FM Unit I, Ii & Iv

6123 – SENGUNTHAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
UNIT – I
FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
PART – A
1) What is a fluid? (NOV/DEC 2003, MAY/JUNE 2006)

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously in the face of tangential or shear stress, irrespective
of the magnitude of shear stress .This continuous deformation under the application of shear stress
constitutes a flow.
The fluid can also be defined as the state of matter that cannot sustain any shear stress
Shear stress on a fluid body

If a shear stress is applied at any location in a fluid, the element 011' which is initially at rest, will
move to 022', then to 033'. Further, it moves to 044' and continues to move in a similar fashion.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) Differentiate fluid with solid.
Sl. No Solid Liquid
More Compact Structure
1 Less Compact Structure
Attractive Forces between the molecules are Attractive Forces between the
2 larger therefore more closely packed molecules are smaller therefore more
loosely packed
Solids can resist tangential stresses in static
Fluids cannot resist tangential stresses
3 condition in static condition.
Whenever a solid is subjected to shear stress i)
Whenever a fluid is subjected to shear
It undergoes a definite deformation α or breaks
stress
4 i) No fixed deformation
ii) α is proportional to shear stress upto some ii) Continuous deformation takes place
limiting condition
until the shear stress is applied
Solid may regain partly or fully its original A fluid can never regain its original
5 shape when the tangential stress is removed shape, once it has been distorted by the
shear stress
III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

3) Differentiate Fluid statics, Kinematics and Dynamics.
Fluid Mechanics:
Branch of science which deals with the behavior of the fluids (liquids or gases ) at rest as well
as in motion.
Fluid Static:
Study of fluid at rest
Fluid Kinematics:
Study of fluid in motion (pr forces – not considered.)
Fluid Dynamics
Fluid in motion, pr forces considered.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4) What is meant by continuum?
Although any matter is composed of several molecules, the concept of continuum assumes a
continuous distribution of mass within the matter or system with no empty space, instead of the actual
conglomeration of separate molecules.
In continuum approach, fluid properties such as density, viscosity, thermal conductivity,
temperature, etc. can be expressed as continuous functions of space and time.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5) Define Mass Density. (MAY/JUNE 2006,APRIL/MAY 2008,2010)
Mass Density or Density () is defined as

“The ratio of total mass of the fluid to its total volume”.
Mass of fluid m
 
Volume of fluid V Unit: Kg/ m3
Density of water (w )= 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg / m3.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6) Define Specific Weight. (NOV/DEC 2007, NOV/DEC 2008)
It is defined as
“the ratio between total weight of a fluid to its total volume”.
Weight of fluid  Mass of fluid 

w    g    g
Volume of fluid  Volume of fluid 
w g
Unit: N / m3
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7) Define Specific Volume. (NOV/DEC 2007,APRIL/MAY 2008)
Specific Volume is defined as “the Volume per unit mass of a fluid”
 Volume of a fluid  1 1
Sp. volume  v     
 Mass of fluid    mass of fluid 
 volume 
Unit: m3 / kg.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8) Define Specific Gravity (or) Relative density: (MAY/JUNE 2006, NOV/DEC 2008, APR/MAY
2010)
Denoted as : ‘S’
S  pr.liq  
Weight density of liquid
Weight density of water
Weight density of gas

S  for gases  
Weight density of air
Weight density of a liquid = S  wt density of water
9.81
 S 1000 
N / m3
g 
Density of a liquid = S x Density of water.
S x 1000 Kg/m3
Unit : Unit less.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9) Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of 1 litre of liquid which weighs 7 N.
Solution:
1
Given V  1ltre  m3
1000
W=7N
weight 7N
i. Sp. Weight (w)    7000 N / m 3
volume  1  3
 m
 1000 
w 7000 N
ii Density (p)   3
kg / m 3  713..5 Kg / m 3 ]
g 9.81 m
Density of liquid 713.5

ii. Sp. Gravity (S)  
Density of water 1000
S = 0.7135 (Density of water = 1000 kg / m3 )

10) Define Viscosity. (NOV/DEC 2010)
Viscosity is defined as the property of fluid, which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of
fluid over another adjacent layer of fluid.
When two layers move one over the other at different velocities, say u and u+du, the viscosity
together with relative velocity causes shear stress acting between the fluid layers. The top layer causes a
shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer.
This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity.
du
 
dy
  Coefficient of dynamic viscosity (or) only viscosity

du / dy = rate of shear strain
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11) Define Specific viscosity.
Specific viscosity is the ratio between the viscocity of fluid to viscocity of water
Specific viscosity = viscocity of fluid/ viscocity of water @ 20º C
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12) Define Dynamic Viscosity (APR/MAY 2010)
It is defined as “the shear stress required moving one layer with unit velocity over another layer at
unit distance”. It is denoted as 
This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity.
du
 
dy
  Coefficient of dynamic viscosity (or) only viscosity

du / dy = rate of shear strain or velocity gradient
The other name of dynamic viscosity are
(i) absolute viscosity and
(ii) co efficient of viscosity .
Its unit is N-s/m2.

13) What are the Causes of Viscosity?
The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to two factors:
(i) Intermolecular force of cohesion
(ii) Molecular momentum exchange
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1ζ) State Newton’s δaw of Viscosity. (NOV/DEC2003,2005,2008)
It states that the shear stress (  ) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear
strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of viscosity
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15) Give equivalent values for poise in SI units and CGS unit system?
Equivalent value in
SI unit,
1 poise = (1/10) Ns/m2
CGS system,
1 poise = 1 dyne s/ cm2.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
16) Define Kinematic Viscosity. (NOV/DEC 2009, APR/MAY 2010)
It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid.
DyanmicVis cos ity 
Kinematic Viscosity.  ;   Unit: m2 /s
Density 
2
Cm 2  1  m 2
1 Stoke     10 4 m 2 / s.
S  100  S
1
1 Centistoke  stoke = 10 6 m 2 / s.
100
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17) Name the Types of fluids.
a) Ideal fluid
b) Real fluid
c) Newtonian fluid
d) Non-Newtonian fluid.
e) Ideal plastic fluid
18) Define Real fluid and Ideal fluid. (NOV/DEC 2007, 2009, APRIL/MAY 2008)
Real Fluid:
A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. All fluids, in actual practice, are real fluids.
Ideal Fluid:
A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is
only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have some viscosity.

19) Define Newtonian Fluids and Non - Newtonian Fluids.
Newtonian Fluids:
du
 
dy
Fluids which obey the above relation is called as Newtonian Fluids.
Non - Newtonian Fluids:
du
 
dy
Fluids which do not obey the above relation is called as Non-Newtonian Fluids.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20) Define Ideal plastic Fluids.
du
 
dy
Fluids which obey the above relation is called as Ideal plastic Fluids. Shear stress is more than the yield
value.
21) Find the Kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m. The shear stress at a point in oil
is 0.2452 N/m2 and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 /sec.
Mass density p = 981 kg/m3, Shear stress   0.2452 N / m 2

du
 
du dy
Velocity gradient  0.2
dy 0.2452
0.2452    0.2     1.226 Ns / m 2 .
0.2
 1.226
kinematicv is cos ity ( )  
 981
 0.125 10 2 m 2 / s.
 0.125 10 2 10 4 cm 2 / S
 12.5stoke.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22) How does the dynamic viscosity of (a) liquids and

(b) gases vary with temperature?
For liquids, molecular motion is less significant than the forces of cohesion, thus viscosity of liquids
decrease with increase in temperature.

For gases, molecular motion is more significant than the cohesive forces, thus viscosity of gases
increase with increase in temperature.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
23).Define Compressibility: (K)

.
Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity, k which is defined as the ratio of
compressive stress to volumetric strain.
Consider a cylinder filled with a piston as shown
V  Volume of gas enclosed in the cylinder
p  Pressure of gas when volume is 
Increase in pressure = dp N / m2
Decrease of volume = d
 d
 Volumetric strain 

- Ve sign  Volume decreases with increase in pressure
Increase of Pr essure  dp dp
 Bulk modulus K   
 d
Volumetric strain d

 1
Compressibility 
K
24) Write the Relationship between bulk modulus (K) and Pressure (p) for a gas
They are two different processes of compression

(i) Isothermal process
(ii) Adiabiotic process
Isothermal process

pv = c (or) =c
p
Differentiate on both sides

pdv + vdp = 0
dp
p 
 d

p=k
Adiabiotic process
pvk = c
Differentiate on both sides
p kdvk-1 + vkdp=0
dp
pk 
 d

k = pk
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
25) Define Capillarity (APR/MAY 2010)
Capillary is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid level in a small tube relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The raise of liquid level is
known as capillary rise and the fall of liquid level is known as capillary depression. It is expressed in terms
of cm or mm of liquid.
26) The Capillary rise in the glass tube is not to exceed 0.2 mm of water. Determine its minimum
size, given that surface tension of water in contact with air = 0.0725 N/m
Solution:
Capillary rise, h = 0.2 mm = 0.2 x 103 m
Surface tension   0.0725 N / m
Let, Diameter of tube = d Angel  for water = 0

Density for water = 1000 kg / m3

4 4  0.0725
h  0.2 10 3 
p g d 1000  9.81 d
4  0.0725
d  0.148m  14.8cm
1000  9.81 0.2 10 3
Minimum  of the tube = 14.8 cm.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
27) Find out the minimum size of glass tube that can be used to measure water level if the capillary
rise in the tube is to be restricted to 2mm. Consider surface tension of water in contact with air as
0.073575 N/m.
Solution:
3
Capillary rise h = 2.0 mm = 2.0 10 m
Let, diameter = d Density of water = 1000 kg / m3
  0.073575 N / m Angle for water   0
4 4  0.073575
h  2.0  10 3 
p g d 1000  9.81  d
d = 0.015 m = 1.5 cm.
Thus the minimum diameter of the tube should be 1.5 cm.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
28) Define Surface Tension. (NOV/DEC 2005,2009)
Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid droplet in contact with
another fluid. Due to this surface tension, the contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension.
The dimensional formula is F/L or MT-2. Unit : N/m
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
29) What are the causes of Surface Tension? (MAY/JUNE 2009)
The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the two kinds of intermolecular forces
(i) Cohesion: The force of attraction between the molecules of a liquid by virtue of which they are bound
to each other to remain as one assemblage of particles is known as the force of cohesion. This property
enables the liquid to resist tensile stress.
(ii) Adhesion: The force of attraction between unlike molecules, i.e. between the molecules of different
liquids or between the molecules of a liquid and those of a solid body when they are in contact with each
other, is known as the force of adhesion. This force enables two different liquids to adhere to each other or a
liquid to adhere to a solid body or surface.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

