33

CHAPTER 3

MODULATION TECHNIQUES

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The various pulse width modulation techniques are explained in

this chapter and list out their merits and demerits. After this discussion, the
simple and well established motor friendly sinusoidal modulation, delta
modulation and improved delta modulation techniques are explained. Their
operation, the circuit design procedure and their inherent characteristics are
discussed. The requirement of the V/F speed control method of induction motor
drives is highlighted. Also the reasons for selection of these modulation
techniques used to control the proposed soft switched PWM inverter fed
induction motor drives are highlighted in this chapter.

3.2 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM) TECHNIQUES

The output voltage of a voltage source inverter, can be adjusted by

various methods such as external control of AC voltage on the output side of
VSI, external control of DC voltage on the input side of VSI and internal control
within the VSI. The most efficient method of internal control of VSI is by a
PWM control technique used within the inverter itself. In the PWM method, a
constant input DC voltage is applied to the inverter and a controlled AC output
voltage with frequency is obtained. It is accomplished by adjusting the turn on
and turn off periods of the inverter switching devices.
 34

Because of the advances in power electronics devices and modern

digital control systems, the PWM inverters are used in various industrial
applications to convert DC to AC and deliver AC power with various voltage
and frequency levels to the load or motors. The energy that a PWM inverter
delivers to a motor is controlled by the train of PWM control signal to the
gates or the control terminal of the power electronics devices.

3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MODULATION TECHNIQUES

There are many types, of modulation techniques available, to achieve

simple implementation and improved overall inverter efficiency in the
practical applications. Basically, they are classified into two major types,
namely carrier based modulation and carrier less modulation techniques.

The carrier based modulation technique is further classified as

Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)

Modified Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM)

Random Pulse Width Modulation (RPWM)

Third harmonic injection PWM

Space Vector Modulation (SVM)

Carrier less modulation technique is further classified as

Delta Modulation (DM)

Specific Harmonic Elimination (SHE)

Wavelet Modulation (WM)

 35

The main aim of these modulation techniques is to enhance, the

output of the inverters. Various techniques are designed to control the PWM
inverter switches in order to shape up the PWM inverter output AC voltage or
current to be very close to sine waveform. The quality of these, PWM
techniques, depends on the amplitude of the fundamental component, the
harmonic content in the inverter output, the effect of harmonics on the source,
the switching losses, controllability and implementation.

3.3.1 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)

The classical sinusoidal pulse width modulation technique is the very

simple and commonly used technique in most of the industrial applications. In
the sinusoidal pulse width modulator for three-phase PWM inverter, the gate
control signals are generated by comparing a three phase balanced sinusoidal
reference voltage signal with a high-frequency common triangular carrier
voltage signal. The intersection points of the sinusoidal reference voltage
signal and the triangular carrier voltage signal determine the turn on and turn off
instants of the switching devices.

The sinusoidal reference voltage signal determines the amplitude and

frequency of the PWM inverter output voltage. The main advantages of
sinusoidal pulse width modulation technique are easy to implement and control.
It has compatibility with most of the modern digital systems. In sinusoidal
pulse width modulation technique, the fundamental frequency, amplitude and
its total harmonic distortion are reduced by increasing the switching frequency.
This will lead to the increase of switching losses and stress on the switching
devices.
 36

3.3.2 Modified Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM)

The principle of generating the gate control signal in MPWM

technique is two low-frequency modulating signals were compared with a
high-frequency triangular carrier signal. One of the modulating signals is a
reference to the output voltage to be synthesized. The second modulating signal
is 180-degree phase shift of the first modulating signal, but with the same
frequency and amplitude. The advantages of the MPWM technique are easy to
control and implement. The total harmonic distortion is less than the SPWM
technique for the same switching frequency, but the fundamental component is
not too high. Another advantage of this technique is reducing the energy of
the harmonics and the total harmonic distortion of the inverter output voltage.

The disadvantages of this technique are that it affects the energy of

the fundamental frequency component. MPWM reduced the amplitude of the
fundamental frequency component. It increases the switching losses and
stresses to the switching devices that in turn lead to increasing the harmonics
in the input current.

3.3.3 Third Harmonic Injection PWM

The important task of this technique is to increase the PWM

inverter fundamental frequency voltage without over modulation. The task is
accomplished by injecting the third harmonic component into the three phase
sinusoidal reference signals. So the modulating signal is composed of the
reference signal of the desired output voltage and the third harmonic
component. As a result of the third harmonic component injection, the peak of
the fundamental component can be increased than the peak triangular carrier
wave.
 37

The advantage of this technique is that it increases the inverter

fundamental frequency voltage. The main disadvantage is that there is no
definite idea of the amount of the third harmonic component added to the
modulating signal.

