AC circuit analysis I

√
Consider i = 2R I cos ωt

Resistance √ √
vR = Ri = 2R I cos ωt = 2VR cos ωt (1)
or
VR ∠0o
= R∠0o (2)
I ∠0o
Inductance
d i √ √
vL = L = 2ωLI (− sin ωt) = 2ωLI cos(ωt + 90o )
dt
(3)
VL ∠90o ωL I ∠90o o
= = jωL = ωL∠90 (4)
I ∠0o I ∠0o

1 / 34
AC circuit analysis II

Capacitance

d v √
iC = C = 2ωC V (− sin ωt) (5)
√ dt
= 2ωC V cos(ωt + 90o ) (6)

V ∠0o V ∠0o 1 j
o
= = ∠−90o = − (7)
IC ∠90 ωC V ∠90o ωC ωC

Resistance:Voltage across it is in phase with current

Inductance:Voltage across it leads the current through it by 90o
Capacitance:Voltage across it lags the current through it by 90o

2 / 34
Example

Voltage p Solution:
v = 120 (2) cos(1000t + 90o ) V V = 120∠90o V
is applied to the circuit where
R = 15Ω, C = 83.3µF , and IR = R1 V = 1
15 120∠90
o
= 8∠90o
L = 30mH. Find i(t) = 0 + j8 A

IC = jωC V
= (0.0833∠90o )(120∠90o )
= 10∠180o = −10 + j0 A
o
1
IL = jωL V = 120∠90
30∠90o
o
= 4∠0 = 4 + j0 A
P
By Kirchhoff’s current law, I =0
or
I = IR +IC +IL = (0−10+4)+j(8+0+0)
= −6 + j8 = 10∠127o A
p
i(t) = 10 (2) cos(1000t + 127o ) A

3 / 34
AC Impedance

Ohms law of sinusoidal circuit

V = ZI (8)

where Z is complex
V
Z= = Z∠φZ = R + j X (9)
I
where√
Z = R 2 + X 2 , φZ = arctan XR

4 / 34
Example
p
Voltage v = 12 (2) cos 5000t V Solution:
is applied to the circuit. Find the ZR = R = 20 = 20 + j0 = 20∠0o Ω
individual and combined
impedances and the current i(t) ZL = jωL = j5000 × 0.003 = j15Ω
= 15∠90o Ω
1 −j
ZC = −j ωC = 5000×10−5

= −j20 = 20∠ − 90o Ω

ZRL = ZR + ZL = 20 + j15 = 25∠37o Ω

o o
Figure: Circuit Elements Zeq = ZZRLRL+Z
.ZC
C
= 25∠37 .20∠−90
20+j15−j20
o
= 500∠−53
20−j5 = 24.3∠ − 39o
= 18.9 − j15.3Ω
o
V 12∠0 o
I =Z = 24.3∠−39o = 0.49∠39 A
p o
i(t) = 0.49 (2) cos(5000t + 39 ) A

Figure: Impedances
5 / 34
AC Admittance

I 1
Y = = Siemens (10)
V Z
1
YR = = G ∠0o (11)
R∠0o
1 1
YL = = ∠ − 90o (12)
jωL ωL
YC = jωC = ωC ∠90o (13)

6 / 34
Example
Solving previous problem by using YRL = Z1RL = 25∠37
1
o
o
admittances = 0.04∠ − 37 = 0.032 − j0.024 S

Yeq = YC + YRL
= 0 + j0.05 + 0.032 − j0.024
= 0.041∠39o S

IC = YC V
= 0.05∠90o × 12∠0o = 0.6∠90o A

IRL = YRL V
= 0.04∠ − 37o × 12∠0o
= 0.48∠ − 37o A
Figure: Phasor diagram of currents
calculated from admittances I = IC + IYL
= 0.6 + j0.6 + 0.384 − j0.288
= 0.49∠39o A
Solution: Also, I = Yeq V
YC = Z1C = 20∠−90
1
o = = 0.041∠39o × 12∠0o = 0.49∠39o A
o
0.05∠90 = 0 + j0.05 S
7 / 34
General Circuit Analysis

1 Transform time functions to phasors and convert element values to

impedance/ admittances
2 Combine impedance/admittance to simplify circuit
3 Determine the desired response in phasor form
4 Draw phasor diagram to check calculations and display result
5 Transform phasor result to time function