30) Write down the expression for capillary fall.
4Cos
Height of depression in tube h 
p g d
Where, h = height of depression in tube.
d = diameter of the
= surface tension ρ = density of the liquid.
= Angle of contact between liquid and gas.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
31) Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 cm apart. The space between them is being filled with oil of
viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear stress in oil if upper plate is moved with a velocity of 2.5 m/s.
Given: Distance between the plates, dy = 1.25 cm = 0.0125m.
Viscosity μ = 14 poise = 14 / 10 σs / m2 Velocity of upper plate,

u = 2.5 m/Sec.
Shear stress is given by equation as = μ (du / dy).
Where du = change of velocity between the plates = u – 0 = u = 2.5 m/sec.
dy = 0.0125m.
= (14 /10) X (2.5 / 0.0125) = 280 N/m2.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
32) Some insects can walk on water. How? (MAY/JUNE 2009)
Due to a wax secreted on the insect's legs combined with surface tension and dimple created by the
feet of insect keeps them afloat and walk.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
33) What is Vapour pressure?
Vapour pressure is defined as the pressure at which the liquid is converted into vapours at a
particular temperature.
A change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is known as vaporization. The vaporization
occurs because of continuous escaping of the molecules through the free liquid surface. The vapour
molecules get accumulated in the space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. The
accumulated vapours exert a pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as Vapour Pressure.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
34) What is Cavitation?
If the pressure at any point in a flowing liquid becomes equal or less than the vapour pressure,
vaporization of the liquid takes place. The bubbles of these vapours are carried by the flowing liquid into
the region of high pressure and they collapse. This collapse of bubbles, leads to high impact pressure is

developed and it erodes the boundaries of the pipe and cavities are formed. This phenomenon is called
“Cavitation”
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
35) State the Boyle’s δaw
Boyle’s law states that ‘The absolute pressure of a given mass perfect gas varies inversely as its
volume, when the temperature remains constant.
pv = c or p1v1 = p2v2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
36) State the Charles Law
Charles law states that ‘The volume of a given mass perfect gas varies directly as its absolute
temperature, when the absolute pressure remains constant.
( v / T) = c
All perfect gases change in volume by 1/273th of its original volume at 00C for every 10C change in
temperature when the pressure remains constant.
( v1 / T1) =( v0 / T0)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
37) State the Gay-Lussac Law
Gay-δussac δawstates that ‘The absolute pressure of a given mass perfect gas varies directly as its
absolute temperature, when the volume remains constant.
( p / T) = c
( p1 / T1) =( p2 / T2)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
38) State the Avogadro’s δaw
Avogadro’s δaw states that “Equal volume of all gases, at he same temperature and pressure contain
equal number of molecules”.
The volume of 1kg-mol af any gas at NTP condition is 22.4m3.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
39) Write (i) General gas equation
(ii) Characteristic gas equation
(i) General gas equation is [Pv / T] =C

[p1v1 / T1 ] = [p2v2 / T2 ]
(ii) Characteristic gas equation
pv =mRT or p= ρRT
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

40) How will you differentiate compressible fluid with incompressible fluid?
If Δρ/ρ <<1 (very small) the flow of gases can be treated as incompressible
If Δρ/ρ has a considerable value then the fluid can be treated as compressible.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
42) Define System, Surrounding and Boundary
 System: A quantity of matter in space which is analyzed during a problem.

 Surroundings: Everything external to the system.
 System Boundary: A real or imaginary separation present between system and surrounding.
The system boundary can be Classified into
 Real solid boundary
 Imaginary boundary
The system boundary may be further classified as:-
 Fixed boundary
 Moving boundary
The choice of boundary depends on the problem being analyzed.
43) Classify the system based on type of boundary.
 Fixed boundary or Control Mass System or Closed system
 Moving boundary or Control Volume System or Open system
The choice of boundary depends on the problem being analyzed

44) What is a Control Mass System?
Control Mass System (Closed System)
A Control Mass System or Closed System

a) It is a system of fixed mass with fixed identity.
b) There is no mass transfer across the system boundary.
c) Energy transfer may take place into or out of the system.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
45) What is a Control Volume System? (NOV/DEC 2010)
Control Volume System (Open System)
a) It’s a system of fixed volume.
b) Mass transfer can take place across a control volume.
c) Energy transfer may also occur into or out of the system.
d) A control volume can be seen as a fixed region across which mass and energy transfers are studied.
e) Control Surface- Its the boundary of a control volume across which the transfer of both mass and
energy takes place.
f) The mass of a control volume (open system) may or may not be ﬁxed.
g) When the net influx of mass across the control surface equals zero then the mass of the system is
fixed and vice-versa.
h) The identity of mass in a control volume always changes unlike the case for a control mass system
(closed system).
i) Most of the engineering devices, in general, represent an open system or control volume.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
46) Give examples for control volume or open systems

Examples
Heat exchanger - Fluid enters and leaves the system continuously with the transfer of heat across
the system boundary.
Pump - A continuous flow of fluid takes place through the system with a transfer of mechanical
energy from the surroundings to the system.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
47) What is an Isolated System?
An Isolated System
a) It is a system of fixed mass with same identity and fixed energy.
b) No interaction of mass or energy takes place between the system and the surroundings.
c) In more informal words an isolated system is like a closed shop amidst a busy market.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
48) State the Law of Conservation of mass
Law of conservation of mass
“mass can neither be created nor be destroyed”.
Mathematically, ∆m/∆t = 0, where m = mass of the system

For a control volume the principle of conservation of mass is stated as
Rate at which mass enters = Rate at which mass leaves the region + Rate of accumulation of mass in
the region
OR
Rate of accumulation of mass in the control volume
+ Net rate of mass efflux from the control volume = 0

16 MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1) What are the Causes of Viscosity?
The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to two factors:
(i) Intermolecular force of cohesion
(ii) Molecular momentum exchange
Due to strong cohesive forces between the molecules, any layer in a moving fluid tries to drag the adjacent
layer to move with an equal speed and thus produces the effect of viscosity as discussed earlier. Since
cohesion decreases with temperature, the liquid viscosity does likewise.
Movement of fluid molecules between two adjacent moving layers

 Molecules from layer aa in course of continous thermal agitation migrate into layer bb
 Momentum from the migrant molecules from layer aa is stored by molecules of layer bb by way of
collision
 Thus layer bb as a whole is speeded up
 Molecules from the lower layer bb arrive at aa and tend to retard the layer aa
 Every such migration of molecules causes forces of acceleration or deceleration to drag the layers so as to
oppose the differences in velocity between the layers and produce the effect of viscosity.
As the random molecular motion increases with a rise in temperature, the viscosity also increases
accordingly. Except for very special cases (e.g., at very high pressure) the viscosity of both liquids and
gases ceases to be a function of pressure.
 For Newtonian fluids, the coefficient of viscosity depends strongly on temperature but varies very little
with pressure.
 For liquids, molecular motion is less significant than the forces of cohesion, thus viscosity of liquids
decrease with increase in temperature.
 For gases,molecular motion is more significant than the cohesive forces, thus Viscosity of gases increase
with increase in temperature.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) What are the causes of Surface Tension?
The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the two kinds of intermolecularforces
(i) Cohesion : The force of attraction between the molecules of a liquid by virtue of which they are bound
to each other to remain as one assemblage of particles is known as the force of cohesion. This property
enables the liquid to resist tensile stress.
(ii) Adhesion : The force of attraction between unlike molecules, i.e. between the molecules of different
liquids or between the molecules of a liquid and those of a solid body when they are in contact with each
other, is known as the force of adhesion. This force enables two different liquids to adhere to each other or a
liquid to adhere to a solid body or surface.
The intermolecular cohesive force field in a bulk of liquid with a free surface
A and B experience equal force of cohesion in all directions, C experiences a net force interior of the liquid
The net force is maximum for D since it is at surface

Work is done on each molecule arriving at surface against the action of an inward force. Thus mechanical
work is performed in creating a free surface or in increasing the area of the surface. Therefore, a surface
requires mechanical energy for its formation and the existence of a free surface implies the presence of
stored mechanical energy known as free surface energy. Any system tries to attain the condition of stable
equilibrium with its potential energy as minimum. Thus a quantity of liquid will adjust its shape until its
surface area and consequently its free surface area and consequently its free surface energy is a minimum.
The magnitude of surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting across imaginary short and straight
elemental line divided by the length of the line.
Surface tension is a binary property of the liquid and gas or two liquids which are in contact with each other
and defines the interface. It decreases slightly with increasing temperature. The surface tension of water in
contact with air at 20°C is about 0.073 N/m.
It is due to surface tension that a curved liquid interface in equilibrium results in a greater pressure at the
concave side of the surface than that at its convex side.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3) What is Vapour pressure? What is the importance of vapour pressure in the Boiling of liquids?
Explain.
All liquids have a tendency to evaporate when exposed to a gaseous atmosphere. The rate of evaporation
depends upon the molecular energy of the liquid which in turn depends upon the type of liquid and its
temperature. The vapour molecules exert a partial pressure in the space above the liquid, known as vapour
pressure.
If the space above the liquid is confined (Fig. below) and the liquid is maintained at constant temperature,
after sufficient time, the confined space above the liquid will contain vapour molecules to the extent that
some of them will be forced to enter the liquid. Eventually an equilibrium condition will evolve when the
rate at which the number of vapour molecules striking back the liquid surface and condensing is just equal
to the rate at which they leave from the surface. The space above the liquid then becomes saturated with
vapour. The vapour pressure of a given liquid is a function of temperature only and is equal to the saturation
pressure for boiling corresponding to that temperature. Hence, the vapour pressure increases with the
increase in temperature. Therefore the phenomenon of boiling of a liquid is closely related to the vapour
pressure. In fact, when the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the total pressure impressed on its
surface, the liquid starts boiling. This concludes that boiling can be achieved either by raising the
temperature of the liquid, so that its vapour pressure is elevated to the ambient pressure, or by lowering the
pressure of the ambience (surrounding gas) to the liquid's vapour pressure at the existing temperature.

