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Principles and Performance of Solar Energy Thermal Systems: A Web Course by

V.V.Satyamurty

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MODULE 10 Lecture No: 10

Optical Properties
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In this Module 10, Lecture No. 10 deals with

10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 EFFECTIVE TRANSMITTANCE-ABSORPTANCE PRODUCT- SHORT TERM
10.3 CHOICE OF MATERIALS
10.4 SELECTIVE SURFACES
10.5 SUMMARY

Lecture 10

10.1 INTRODUCTION

For efficient design of solar collectors, the properties of the materials or surfaces that come into
picture are, transmittance, absorptance and reflectivity. In flat plate collectors, the transparent cover whose
primary job is to reduce loss from the absorber by radiation and convection is also called upon not to be a
hindrance for transmitting the solar energy. Thus while the glass cover reduces the top losses from a
collector, it should be able to transmit solar radiation and the criterion is that it should have a high
transmittance in the wavelength of solar radiation spectrum. This implies that the material should have a
low absorptance and low reflectivity in the solar radiation spectrum

The coating on the absorber plate of a flat plate collector be such that, ideally it absorbs a high
fraction of solar radiation (Consequently, it should be opaque and non – reflecting) and emits less.
However, it is in order to recall Kirchoff’s law that emissivity and absorptivity at a given wave length λ are
equal; i.e.,      . Thus, it appears, that a good absorber is also a good emitter, but it is to be remembered

that, ‘at a given wave length’. Fortunately, the solar radiation spectrum is effectively at λ < 4 μm, where as
emitted radiation by the absorber usually much higher than 4 μm, Wien’s law ( maxT  2897.8  m K ) may

be applied for temperatures, typically ranging from 320 K to 400 K which yields the wave length
corresponding to maximum intensity of radiation. Thus, it is possible to develop a surface which has a
absorptivity in the solar spectrum  solar and low emissivity in the infrared (IR) range of radiation,  IR . These

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surfaces are referred to as selective surfaces. However, commonly employed absorbers are coated with a
high absorptivity coating, which also has a high emissivity in the infrared radiation range of radiation also.

Reflecting (as well as refractivity) property comes in to picture in the case of concentrating
collectors, since they are called upon to reflect the solar radiation collected through a large aperture area on
to a smaller receiver area. Thus concentrators working on the reflecting principle should have a high
reflecting coating.

The optical properties considered to be influencing the performance of solar collectors, in general
depend on wave length, of the radiation and the angle at which the radiation strikes the surface. This angle
in the solar energy technology terminology is nothing but the angle of incidence, Eq. (3.6) or Eqs. {(3.7) to
(3.10)}

n̂



p2
p1

 Path length p2 > Path length p 1. n is the outer normal

Fig. 10.1 Dependence of transmissivity (or transmission) on path length

It is easy to understand that transmissivity depends on the angle of incidence (see, Fig. 10.1) since
the path length that the ray has to traverse varies with the angle of incidence. It can be seen from Fig. 10.1,
that,  2  1 and the path length p2  p1 . The path length is minimum for normal incidence, and the
transmissivity will be maximum when the ray strikes the surface normally, i.e., the angle of incidence,
  0 . Thus, when maximization of solar energy incident and transmitted on to the solar energy devices is
desired, attempts should be made to minimize the angle of incidence.

It is interesting to identify, that a solar collector can be designed to be more efficient by reducing
the overall loss coefficient, which can be achieved by reducing back losses through conduction and top
losses by convection and radiation. Radiation loss reduction can be achieved by having an absorber surface
with low emissivity in the infra red wave length range, usually reckoning above the maximum (effective)
wave length of solar radiation spectrum, recall Fig. 2.3. Similarly, by improving the heat transfer
characteristics from the absorber to the working fluid, the temperature difference needed for the required

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heat transfer is reduced and hence, the collector operates at a lower temperature, "cooler". By improving
the transmittance-absorptance product of the collector cover system, the absorbed solar radiation increases
and hence a possibility of higher useful energy gain. Interesting possibilities for Research and Development
opportunities emerge, by realizing that the target needs to be chosen depending on the climate. Satyamurty
and Beckman [12] studied the influence of collector parameters on long term performance and economic
viability. The conclusions drawn are, 1) The incremental cost that can be allowed depends on the location,
due to climate dependence, 2) It is desirable to incur extra cost on improving the optical efficiency foe
applications in clear climates and on reducing the over all loss coefficient for cold ( low ambient
temperature and high wind velocitiees ) locations. Satyamurty and Beckman [12] also developed a simple
annual model for predicting the yearly performance of solar space heating systems and systems for
industrial process heating. The details will be dealt with in a subsequent Module.

10.2 EFFECTIVE TRANSMITTANCE ABSORPTANCE PRODUCT – SHORT TERM

Owing to multiple reflections and absorption between the glass cover(s) and the absorber of a flat plate
collector, the effective transmittance absorptance product, the value of   distinct is slightly more than
the simple    product. Variation of   with angle of incidence is shown in Fig. 10.2. The value of
  at any given angle of incidence has been normalized with respect to its value at normal incidence.
Thus,    n will be equal to unity at zero angle of incidence.