8 / 34
 Example
LT = 3mH. For desired voltage
v = 28.3 cos(5000t + 45o )V,
determine the current i(t) and
branch currents
Solution:
ZT = jωLT = j5000 × 3 × 10−3 = j15Ω
YC = jωC = j5000 × 10−5 = j0.05 S
ZC = Y1C = −j20Ω
ZL = jωL = j5000 × 4 × 10−3√ = j20Ω
1
YRL = Z1RL = 20+j20 = 0.025 2∠ − 45o
= 0.025 − j0.025 S
Y = YCp + YRL = j0.05 + (0.025 − j0.025)
= 0.025 (2)∠45o p S
I = Y V = (0.025 (2)∠45o )(20∠45o )
= 0.7∠90o√A
i(t) = 0.7 2 cos(5000t + 90o ) A
Phasor diagram is drawn on basis of following
calculated values
IC = YC V = (0.05∠90o )(20∠45o ) = 1∠135o
IRL = YRL V = (0.035∠ − 45o )(20∠45o )
= 0.7∠0o A
VR = R IRL = (20∠0o )(0.7∠0o ) = 14∠0o V
VL = ZL IRL = (20∠90o )(0.7∠0o ) = 14∠90o V
9 / 34
Natural Response
Natural Response: Behavior due to internal energy storage
First order system
Capacitance with initial voltage Solving,
V0 (or initial charge Q0 = C V0 ) is Let i = A e st , then ddti = sA e st
suddenly shorted across a resistance This implies
R at time t = 0 R s A e st + C1 A e st = 0
or
(Rs + C1 )A e st = 0
A=0 is a trivial solution, the other being
Rs + C1 = 0
1
i.e. s = − RC and hence
(1/RC )t
i(t) = A e
To evaluate A: Apply initial condition to
At
P t > 0 , using KVL original eqn.
v = 0 = vC − vR V0 − 0 − R i(0+ ) = 0
Rt
= V0 − C1 0 i dt − R i or i(0+ ) = V0 /R
Differentiating to eliminate the = A e s(0) = A
integral This implies,
R ddti + C1 i = 0 i = VR0 e −t/RC
10 / 34
 Example
At time t = 0,short circuit the
coil of 2H inductance and 10Ω
resistance. If the initial current in
the coil, Io , is 20 A, predict the
current i after 0.2 s has elapsed.
Solution:
1.
P By Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
v = 0 = −vL − vR = −L ddti − Ri
2. The homogenous equation is
L ddti + R i = 0
3. Assuming an exponential solution,we write
i = A e st
where s and A are to be determined.
4. Substituting into the homogenous equation,
LsA e st + RA e st = (sL + R)A e st = 0
If sL + R = 0, s = − RL and i = A e −(R/L)t
5. At t = 0+
i = Io = A e 0 = A or A = Io = 20
Hence the solution is
i = Io e −(R/L)t = 20 e −(10/2)t = 20 e −5t A
After 0.2 s the current is
i = 20 e −5×0.2 = 20 × 0.368 = 7.36 A
The current decreases continuously, but never
becomes zero
11 / 34
Steps to determine natural response

1 Write the governing eqn. using Kirchoff’s laws

2 Reduce this to homogeneous differential eqn.
3 Assume an exponential solution with undetermined constants
4 Determine the exponents from the homogenous eqn.
5 Evaluate the coeff. from the given conditions

12 / 34
Natural Response
Second order system
Assume initial voltage V0 exists on Assuming exponential solution, i = A e st
capacitance C s 2 L A e st + s R A e st + C1 A e st = 0
or (s 2 L + R s + C1 )A e st = 0
Satisfied when,s 2 L + R s + C1 = 0
Roots are q
R R 2 1
{s1 , s2 } = − 2L ± ( 2L ) − LC
General soln:
i = A1 e s1 t + A1 e s2
A1 and A2 are determined by initial
condition
s1 and s2 are determined by circuit
constants
Using KVL,
P Soln to characteristic eqn leads to three
v =0
Rt cases
= −L ddti − R i + V0 − C1 0 i dt
By differentiation and rearrangement Roots are real & distinct
d 2i d i 1 Roots are complex
L dt 2 + R dt + C i = 0