To and from movement of liquid molecules from an interface in a confined space as a closed
surrounding
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4) Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters a glass tube of 4mm diameter, when immersed in (a)
water (b) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 200 C and the values of the surface tension of
water and mercury at 200 C in contact with air are 0.073575 and 0.51 N/m respectively. The angle of
contact for water is zero that for mercury 1300. Take specific weight of water as 9790 N / m3
Given:
Diameter of tube  d = 4 mm = 4 103 m

4 cos 
Capillary effect (rise or depression)  h
p g d
  Surface tension in kg f/m
  Angle of contact and p = density
a. Capillary effect for water

  0.073575 N / m,   0 0
p  998 kg / m 3 @ 20 0 c
4  0.73575  Cos0 0
h 3
 7.51 10 3 m
998  9.81 4  10
= 7.51 mm.
b. Capillary effect for mercury :
  0.51 N / m,   130 0

p  sp gr 1000  13.6 1000  13600 kg / m 3

4  0.51 Cos130 0
h
13600  9.81 4 10 3
 2.46 10 3 m
= - 2.46 mm.
-Ve indicates capillary depression.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5) A cylinder of 0.6 m3 in volume contains air at 500C and 0.3 N/ mm2 absolute pressure. The air is
compressed to 0.3 m3. Find (i) pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process (ii) pressure
and temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take K = 1.4
Given:
Initial volume 1  0.36 m 3
Pressure P1 = 0.3 N/mm2
 0.3 10 6 N / m 2
Temperature, t1 = 500 C
T1 = 273 + 50 = 323 0 K
Final volume,  2  0.3m

3
K = 1.4
i. Isothermal Process:
P
 Cons tan t (or ) p  Cons tan t
p
p11  p 2  2
p11 30 10 4  0.6
p2    0.6 10 6 N / m 2
2 0.3
= 0.6 N / mm2
ii. Adiabatic Process:

p
 Cons tan t or
pK p K  cons tan t
p1 .1  p 2  2
K K

1.4
1 K  0.6 
p 2  p1  30  10 4     30  10 4  21.4
2 K  0.3 
 0.79110 6 N / m 2  0.791N / mm 2
For temperature, p  RT , p  cons tan t
k
RT RT
p and   k  cons tan t
 
RT k 1  Cons tan t

Tk 1  Cons tan t  R is also cons tan t 
T1V1k 1  T2V2k 1
k 1 1.4 1.0
V   0.6 
T2  T1  1   323  
 V2   0.3 
 323  2 0.4  426.2 0 K

t 2  426.2  273  153.20 C
6) If the velocity profile of a fluid over a plate is a parabolic with the vertex 202 cm from the plate,
where the velocity is 120 cm/sec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stress at a distance of
0,10 and 20 cm from the plate, if the viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise.
Given,
Distance of vertex from plate = 20 cm.
Velocity at vertex, u = 120 cm / sec.
8.5 Ns
Viscosity,   8.5 poise   0.85
10 m 2
Parabolic velocity profile equation, u  ay 2  by  C ----------- (1)

Where, a, b and c constants. Their values are determined from boundary conditions.
i) At y = 0, u = 0
ii) At y = 20cm, u = 120 cm/se.

du
iii) At y = 20 cm, 0
dy
Substituting (i) in equation (1), C = 0
Substituting (ii) in equation (1), 120  a20  b2  400a  20b -------(2)
2
du
Substituting (iii) in equation (1),  2ay  b
dy
0  2  a  20  b  40a  b -----------(3)
solving 1 and 2, we get,
400 a  20 b  0
( ) 40 a + b = 0
800 a  20 b  0
b = - 40 a
120  400 a  20 b 40 a   400 a  800 a  400 a
120 3
a     0.3
 400 10
b  40   0.3  1.2
Substituting a, b and c in equation (i) u  0.3 y 2  12 y

du
 0.3  2 y  12  0.6 y  12
dy
Velocity gradient
 du 
at y = 0, Velocity gradient,    0.6  0  12  12 / s.
  y 0
dy
 du 
at y =10 cm, Velocity gradient,    0.6  10  12  6  12  6 / s.
  y 10
dy
 du 
at y = 20 cm, Velocity gradient,
   0.6  20  12  12  12  0
  y 20
dy
Shear Stresses:
du
Shear stresses is given by,  
dy

 du 
Shear stress at y = 0 ,     
 dy   0.85  12.0  10.2 N / m 2
  y 0
 du 
10 ,    
ii. Shear stress at y =
   0.85  6.0  5.1N / m 2
 dy  y 10
 du 
Shear stress at y = 20 ,    
iii.
   0.85  0  0
 dy  y 20
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7) A 15 cm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of diameter 15.10
cm. Both cylinders are 25 cm high. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid whose
viscosity is unknown. If a torque of 12.0 Nm is required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 rpm
determine the viscosity of the fluid.
Solution:
Diameter of cylinder = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Diameter of outer cylinder = 15.10 cm = 0.151 m
Length of cylinder  L = 25 cm = 0.25 m

Torque T= 12 Nm ; N = 100 rpm.
Viscosity = 
 DN   0.15 100
Tangential velocity of cylinder u    0.7854 m / s
60 60
Surface area of cylinder A  D  L    0.15  0.25
= 0.1178 m2
 
du du  u  0  u  0.7854 m / s
dy
0.151  0.150
dy   0.0005 m
2
  0.7854

0.0005
  0.7854
Shear force, F  Shear Stress  Area   0.1178
0.0005
D
Torque T  F 
2

  0.7854 0.15
12.0   0.1178 
0.0005 2
12.0  0.0005  2
  0.864 Ns / m 2
0.7854  0.1178  0.15
  0.864 10  8.64 poise.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8) The dynamic viscosity of oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is
of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 rpm. Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length
of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm.
6 Ns Ns
Given,   6 poise   0.6
10 m 2 m2
D = 0.4 m L  90mm  90 10 3 m
N = 190 rpm. t  1.5mm  1.5 10 3 m
2 NT
Power  W
60
D
T  force  Nm.
2
F  Shear stress  Area    DL
du
  N / m2
dy
 DN
u m / s.
60
 DN   0.4 190
Tangential Velocity of shaft, u    3.98 m / s.
60 60
du = change of velocity = u – 0 = u = 3.98 m/s.
dy  t  1.5 10 3 m.
du 3.98
     10  3
 1592 N / m 2
dy 1.5 10
Shear force on the shaft F = Shear stress x Area
F  1592  D  L  1592    0.4  90 10 3  180.05N

D 0.4
Torque on the shaft, T  Force   180.05   36.01 Ns.
2 2
2NT 2 190  36.01
Power lost    716.48 W
60 60

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
9) If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by u  y  y 2 in which U is the velocity in m/s at a
3
distance y meter above the plate, determine the shear stress at
y = 0 and y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poise.
Given:
2
u y  y2
3
du 2
  2y
dy 3
 du   du 
  20 
2 2
  2  0.17   0.667  0.30
2
   
 dy  y 0 3 3  dy  y 0.15 3
8.63
  8.63 poise  SI units = 0.863 Ns / m2
10
du
 
dy
i. Shear stress at y = 0 is given by
 du 
 0      0.863  0.667  0.5756 N / m 2
 dy  y 0
ii. Shear stress at y = 0.15 m is given by
  y 0.15    du   0.863  0.367  0.3167 N / m 2

 dy  y 0.15
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10) The diameters of a small piston and a large piston of a hydraulic jack at3cm and 10 cm
respectively. A force of 80 N is applied on the small piston Find the load lifted by the large piston
when:
a. The pistons are at the same level
b. Small piston in 40 cm above the large piston.
The density of the liquid in the jack in given as 1000 kg/m3
Given: Dia of small piston d = 3 cm.
 
Area of small piston , a  d2   3  7.068cm 2
2

4 4
Dia of large piston, D = 10 cm

 10  78.54cm 2
P
A
2
 Area of larger piston,
4
Force on small piston, F = 80 N
Let the load lifted = W
a. When the pistons are at the same level
Pressure intensity on small piston
F 80
P  N / cm 2
a 7.068
This is transmitted equally on the large piston.
80
 Pressure intensity on the large piston 
7.068
 Force on the large piston = Pressure x area
80
= x 78.54 N = 888.96 N.
7.068
b. when the small piston is 40 cm above the large piston
Pressure intensity on the small piston
F 80
  N / cm 2
a 7.068
 Pressure intensity of section A – A
F
  pressure intensity due of height of 40 cm of liquid. P = pgh.
a
But pressure intensity due to 40cm. of liquid
 p  g  h  1000  9.81 0.4 N / m 2

1000  9.81 0.4
 4
N / cm 2  0.3924 N / cm 2
10
 Pressure intensity at section
80
A A   0.3924
7.068
= 11.32 + 0.3924 = 11.71 N/cm2
Pressure intensity transmitted to the large piston = 11.71 N/cm2
Force on the large piston = Pressure x Area of the large piston
 11.71 A  11.71 78.54