3.3.4 Space Vector Modulation (SVM)

Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) is an improved

modulation technique specifically used for three phase induction motor
drives. It is used to overcome the drawbacks of sinusoidal PWM technique.

The drawback of sinusoidal PWM technique is the lower output AC

voltage. The short pulses generated when the peak of the sinusoidal reference
signal is as close as to the peak of the carrier triangle signal and increased the
inverter losses.

The drawbacks mentioned above of the sinusoidal PWM are

reduced by using SVPWM technique. SVPWM generates an output voltage and
current with less harmonic distortion. It also provides a more output voltage in
comparison with sinusoidal modulation techniques. The switching frequency
provided by SVPWM is constant so that it can be easily adjustable. It is a more
complicated control technique than sinusoidal modulation technique.

3.3.5 Delta Modulation (DM)

Ziogas et al 1981 introduces the delta modulation technique. It is one

of the important alternatives to the traditional sinusoidal modulation
technique. Now days it is used in commercial pulse width modulation three
phase AC induction motor drives. It provides the required on and off time
interval for the PWM inverter switching devices.
 38

The operation of the delta modulation control circuit utilizes a

required sine voltage as a reference signal (Vr) and a delta-shaped signal (Vf)
as a carrier signal. The carrier signal is generated by integrating the output pulse
(Vp). The reference signal (Vr) is compared with (Vf) in the comparator. The
comparator output error signal is passed into the hysteresis comparator. The
error signal is quantized into one of two possible limits (upper or lower)
depends on its polarity. The window upper and lower limits determine the
transition point of the switching pulses. The hysteresis comparator continuously
generates the output pulses (Vp), it is used to control the PWM inverter.

The advantages of the delta modulation technique are, easy

implementation, continuous inverter voltage control, direct control of the line
harmonics and its inherent V/f feature. The DM is suitable for AC induction
motor speed control. However, the inverter output waveform is not
synchronized with the control signal because the duty ratio modulation depends
on the slope of the control signal.

3.3.6 Specific Harmonic Elimination (SHE)

The specific harmonic elimination modulation control method is

predefining a set of switching angles to determine the locations and the
control pulse width of the switching devices. This type of control can
eliminate certain harmonics in the PWM inverter output. The advantages of
this technique are that it uses only 50% switching pulse leads to less stress on
the switching devices and less switching loss. The quality of the inverter
output voltage and current waveform are improved. Another key advantage of
SHE controlled PWM inverter is the increased fundamental output voltage
component. The main disadvantages of this method are implementation is
complicated one and the switching angles are very difficult to find out.
 39

3.3.7 Wavelet Modulation (WM)

Saleh & Rahman have experimentally developed and tested the

new type of inverters in 2007 that is called as wavelet modulated control
PWM inverter. It significantly improved the quality of outputs. The
continuous time signal can be generated by using sets of the basic functions of
wavelets. These signals are used to control the PWM inverter. The advantages
of the wavelet modulated technique in PWM inverter are output voltages and
currents of the fundamental component of higher magnitudes and lower
harmonic contents with compare to other modulation techniques. The main
disadvantage of this method is complex implementation.

3.4 SELECTION OF MODULATION TECHNIQUE FOR

INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES

The main aim in the selection of modulation technique is that it

must have a circuit simplicity, rugged control scheme and easy implementation.
The modulation technique must provide an easy way to control amplitude,
frequency and harmonic contents of the output voltage required for three phase
induction motor V/F speed control method. It must operate at a high switching
frequency leads to more switching losses in PWM inverter to give space for
soft switching technique. Based on the above said characters the modulation
techniques were selected for implementing with proposed soft switched PWM
inverter fed induction motor drives.

3.4.1 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation Technique

In this thesis, sinusoidal pulse width modulation technique is

proposed to use for controlling the switching devices of the PWM inverter. It
can directly control the inverter output voltage and output frequency by
 40

adjusting the modulation index and modulation frequency ratio. The

sinusoidal pulse width modulation was widely used in the PWM inverter
because of its circuit simplicity and rugged control scheme for induction
motor drives. The engineers in industries, need simple, maintenance free
control and motor for their applications. So the SPWM with soft switching
technique is proposed for three phase induction motor drives.

The SPWM technique uses three sinusoidal voltage waveforms and

high-frequency triangular waveform to generate a control signal for three-
phase PWM inverter. The three sinusoidal voltage waves are called as a
reference signal of the free - determined output voltage of the three-phase
PWM inverter.