Roots are real & equal 13 / 34

 Example(Roots Real & distinct)
Determine and plot the current
response as a function of time
after the switch is closed
Solution:
Roots of the characteristic
q eq. are
4 4 2
s1 , s2 = − 2×1 ± ( 2×1 ) − 1×1 1 = −2 ± 1
3
The general solution for current is
i = A1 e −t + A2 e −3t
At t = 0+
i = i0 = 0 = A1 e 0 + A2 e 0 = A1 + A2
Therefore, A2 = −A1
Also, voltage iR across the resistance is zero
Therefore,vL = −vC = V0 and L ddti = Vo or
d i Vo 0 0
dt = L = −A1 e − 3A2 e
= −A1 − 3A2 = −A1 + 3A1 = +2A1
Solving,
A1 = + V2Lo = + V2o and A2 = −A1 = − V2o
i = V2o e −t − V2o e −3t
14 / 34
 Example(Roots complex)

1
Let L=1H, C = 17 F and R = 2Ω. Solution: q
Derive an expression for the R R 2 1
s = − 2L ± ( 2L ) − LC
natural response. 2
q
2 2
= − 2×1 ± ( 2×1 ) − 1×1 1
√ 17

= −1 ± −16

s1 = −1 + j4 and s2 = −1 − j4

The natural response is

i = A1 e (−1+j4)t + A2 e (−1−j4)t
can also be written as using euler’s eqn.
i = e −αt [(A1 + A2 ) cos ωt + j(A1 − A2 ) sin ωt]
= e −αt [B1 cos ωt + B2 sin ωt]
=A e| −αt
{z } sin(ωt + θ)
| {z }
damping function Oscillating function

15 / 34
 Example

Rewrite previous example in the Solution: q

form of a damped sinusoid R 1 R2
α = 2L = 1 and ω = LC − 4L2 = 4
−t
Hence, i = A e sin(4t + θ)
At t = 0+ ,
vL = ddti = V0 = −vC since iL = 0
and
i = 0 = A e 0 sin(0 + θ) = A sin θ
Hence, θ = 0
d i 0 0
dt = V0 = A e 4 cos(0) − A e sin(0) = 4A
or
A = V0 /4
Therefore,
i = V40 e −t sin 4t
T = 2π 2π
ω = 4 = 1.57 sec

16 / 34
Example(Roots real & equal)

In example for real & distinct roots,substitute

R = 2Ω, L = 0.5H, C = 0.5F

On calculation, s1 = s2 = −2
Hence,

i = (A1 + A2 t)e st

By applying initial condition A can be determined

A = 2 V0 t e −2t

17 / 34
Real & distinct roots
Overdamped Response(No oscillation)
Complex roots
Underdamped Response(Dying oscillation)
Real & equal roots
Critically damped (No physical significance,border line between
above two oscillating output)

18 / 34
Complete Response of a circuit
To determine the transient behaviour of a circuit, complete response of
circuit has to be found.It includes
Natural Response
Due to energy stored in inductance and/or capacitances.
Determined by assuming that energy has been stored by an external
source and then that source is removed

Forced Response
Produced by external energy sources such as batteries or generator
Determined by assuming that a sufficient time has elapsed so that
all natural response components have died away or at least have
become negligibly small

19 / 34
Example I
Consider an R-L circuit as shown. Solution:
Here Applying KVL for t ≥ 0, we get
i(0− ) = I0 = VR0 = i(0) L ddti + Ri = Vm cos ωt
Find the complete response or
d i R Vm
response i(t) for t ≥ 0 when a dt + L i = L cos ωt
sinusoidal voltage source
Vm cos ωt is connected at t = 0 Particular Solution:
ip (t) = A cos(ωt − θ)
= B1 cos ωt + B2 sin ωt
On substituting ip (t) in above eqn,we get
R Vm ωLVm
B1 = R 2 +ω 2 L2 & B2 = R 2 +ω 2 L2

Thus,
ip (t) = √R 2V+ω m
2 L2
R
[( √R 2 +ω 2 L2
) cos ωt +
ω
( √R 2 +ω2 L2 ) sin ωt]

=> ip (t) = √ Vm cos(ωt − tan−1 ( ωL

R 2 +ω 2 L2 R ))