= 919. 7 N.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

UNIT – II
FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS
PART – A
1. List the types of fluid flow.
Steady and unsteady flow Uniform and non-uniform flow Laminar and Turbulent flow
Compressible and incompressible flow
Rotational and ir-rotational flow
One,two and three dimensional flow.
2. Define Steady and Unsteady flow.
Steady flow
Fluid flow is said to be steady if at any point in the flowing fluid various characteristics such as velocity,
density, pressure,etc do not change with time.
∂V/∂t = 0 ∂p/∂t = 0 ∂ρ/∂t = 0
Unsteady flow
Fluid flow is said to be unsteady if at any point flowing fluid any one or all characteristics which describe
the behaviour of the fluid in motion change with time.
∂V/∂t ≠ 0 ∂p/∂t ≠ 0 ∂ρ/∂t ≠ 0
3. Define Uniform and Non-uniform flow.
Uniform flow
When the velocity of flow of fluid does not change both in direction and magnitude from point to point in
the flowing fluid for any given instant of time, the flow is said to be uniform.
∂V/∂s = 0 ∂p/∂s = 0 ∂ρ/∂s = 0
Non-uniform flow
If the velocity of flow of fluid changes from point to point in the flowing fluid at any instant, the flow is said
to be non-uniform flow.
∂V/∂s ≠ 0 ∂p/∂s ≠ 0 ∂ρ/∂s ≠ 0

4. Compare Laminar and Turbulent flow.
Laminar and Turbulent flow
A flow is said to be laminar if Reynolds number is less than 2000 for pipe flow. Laminar flow is possible
only at low velocities and high viscous fluids. In laminar type of flow, fluid particles move in laminas or
layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer.
Turbulent flow
In Turbulent flow, the flow is possible at both velocities and low viscous fluid. The flow is said to be
turbulent if Reynolds number is greater than 4000 for pipe flow. In Turbulent type of flow fluid, particles
move in a zig – zag manner.
5. Define Compressible and incompressible flow
Compressible flow
The compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid changes from point to point i.e.
the density is not constant for the fluid. It is expressed in kg/sec.
ρ ≠ constant
Incompressible flow
The incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is constant for the fluid flow. Liquids are
generally incompressible. It is expressed in m3/s.
ρ = constant
6. Define Rotational and Ir-rotational flow.
Rotational flow
Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along stream lines and also
rotate about their own axis.
Ir-rotational flow
If the fluid particles are flowing along stream lines and do not rotate about their own axis that type of flow is
called as ir-rotational flow
7. Define One, Two and Three dimensional flow.
One dimensional flow
The flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time and one space co- ordinate only. u = f (x), v = 0 &
w = 0.
Two dimensional flow
The velocity is a function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinates.

u = f1(x,y), v = f2(x,y) & w =0.
Three dimensional flow
The velocity is a function of time and three mutually perpendicular directions.
u = f1(x,y,z), v = f2(x,y,z) & w = f3(x,y,z).
8. State the assumptions used in deriving Bernoulli’s equation
Flow is steady; Flow is laminar; Flow is irrotational;

Flow is incompressible; Fluid is ideal.
9. Write the Bernoulli’s equation applied between two sections with losses.
p1/ρg + vβ /βg + Z = p /ρg + vβ /βg + Z + h
10. δist the instruments works on the basis of Bernoulli’s equation.
Venturi meter; Orifice meter; Pitot tube.
11. Define Impulse Momentum Equation (or) Momentum Equation.
The total force acting on fluid is equal to rate of change of momentum. According to Newton‟s second law
of motion, F = ma
F dt = d(mv)
12. εention the range of Reynold’s number for laminar and turbulent flow in a pipe.
If the Reynold,s number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar. But if the
Reynold‟s number is greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent flow.
13. What does Haigen-Poiseulle equation refer to?
The equation refers to the value of loss of head in a pipe of length „δ‟ due to viscosity in a laminar flow.
14. What is Hagen poiseuille’s formula? (P1-Pβ) / ρg = hf = γβ µŪδ / ρgDβ
The expression is known as Hagen poiseuille formula.
Where P1-P2 / ρg = δoss of pressure head, Ū= Average velocity,
µ = Coefficient of viscosity, L = Length of pipe
D = Diameter of pipe,
15. Write the expression for shear stress?
Shear stress = - (∂p/∂x) (r/β)

max = - (∂p/∂x) (R/β)
16. Give the formula for velocity distribution: -
The formula for velocity distribution is given as
u = - (¼ µ) (∂p/∂x) (Rβ-r2)
Where R = Radius of the pipe, r = Radius of the fluid element
17. Give the equation for average velocity : -
The equation for average velocity is given as
Ū = - (1/8µ) (∂p/∂x) Rβ
Where R = Radius of the pipe
18. Write the relation between Umax and Ū?
Umax / Ū = { - (¼ µ) (∂p/∂x) Rβ } / { - ⅛µ (∂p/∂x) Rβ } Umax / Ū = β
19. Give the expression for the coefficient of friction in viscous flow?
Coefficient of friction between pipe and fluid in viscous flow f =16/ Re
Where, f = Re = Reynolds number
20. What are the factors to be determined when viscous fluid flows through the circular pipe?
The factors to be determined are:
i. Velocity distribution across the section.
ii. Ratio of maximum velocity to the average velocity. iii. Shear stress distribution.
iv. Drop of pressure for a given length.
21. Define kinetic energy correction factor?
Kinetic energy factor is defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy of the flow per sec based on actual velocity
across a section to the kinetic energy of the flow per sec based on average velocity across the same section.
It is denoted by (α).
K. E factor (α) = K.E per sec based on actual velocity / K.E per sec based on Average velocity
22. Define momentum correction factor ( ):
It is defined as the ratio of momentum of the flow per sec based on actual velocity to the momentum of the
flow per sec based on average velocity across the section.
β= εomentum per sec based on actual velocity/εomentum Per sec based on average velocity

23. Define Boundary layer.
When a real fluid flow passed a solid boundary, fluid layer is adhered to the solid boundary. Due to adhesion
fluid undergoes retardation thereby developing a small region in the immediate vicinity of the boundary.
This region is known as boundary layer.
24. What is mean by boundary layer growth?
At subsequent points downstream of the leading edge, the boundary layer region increases because the
retarded fluid is further retarded. This is referred as growth of boundary layer.
25. Classification of boundary layer.
(i) Laminar boundary layer, (ii) Transition zone, (iii) Turbulent boundary layer.
26. Define Laminar boundary layer.
Near the leading edge of the surface of the plate the thickness of boundary layer is small and flow is laminar.
This layer of fluid is said to be laminar boundary layer.
The length of the plate from the leading edge, upto which laminar boundary layer
exists is called as laminar zone. In this zone the velocity profile is parabolic.
27. Define transition zone.
After laminar zone, the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and the fluid motion transformed to
turbulent boundary layer. This short length over which the changes taking place is called as transition zone.
28. Define Turbulent boundary.
Further downstream of transition zone, the boundary layer is turbulent and continuous to grow in thickness.
This layer of boundary is called turbulent boundary layer.
29. Define Laminar sub Layer
In the turbulent boundary layer zone, adjacent to the solid surface of the plate the velocity variation is
influenced by viscous effects. Due to very small thickness, the velocity distribution is almost linear. This
region is known as laminar sub layer.
30. Define Boundary layer Thickness.
It is defined as the distance from the solid boundary measured in y-direction to the point, where the velocity
of fluid is approximately equal to 0.99 times the free stream velocity (U) of the fluid. It is denoted by .
31. List the various types of boundary layer thickness.
Displacement thickness( *), εomentum thickness( ), Energy thickness( **)
32. Define displacement thickness.
The displacement thickness ( ) is defined as the distance by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in flow rate on account of boundary layer formation.

* = ∫ [ 1 – (u/U) ] dy
33. Define momentum thickness.
The momentum thickness ( ) is defined as the distance by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.
= ∫ [ (u/U) – (u/U)2 ] dy
34. Define energy thickness
The energy thickness ( **) is defined as the distance by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.
** = ∫ [ (u/U) – (u/U)3 ] dy
35. What is meant by energy loss in a pipe?
When the fluid flows through a pipe, it looses some energy or head due to frictional resistance and other
reasons. It is called energy loss. The losses are classified as; Major losses and Minor losses
36. Explain the major losses in a pipe.
The major energy losses in a pipe is mainly due to the frictional resistance caused by the shear force
between the fluid particles and boundary walls of the pipe and also due to viscosity of the fluid.
37. Explain minor losses in a pipe.
The loss of energy or head due to change of velocity of the flowing fluid in magnitude or direction is called
minor losses. It includes: sudden expansion of the pipe, sudden contraction of the pipe, bend in a pipe, pipe
fittings and obstruction in the pipe, etc.
38. State Darcy-Weisbach equation OR What is the expression for head loss due to friction?
hf = 4flv2 / 2gd
where, hf = Head loss due to friction (m), L = Length of the pipe (m),
d = Diameter of the pipe (m), V = Velocity of flow (m/sec)
f = Coefficient of friction
39. What are the factors influencing the frictional loss in pipe flow?
Frictional resistance for the turbulent flow is,
i. Proportional to vn where v varies from 1.5 to 2.0. ii. Proportional to the density of fluid.
iii. Proportional to the area of surface in contact.
iv. Independent of pressure.
v. Depend on the nature of the surface in contact.

40. Write the expression for loss of head due to sudden enlargement of the pipe.
hexp = (V1-V2)2 /2g
Where, hexp = Loss of head due to sudden enlargement of pipe.
V1 = Velocity of flow at pipe 1; V2 = Velocity of flow at pipe 2.
41. Write the expression for loss of head due to sudden contraction. hcon =0.5 V2/2g
hcon = Loss of head due to sudden contraction. V = Velocity at outlet of pipe.
42. Write the expression for loss of head at the entrance of the pipe. hi =0.5V2/2g
hi = Loss of head at entrance of pipe. V = Velocity of liquid at inlet of the pipe.
43. Write the expression for loss of head at exit of the pipe. ho = V2/2g
where, ho = Loss of head at exit of the pipe.
V = Velocity of liquid at inlet and outlet of the pipe.
44. Give an expression for loss of head due to an obstruction in pipe
Loss of head due to an obstruction = V2 / 2g ( A/ Cc (A-a ) -1 )2
Where, A = area of pipe, a = Max area of obstruction,
V = Velocity of liquid in pipe A-a = Area of flow of liquid at section 1-1
45. What is compound pipe or pipes in series?
When the pipes of different length and different diameters are connected end to end, then the pipes are
called as compound pipes or pipes in series.
46. What is mean by parallel pipe and write the governing equations.
When the pipe divides into two or more branches and again join together downstream to form a single pipe
then it is called as pipes in parallel. The governing equations are:
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 hf1 = hf2
47. Define equivalent pipe and write the equation to obtain equivalent pipe diameter.
The single pipe replacing the compound pipe with same diameter without change in discharge and head loss
is known as equivalent pipe.
L = L1 + L2 + L3
(L/d5) = (L1/d1 5) + (L2/d2 5) + (L3/d3 5)
48. What is meant by εoody’s chart and what are the uses of εoody’s chart?