The curves shown in Fig. 10.2 refer to collectors with a single glass cover and two glass covers.
From the material properties, transmittance with the angle of incidence can be calculated. Similarly, the
absorptivity at different angles can be measured. The curves shown in Fig. 10.2 can be described by,

   n  1  b0 1 cos    1 For 0    60 o . (10.1)

For   60 o , a cosinusoidal variation as given in Visalakshi [2] consistent with Eq. (10.1) at   60 o and
that gives    n  0 is described by,

   n  1  b0 2 cos  (10.2)

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In Eqs.(10.1) and (10.2), b0 is the incidence angle modifier coefficient and has a value of -0.1 for single
cover flat plate collectors and -0.17 for double glass cover collectors. Eqs.(10.1) and (10.2), however are
not applicable for absorbers with selective surfaces.

1
1 Glass cover
( )
( ) n
2 Glass covers

0 /2
Angle of Incidence, 
Fig. 10.2 Typical variation of    n with the angle of incidence

Incident solar ray

1 d
1   d
 1
1 d
 1d 1  d

Fig. 10.3 Transmission, absorption process in a flat plate collector

Refer to Fig. 10.3. In analyzing flat plate collectors, the effective transmittance absorptance
product needs to be calculated , is the transmittance of the cover system at the desired angle of incidence
and  is the angular absorptance of the absorber plate. Of the incident energy,  is absorbed by the
absorber plate and 1    is reflected back to the cover system. The reflection from the absorber plate is
assumed to be diffuse so that the fraction 1    that strikes the cover plate is diffuse and 1    d is
reflected back to the absorber plate. The multiple reflection of diffuse radiation continues so that the energy
ultimately absorbed is,

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

     1    d n  (10.3)
n 0 1  1    d

From knowledge of  and  and their angular dependence, and the diffuse reflectivity of the cover
system, the effective transmittance absorptance product can be calculated.

A simple thumb rule is,

( )  1.02 (10.4)

Hourly Absorbed Radiation

Solar radiation absorbed by the absorber of a flat plate collector, S, may be defined as the product of the
solar radiation on the collector surface and the effective transmittance absorptance product. Thus, S can be
conceived to consist of absorbed direct (also referred to as ‘beam’ in older terminology) radiation, absorbed
sky diffuse and ground reflected radiation components. Thus, S is expressed as,

S  I T    Rb I b  b   d I d

1  cos       I 1  cos   (10.5)
g
2 2

In Eq.(10.5), ( ) b , ( ) d and ( ) g are the effective transmittance-absorptance products for direct

radiation, sky diffuse radiation and ground reflected radiation. It is straight forward to calculate , ( ) b ,
since the angle of incidence for direct radiation for the hour can be calculated using Eq. (3.6) or Eqs.{(3.7)
to (3.10)} at the hour angle corresponding to the midpoint of the hour. Subsequently, Eq.(10.1) or (10.2)
can be used to obtain ( ) b , corresponding to the angle of incidence. However, the effective angles of
incidence for the sky diffuse and ground reflected components of radiation are not known. Brandemeuhl
and Beckman [13] correlated the effective average angles of incidence for ground reflected radiation ( g ),
and sky diffuse radiation (d ), as,

 g  90  0.5788   0.002693  2 (10.6)

 d  59.68  0.1388  0.001497 2 (10.7)

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It may be noted that the effective angles of incidence for ground reflected radiation and sky diffuse
radiation depend on the slope  , of the collector only and does not change with time of the day.

10.3 CHOICE OF MATERIALS

It has been pointed out that the Research and Development targets need to be set depending on the climate
(location), and application. Particularly, the application plays an important role, since, the long term
performance in terms of conventional energy saving depends on the fraction of the total load met and, the
distribution of the load. To illustrate the importance of load distribution, consider a yearly load of 12 GJ. In
one application, the load is uniform, at 1 GJ a month. In the second system, (say, space heating) 10 GJ will
have to be met in the months of November, December, January and February, where as the rest 2 GJ is
distributed over the remaining 8 months. In the third system, (say, an air conditioning system, maximum (
80% of the yearly load ) occurs during, April, May, June and July. It can be expected that the fraction of the
yearly load met by the first system will be maximum, followed by the third system and the second system.

Thus, depending on the climate and the application, attention needs to be focused on developing
better transmitting covers or absorbers or in general heat transfer improvements including loss reduction.

The focus of Research and Development efforts need to be directed towards,

1) UV Stable plastics
2) Cheaper techniques for making selective absorbers
3) Better forming ( roll bonding ) techniques for absorber manufacture
4) Toughened glass
5) Light weight, high performance, insulation
6) Effective sealants, including providing ease in assembly
7) Conducting non-metals, which may replace dependence on Copper or Aluminum solving the problem of
corrosion concurrently

10.5 SUMMARY

 Methods to evaluate optical properties relevant for solar collectors have been described.
 Convenient expressions valid in the range 0o ≤θ ≤ 90o to describe    n have been given.

 The correlations for the effective angles of incidence for sky diffuse radiation and ground reflected
radiation, as developed by Brandemeuhl and Beckman [13] as given, can be used to calculate
  g  n and  d  n .

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 Realizing that the effectiveness of a solar energy system depends on the location and the
application, strategies for R&D efforts have been highlighted.
 Certain areas for focused research have been pointed out

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