20 / 34
Example II
Homogenous solution:
ih (t) = e st
Substituting ih (t) in the homogenous differential eqn, we get
R
(s + R
L )e
st
=0 => s = − RL & ih (t) = Ke − L t

Complete soln for t ≥ 0

R
i(t) = ih (t) + ip (t) = K e − L t + √ Vm cos(ωt − tan−1 ( ωL
R 2 +ω 2 L2 R ))

i(0) = I0 => I0 = K + √ Vm cos(tan−1 ( ωL

R 2 +ω 2 L2 R ))

=K+ √ Vm √ R
R 2 +ω 2 L2 R 2 +ω 2 L2

Implies, K = I0 − R 2V+ω
mR
2 L2

Vm R − RL t Vm ωL
i(t) = (I0 − 2 2 2
)e +√ cos(ωt − tan−1 ( ))
R +ω L 2 2 2 R
| {z } | R +ω L {z }
Natural Response Forced response

21 / 34
Example III

R
When t → ∞ , e − L t → 0 ⇒ ih (t) → 0
Therefore,

i(t) → ip (t)

Impedance of series R-L combination is

Z = R + jωL
Vm
ip (t) = |Z| cos(ωt − ∠Z)

In phasor form, Ip = √Vm e −j∠Z

2|Z|

22 / 34
Procedure of finding the complete response(typically for
t ≥ 0) I

1 Write the governing eqn using Kirchoff’s laws

2 Reduce this to a linear differential eqn
3 Find the initial conditions(if they are not given) from the condition
of the current prior to t = 0. The number of initial conditions is
equal to the order of the differential eqn
4 Find the particular solution by assuming a form of the particular
solution, and substituting it in the differential eqn. Unknown
constants are to be found by substitution in the differential eqn and
not from initial condition
Forcing function Particular solution
constant another constant
A e at , ’a’ real or complex B e at
A cos ωt B cos ωt or B1 cos ωt + B2 sin ωt
A cos(ωt + θ) B cos ωt or B1 cos ωt + B2 sin ωt
The particular soln is the forced response

23 / 34
Procedure of finding the complete response(typically for
t ≥ 0) II
5 Find the homogenous soln by assuming e st as a soln, substituting in
the homogenous differential eqn and solving for s
First order: s = s0 , homogeneous soln K e st
Second order:
s = s1 , s2 with s1 6= s2
⇒ homogeneous solution : K1 e s1 t + K2 e s2 t
s = s0 , s0
⇒ homogeneous solution : (K1 + K2 t)e s0 t
The unknown constants in the homogeneous soln are to be found
later from the initial conditions.The homogeneous soln is the natural
response
6 Add the forced and natural response to get the complete response.
Find the undetermined constants which arose from the homogeneous
soln by applying the initial conditions on the complete response

24 / 34
First order circuit I

Step response of an RL circuit

Homogenous soln:
ih (t) = e st
(s + RL )e st = 0 ⇒ s = − RL
R
ih (t) = K e − L t
Complete soln:
R
i(t) = ih (t) + ip (t) = K e − L t + VR
V
i(0) = 0 ⇒ K + R = 0 or K = − VR
R
i(t) = V
R (1 − e − L t ) , t ≥ 0

For t ≥ 0
L ddti + R i = V
⇒ ddti + RL i = VL
Particular soln:
ip (t) = B
⇒ RL B = VL ⇒B= V
R
ip (t) = VR
25 / 34
 First order circuit II
AC switching transients

Particular soln:
ip (t) = A√ cos(ωt + θ)
Vm/ 2
Ip = 1
R+ jωC
= √2√V1+ω m ωC
2R2C 2
∠ π2 − tan−1 (ωRC )
Vm ωC
ip (t) = √1+ω 2R2C 2
cos(ωt + π2 − tan−1 (ωRC ))
Homogenous soln:
ih (t) = K e −t/RC
Complete soln:
i(t) = ip (t) + ih (t)
i(0) = 0
⇒ VRm = K + √1+ω Vm ωC
2R2C 2
sin(tan−1 (ωRC ))
vc (0) = 0 ⇒ i(0) = VRm On solving,
For t ≥ 0R K = R(1+ωV2mR 2 C 2 )
t
R i + C1 − inf i(τ )dτ = Vm cos ωt
or i(t) = R(1+ωV2mR 2 C 2 ) e −t/RC +
d i i Vm
+ = −ω sin ωt √ Vm ωC
dt RC R
1+ω 2 R 2 C 2
cos(ωt + π2 − tan−1 (ωRC )) , t ≥ 0