The basic chart plotted against Darcy-Weisbach friction factor against Reynold‟s Number (Re) for the
variety of relative roughness and flow regimes. The relative roughness is the ratio of the mean height of
roughness of the pipe and its diameter ( /D).
Moody‟s diagram is accurate to about 15% for design calculations and used for a large number of
applications. It can be used for non-circular conduits and also for open channels.
49. Define the terms a) Hydraulic gradient line [HGL] b) Total Energy line [TEL]
Hydraulic gradient line: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head and datum head of a
flowing fluid in a pipe with respect the reference line.
HGL = Sum of Pressure Head and Datum head
Total energy line: Total energy line is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head
and kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line.
TEL = Sum of Pressure Head, Datum head and Velocity head
16 Mark Questions and Answers
1. Hydro dynamically smooth pipe carries water at the rate of 300 lit/s at 20 oC ( = 1000 kg/m3, 
= 10-6 m2/s) with a head loss of 3m in 100m length of pipe. Determine the pipe diameter. Use f =
0.0032 + (0.221)/ (Re)0.237 equation for f where hf = ( fXLXV2)/ 2gd and Re = (VD/)
Given:
Discharge, Q = 300 lit/sec = 0.3m3/s
Density  = 1000 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity  = 10-6m2/s
Head loss hf = 3m
Length of pipe, L = 100m
Value of friction factor, f = 0.0032 + 0.221 / (Re)0.237
Renolds number Re = (VD/) = (VXD) /  (/ = )
VXD/ 10-6 = VXDX106
Find diameter of pipe.
Let D = diameter of pipe
Head loss in terms of friction factor is given as
hf = ( fXLXV2)/ 2gXD
3 = (fX100XV2)/ 2X9.81XD
f = ( 3XDX2X9.81)/ 100V2
f = 0.5886D / V2 ------------------------------( i)
now Q = AXV


0.3 = ( D)2 X V or D2 X V = ( 4 X 0.3 / π ) = 0.382
4
V2 = 0.382 / D2 --------------------------- (ii)
f = 0.0032 + (0.221)/ (Re)0.237
0.5886/ D2 = 0.0032 + (0.221)/ (VXDX106)0.237
{ from equation (i), f = 0.5886D/V2 and Re = VXDX106}
0.221
0.5886D / ( 0.382/D2) 2 = 0.0032 + 0.237
 0.382 
 XDX 10 6 
 D 2

{ from Equation (ii), V = 0.382 / D2}

0.221
0.5886 x D5/ 0.3822 = 0.0032 +
 (0.382 X 10 6 ) 0.237 
 
 D 0.237 
 
4.0333 D5 = 0.0032 + 0.0015 X D0.237

4.0333 D5 – 0.0105 D 0.237 – 0.0032= 0 ---------------(iii)
the above equation (iii) will be solved hit trial method
(i). Assume D = 1m, then L.H.S of the equation (iii), becomes as
L.H.S = 4.033 X 1 5 – 0.0105 X 10.237 – 0.0032
= 4.033 – 0.0105 – 0.0032 = 4.0193
by increasing the value of D more than 1m , the L.H.S. will go on increasing. Hence decrease the
value of D.
(ii) Assume D = 0.3 than L.H.S of equation (iii)
becomes as L.H.S = 4.033 X 0.30.237 – 0.0032
= 0.0098 – 0.00789 – 0.0032 = - 0.00129
as this value of negative, the values of D will be slightly more than 0.3
(iii) Assume D = 0.306 then L.H.S of equation (iii) becomes as
L.H.S = 4.033 X 0.3060.237 – 0.0105X0.3060.237 – 0.0032
= 0.0108 – 0.00793 – 0.0032 = - 0.00033
This value of L.H.S is approximately equal to equal to zero. Actually the value of D will be
slightly more than 0.306m say 0.308m.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Expression for loss of head due to friction in pipes.
Or
Darcy – Weisbach Equation.(NOV/DEC 2010)
Consider a uniform horizontal pipe, having steady flow as shown figure. Let 1 -1 and 2-2 are two
sections of pipe.
Let P1 = pressure intensity at section 1-1.

Let P2 = Velocity of flow at section 1-1.
L = length of the pipe between the section 1-1 and 2-2
d = diameter off pipe.
f1 = Frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity.
hf = loss of head due to friction.
And P2,V2 = are the values of pressure intensity and velocity at section 2-2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1-1 & 2-2
Total head 1-1 = total head at 2-2 + loss of head due to friction between
1-1&2-2
(P1/ρg) + (V12 / 2g) + Z1 = (P2/ρg) + (V22 / 2g) + Z2+hf ------------(1)
but Z1 = Z1 [ pipe is horizontal ]
V1= V2 [ diameter of pipe is same at 1-1 & 2-2]
(1) becomes,
(P1/ ρg) = (P2/ρg)+hf
hf = (P1/ ρg) - (P2/ρg)
frictional resistance = frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity X
wetted area X velocity 2.
F = f1 X π d l X V2 [ Wetted area = π d X δ, and Velocity V = V1 = V2]
F1 = f1XPXLXV2 ----------- (2). [π d = wetted perimeter = p]
The forces acting on the fluid between section 1-1 and 2-2 are,
1) Pressure force at section 1-1 = P1X A
2) Pressure force at section 2-2 = P2 X A
3). Frictional force F1
Resolving all forces in the horizontal direction.,
P1 A – P2A – F1 = 0
(P1-P2)A = F1 = f1XPXLXV2
(P1-P2) = (f1XPXLXV2 / A ).
But from (1) we get
P1 – P2 = ρg hf
Equating the values of (P1 – P2) we get
ρg hf = (f1XPXLXV2 / A ).
hf = (f1 / ρg) X (P/A) X δX V2
(P/A) = (π d / (π d2/4)) = (4/d)
hence, hf = ( f1 / ρg) X ( 4/d) X δXV2.
Putting (f1 / ρ) = ( f / 2) , where f is the co – efficient of friction

4 fLV 2
hf =
2 gd
This equation is known as Darcy – Weisbach equation. This equation is commonly used to
find loss of head due to friction in pipes
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. The rate of flow through a horizontal pipe is 0.25 m3/s. the diameter of the pipe which is
200mm is suddenly enlarged to 400mm. the pressure intensity in the smaller pipe is 11.772
N/cm2. Determine (i). Loss of head due to sudden enlargement (ii). Pressure intensity in large
pipe. (iii). Power lost due to enlargement.
Given:
Discharge Q = 0.25 m3/s.
Dia. Of smaller pipe D1 = 200mm = 0.2m

Area A1 = (0.2) 2 = 0.03141 m2.
4
Dia of large pipe D2 = 400mm = 0.4m

Area A2 = (0.4) 2 = 0.12566 m2.
4
Pressure in smaller pipe p1 = 11.772 N/cm2 = 11.772 X104 N/m2.
Now velocity V1 = Q / A1 = 0.25 / 0.03414 = 7.96 m/s.
Velocity V2 = Q / A2 = 0.25 / 0.12566 = 1.99 m/s.
(i). Loss of head due to sudden enlargement,
he = ( V1 – V2)2/ 2g = (7.96 – 1.99) 2 / 2X 9.81 = 1.816 m.
(ii). Let the pressure intensity in large pipe = p2.
Then applying Bernoulli’s equation before and after the sudden enlargement,
(P1/ρg) + (V12 / 2g) + Z1 = (P2/ρg) + (V22 / 2g) + Z2+he
But Z1 = Z2
(P1/ρg) + (V12 / 2g) = (P2/ρg) + (V22 / 2g) +he
Or (P1/ρg) + (V12 / 2g) = (P2/ρg) + (V22 / 2g) + Z2+hf

(P2/ρg) = (P1/ρg) + (V1 / 2g) - (V2 / 2g) - he
2 2
11.772 X 10 4 7.96 2 1.99 2

=    1.816
1000 X 9.81 2 X 9.81 2 X 9.81
= 12.0+3.229-0.2018-1.8160
= 15.229 – 20.178 = 13.21m of water
p2 = 13.21 X ρg = 13.21 X 100X 9.81 σ/m2
= 13.21X1000X9.81X10-4 N/cm2. = 12.96N/cm2.
(iii). Power lost due to sudden enlargement,
P = (ρg Q he) / 1000 = (1000X9.81X0.25X1.816)/1000 = 4.453kW.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. A horizontal pipeline 40m long is connected to a water tank at one end and discharges freely into
the atmosphere at the other end. For the first 25m of its length from the tank, the pipe is 150mm
diameter is suddenly enlarged to 300mm. the height of water level in the tank is 8m above the
centre of the pipe. Considering all losses of head, which occur. Determine the rate of flow. Take f =
0.01 for both sections of the pipe.
Given:
Total length of pipe, L = 40m
Length of 1 st pipe, L1 = 25m
Dia of 1st pipe d1 = 150mm = 0.15m
Length of 2nd pipe L2 = 40 – 25 = 15m
Dia of 2nd pipe d2 = 300mm = 0.3m
Height of water H = 8m
Co-effi. Of friction f = 0.01
Applying the Bernoulli’s theorem to the surface of water in the tank and outlet of pipe as shown
in fig. and taking reference line passing through the center of the pipe.
0+0+8 = (P2/ρg) + (V22 / 2g) +0+all losses
8.0 = 0+(V22 / 2g)+hi+ hf1+ he+ hf2
Where, hi = loss of head at entrance = 0.5 V12/ 2g
4 XfXL1 XV12
hf1 = head lost due to friction in pipe 1 =
d1 X 2 g

he = loss of head due to sudden enlargement = (V1- V2)2/2g
4 XfXL2 XV 22
hf2 = head lost due to friction in pipe 2 =
d 2 X 2g
But from continuity equation, we have
A1V1 = A2V2

d 22 XV 2 2
d 
2
 0.3 
V1 = (A2V2/A1) = 4   2  XV 2    XV 2  4V2
  d1   0.15 
d 12
4
Substituting the value of V1 in different head losses, we have
hi = 0.5 Vi2/ 2g = (0.5 X (4V2)2 )/ 2g = 8V22/2g
4 X 0.01X 25 X (4V22 ) 4 X 0.01X 25 X 16 V22 V22

hf1 =  X  106.67
0.15 X 2 g 0.15 2g 2g
he = (V1 – V2)2/ 2g = (4V2 – V2)2/2g = 9V22/2g
4 X 0.01X 15 X (V22 ) 4 X 0.01X 15 V22 V22

hf2 =  X  2.0
0.3 X 2 g 0.3 2g 2g
Substituting the values of these losses in equation (i), we get
V22 8V22 V 2 9V 2 V2
8.0 =   106.67 2  2  2 X 2
2g 2g 2g 2g 2g
V22 V22
= [ 1+8+106.67+9+2] = 126.67
2g 2g
8.0 x2 xg 8.0 X 2 X 9.81