The triangular waveform called as a carrier signal. As shown in

Figure 3.1 these three modulating, sinusoidal voltage waves are 120-degree
phase difference between each other like required three phase supply.

VrR = VmSin (ωt)

VrY = VmSin (ωt-2π/3)

VrB = VmSin (ωt-4π/3)

where VrR ,VrB and VrY are R-phase, Y phase and B phase reference voltages
 41

Figure 3.1 Reference signals of the three phase sinusoidal PWM technique

The frequency of three sinusoidal waveforms is selected based on

the required PWM inverter output AC supply frequency. The triangular carrier
wave is usually a high-frequency wave in several KHz as shown in
Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Carrier signal of the three phase sinusoidal PWM technique
 42

Figure 3.3 Sinusoidal pulse width modulation control circuit

Three-phase sinusoidal pulse width modulation control circuit is

shown in Figure 3.3. The basic component of the circuit is a comparator. For a
three-phase switching signal generation three numbers of comparators are
used in this circuit. The comparator generates the output pulses when
reference sine voltage is greater than the carrier triangular voltage. The
comparators actions and their results are shown in Figure 3.4. These pulses
are used to control the respective three phase inverter switches.

The output pulse applied to the gates, through switch control device
for switches. The upper limbs connect the positive DC supply to the loads and
the lower limbs connects the negative DC supply to the loads through the
inverter connected in series.
 43

Figure 3.4 Three phase SPWM control circuit output gate control signal
 44

The important terms related to sinusoidal pulse width modulation

technique and its functions in the control of PWM inverter outputs are given
bellow.

Peak amplitude of sinusoidal reference voltage is Ar

Peak amplitude of triangular carrier voltage is Ac

Modulation Index (MI) = Ar / Ac

Frequency of sinusoidal reference voltage is Fr

Frequency of triangular carrier voltage is Fc

Frequency-modulation ratio = Fc / Fr

The rms output voltage can be varied by varying the Modulation

Index (MI).

The maximum amplitude of the fundamental output AC line

voltage is Vry1
𝑉��
Vry1 = (MI)(√3)
2

3.4.2 Delta Modulation Technique

It is an another technique identified as suitable to control the

proposed soft switched PWM inverter because this technique has a number of
advantages such as simple circuit, simple implementation, continuous control
of the voltage source inverter output voltage, direct control of the line
harmonics and it has the inherent capability to maintain constant voltage per
frequency (V/f) ratio. It is an essential requirement for three-phase, induction
motor speed control. It is a most suitable modulation technique for the proposed
soft switching technique for PWM inverter fed induction motor drives.
 45

Modu et al (2000) explained the operation of delta modulation with

the help of Figure 3.5. It is constructed using PSIM simulation software. The
two important components of the delta modulation control circuit are the
hysteresis comparator and the integrator. The integrator consists of the
operational amplifier and RC components. The integrator is in the feedback
circuit of the delta modulator.

This method utilizes a reference sine voltage signal Vr and a delta

shaped feedback signal Vf as carrier waveform. The feedback signal Vf is
produced by integrating the output PWM pulse. The reference sine voltage
signal Vr is compared with feedback signal Vf produce the error signal. Then
the error signal is passed into a hysteresis comparator. There it is allowed to
oscillate within the upper and lower boundary condition of the defined window,
equally above and below the reference sine voltage signal. The two boundaries
intersecting points, determine the state of the output delta modulated signal VP.
The PSIM simulation results of the delta modulator are shown in Figure 3.6.
The drawbacks of delta modulation techniques are low fundamental component
and low response of the inverter.

Figure 3.5 DM PWM control simulation circuit

 46

Figure 3.6 Typical DM PWM input,feedback and output signals

Amplitude of the sinusoidal reference voltage - Vr

Frequency of the sinusoidal reference signal - Fr

Delta shaped feedback voltage signal - Vf1

Fundamental component of feedback signal - Vc1

Output switching pulses - Vp

Amplitude of the nth the harmonics of VP - VPn

Amplitude of the nth the harmonics of Vf - Vfn

Break frequency - Frb

Since the Integrator A2 is also a (first-order) low-pass filter:

𝑉 𝑃�
Vfn = (3.1)
�(�
��)�
1 𝑟

Also Vf1 = 𝑉� (3.2)

The Equation 3.3 is obtained from the Equations 3.1 and 3. 2.

𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃
Vf1 = (� = 𝑉� → 1 1�
(� )𝑉� (3.3)
��)� �
1 𝑟 𝑟
 47

In Equation 3.3, it has been shown that the ratio Vp1 / Fr remain
constant until the DM output Vp becomes a square wave of frequency Fr = Frb
at which point

4
Vp1 = �
�
� (3.4)
𝜋

Vs is the voltage level at which the output of the hysteresis

comparator saturates.

The Equation 3.5 is obtained from the Equations 3.3 and 3.4
4
𝑉 𝑃1 𝑉𝑆 4𝑉 𝑆
= 𝜋 = �)𝑉 → � � (3.5)
(�
�𝑟 �𝑟� 1 � 1 𝜋 𝑉���𝑟�

Δ𝑉
= (3.6)
�1

Δ𝑉𝑆 �2
2
�
�� = (3.7)
���

If Trm is the ripple period for Fr =0

Ncm is the maximum desired number of commutations

�𝑟� 2𝛥𝑉 𝛥𝑉
= → = 4�� (3.8)
�
2 ��𝑆 /�1 𝐶 1 ��𝑆
��

Substituting the Equation 3.6 in Equation 3.8

� �2 �𝑟�
� 1�
�� = 4� �
2
→ �3
= 4�1 𝐶
(3.9)
3

Substituting the value of Trm in Equation 3.7 in 3.9

�2 1
= (3.10)
�3 (2�1 ���𝐶��)

The design expressions obtained in Section 3.4.2 were used to

predict the results of the delta modulation control circuit.
 48

The model parameter calculation of the delta modulation control

circuit. Consider the design specifications for the design.

i) Maximum reference signal Vr amplitude = 10 V

ii) Amplitude of the comparator A1 output

voltage Vs = 12 V

iii) Break frequency Frb, = 76 Hz

(i.e) ωRb = 2π76 rad/s

iv) Number of maximum-commutations

per second (NCM) = 1500

Using Equation 3.5

4 × 12 −3
R1 C = = 3.2 × 10
2 × 10 × 2𝜋 × 76

Take C = 0.068 F (a typical value) and R1=47K Ω

Using Equation 3.7

�
2 103
= = 0.01
�
3 (2 × 3.2 × 1500)

Let R2=10K Ω and R3=100K Ω

3.4.3 Improved Delta Modulation Technique

In order to overcome the drawbacks of the delta modulation

controller,an improved delta modulation controller is proposed by Yaow ming
Chen et al (2008). For understand the difference between delta modulation
 49

and improved delta modulation. This section first discusses about the delta
modulation. Secondly, it discusses about improved delta modulation.

The block diagram of the delta modulation circuit is shown in

Figure 3.7 (a). The two important components of the delta modulation control
circuit are the hysteresis comparator and the integrator in the feedback circuit.
Figure 3.7 (b) shows the typical waveform of the input reference signal Vr,
carrier waveform Vc and the DM PWM output signal Vp. The time duration
for two successive levels of DM PWM output signal is determined by the
slope of the input reference signal Sr and by upper and lower limits of the
hysteresis comparator.

(a)

(b)
Figure 3.7 Delta modulation circuit and related waveforms (a) Block
diagram of the delta modulation controller (b) Typical
reference, carrier and DM output waveforms
 50

The waveforms shown in Figure 3.7 (b), the switching frequency

Fsw and duty ratio DR of a DM controller. They relate to the slope of the input
reference signal Sr, slope of the carrier signal Sc and hysteresis bound ΔV.

The switching frequency Fsw and duty ratio DR of a DM controller

can be derived with the Figure 3.7 (b).

� �2− �
2
�
���= 4𝛥��.�
𝑟
(3.11)
�

1 �𝑟
�� = (1 + ) (3.12)
2 ��

The input reference signal to the DM PWM controller is a

sinusoidal function:

�
𝑉� = 𝑉�sin 𝜔�
(3.13)

where Vm is the amplitude and ω is the angular frequency of the reference

signal. By taking the derivative of Equation 3.13, the slope of the input
reference signal is given by

�� = ��. 𝑉�Cos 𝜔�
�

(3.14) The slope of the carrier signal can be expressed as

𝑉 ±𝑉 ��𝑡
�� = 𝑃 𝜏
(3.15)
= �𝐶

where Vdct is the DC rail voltage and τ is the time constant of the integrator.
Substituting the Equation 3.13 and 3.14 and 3.15 in the Equation 3.11. The
switching frequency Fsw can be determined as
2
�
��
�𝑡 − (𝜏. 𝜔 . 𝑉� c os
𝐹�� = 𝜔�)
(3.16)
4��.𝛥��.𝑉
��𝑡
 51

Substituting the Equations 3.13, 3.14 and 3.15 in the equation 3.12.
The switching frequency DR can be determined as
 52
1 𝜏 .𝜔 .𝑉� c os
��= (1 + 𝜔�
) (3.17)
2
𝑉��𝑡

If input reference signal Vr is a constant voltage, then the reference

signal slope Sr should be equal to zero. Then the Equations 3.16 and 3.17
becomes 3.18 and 3.19.

2
���
�
�
�� =
�𝑡
(3.18)
4��.𝛥𝑉

1
�� = (3.19)
2

The Equations 3.18 and 3.19 imply that the switching frequency
and duty ratio of the delta modulator are constant value for a constant
reference voltage.

In order to improve, the control ability and the gain of the

fundamental component of the delta modulation technique. In the improved
delta modulation controller the input signal is fed forward to the input
terminal of the integrator. The integrator integrates the Vp with respect to
sinusoidal reference signal and produce the adjustable slope in the feedback
signal.

From Figure 3.8 (a) the slope of the carrier waveform of the
improved delta modulation (Sci) is given by
𝑉 𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟 ±𝑉 ����− ��𝑟
��𝑖 = +� +�
=�𝐶 � (3.20) �
𝜏

Substituting Equation 3.20 into the Equations 3.11 and 3.12, the
switching frequency Fswi and duty ratio DRi of the improved delta modulation
controller can be derived and expressed as:
2 2
��𝑡 ��𝑟
𝐹���� = −𝑉
4��.𝛥��.𝑉��𝑡
(3.21)
 53

1 𝑉𝑟
���� = (1 + ) (3.22)
2 ��𝑡

For a sinusoidal reference signal, the Equations 3.13 and 3.14 can
be substituted into 3.21 and 3.22 and the following equation can be obtained
��2 − (𝑉� s in 𝜔�
𝐹���� )2
(3.23)
��𝑡
= 4��.𝛥��.𝑉
��𝑡

1 (𝑉� s in 𝜔�)
���� = (1 ) (3.24)
2 𝑉��𝑡
+

In this IDM, the variation range of duty ratio DRi can be increased
due to the inverse proportional relationship between the magnitude of the
input reference signal and the slope of the carrier signal. That is an increase in
the reference signal magnitude will reduce the slope of the carrier signal and
decrease in the reference signal magnitude will increase the slope of the
carrier signal. Because of the increment in the carrier signal slope, the integrator
takes longer time to complete the integration. So the output carrier signal needs
more time to change its output status. Hence the duty ratio of the IDM can be
expanded to increase the output voltage.

The circuit diagram of the improved delta modulation controller is

shown in Figure 3.8 (a). The two important components of the improved delta
modulation control circuit are the hysteresis comparator and the integrator in
the feedback circuit.
 54

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 3.8 Improved delta modulation and its waveforms (a) Block
diagram of the improved delta modulation (b) reference
signal and IDM output gate pulse (c) improved delta
modulation output gate pulse and integrated feedback signal
with variable slope
 55

The error between the reference sine voltage signal and feedback
signal is allowed to oscillate within an upper limit and lower limit of the defined
window, equally above and below the reference sine voltage signal in the
hysteresis comparator. The two limits intersecting points determine the state of
the PWM output IDM switching function VP. This is shown in Figure 3.8
(c) by PSIM simulated results.

This method utilizes a reference sine wave voltage signal Vr and a

feedback signal Vf as carrier waveform is produced by integrating the output
PWM pulse with respect to a reference sine wave voltage signal. It increases
the slope of the carrier signal which is shown in Figure 3.8 (d). The integrator
takes longer time for integrating the output pulse VP due to that the of output
integrator Vf takes longer time to change it states. It increases the duty ratio
of the output control, hence increase the fundamental components of the
inverter.

The IDM modulation technique is another most suitable control

technique. This is selected, to control the proposed soft switched PWM
inverter for induction motor drives. This technique has a number of advantages
such as quick response, high output voltage of the inverter and reduced the
harmonic contents. The circuit implementation of this technique is very
simple. It continuously controls the voltage source inverter output voltage
and direct control of the line harmonics. It has the inherent capability to
maintain constant voltage per frequency (V/f) and it is an essential requirement,
for three phase induction motor speed control.
 56

3.5 SUMMARY

The various types of pulse width modulation techniques were

explained in this chapter and list out their merits and demerits. Then motor
friendly sinusoidal modulation, delta modulation, improved delta modulation
techniques operation and design procedure are discussed in this chapter. The
inherent characteristics of the above said modulation techniques are well
suited to the requirement of induction motor drives. Also the reasons for
selection of these modulation techniques used to control the proposed soft
switched PWM inverter fed induction motor drives were highlighted in this
chapter.