26 / 34
Second order circuits I

Step response of an RLC circuit

di
v = R i + L dt + vC
v (0) = R i(0) + Li 0 (0) + vC (0)
⇒ i 0 (0) = VL2
For t ≥ 0,
d2 i R d i 1
dt 2 + L dt + LC i = 0
Homogenous soln is complete soln. Let e st
be a soln
s 2 + RL s + LC1
=0
q
R R2 1
s = − 2L ± 4L 2 − LC

q
v (t) = V1 + V2 u(t) Case 1:R < 2 CL (Underdamped)
Initial conditions: q
R 1 R2
vC (0) = V1 , i(0) = 0 s = − 2L ± j LC − 4L 2 = −α + jβ

On applying initial condition:

V2 αt
⇒ i(t) = βL e sin βt
27 / 34
Second order circuits II
q
Case 2: R = 2 CL (Critically damped)

R R
s = − 2L , − 2L = −α, −α
−αt
i(t) = e [A1 + A2 t]

On applying initial condition:

V2 −αt
⇒ i(t) = L te

q
L
Case 3: R > 2 C (Overdamped)

q
R R2 1
s = − 2L ± j 4L 2 − LC = −α + γ
−αt
i(t) = e [A1 e + A2 e −γt ]
γt

On applying initial condition:

γt −γt
V2 −αt [e −e ] V2 −αt
⇒ i(t) = γL e 2 = γL e sinh(γt)

28 / 34
Two port networks I

v1 = f1 (i1 , i2 ) and v2 = f2 (i1 , i2 )

or
i1 = φ1 (v1 , v2 ) and v2 = φ2 (v1 , v2 )

For ideal elements,the functions are linear so equation becomes

v1 = k1 i1 + k2 i2 and v2 = k3 i1 + k4 i2
or
i1 = k5 v1 + k6 v2 and i2 = k7 v1 + k8 v2

For sinusoidal excitation, the voltage and currents are represented by

phasors, the constants are complex impedances or admittances

V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 and V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2

or
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2 and i2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2

29 / 34
Two port networks II
For linear elements, Z12 = Z21 and Y12 = Y21 by reciprocity theorem

Figure: T network Figure: π network

V1 = (Z11 − Z12 + Z12 )I1 + Z12 I2

V2 = Z21 I1 + (Z22 − Z21 + Z21 )I2

30 / 34
Two port networks III

T and π as three terminal networks called as Y and ∆ networks

Figure: T or Y network Figure: π or ∆ network

Z12 Z31 Z1 Z2 +Z2 Z3 +Z3 Z1

Z1 = Z12 +Z23 +Z31 Z12 = Z3
Z12 Z23 Z2 Z3 +Z1 Z2 +Z1 Z3
Z2 = Z12 +Z23 +Z31 Z23 = Z1
Z23 Z31 Z3 Z1 +Z1 Z2 +Z3 Z2
Z3 = Z12 +Z23 +Z31 Z31 = Z2

31 / 34
Example
Given:
Za = Zb = Zc = 10∠60o .
Determine the impedance of the
equivalent ∆
Figure: Y to ∆ conversion
Za Zb +Zb Zc +Zc Za
Z∆ = Zab = Zc
= 3(ZY )2
= 3 ZY = 30∠60o Ω
ZY
Impedance of equivalent ∆
load = 3× Impedance of
balanced Y load
Phase angle of the
impedances and the power
factor of the load are
unchanged
32 / 34
Example

Transform T network into π form

33 / 34
Example

Determine equivalent series Dotted ∆ replaced by equivalent Y

resistance of the bridge n/w 10×6
Z1 = 10+6+4 = 3Ω
4×10
Z2 = 10+6+4 = 2Ω
6×4
Z3 = 10+6+4 = 1.2Ω
Resistance in series and parallel can
be combined to give
(3+3)(1+2)
Zab = (3+3)+(1+2) + 1.2
= 2 + 1.2 = 3.2Ω

34 / 34