V2 =   1.113 m/s
126.67 126.67

Rate of flow Q = A2XV2 = ( 0.3)2 X 1.113 = 0.07867 m3/s = 78.67 litres/sec.
4
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. A pipe line, 300mm in diameter and 3200m long is used to pump up 50kg per second of an oil
whose density is 950n kg/m3.and whose Kinematic viscosity is 2.1 stokes. The center of the pipe
at upper end is 40m above than at the lower end. The discharge at the upper end is
atmospheric. Find the pressure at the lower end and draw the hydraulic gradient and the total
energy line.
Given:

Dia of pipe d = 300mm = 0.3m
Length of pipe L = 3200m
Mass M = 50kg/s = ρ. Q
Discharge Q = η0/ ρ = η0/9η0 = 0.0η2θ m3/s
Density ρ = 9η0 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity  = 2.1 stokes = 2.1 cm2/s = 2.1 X10-4 m2/s
Height of upper end = 40m
Pressure at upper end = atmospheric = 0
Renolds number, Re = VXD/, where V = Discharge / Area

= 0.0526/ ( (0.3) 2) = 0.744 m/s
4
Re = (0.744X0.30) / (2.1X10-4) = 1062.8
Co – efficient of friction, f = 16/ Re = 16 / 1062.8 = 0.015
Head lost due to friction,hf
4 XfXL XV 2 4 X 0.015 X 3200 X (0.744) 2

=   18.05m of oil.
d X 2g 0.3 X 2 X 9.81
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation at the lower and upper end of the pipe and taking datum line
passing through the lower end, we have
(P1/ρg) + (V12 / 2g) + Z1 = (P2/ρg) + (V22 / 2g) + Z2+hf
but Z1 = 0, Z2 = 40m., V1 = V2 as diameter is same.
P2 = 0, hf = 18.05m
Substituting these values, we have
= 5400997 N/m2 = 54.099 N/cm2.
H.G.L. AND T.E.L.
V2/2g = (0.744)2/2X9.81 = 0.0282 m
p1/ ρg = η8.0η m of oil
p2 / ρg = 0

Draw a horizontal line AX as shown in fig. From A draw the centerline of the pipe in such way that
point C is a distance of 40m above the horizontal line. Draw a vertical line AB through A such that AB =
58.05m. Join B with C. then BC is the hydraulic gradient line.
Draw a line DE parallel to BC at a height of 0.0282m above the hydraulic gradient line. Then DE is
the total energy line.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. A main pipe divides into two parallel pipes, which again forms one pipe. The length and diameter
for the first parallel pipe are 2000m and 1.0m respectively, while the length and diameter of 2 nd
parallel pipe are 2000m and 0.8m. Find the rate of flow in each parallel pipe, if total flow in main is
3.0 m3/s. the co-efficient of friction for each parallel pipe is same and equal to 0.005.
Given:
Length of Pipe 1 L1= 2000m
Dia of pipe1 d1 = 1.0m
Length of pipe 2 L2 = 2000m
Dia of pipe 2 d2 = 0.8m
Total flow Q = 3.0m3/s
f1 = f2 = f = 0.005
let Q1 = discharge in pipe 1
let Q2 = discharge in pipe 2
from equation, Q = Q1+ Q2 = 3.0 ---------------(i)
using the equation we have
4 Xf 1 XL1 XV12 4 Xf 2 XL2 XV 22

=
d1 X 2 g d 2 X 2g
4 X 0.005 X 2000 XV12 4 X 0.005 X 2000 XV 22

=
1.0 X 2 X 9.81 0.8 X 2 X 9.81
V12 V 22 V2
 orV12  2
1.0 0.8 0.8
V2 V2
V1  
0.8 0.894
 
Now, Q1 = d12XV1 = ( 1)2X(V2 / 0.894)
4 4

  
And Q2 = d22XV2 = (0.8) 2X(V2) = (0.64) X (V2)
4 4 4
Substituting the value of Q1 and Q2 in equation (i) we get
 
(1)2X(V2 / 0.894)+ ( 0.64)X(V2) = 3.0 or 0.8785 V2 + 0.5026 V2 = 3.0
4 4
V 2[0.8785+0.5026] = 3.0 or V = 3.0 / 1.3811 = 2.17 m/s.
Substituting this value in equation (ii),
V1 = V2 / 0.894 = 2.17 / 0.894 m/s
 
Hence Q1 = d12XV1 = 12X2.427 = 1.096 m3/s
4 4
Q2 = Q – Q1 = 3.0 – 1.906 = 1.904 m3/s.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Three reservoirs A, B, C are connected by a pipe system shown in fig. Find the discharge into
or from the reservoirs B and C if the rate of flow from reservoirs A is 60 litres / s. find the
height of water level in the reservoir C. take f = 0.006 for all pipes.
Given:
Length of pipe AD, L1 = 1200m
Dia of pipe AD, d1 = 30cm = 0.3m
Discharge through AD, Q1 = 60lit/s = 0.06 m3/s
Height of water level in A from reference line , ZA= 40m
For pipe DB, length L2 = 600mm, Dia., d2 = 20cm = 0.20m, ZB= 38.0
For pipe DC, length L3 = 800mm, Dia., d3= 30cm = 0.30m,
pD
Applying the Bernoulli’s equations to point E and, ZA = ZD+ +hf
g
4 Xf 1 XL1 XV12 
Where hf = , where V1 = Q1 / Area = 0.006 / ( ( 0.3)2) = 0.848 m/s.
d1 X 2 g 4
4 X 0.006 X 1200 X 0.848 2

hf= = 3.518 m.
0.3 X 2 X 9.81
p1
{ZD+ } = 40.0 – 3.518 = 36.482 m
g
Hence piezometric head at D = 36.482m. Hence water flows from B to D.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to point B and D
pD
ZB = {ZD+ }+hf2 or 38 = 36.482 + hf2
g
hf2 = 38 – 36.482 = 1.518m
4 XfXL2 XV 22 4 X 0.006 X 600 XV 22

But hf2 = 
d 2 X 2g 0.2 X 2 X 9.81
4 X 0.006 X 600 XV22

1.518 =
0.2 X 2 X 9.81
1.518 X 0.2 X 2 X 9.81

V2 =  0.643m / s
4 X 0.006 X 600
 
Discharge Q2 = V2X ( d2)2 = 0.643 X X(0.2)2 = 0.0202m3/s = 20.2lit/s.
4 2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to D and C
pD
{ZD+ }= ZC+hf3
g
4 XfXL3 XV32 Q3
36.482 = ZC + where, V3 
d 3 X 2g  2
d3
4
but from continuity Q1 + Q2 = Q3
Q3 = Q1+Q2 = 0.006 + 0.0202 = 0.0802 m3/s
Q3 Q3
V3    1.134m / s
 
d 32 (0.9) 2
4 4
4 X 0.006 X 800 X 1.134 2

36.482 = ZC +  ZC+ 4.194
0. X 2 X 9.81
ZC = 36.482 – 4.194 = 32.288m
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8. A Pipe line of length 2000 m is used for power transmission. If 110.365 kW power is to be
transmitted through the pipe in which water having pressure of 490.5 N/cm2 at inlet is flowing.
Find the diameter of the pipe and efficiency of transmission if the pressure drop over the
length of pipe is 98.1 N/cm2. Take f = 0.0065.
Given:
Length of pipe L = 2000m.

