is locomotion
- for insulation
• Most feathers receive sensory stimuli and carry colors for display or courtship.
• Chromatophores in the epidermis provide color to the feathers
• Light refraction on the feather barbs and barbules creates some of the iridescent colors that
feathers display

GLANDS
o uropygial gland
located at the base of the tail
secretes a lipid and protein product that birds collect on the sides of their beak and then smear
on their feathers
o salt gland
located on the head of some birds
well developed in marine birds
excrete excess salt obtained marine foods and seawater
d) MAMMALS
 Epidermis
 sublayers/strata:
• Stratum corneum
• stratum lucidum
• stratum granulosum
• stratum spinosum
• stratum basale/germinativum
 Dermis
 sublayers:
 papillary layer
 reticular layer
 Function of the dermis
 produces dermal bones
 Functions of the dermal bone
 contribute to the skull and pectoral girdle
 rarely form dermal scales in the skin
*Glyptodon, a fossil mammal whose epidermis was underlaid by dermal bone
*living armadillo:
-- represent secondary developments of dermal bone in the mammalian integument.
Hair
• slender, keratinous filaments
Two general parts:
– hair shaft
– hair follicle
Fur or Pelage
Two general parts:
– guard hairs- guard hairs, the larger, coarse hairs, are the most apparent on the outer surface
of the fur
– underfur- underfur is stationed beneath the guard hairs and is usually much finer and shorter.

• Both function largely as insulators.

• In most marine mammals
– the underfur is reduced or lost entirely
– only a few guard hairs are evident

IV. SPECIALIZATION OF THE INTEGUMENT

a) NAILS, CLAWS, HOOVES
 Nails are plates of tightly compacted, cornified epithelial cells on the surface of fingers and toes
 nail matrix forms the new nail
 Functions of the Nails:
 Protect the tips of digits from inadvertent mechanical injury
 Stabilize the skin at the tips of the fingers and toes, so that on the opposite side the skin can
establish a secure friction grip on objects grasped
 for aesthetic reason

 other vertebrates
– keratinizing system produces the claws and the hooves
• Claws, or talons
– curved, laterally compressed keratinized projections from the tips of digits
– seen in some amphibians and in most birds, reptiles, and mammals.
• Hooves
– enlarged keratinized plates on the tips of the ungulate digits
– The horse hoof consists of the hoof wall, sole and the frog
• hoof wall
– U-shaped and open at the heel
– consists of a keratinized stratum externa ( tectorium), a thin, shiny surface layer;
– stratum medium, thicker and also keratinized and permeated with coiled, tubular channels
– inner stratum internum ( lamellatum), a highly and regularly laminated, infolded layer that
interdigitates with the dermis ( corium) beneath
– The hoof wall grows out from its base, the germinal region (matrix cells), not from the
underlying dermis, at about 6 mm per month, taking 9 to 12 months overall for the toe to
renew.
Parts of the horse hoof:
• sole
– fills the ground surface space between the wall and triangular frog
– consists of epidermis and thickened dermis
• digital cushion, or pad
– a fatty derivative of the hypodermis located deep to the sole

bottom of the hoof (ground surface) includes:

 Frog
 wedge-shaped, a mostly keratinized derivative of the integument that fills the opening in the
heel of the hoof wall
 “Horned” lizards have processes extending from behind the head that look like horns but are
specialized, pointed epidermal
scales.
 Mammals, dinosaurs, and extinct turtles are the only vertebrates with true horns or antlers.

 MODIFICATIONS:
o Presence or absence of bone in the dermis
o Glands in aquatic forms
o Specializations in epidermis of land dwellers
o protection
o respiration
o temperature control
o nourishment of the young
o locomotion and reproductive structures

Fish skin
• No stratum corneum
• Many unicellular glands
– Like goblet cells that secrete mucus
• Photophores
Dermal Scales
• Dermal bone plates
became the skull
• Ancient armor
– Rhomboid scales
• Modern fish
– Cycloid and ctenoid scales
– Placoid and ganoid scales

Amphibian skin
• Loses dermal scales
– Exception: caecilian
• Epidermal multicellular glands are abundant
• Stratum corneum
INTEGUMENTARY GLAND TYPE
• Simple tubular
– Plethodontid mental glands associated with courtship glands
• Simple coiled tubular
– Sweat glands
• Simple branched tubular
– Female plethodontid- spermatotheca
• Simple alveolar (acinar)
– Mucous glands
• Compound tubular
– Mammary glands of monotremes
• Compound branched alveolar
– Mammary glands of placentals
– Courtship glands

Plethodontid (lungless salamander) Mating

• Internal fertilization
• Male: mental glands on chin, cloacal glands to form spermatophore, and caudal courtship glands
• Female: spermatheca for sperm storage
• Glands secrete pheromones

MODES OF SECRETION:
• Merocrine
– Cell body not injured
– Release particles by exocytosis
– Most sweat glands in mammals

• Holocrine
– Cell body discharged with contents
– Whole cell dies
– Sebaceous glands
• Apocrine
– Cellular products gather on surface then pinched off
– Apical portion pinched off
– Axillary sweat glands

Reptile skin
• Few glands (dry skin)
• Thick stratum corneum with modifications
• Epidermal scales
• Some reptiles have remnants of dermal armor (osteoderms)
• Osteoderms beneath some epidermal scales
• Gastralia- large osteoderms
 • Alligator and skinks
• True dermal bones
• Turtles
• Turtles have epidermal scutes- large epidermal scales
• Snakes have scutes on their belly
• Spikes and spines are epidermal
•

Turtles
• Shell of dermal bone
• Carapace (shell) – dorsal
• Plastron- ventral
– Mesoplastron additional bone on primitive, extinct turtles
• Nuchal- diagnostic bone

Reptile Integumentary Glands

• Femoral pores
– Ventrally located with waxy excretion
• Many lizards, turtles and snakes have scent or cloacal glands
– Snakes use forked tongue to pick up scent (Jacobson’s organ)

Musk Glands
• Scent glands
• Along carapace in turtles
• Under lower jaw in crocodiles
• Musk deer
– Take secretions to make perfume

Skin of Birds
• Few epidermal scales
– Legs and beak
• Dermal scales are absent
• Claws- diversified
• Few glands
– Uropygial gland- preening gland
• Dermal scales absent

Feathers
• Modification of reptilian scales
• 3 types
– Contour- flight feather
• provides wing shape
– Down- beneath contour feather
– Filoplume- long shaft
• lost its vane

Skin of mammals
• Modifications of stratum corneum
– Hair, claws, nails, hooves
• Hair
– Like filoplume feather
– lack detail
• Vibrissae
– Specialized hairs
– Tactile in function
Cornified Structures
• Baleen Plate
– Toothless whale’s horny sheets of oral ectoderm
– Not a bone
– Used for filter feeding
• Tori pads
– Epidermal pads

b) HORNS & ANTLERS

HORNS
– In Bovine family
– Outgrowth of dermal core
– Unbranched
– Covered by epidermal horny, keratinized sheath
– Permanent

ANTLERS
• Antlers and horns of giraffe and deer
– Dermal bone of antler attaches to skull bone
– Shed off annually
– Outside layer is highly vascularized

DERMAL PIGMENTS
• Chromatophores
– contain pigment granules
– Melanophores (brown)
• Melanin granules
– Lipophores (yellow and red)
– Iridophores or guanophores (iridescent)
• Contain reflective guanine crystals

HORNS
– In Bovine family
– Outgrowth of dermal core
– Unbranched
– Covered by epidermal horny, keratinized sheath
– Permanent

ANTLERS
• Antlers and horns of giraffe and deer
– Dermal bone of antler attaches to skull bone
– Shed off annually
– Outside layer is highly vascularized

DERMAL PIGMENTS
• Chromatophores
– contain pigment granules
– Melanophores (brown)
• Melanin granules
– Lipophores (yellow and red)
– Iridophores or guanophores (iridescent)
• Contain reflective guanine crystals

c) BALEEN
d) SCALES
e) DERMAL ARMOR
f) MUCUS
g) COLOR