H.P transmitted = 150
Pressure at inlet, p = 490.5 N/cm2 = 490.5 X104 N/m2.
Pressure head at inlet, H = p / ρg
Pressure drop = 98.1 N/cm2 = 98.1X104/m2

Loss of head hf = 98.1 X104 / ρg = 98.1X104/ ( 1000 X 9.81) = 100m
Co – efficient of friction f = 0.0065
Head available at the end of the pipe = H – hf = 500 – 100 = 400m
Let the diameter of the pipe = d
Now power transmitted is given by,
P = [ρg X Q X ( H – hf)] / 1000 kW.
110.3625 = [ 1000X9.81XQX400] / 1000
Q = [ 110.3625 X 1000 / ( 1000X9.81X400) ] = 0.02812m3/s
 2
But discharge Q = AXV = d XV
4
 2
d X V = 0.02812
4
V = (0.02812 X 4) / 3.14 X d2 = 0.0358 / d2----------(1)
Total head lost due to friction,
4 fXLXV 2
hf =
dX 2 g
but, hf = 100m
4 XfXL XV 2 4 X 0.0065 X 2000 XV 2 2.65 XV 2
100 = hf =  
d X 2g dX 2 X 9.81 d
= (2.65 / d) X (0.358/d2)2 = 0.003396 / d5

from equation (1),
V = 0.0358 / d2
100 = 0.003396 / d5
d = (0.00396 / 100)1/5 = 0.1277m = 127.7mm.
Efficiency of power transmission is given by equation
H hf 500  100
  = 0.80 = 80%
H 500
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9. Determine the equivalent pipe corresponding to 3pipes in series with length and diameters l 1, l2,
13, d1, d2, d3 respectively.
Equivalent pipe:
The compound pipe is consisting of several pipes of different lengths and different diameters.
The equivalent pipe is defined as the pipe of uniform diameter having loss of head and discharge
equal to the loss of head and discharge of a compound pipe.
So compound pipe can be replaced by equivalent pipe since both are having same loss of head
and discharge.
The uniform diameter of equivalent pipe is called equivalent size of the pipe. The length of the
equivalent pipe is the sum of length of the compound pipe (i.e. L=L1+L2+L3+……)
Consider compound pipe consisting of 3pipes
Length of the pipe, L= L1+L2+L3
D = Diameter of the equivalent pipe
Total head loss in compound pipe neglecting minor losses:
[Assuming f is same for all pipes]

Using continuity eqn:
Substitute these values in eqn 1, we get
Total head loss in equivalent pipe
[f is same as that of compound pipe]

Also
So,
Since head loss in compound pipe and equivalent pipe is same, we equate 2 & 3
This equation is known as Dupuit’s eqn, from this eqn we can find the diameter of equivalent pipe.

10. 2 pipes of dia.40cm & 20cm are each 300m long. When the pipes are connected in series &
discharge through the pipeline is 0.10m3/sec,find the loss of head incurred. What would be the
loss of head in the system to pass the same total discharge when the pipes are connected in
parallel? Take f=0.0075 for each pipe.
Given:
L=300; D1=40cm; D2=20cm; Q=0.10m3/sec; f=0.0075
=0.4m =0.2m
Solution:
Loss of head
i. When the pipes are connected in series
ii. When the pipes are connected in parallel
Q = total discharge through parallel pipe system

Q1= discharge through pipe 1
Q2= discharge through pipe 2
Q1=5.66Q2
W.K.T,
Q=Q1+Q2
0.1=5.66Q2+Q2
0.1=6.66Q2
Q2=
Q2=0.015m3/s
f = 0.523m

UNIT – IV
PUMPS
PART – A
1. What are fluid machines or Hydraulic machines?
The machines which use the liquid or gas for the transfer of energy from fluid to rotor or from rotor to fluid
are known as fluid machines.
2. How are fluid machines classified?
Fluid machines are classified into two categories depending upon transfer of energy:
1. Turbines – hydraulic energy is converted to mechanical energy and then electrical energy. 2. Pumps –
electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy and then hydraulic energy.
3. What are called turbines?
Hydraulic turbines are the machines which use the energy of water and convert it into mechanical energy.
The mechanical energy developed by a turbine is used in running the electrical generator which is directly
coupled to the shaft.
4. What is known as Euler’s equation for turbo-machines?
The general expression for the work done per second on impeller is
ρQ[Vw1u1 + Vw2u2]
5. Define Gross Head of a turbine.
The difference between head race level and tail race level is known as Gross Head
6. Define Net head of a turbine.
It is also called effective head and is defined as the head available at the inlet of the turbine. H = Hg – hf
7. What are the efficiencies of a turbine?
Hydraulic efficiency Mechanical efficiency
Volumetric efficiency Overall efficiency
8. Define Hydraulic efficiency.
It is defined as the ratio of the power given by water to the runner of a turbine to the power supplied by the
water at the inlet of the turbine.
Water power = QH = (1/β) m vβ

9. Define Mechanical efficiency.
The ratio of the power available at the shaft of the turbine to the power delivered to the runner is defined as
mechanical efficiency.
10. Define volumetric efficiency.
The ratio of the volume of the water actually striking the runner to the volume of water supplied to the
turbine is defined as volumetric efficiency.
11. Define Overall efficiency.
It is defined as the ratio of the power available at the shaft of the turbine to the power supplied by the water
at the inlet of the turbine.
o = h m v (or) o = h m
12. What are an impulse turbine and a reaction turbine? Impulse Turbine:
If at the inlet of the turbine, the energy available is only kinetic energy, the turbine
is known as impulse turbine. The pressure at the inlet of the turbine is atmosphere. This turbine is used for
high heads. The water strikes the bucket along the tangent of the runner. Ex: Pelton Wheel Turbine.
Reaction Turbine:
If at the inlet of the turbine, the water possesses kinetic energy as well as pressure energy, the turbine is
known as reaction turbine. As the water flows through the runner, the water is under pressure and the
pressure energy goes on changing into kinetic energy. The runner is completely enclosed in an air-tight
casing and the runner and casing is completely full of water. This turbine is used for medium heads. Ex:
Francis Turbine.
13. Define Jet Ratio.
It is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter (D) of the Pelton wheel to the diameter of the jet (d). It is
denoted by „m‟ and is given as m = D/d
14. Classification of hydraulic turbines:
(a) Based on type of energy available at inlet
Impulse turbine (Pelton wheel)
Reaction turbine (Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine)
(b) Based on head available at inlet
High head turbine – [ > 250 m ] - (Pelton wheel)
Medium head turbine – [ 60 to 250 m ] - (Francis turbine)
Low head turbine – [ < 60 m ] – (Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine)

(c) Based on specific speed
High specific speed turbine – (Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine) Medium specific speed turbine - (Francis
turbine)
Low specific speed turbine - (Pelton wheel)
(d) Based on direction of flow through runner
Tangential flow turbine Radial flow turbine
Axial flow turbine Mixed flow turbine
15. Define Radial flow reaction turbine and their types.
If water flows in the radial direction in the turbine then it is referred as radial flow turbine.
Types:
Inward radial flow reaction turbine: If the water flows from outwards to inwards through the runner, the
turbine is known as inward radial flow reaction turbine. Here the outer diameter of the runner is inlet
diameter whereas the inner diameter of the runner is outlet diameter.
Outward radial flow reaction turbine: If the water flows from inwards to outwards through the runner, the
turbine is called as outward radial flow reaction turbine. Here the outer diameter of the runner is outlet
diameter whereas the inner diameter of the runner is inlet diameter.
16. What is mean by Draft Tube?
The draft tube is a pipe of gradually increasing area which connects the outlet of the runner to the tail race.
One end of the draft tube is connected to the outlet of the runner while the other end is sub-merged below
the level of water in the tail race.
17. Why do draft tubes have enlarging passage area in the direction of flow?
The pressure at the exit of the reaction turbine is generally less than atmospheric and this makes the water
NOT to discharge directly to the tail race. By the introduction of draft tube, which has enlarged area in the
direction of flow, the kinetic head reduces and pressure head increases. There by discharge of water to the
tail race safely.
18. Uses of draft tube:
Discharges water to tail race safely Converts a large proportion of rejected kinetic energy into useful
pressure energy Net head of the turbine is increased.
19. Types of draft tube:
Conical draft tube, Simple elbow tube, Moody spreading tube and Elbow draft tube with circular inlet and
rectangular outlet.

20. Define specific speed of a turbine.
It is defined as the speed of the turbine which is geometrically similar and it will develop unit power when
working under unit head.
Ns = N √P/ (H)η/ζ
21. Define Runaway speed of Turbine.
The max speed reached by the turbine after the removal of the external load is called runaway speed of
turbine. The various rotating components of the turbine should be designed to remain safe at the runaway
speed.
22. List the characteristic curves of Hydraulic turbine.
Main Characteristic Curves (or) Constant Head Curves
Operating Characteristic Curves (or) Constant Speed Curves
23. What is roto dynamic pump?
When the increase in pressure is developed by rotating impeller or by action of centrifugal force then the
pump is called as roto dynamic pump.
24. Define Centrifugal pump.
Hydraulic pump means it converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. If the mechanical energy is
converted into pressure energy means of centrifugal force acting on the fluid, the hydraulic machine is called
Centrifugal Pump.
25. Define Specific speed of a centrifugal pump.
The specific speed of a centrifugal pump is defined as the speed of a geometrically similar pump which
would deliver 1 m3/s against a head of 1 m.
Ns = N √Q/ (H)γ/ζ (OR) Ns = N √P/ (H)η/4
PART - B
1. The cylinder bore dia. And stroke of a SARP (Single Acting Reciprocating Pump) are 150mm &
300mm. The pump runs at 50 r.p.m& lifts water to a height of 25m. The delivery pipe is 22m
long, 100mm in dia. find the theoretical discharge & theoretical power required to drive the
pump. If the actual discharge is 4.2 liters/sec, find the %slip.
Given:SARP (Single Acting Reciprocating Pump)
D=150mm = 0.15m; L=300mm = 0.3m; N=50r.p.m; H=25m; Ld=22m; dp=100mm = 0.1m; Qa=4.2
lit/s = 4.2× .
Solution:
i. Theoretical discharge,Qth

ii. Theoretical power required, P
iii. Percentage of slip
2. The internal and external dia, of the impeller of centrifugal pump are 200mm and 400mm. The
pump is running at 1200rpm,the vane angle of impeller at inlet and outlet are 20° and 30°. The
water enters the impeller radially and the velocity of flow is constant. Determine the work done
by the impeller per unit weight of water.
Given:
D1=200mm =0.2m; =20°; D2=400mm =0.4m; ϕ =30°; σ=1200rpm; α =90°;
VW1=0 (velocity of flow is constant)
Solution:
From inlet velocity triangle,
Work done by the impeller per unit weight of water

3. A centrifugal pump impeller runs at 80rpm & has outlet vane angle of 60°. The velocity of flow
is throughout & dia. of the impeller at exit is twice that at inlet. If the head is 20m &
the mano metric efficiency is 75%, determine the dia. of the impeller at the exist& inlet vane
angle.
Given:
N=800rpm;
Solution:
From outlet velocity triangle
Sub 2 in 1, we get
Solving this quadratic eqn,
From inlet velocity triangle

4. (i). Derive an expression for acceleration head developed in a reciprocating pump
The crank starts from A (IDC). After t seconds, it covers the angle .
So
Displacement of piston in t seconds = x
Acceleration of piston, a=
Flow of water in pipe = Flow of water in cylinder
Ua=VA
Velocity of water in pipe, V=
Acceleration of water in pipe=
Mass of water in pipe =
Force of water, F=m*a
= *
Pressure of water due to acceleration = *
=
Acceleration pressure head (ha)
=
(ha)=
4.(ii) The piston area of a single acting reciprocating pump 0.15 & stroke is 30cm.The water is lifted
through a total head of 15cm.The area of delivery pipe is 0.03 .If the pump is running at
50rpm,find the percentage slip, coefficient of discharge & the power required to derive the pump.
The actual discharge is 35 liter/sec. Take ɳ mechanical is 0.85.
Given:-
Single acting reciprocating pump.
A=0.15 ; L=30cm; h=15m; N=50rpm
=0.3m
=35lit/sec
=0.035 /s
ɳ mech =0.85
Solution:
=
=0.3x0.15x => =0.0375 /s.
% Slip= x100 => x100
% Slip=6.67%
=
=
=0.93
W =9.81kw/
P =9.81x0.0375x15
=5.52kw.

Power required to drive the pump,

P=
=
P =6.5kw.
5. A single acting reciprocating pump has a dia. (piston) of 150mm & stroke length 350mm.The center
of pump is 3.5m above the water surface is the pump & 22m below the delivery water level. Both the
suction & delivery pipes have the same dia. of 100mm & are 5m & 30m long. If the pump is working
at 30rpm determine the heads on the piston at the beginning middle & end of both suction & delivery.
Given:
Single acting reciprocating pump,
D=150mm; L=350mm; ;
D=0.15m; L=0.35m
Dia. of suction & delivery pipe, =0.1m.

=5m; =30m; N=30rpm.
Solution:
r= = ; = x
r = 0.175m; = 0.01767
x 0.12 => 0.00785

= => => W = 3.142radian/s.
= x x .
= x x x 0.175
= 1.98m.
Pr. Head at beginning of suction stroke, on piston.
= - -
= 10.34 – 3.5 –
= 4.86m
= assume f = 0.01.
V= x = x 3.142 x 0.175 = 1.24m/s.
=
= 0.157m.
Pr. Head on the piston at the middle of suction stroke,

= – –
= 10.34 – 3.5 – 0.157
= 6.683m (absolute)
Pr. Head on the piston at the end of suction stroke,

= – + [ ]
= 10.34 – 3.5 + 1.98
= 8.82m (absolute)
Pr. Head due to acceleration in the delivery pipe is,

= x x .
= x x 3.142 x 0.175
= 3.783m.
= =
= 0.94m
At the beginning of suction stroke, Pr. Head on the piston (

= + + => 10.34 + 22 + 3.783.
= 36.123m (absolute).
At the middle of delivery stroke.

= + +
= 10.34 + 22 + 0.94
= 33.28m (absolute)
At the end of delivery stroke,

= + – ( = =0)
= 10.34 + 22 – 3.783.
= 28.56m (absolute)
6. For a single reciprocating pump, piston dia. is 150mm, stroke length is 300mm, rotational speed is
50 rpm. The pump is required to lift water to a height of 18m. Determine the theoretical discharge. If
the actual discharge is ζ.0 liter/sec & the ɳ mech is 80% , determine the bolometric efficiency, slip,
theoretical power & actual power required.
Given:
D = 150mm => 0.15m;
L = 300mm => 0.3m;
N = 50mm;
h = 18m;
= 4lit/sec;
= 0.004 /s
ɳ mech = 0.8;
Solution:
(i). = => 0.3 x x x
= 0.004418 /s
(ii) ɳvol = x 100 => x 100

ɳ vol = 90.η47.
(iii)Slip = – => 0.004418 – 0.04.

Slip = 0.000418 /s (or) 0.418
(iv) = => 9810 x 0.004418 x 18.

= 0.78kw.
(v) P = => => P = 0.975kw.

7. Explain working principle of screw & gear pump with sketch.
Screw pump:
It consist of a cylinder containing a helicoid it. The axis of the cylinder is kept inclined such that
its lower is rotated, the liquid is collected in the cells and is lifted.
Screw pumps also falls in the category of rotary pumps and have the same mechanism and principle.
Screw pumps are the only type of pumps which are different from other rotary displacement pumps because
of the axial flow of the fluid through their pumping elements. The fluid in screw pumps moves between the
screw threads and is displaced axially as the screws rotate and mesh.
Due to the axial flow pattern and low internal velocities, the screw pumps have certain advantages in
applications where churning and agitation of fluid is highly objectionable or not allowed. The inter-meshing
of the screw threads on the rotors and the very fine clearances of the surrounding housing creates a seal
between the pumps inlet and outlet.
Due to the rotation of the screws and the movement of fine clearances, pockets are formed in the helices of
the screw. As the screw moves the pockets also move axially and act similar to a piston moving in one
direction, while the fluid is moved axially from inlet to outlet.
Gear Pump:
It consist of two identical intermeshing spur wheels A & B working with a fine clearance
inside the casing. The gear wheels are designed in such a way that they from a fluid tight joint at the point of
contact as shown in figure.
Wheel A is keyed to the driving shaft and the other wheel B revolves as a driver wheel.
A gear pumps rotating assembly consists of two gears, a driving gear and a driven gear. Pumping in a gear
pump takes place when the driving gear meshes with the driven gear to form cavities that moves the fluid.
The cavities are the clearances between the gears or lobes and the body of the pump. The mating surfaces of
the gears' mesh provide continuous sealing between the inlet and outlet ports.

As the rotation of the pump continues, the movement of the cavities progresses, thus moving the fluid
along the way. After some time, a point is reached where the seal between the captured fluid and the outlet
part of the pump is broken. At this point of time the vanes, gears or lobes, forces the volume of the captured
fluid out of the pump. A continuous cycle takes place due to the simultaneously opening of new cavities at
the inlet port. This leads to a continuous flow of liquid though the suction and discharge ports.
8. Determine the mini speed for starting a centrifugal pump.

Minimum starting speed.
As a pump is started, it does not deliver water until enough need is developed to raise the water to the
descried height, according to Euler’s equation.
Energy transfer per unit mass.
Euler head ( )= + +
Till the pump starts delivering water, there is no flow from the eye towards the periphery. Thus fluid
velocities are zero. Only centrifugal head is impressed on required. The flow will Start as soon as the
centrifugal head developed becomes equal to the total head flow will commence only if the centrifugal head.
Minimum head required =

9. A single stage reciprocating pump(SARP) with impeller dia. of 30cm rotates at 2000rpm & lifts
of water/s to a height of 30m with an of 7η%. Find the no. of stages & dia. of each impeller of a
similar multistage pump to lift 5 of water per second to a height of 200metres when rotating at
1500rpm.
Given: SARP
D1=30cm =0.3m; N1=2000rpm; Q1=3 ; =0.7η
Solution:
Similar multistage pump
Q1=3 ; h= 200m; D2=dia. of each impeller; N1=1500rpm;
Specific speed should be same
10. A single acting reciprocating pump has piston dia. 12.5cm & stroke length 30cm. the center of the
pump is 4m above the water level in the sump. The diameter & length of suction pipe are 7.5cm & 7m.
the separation occurs if the absolute pressure head in the cylinder during suction stroke falls below
2.5m of water. Calculate the maximum speed at which the pump can run without separation. Take
atmospheric pressure head= 10.3m of water.
Given:
D= 12.5cm = 0.125m; L= 30cm = 0.3m; r = L/2 = 0.15m; hs= 4.0m; d s= 7.5cm =0.075m; l s= 7.0m; h
separation =2.5m; H atmosphere=10.3m
A=π/4*(0.12η)2 = 0.01227m2; a s=π/4*(0.07η)2 = 0.004418m2
Solution:
Pressure head in the cylinder at the beginning of suction stroke


FM Unit I, Ii & Iv

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

FM Unit I, Ii & Iv

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

6123 – SENGUNTHAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

1) What is a fluid? (NOV/DEC 2003, MAY/JUNE 2006)

Shear stress on a fluid body

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

5) Define Mass Density. (MAY/JUNE 2006,APRIL/MAY 2008,2010)

Mass Density or Density () is defined as

Density of water (w )= 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg / m3.

Weight of fluid  Mass of fluid 

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

Weight density of gas

Density of liquid 713.5

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

10) Define Viscosity. (NOV/DEC 2010)

This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity.

  Coefficient of dynamic viscosity (or) only viscosity

This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity.

  Coefficient of dynamic viscosity (or) only viscosity

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

Non - Newtonian Fluids:

Mass density p = 981 kg/m3, Shear stress   0.2452 N / m 2

22) How does the dynamic viscosity of (a) liquids and

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

23).Define Compressibility: (K)

Consider a cylinder filled with a piston as shown

V  Volume of gas enclosed in the cylinder

p  Pressure of gas when volume is 

- Ve sign  Volume decreases with increase in pressure

They are two different processes of compression

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

Differentiate on both sides

Let, Diameter of tube = d Angel  for water = 0

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

Density for water = 1000 kg / m3

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

Given: Distance between the plates, dy = 1.25 cm = 0.0125m.

Viscosity μ = 14 poise = 14 / 10 σs / m2 Velocity of upper plate,

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

(i) General gas equation is [Pv / T] =C

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

 System: A quantity of matter in space which is analyzed during a problem.

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

A Control Mass System or Closed System

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

Mathematically, ∆m/∆t = 0, where m = mass of the system

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

Movement of fluid molecules between two adjacent moving layers

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

Diameter of tube  d = 4 mm = 4 103 m

a. Capillary effect for water

b. Capillary effect for mercury :

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

p  sp gr 1000  13.6 1000  13600 kg / m 3

Final volume,  2  0.3m

ii. Adiabatic Process:

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY

RT k 1  Cons tan t

 323  2 0.4  426.2 0 K

Parabolic velocity profile equation, u  ay 2  by  C ----------- (1)

III YEAR V SEMESTER CE 6451 - FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINERY