Essays Cultural and Historical

One - 1955! The Impact of a Single Revolutionary Year On the Evolution of a Culture

When it comes to the key events that helped to create the societies that emerged in America and the West at
large in the post-war years, and specifically since the 1960s Counterculture, the 1950s are of considerable
relevance, with 1955 being arguably of special significance in this respect, as Charles Ealy, author of a 2005
article Seeds of Change Sown in 1955, published on the 26th of November 2005 in The Dallas Morning
News, cogently argues:
‘The Fifties are popularly remembered as a period of shiny complacency, but in reality, American culture
was being shaken to its core by mid-decade. In 1955 alone, the nation sat up and took notice of Elvis and
rock 'n' roll […] It saw the rise of teen culture, with James Dean representing youth alienation in East of
Eden and Rebel Without a Cause […] "It's a crucial year in a crucial decade in so many ways," says
Christopher Sharrett, a professor of communications and film studies at Seton Hall University in New Jersey.
"I think the year represents the increasing discontent of Americans during a period of great prosperity and
expansion" after World War II. It's easy to overemphasize one year such as 1955 and not see history as a
continuum, historians say. But "we begin to see major cracks in the plaster of American culture," Dr Sharrett
says.’i
1955 was the year in which Rock and Roll started making serious incursions into the mainstream of popular
music ii thereby helping to ignite the Rock and Youth revolutions to come, with Chuck Berry reaching
number 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 in July with Maybellene, and Bill Haley & His Comets’ Rock Around the
Clock becoming the first rock and Roll record to reach number that same month; while Little Richard would
reach number 21 with Tutti Frutti, featuring its celebrated Rock and Roll battle cry of
‘awopbopaloobopalapbamboom!’, in October.iii
The previous March had seen the release of Richard Brook’s film version of Evan Hunter’s semi-
autobiographical novel Blackboard Jungle, featuring Rock Around the Clock, which had initially been
recorded by Sonny Dae And His Knights, over the opening credits and beyond. Unlike Dae’s easy going
original, complete with tasteful Jazzy guitar solo, Haley’s ferocious version was remarkable for its earth-
shaking sense of urgencyiv; and it could be argued that the world would never be the same again following its
inclusion in Blackboard Jungle.v
Then in August, Sun Records of Memphis, Tennessee, released a Rockabilly cover of Mystery Train, written
by Junior Parker and recorded as Little Junior’s Blue Flames in 1953, by Elvis Presley, Scotty and Bill,
featuring the so-called King of Western Bopvi who went on to become not just the dominant artist of early
Rock and Roll, but one of the most momentous cultural figures of the 20th Century.vii
On the 30th of September, James Dean died in hospital following a motor accident aged 24, with his third
and final film, Nicholas Ray's Rebel Without a Cause, emerging a little under a month after his death, and
Dean’s luminously beautiful image, captured in innumerous charismatic photographs, has never dated nor
been truly surpassed in terms of its status as an icon of tortured rebelliousness.viii
One of the last of the year’s major revolutionary events took place on the 7th of October at San Francisco's
Six Gallery at 3119 Fillmore Street, when about 150 people gathered to witness readings by Philip Whalen,
Philip Lamantia, Michael McClure, Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder, with Kenneth Rexroth serving as MC,
and Jack Kerouac, Neal Cassady and Lawrence Ferlinghetti forming part of the audience. Ginsberg
galvanised the audience with excerpts from his epic poem Howl, destined to become the defining poem of
the nascent Beat Generation, while Kerouac, almost completely unknown at the time, emitted rhythmical
cries of encouragementix, until the entire audience joined in.x Two years later, Kerouac’s On the Road, a
semi-autobiographical novel based on his time on the road from 1947 to 1950, much of it with Cassady,
famously named Dean Moriarty in the novel, would secure his reputation as the movement’s prime mover,
even while the self-styled Canuck from Lowell, Massachusetts, was not a natural rebel, given his working
class origins and lifelong Catholic faith.xi
In a remarkable article entitled Youth in a Delinquent Society written for the Trotskyist Fourth International
in the Fall of 1955, its author, Joyce Cowley, was at pains to emphasize the general conformity of American
youth in the mid 1950s, while also making it clear that cautious conservatism was far from being the total
picture, and that there had been a sharp rise in crime since the onset of the decade. Additionally, she made
the point that the nature of the crimes committed during this period were of a shocking gravity that had been
relatively uncommon in the U.S. in more recent decades. In support, she alluded to various phenomena
which are all too familiar to those of us who came to maturity in the 1960s and beyond, including the abuse
of narcotics, and acts of gratuitous cruelty and violence, from teen gang rumbles to the senseless sacrifice of
innocents.xii
Yet far from being some kind of crime highpoint, 1955, or 1955-’60, marks the point crime started to
exponentially rise in both the USxiii and Western Europe.xiv At the same time, standards of sexual morality
were being slowly subtly undermined in America and the West, thereby anticipating the full-blown sexual
revolution of the succedent decade, as Kenneth Cmiel has affirmed:
‘[…] sexual mores were becoming less rigid inside mainstream society in the 1950s, a prelude for the next
decade. The counterculture of the mid 1960s was only picking up on debates already under way in
mainstream society.’xv
However, the 1960s would not truly burst into life until the onset of Beatlemania, and specifically the
Beatles’ invasion of America in February 1964 which occasioned what David Kapp has called ‘a cataclysmic
cultural shift’xvi within the U.S. More or less concurrently, yet far from the Pop mainstream, Bob Dylan’s
The Times They Are A-Changin’ from the January 1964 album of the same name seemed to herald the
Counterculture like some kind of a clarion callxvii, although Dylan himself refused the label of generational
spokesmanxviii, while some nine months later, the era of student protest began via the Free Speech Movement,
when students at the University of California, Berkeley, elected to protest against a ban on on-campus
political activity.xix Then on June the 14th, Colorado-born and Stanford-educated Ken Kesey, author of the
best-selling One Flew Over The Cuckoo’s Nest, set off on a road trip from his home in La Honda, California
in the company of an ever-mutating band known as the Merry Pranksters. Destined for the 1964 New York
World’s Fair, they did so on a luridly painted former school bus (‘yellows, oranges, blues, reds’ xx) named
Furthur, and it is significant that Neal Cassady, known by the Pranksters as Speed Limitxxi, did most of the
driving, given that the entire trip had been inspired by Jack Kerouac’s On the Road. Yet, when Kesey finally
met Kerouac in New York, the one-time king of the Beats had little to say to the new king of the nascent ’60s
Counterculture.xxii
The first of the notorious Acid Tests is believed to have occurred in Soquel, California, on the 27th of
November 1965 at the rented house of Prankster Ken Babbs, known as Intrepid Travellerxxiii; with the second
arising on the 4th of December in San Jose, at which the Warlocks, formed from the remnants of a jug blues
outfit named Mother McCree’s Uptown Jug Champions, played for the first time as the Grateful Dead. These
LSD-fuelled events, variously enhanced by such phenomena as day-glo décor and psychedelic light shows,
as well as the outlandish costumes of Acid Test revellersxxiv, could be said to have demarcated the point at
which the Beat Generation mutated into the Hippie Movement. While Allen Ginsberg became a kind of
father figure for the Hippies, his friend Jack Kerouac wanted no part of them xxv , and in the year the
Counterculture attained what many believe to have been its apogee in the shape of the Woodstock Music and
Art Fair of August 15-18, 1969xxvi, Kerouac died following a massive abdominal haemorrhage related to
years of chronic alcoholism, his dear friend Neal Cassady having predeceased him by only a matter of
months. Cowboy Neal had died in hospital early the previous year after having been found unconscious on
rail tracks just outside of San Miguel de Allende in Mexico’s central highlands.xxvii
Some half a century after the first Acid Test, and six decades following the Six Gallery reading, and any
relevant internet search will produce article after article proclaiming the moral decline of America and the
West at large, consequent on other forms of decline such as the traditional family, and traditional notions of
right and wrong centred on the West’s ancient Judeo-Christian foundations.xxviii
Moreover, there are those Christians, who are of the belief that these are the last days prior to the return of
Christxxix, as depicted in Matthew 24:
‘But as the days of Noah were, so shall also the coming of the Son of man be.’xxx
Yet, in the preceding verse, Christ makes it clear that apart from God the Father, no one knows the precise
day and hour of his return:
‘But of that day and hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels of heaven, but my Father only.’xxxi
While there is divergence of opinion among them with respect to the prophetic timeline, these believers
unanimously maintain that the millennium to come - hence their status as premillennialists - will constitute
the literal reign of Jesus Christ during which, to quote from a recent podcast by Chris Fluitt of Redemption
Church of Plano, Texas, ‘There won’t be sickness, disease or anyone born with deformity […] There will be
no oppression. No more racism. Social, political, economic or religious oppression.’xxxii
The revolutionary changes that distinguished the 1960s, which had themselves been significantly incubated
in the preceding decade notably via the Beat Generationxxxiii despite the latter’s general conformity, were
ultimately co-opted by the mainstream of Western societyxxxiv, where they set about significantly impacting
not just the end of the century world, but that of the early 21stxxxv, a world, as previously mentioned, many
see as being in a state of terminal moral decline, with the situation liable to only worsen as the millennium
gathers momentum; while others, quoting from Scripture, offer hope that this same world might be returned
to life and health by a revival of the moral values rooted in the West’s traditional Christian heritage.xxxvi
One fact is surely indisputable, however, and that is that the world, and specifically the Western World, has
been subject to an extraordinary degree of societal change in an extraordinarily brief space of time, with
1955 as a possible contender, among other years, for the point of departure; although the extent to which that
change might be reversed, if at all, is of course impossible to predict with any chance of certainty.
i
Charles Ealey, Seeds of Change Sown in 1955 (Dallas: The Dallas Morning News, 2005).
ii
Larry Birnbaum, Before Elvis: The Prehistory of Rock ‘n’ Roll (Lanham, Toronto and Plymouth: The Scarecrow Press,
2013), p. 11.
iii
John Covach, What’s That Sound: An Introduction to Rock and its History: 2: The Birth and First Flourishing of
Rock and Roll (New York City: WW. Norton and Company, Inc.).
iv
Klaus P. Fischer, America in White, Black, and Gray: A History of the Stormy 1960s (New York and London:
Continuum, 2006), p. 66.
v
Alex Frazer-Harrison, Blackboard Jungle: The little movie that rocked the world (Calgary: The Calgary Herald, 2015).
vi
Max Décharné, A Rocket in My Pocket: The Hipster’s Guide to Rockabilly (), p. 36.
vii
Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz, Icons of Rock: An Encyclopedia of the Legends Who Changed Music Forever
(Westport and London: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008), p. 2.
viii
Fischer, pps. 66-68
ix
Paul Varner, Historical Dictionary of the Beat Movement (Lanham, Toronto and Plymouth: The Scarecrow Press,
2012), p. 265.
x
William Hjortsberg, Jubilee Hitchhiker: The Life and Times of Richard Brautigan (Berkeley: Counterpoint Press,
2012).
xi
James Terence Fisher, The Catholic Counterculture in America, 1933-1962 (Chapel Hill and London: The University
of North Carolina Press, 1989), p. 220.
xii
Joyce Cowley, Youth in a Delinquent Society (Fourth International, 1955), pps. 115-119.
xiii
Eli Lehrer, Crime and Economy: What Connection? (Washington D.C.: The Heritage Foundation, 2005).
xiv
The Routledge Handbook of European Criminality, ed. by Sophie Body-Gendrot, Mike Hough, Klára Kiresy, René
Lévy and Sonja Snacken (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2014), p. 111.
xv
The Sixties: From Memory to History, edit. by David Farber (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press,
1994), p. 275.
xvi
David Kamp, The British Invasion (New York: Vanity Fair, 2002).
xvii
James E. Perone, Music of the Counterculture Era (Westport and London: Greenwood Press, 2004), p. 98.
xviii
American Countercultures: An Encyclopedia of Noncomformists, Alternative Lifestyles, and Radical Ideas in U.S.
History: Volume One-Three, edit. by Gina Misiroglu (London and New York: Routledge, 2009), p. 811.
xix
The Free Speech Movement (Oakland: Calisphere: University of California, 2005).
xx
Tom Wolfe, The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test (London: Black Sawn, 1989), p. 66.
xxi
Wolfe, p. 74
xxii
Wolfe, p. 94.
xxiii
W.J. Rorabaugh, American Hippies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), p. 55.
xxiv
Ed McLanahan, Famous People I Have Known (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 2003), p. 166.
xxv
Barry Miles, Jack Kerouac: King of the Beats (London: Virgin Books, 2010), pps. ix-x.
xxvi
James E. Perone, Music of the Counterculture Era (Westport and London: Greenwood Press, 2004), p. 183.
xxvii
Peter Ferry, Searching for Neal Cassady in San Miguel de Allende (Chevy Chase: World Hum, 2010).
xxviii
Dennis Prager, America’s Accelerating Decay (New York: National Review, 2015).
xxix
Hunt, Dave McMahon, T.A., Revival or Apostasy? (Bend: The Berean Call, 2015).
xxx
Matthew 24: 37 (King James Bible Online).
xxxi
Matthew 24: 36 (King James Bible Online).
xxxii
Chris Fluitt, Afterlife 2- Millennial Kingdom Reign and Rapture Reward (Plano: Redemption Church).
xxxiii
Jerry Carrier, Tapestry: The History and Consequences of America’s Complex Culture (New York: Algora
Publsihing, 2014), p. 134.
xxxiv
Sarah E.H. Moore, Ribbon Culture: Charity, Compassion and Public Awareness (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan,
2008), p. 101.
xxxv
Zoë Corbyn, The Long Summer of Love (Washington, D.C.: The Chronicle of Higher Education, 2017).
xxxvi
Alex Parker, America Needs a Christian Revival (RedState, 2018).

Two - The People of the Borderlands: A History of the People of the Anglo-Scottish Border Region
and Beyond in Ulster and America

It has been estimated that some 27 million Americans are of Anglo-Scottish descent by way of Ireland’s
Ulster Province, a people known as the Ulster-Scots in the United Kingdom, and the Scots-Irish, or Scotch-
Irish, in the United States, making it one of the largest ethnic groups in the country.xxxvi
In addition to the US, people of Ulster-Scots descent are to be found in all other parts of the Anglosphere,
including Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, Ireland, and of course Britain. Indeed, the people
whence they directly emerged are still to be found in Northern Ireland and other parts of the United Kingdom,
with as many as 47% of the people of Northern Ireland identifying as British as of 2018.xxxvi
Their origins as a distinct group lie in the so-called Ulster Plantations, which were initiated in 1609 by King
James I in the wake of the Nine Years War of 1593-1603, fought largely in the province of Ulster between
the forces of Gaelic Irish chieftains led by Hugh O’Neill and their allies on one hand, and the Kingdoms of
England and Ireland on the other, the latter’s decisive victory leading to the end of the Gaelic Clan system,
and the colonization of Ulster by English and Scottish Protestants, known collectively as the ‘British’.xxxvi
Many of the original planters had been Borderers, which is to say, inhabitants of the Anglo-Scottish
borderlands, and so, hailing from Northern English counties such as Cumberland, Westmoreland,
Northumberland, Yorkshire and Lancashire, and counties of the Scottish Lowlands, such as Ayrshire,
Dumfriesshire, Roxburghshire, Berwickshire and Wigtownshire. xxxvi Lowlanders are historically distinct
from their Highland counterparts, not least by dint of a significant Anglo-Saxon strainxxxvi arising from the
settling of the ancient kingdom of Bernicia in southeastern Scotland, formerly part of the Kingdom of
Northumbria, by Angles, the Germanic people hailing from what is now Angeln in Southern Schleswig.xxxvi
From ca. AD 430-600, tribes of Saxons and Jutes had colonised the southernmost portions of Britain, while
the Angles had done the same for the north, forever changing the demographic landscape of an island that
had hitherto been peopled by the Christianised Romano-British Celtsxxxvi, and various indigenous Celtic
peoples who had avoided assimilation, Britain having been part of the Roman Empire for around four
centuries.xxxvi In addition to the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who came ultimately to be known - collectively -
as the Anglo-Saxons, Batavians, Frisians and Franksxxxvi may have been among the pagan Germanic invaders
of Romano-Celtic Brittania, and the same is true of Flemings and Swabians.xxxvi
The Ulster-Scots had emigrated to the New World in modest quantities in the latter part of the 17th Century,
with some 50,000 Ulster men and women having made the crossing in its final decade. However, from 1717
to the start of the American Revolutionary War, successive waves of immigration from Ireland helped to
modify the demographics of what was still a predominantly English nation, with between 200,000 and
300,000 undertaking the crossing to British North America.xxxvi
Initially, they settled in the New England regions of Massachusetts, where their roughness of manner and
appearance offended Puritan sensibilities, despite their shared Calvinismxxxvi, and adherence to the Protestant
work ethicxxxvi, and so they were driven out of Massachusetts, to become religious refugees in Maine, New
Hampshire, Vermont and Rhode Island.xxxvi
However, it was Pennsylvania, to which Scots-Irish immigration took place in three waves between 1717
and 1776, that proved to be their first major spiritual homeland xxxvi , even while, from the outset, tense
relations existed between the Scots-Irish and the Quakers. xxxvi Pennsylvania had been granted by King
Charles II on the 2cnd of March 1681 to William Penn, a former Cavalier who had joined the Religious
Society of Friends at 22xxxvi, as a means of settling a large debt owed by the king to his father Admiral
William Penn, and named Pennsylvania in the latter’s honour. Penn the younger had gone on to sign a treaty
with various Indian tribes in the region, thereby securing a long period of peace between Quakers and Native
Americans. However, the Scots-Irish had a tendency to settle land without first paying for itxxxvi, behaviour
which stood in marked contrast to that of the Quakers, who took pains to pay the for any land they acquired
from the Indians, while Penn himself had always treated them as friends and equals.xxxvi
Many Scots-Irish men and women would remain in Pennsylvania, while others, as restless as they had been
in the old country xxxvi , drifted southwards, finding themselves at odds with what was largely English
hegemony concentrated at the major economic centres along the coastal regions of not just Pennsylvania, but
Virginia and the Carolinas.xxxvi While this fostered the kind of discontent that would ultimately transition into
out and out revolutionary zeal, the roots of the latter were multi-faceted, having been significantly inspired
by an essentially Anglo-Saxon philosophy of liberty.xxxvi
The Commonwealth of Virginia had been settled during the English Civil War and its aftermath by Royalist
Cavaliers, who had arrived in the New World between 1640 and 1669, mostly from London and southern
England, before going on to constitute the ruling elite of Cavalier Planters in the southern colonies. Thence,
they founded what would ultimately be known as the first families of Virginia, bearing such surnames as
Ball, Broadhurst, Carter, Chicheley, Corbin, Culpeper, Custis, Digges, Fairfax, Hammond, Harrison,
Honywood, Isham, Landon, Madison, Mason, Page, Randolph, Skipwith, and of course Washington, whose
family seat was Sulgrave Manor, just north of Oxford.xxxvi
Yet, they constituted but a small portion of Virginian society in the late 17th Century, with the vast majority
consisting of indigent settlers from England who served as indentured servantsxxxvi, as in the case of many of
those of Scots-Irish origin, and in time these two groups would intermarry to create a distinctive, largely
rural, Southern people.xxxvi
Specifically, the Virginian Scots-Irish favoured the rural western region comprising the Shenandoah Valley
and Appalachian southwest Virginia. Others moved into the Carolinas, which was under the sway - like
Virginia - of the Plantation system and the Church of England, and Maryland, which had been established for
the English Catholic nobility. Moreover, in the 1780s and ’90s, they gravitated towards Kentucky, Georgia,
Alabama and Tennessee xxxvi ; while ultimately Southern Ohio, Arkansas, Oklahoma and East Texas all
became intensively Scots-Irish, as did those regions dominated by the Ozark Mountains.xxxvi
A theory has existed at least since the mid 19th century that Northerners and Southerners were descendants
of the Anglo-Saxons and Normans respectively.xxxvi. Yet, a census of surnames of the states of Delaware,
Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia taken
in 1790 revealed that while 10.5% of the population was adjudged to have been Scots-Irish, 59.7% were of
apparent English descent.xxxvi
Only in Pennsylvania, which was 38% German, did the English not predominate, Germans having first
arrived in America as early as 1681, when William Penn brought thirteen German and Dutch Mennonite
families into Pennsylvania; while they would soon be joined by thousands of German Protestants from the
Palatine region fleeing persecution, the majority of which were indentured servants known as
‘redemptionists’. In time, Southeastern Pennsylvania became heavily Germanic, with Lutherans, Calvinists,
Dunkers, Amish and Mennonites from Germany and Switzerland forming a Germanic hearth in the
region.xxxvi
All throughout the 19th Century, white Southerners, many if not most of these being perforce of English and
Scots-Irish ancestry, flowed westward, into Indiana and Illinois, as well as Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, New
Mexico and California, where they joined the Gold Rush of 1848-1855.xxxvi
In the Civil War, The Scots-Irish fought for the Union and the Confederacy alike. However, some 100,000
Southerners, Scots-Irish and otherwise, elected to fight for the Union as Southern Unionists, Union Loyalists,
or Southern Yankeesxxxvi; while four so-called slave states, viz., Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri,
never seceded from the Union, and Washington D.C., while historically part of the Upper South, remained
the nation’s capital throughout the conflict.xxxvi
Many Union Loyalists hailed from Southern regions inclining to be sympathetic to the Union cause, this
being especially true of Virginia (out of which the separate state of West Virginia arose on the 20th of June
1863xxxvi), North Carolina and Tennessee. Despite being part of the greater Confederacy, East Tennessee,
North Alabama, North Georgia, Western North Carolina and the Texas Hill Country remained pro-Union
regions par excellence throughout the duration of the Civil War.xxxvi
Several of the conflict’s key figures were of partial Scots-Irish descent, including Abraham Lincoln, the
sixteenth, and for many the greatest, President in American history xxxvi, among whose most momentous
quotes were: ‘As I would not be a slave, so I would not be a master. This expresses my idea of
democracy’xxxvi, who was of English ancestry, with an alleged Scots-Irish admixurexxxvi, his opposite number,
Jefferson Davis, the President of the Confederate States from 1861 to 1865, and the only man in American
history to serve as such, who was of Welsh paternal and Scots-Irish maternal ancestryxxxvi, and Union Army
leader, General Ulysses S. Grant, who was of Scots-Irish, Scottish, Irish, English, Welsh and distant French
Huguenot and Belgian Walloon descent.xxxvi
Many, perhaps the majority, of the more mythical figures of the Old West era of ca. 1865-1895 were of
British Isles, including Scots-Irish, descent xxxvi , such as Wild Bill Hickok, who was descended on the
paternal side from Stratford-upon-Avon native William Hickcoxxxxvi, William ‘Buffalo Bill’ Cody, whose
ancestral name had originally been Lacaudeyxxxvi, and Annie Oakley, who was from a Pennsylvania Quaker
family of English ancestry.xxxvi
Among the more notorious outlaws, Jesse James was of Welsh ancestry through his father xxxvi, while his
mother’s was a family of English origin traceable as far back as the late 10th Centuryxxxvi, John Wesley
Hardin descended from a Frenchman named Pierre Hardewynxxxvi, with Englishxxxvi and Scots-Irishxxxvi part
of his ethnic make-up, Billy the Kid was of Irish, or possibly Scots-Irish, ancestryxxxvi, while Butch Cassidy,
was ethnically Englishxxxvi, despite a distinctly Irish pseudonym.
As to the lawmen, Wyatt Earp, of the famous Earp family, was of Scottish paternal and English maternal
ancestry, Pat Garrett was descended from one John Garrett II of Leicestershire, England xxxvi , while Bat
Masterson was an Irish Canadian from Henryville, Quebec.xxxvi
Of all the regions of the United States, few have been more closely tied with the Scots-Irish than
Appalachiaxxxvi, which in a cultural sense stretches all the way from New York’s Southern Tier to portions -
in the Deep South - of Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina, and also comprising the distinctly
Appalachian territories of Southeast Ohio, Western Pennsylvania, Western Maryland, Eastern Kentucky,
West Virginia, Southwest Virginia, East Tennessee and Western North Carolina.xxxvi
Yet, while Appalachia is undoubtedly the most Scots-Irish of regions, it is also intensively English, although
historically, the Appalachian English were themselves allegedly a diverse group which included people of
English, Welsh, Dutch and French originxxxvi; while Germans were among the earliest settlers. Moreover,
Appalachia has always been home to small amounts of Native Americansxxxvi, African-Americansxxxvi and
Melungeons, a Southern Appalachian people of uncertain ethnicityxxxvi, among other minorities.
Appalachians are among the most mythologized of American peoples xxxvi , not least by virtue of the
fundamentalist Christian fervour that has long been an Appalachian featurexxxvi, and while Presbyterianism
was the original faith of the Scots-Irish, the first Methodist church was established in Maryland as early as
1764 by Robert Strawbridge, an Irish Anglican born in County Leitrim of English ancestry,xxxvi and by 1850,
it had become dominant all throughout the South, including Appalachiaxxxvi, while the Holiness movement - a
major early manifestation of Pentecostalism - emerged in the region in 1886 via the ministry of Methodist
preacher Richard G. Spurling, who sought to return to Wesley’s idea of Biblical holiness.xxxvi
In addition to their intense spirituality, the English and Scots-Irish of the rural South established a culture of
honour attributable to their traditional way of life in such precarious regions as the Anglo-Scottish
borderlandsxxxvi, and which self-evidently possessed the potential to erupt into out and out violence, including
blood feuds, such as that most notoriously existent between 1863 and 1891 between the Hatfields of West
Virginia and the McCoys of Eastern Kentucky.xxxvi
During the 1890s, white Southern, and specifically Appalachian, culture represented an undiluted Anglo-
Saxonism to certain Northerners at a time of national uncertainty, which helped to pave the way for a
reconciliation between the North and the South in the wake of the Reconstruction era of 1863-1877.xxxvi Yet,
it is the Celtic element of the South that has latterly been emphasised by certain writers on Southern
history,xxxvi which could be said to have - to a certain extent - placed the Southerner, and this is especially
true of the Scots-Irish, within the context of the traditionally romanticised, not to say oppressed, Celtxxxvi; and
given the region’s roots in Northern England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Ireland and Wales, there is some
substance to their argument. However, in the final analysis, whether predominantly Scots-Irish or English,
Celtic or Anglo-Saxon, the American South is, as it has always been, supremely reflective of the history of
the British Isles as a whole, of those two tiny islands off the coast of north western Europe, which despite
their relative geographical insignificance, have been the site of so much turbulence, yet so much genius, and
so much influence for good and ill alike.
________________________________
xxxvi
M.M. Drymon, Scotch-Irish Foodways in America: Recipes From History (New York City: Wythe Avenue Press,
2009), p. 41.
xxxvi
Vadakar says border poll would be defeated as new survey shows Irish unity would be close (Belfast: Belfast
Telegraph Digital, 2018).
xxxvi
David Scott, Politics and War in the Three Stuart Kingdoms, 1637-49 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p.
8.
xxxvi
Carlton Jackson, A Social History of the Scotch-Irish (Lanham, New York and London: Madison Books, 1993), p. 2.
xxxvi
Sean Byrne, Growing Up in a Divided Society: The Influence of Conflict on Belfast Schoolchildren (Madison and
Teaneck: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997), p. 24.
xxxvi
Barry Vann, Rediscovering the South’s Celtic Heritage (Johnson City: The Overmountain Press, 2004), p. 66.
xxxvi
Jean-Denis G.G. Lepage, British Fortifications Through the Reign of Richard III: An Illustrated History (Jefferson
and London: McFarland 7 Company, 2012), p. 99.
xxxvi
Peter Hunter Blair, An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 1.
xxxvi
Martin Wall, 10 things you (probably) didn’t know about the Anglo-Saxons (History Extra, 2018)
xxxvi
Jean-Denis G.G. Lepage, British Fortifications Through the Reign of Richard III: An Illustrated History (Jefferson
and London: McFarland & Company, 2012), p. 99.
xxxvi
James A. Leyburn, The Scotch-Irish: A Social History (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1962),
p. 180.
xxxvi
Jackson, p. 58.
xxxvi
Jackson, p. 72.
xxxvi
Jackson, p. 60.
xxxvi
Phillip S. Klein and Ari Hoogenboom, A History of Pennsylvania (University Park and London: The Pennsylvania
State University Press, 1980), p. 44.
xxxvi
Jackson, p. 63.
xxxvi
David Andrew Schultz, Encyclopedia of the United States Constitution: Vol. 1 A-L (New York: Facts on File, 2009),
p. 545.
xxxvi
Mary Beth Norton, Carol Sheriff, David M. Katzman, David W. Blight and Howard Chudacoff, A People & A
Nation: A History of the United States: Volume One: To 1877 (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2008), p. 97.
xxxvi
Jackson, p. 63.
xxxvi
S. Scott Rohrer, Wandering Souls: Protestant Migrations in America, 1630-1865 (The University of North Carolina
Press, 2010), p. 76.
xxxvi
Edward C. Adams, Prelude to Revolution: Scots-Irish Vigilantes in the Colonial Backcountry (Fort Worth: Texas
Christian University, 2003), p. 5.
xxxvi
Adams, p. ii.
xxxvi
David Hackett Fischer, Albion’s Seed; Four British Folkways in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991),
pps 213-214.
xxxvi
Fischer, p. 227.
xxxvi
Fred DeArmond, Scotch-Irish Heritage (Forsyth: White River Valley Historical Society, 1971), p. 13.
xxxvi
Jackson, p. 91.
xxxvi
DeArmond, p. 10.
xxxvi
Christopher Hanlon, Puritans vs. Cavaliers (New York: New York Times, 2013).
xxxvi
John B. Rehder, Appalachian Folkways (Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 2004), p. 57.
xxxvi
Rehder, p. 56.
xxxvi
James A. Gregory, The Southern Diaspora: How The Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners
Transformed America (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1986), p. 12.
xxxvi
Rogan Kersh, Dreams of a More Perfect Union (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004), p. 194.
xxxvi
Tim McNeese, America’s Civil War (St Louis: Milliken Publishing Company, 2003), p. 34.
xxxvi
Soldier and Scholar: Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve and the Civil War, ed. by Ward W. Briggs Jr. (Charlottesville and
London: University Press of Virginia, 1998), p. 149.
xxxvi
William C. Davis, Look Away!: A History of the Confederate States of America (New York, London, Toronto,
Sydney and Singapore: The Free Press, 2002), p. 260.
xxxvi
Abraham Lincoln Esq.: The Legal Career of America’s Greatest President, ed. by Roger Billings and Frank J.
Williams (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 2010), p. 6.
xxxvi
Lincoln on Democracy: His own words, with essays by America’s Foremost Civil War historians, ed. by Mario M.
Cuomo & Harold Holzer (New York: Fordham University Press, 2004), p. 121.
xxxvi
Joeytwo2, Abraham Lincoln (Ethnicity of Celebs | What Nationality Ancestry Race, 2012).
xxxvi
James Ronald Kennedy and Walter Donald Kennedy, Was Jefferson Davis Right? (Gretna: Pelican Publishing
Company, 1998), p. 14.
xxxvi
Tttyyy, Ulysses S. Grant (Ethnicity of Celebs | What Nationality Ancestry Race, 2012).
xxxvi
Joseph R. Conlin, The American Past, a Survey of American History: Volume I: To 1877, ed. by (Boston: Cengage
Learning, 2009), p. 100.
xxxvi
William Hickcox (Los Angeles: Geni, 2018).
xxxvi
Linda Wellman, Guillaume Lacaudey (Los Angeles: Geni, 2014).
xxxvi
James A. Willis, Central Ohio Legends and Lore (Mount Pleasant: Arcadia Publishing, 2017), p. 52.
xxxvi
John “The Immigrant” James (Los Angeles: Geni, 2018).
xxxvi
Nancy Jo Leecraft, General Justice Cole (Los Angeles: Geni, 2018).
xxxvi
Anthony Lavorn King, Pierre Hardewyn (Los Angeles: Geni, 2017).
xxxvi
Carole (Erickson) Pomeroy, Henry Corbet (Los Angeles: Geni, 2016).
xxxvi
William Dixon (Los Angeles: Geni, 2018).
xxxvi
Frederick Nolan, The West of Billy the Kid (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998), p. 3.
xxxvi
W.C. Jameson, Butch Cassidy: Beyond the Grave (Lanham, New York, Boulder, Toronto, Plymouth, UK: Taylor
Trade Publications, 2012), p. 7.
xxxvi
Melton Bennett, John Garret, of New Kent (Los Angeles: Geni, 2018)
xxxvi
Shirley Ayn Linder, Doc Holliday in Film and Literature (Jefferson: McFarland & Company, 2014), p. 7.
xxxvi
Deborah Vansau McCauley, Appalachian Mountain Religion: A History (Urbana and Chicago: University of
Illinois Press, 1995), p. 171.
xxxvi
Appalachia Revisited: New Perspectives on Place, Tradition and Progress, ed. by William Schumann and Rebecca
Adkins Fletcher (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky), p. 4.
xxxvi
McCauley, p. 171.
xxxvi
Rehder, p. 62.
xxxvi
Rehder, p. 63.
xxxvi
Melissa Schrift, Becoming Melungeon: Making an Ethnic Identity in the Appalachian South (Lincoln and London:
University of Nebraska Press, 2013), p. 122
xxxvi
Ellen Churchill Semple, The Anglo-Saxons of the Kentucky Mountains (San Francisco: Internet Archive: 1910), pps.
29-30.
xxxvi
Semple, pps. 23-24.
xxxvi
Cynthia Lynn Lyerly, Methodism and the Southern Mind, 1770-1819 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p.
11.
xxxvi
McCauley, p. 238.
xxxvi
The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 1: Religion, ed. by Samuel S. Hill (Charlotte: University of
North Carolina Press, 2006), p. 23.
xxxvi
Nicholas Obuf and Peter Onuf, Nations, Markets and Wars: Modern History and the American Civil War
(Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press), p. 105.
xxxvi
Altina L. Waller, Feud: Hatfields, McCoys, and Social Change in Appalachia, 1860-1900 (Chapel Hill: The
University of North Carolina Press, 1988), p. 21.
xxxvi
Nina Silber, The Romance of Reunion: Northerners and the South, 1865-1900 (Charlotte: University of North
Carolina Press, 1997), p. 144.
xxxvi
Vann, p. 29.
xxxvi
Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race
(Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1998), p. 17.
Afterword: I have attempted in the above essay to write in a spirit, reflected by my intensive deployment of references,
of absolute truth and accuracy, and I sincerely hope I have succeeded.

Three - Alfred de Musset and the Prophetic Significance of 1830s Paris

Alfred Louis Charles de Musset-Pathay came into the world in Paris on the 11th of December 1810, as an
unusually sensitive infant of noble lineage, who would be much in demand by portrait painters within a few
years of his birth by virtue of his extraordinary beauty. Both the son and grandson of writers, his father,
Victor-Donatien Musset-Pathay, had published several literary works between 1798 and 1829, including a
biography of Rousseau, Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de J.-J. Rousseau (History of the Life and Works
of J.J. Rousseau); while his maternal grandfather Claude-Antoine Guyot-Desherbiers was most famously the
author of the satire, Les Chancelières, targeted at one-time Chancellor of France, René-Nicolas de Maupeou,
as well as several other minor pieces, including a collection of poems, Les Heurs et les Chats. Neither
attained a tithe of the glory that would ultimately befall their illustrious descendant, who published his first
poem, À Mademoiselle Zoé le Douairin, aged just 16 in 1826; while he ascended to true fame with the
publication of Contes d’Espagne et d’Italie (Tales of Spain and Italy) in 1830. As an eighteen year old, he
was, according to a description tendered in 1871 by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, ‘laughing and mocking,
coldly ironical, a charming story-teller, a pitiless jester, at open war with prosody as well as with morality, a
kind of sceptical and licentious nightingale.’1
 He entered the seismic 1830s blessed with every great gift a gilded young genius might hope to possess, and
was idolised by the jeunesse dorée of the day, as Francine du Plessix Gray confirms:
‘In the 1830s, Parisian youth so worshipped his image as a profligate Romantic rascal – he was a drunk, a
whorer, and generally outrageous – that they fought in the streets over his discarded cigarette butts.’2
And his was the era in which the Romantic movement burgeoned in France for the first time in the wake of
the July Revolution, in consequence of which Louis Philippe, known as the bourgeois monarch because the
bulk of his support came from the upper middle class, supplanted his cousin Charles X as king of France;
while his reign, which had initially been welcomed, was ultimately productive of widespread discontent, as
Sylvia Kahan writes:
‘[…] the “Citizen King” became progressively more conservative and monarchical, limiting freedom of
association and expression. In 1834, new reductions in factory wages resulted in widespread uprisings. The
government’s reaction to the uprisings was increased military repression of civil disorder […]’ 3
At the same time, as Kahan goes on to assert, ‘The political upheaval of the mid-1830s coincided with the
flowering of Romanticism, a word first used during the Napoleonic era.’4
Yet by the time Musset came to publish his only novel in 1836, namely, the celebrated autobiographical La
Confession d’un enfant du siècle (The Confession of a Child of the Century), which was as much about his
turbulent love affair with fellow romantic George Sand as the disenchantment of the generation that had
come to maturity in the wake of the Revolutionary Age, he had become afflicted by a kind of generational
depression which has come to be known as mal du siècle; as Tim Farrant puts it:
‘Nowhere is this disenchantment, or mal du siècle, more poignantly expressed than in the second chapter of
Musset’s La Confession d’un enfant du siècle (1836):

Alors s’assit sur un monde en ruines une jeunesse soucieuse. Tous ces enfants étaient des gouttes d’un sang
brûlant qui avait inondé la terre ; ils étaient nés au sein de la guerre. (…) Ils n’étaient pas sortis de leurs villes,
mais on leur avait dit que, par chaque barrière de ces villes, on allait a une capitale d’Europe. Ils avaient dans
la tête tout un monde; ils regardaient la terre, le ciel, les rues et les chemins; tout cela était vide, et les cloches
de leurs paroisses résonnaient dans le lointain.

(Then troubled youth sat down on a world in ruins. All these children were drops of a burning blood that had
flooded the earth; they had been born in the bosom of war, for war. […] They had not left their towns, but
they had been told that, by each gate of those towns, you went to one of Europe’s capitals. They had a whole
world in their heads; they cast their gaze at the earth, the sky, the roads and the paths; all that they saw was
empty, and the bells of their parishes rang out in the distance.)’5

While the central female figure, Brigitte, was based on Sand, the character of Octave was forged from
Musset himself, while being representative of an entire generation, as Karen L. Taylor writes:
‘Octave […] represents both Musset himself and his entire generation of young men [for whom] Despair
over lost innocence and moral idealism lead to debauchery, the only apparent alternative to boredom and
frustration.’6
This epochal melancholia arose from a variety of causes, not least the fact that his generation came into
being in the wake of the Revolution, and Napoleon’s recent ignominious defeat, exile and premature death,
as Musset himself describes it:
‘[…] Napoléon avait tout ébranlé en passant sur le monde […] Ainsi tout avait tremblé dans cette forêt
lugubre de la vieille Europe; puis le silence avait succédé.’7

([…] Napoleon had shaken everything as he passed over the world […] Thus everything had trembled in that
dismal forest of old Europe ; then silence had succeeded.’8)

In addition to disenchantment centring on Napoleon, Musset’s generation had been profoundly impacted by
two figures central to the Romantic revolution in the shape of Goethe and Byron, the creators, respectively,
of Werther, the suicidal anti-hero of Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (The Sorrows of the Young Werther),
published in 1774 at the height of the Sturm und Drang period in German literature, and the Byronic Hero, a
fatalistic figure considerably indebted to Werther, as Arnold Hauser confirms:
‘The Byronic Weltschmerz has its source in Chateaubriand and the French émigré literature, the Byronic
hero in Saint-Preux and Werther.’9
Of the impact of the Byronic Hero on post-revolutionary France, Sarah Wootton writes:
‘The Byronic Hero’s suffering, isolation and defiance of authority and conventional morality captured the
deflated spirit of a generation that had witnessed the horrors of the French Revolution.’10
Musset links the two, with allusions to both Werther and Faust, as well as Byron’s Manfred in the following
passage:

‘Or, vers ce temps la, deux poètes, les deux plus beaux génies du siecle après Napoléon, venaient de
consacrer leurs vies a rassembler tous les éléments d’angoisse et de douleur épars dans l’univers. Gœthe, le
patriarche d’une littérature nouvelle, après avoir peint dans Werther la passion qui mène au suicide, avait
tracé dans son Faust le plus sombre figure humaine qui eût jamais représenté le mal et le malheur. Ses écrits
commencèrent alors a passer d’Allemagne en France. […] Byron lui répondit, par un cri de douleur qui fit
tressaillir le Grèce, et suspendit Manfred sur les abîmes, comme si le néant eût été le mot de l’énigme
hideuse dont il s’enveloppait.’11

(‘Now about that time two poets, the two finest geniuses of the age following that of Napoléon, had just
devoted their lives to colleting all the elements of anguish and sorrow scattered through the universe. Goethe,
the patriarch of a new literature, after having depicted in Werther the passion that leads to suicide, had traced
in his Faust the darkest human figure that ever represented evil and misfortune […] Byron answered him
with an exclamation of sorrow that made Greece bound, and suspended Manfred over the abyss, as if
nothingness had been the solution to the riddle that enveloped him.’12)

Thence, according to Musset’s Octave, Byron responded to a nascent strain of decadence within the
‘littérature nouvelle’ of which Goethe was the patriarch, with his own contributions, such as the aforesaid
Manfred from the ‘metaphysical drama’ of the same name, composed between 1816 and 1817, who is
quintessentially Byronic by virtue of what F.W. Stokoe refers to as ‘the consciousness of superior faculties,
and by the remorseful memory of a past mysterious crime’13. Moreover, he has been likened to Goethe’s
Faust, not least by virtue of his Faustian craving for knowledge, specifically of the esoteric variety, as
confirmed by Frank Erik Pointner and Achim Geisenhanslüke:
‘What Manfred and Faust have in common is the indefatigable striving for knowledge of the world-secret,
which they both know is impossible to attain.’14
Musset’s mal du siècle can be traced as least as far back as 1833, the year he composed the long poem Rolla,
centring on protagonist Jacques Rolla, whose combination of libertinage and melancholia anticipated that of
Octave; while the narrator voiced the loss of Christian faith that afflicted Musset’s tragic generation, as
Linda Kelly writes:
‘1833, the year of his meeting with George Sand, was a period of intense creation in Musset’s life […] In
August, his “Rolla” appeared, a poem memorable for its analysis of the religious drama of his generation
[…]’:

Je ne crois pas, ô Christ ! à ta parole sainte :

Je suis venu trop tard dans un monde trop vieux […]’15

(‘I am not one, O Christ, who dwells within your fold,

Too late have I set foot within a world too old […]’16)

Yet, while it would be inadvisable to view the narrator of Rolla as Musset himself, his brother Paul provides
a portrait of the youthful Alfred as a king of epochal seer - as well as a quintessential poète maudit - which
reinforces the cogent theory of the autobiographical nature of both the eponymous Rolla and the poem’s
narrator:
‘Not only did Alfred de Musset receive the gift of keen feeling and forceful expression, but the sentiments
and thoughts to which he gave so fair a form were those of a whole generation […] Sensitive souls are sent
into the world to be crowded and crushed […] So that those who afford us our highest intellectual pleasures
and our sweetest consolations appear doomed to weariness and melancholy […]’17
While Musset’s Octave laments the darkness he sees as having been ushered into the collective psyche of
his generation by works by Goethe and Byron, the narrator of Rolla reaches further back into Western
literary history for the root cause of generational malaise to the personage of Voltaire, described by Karen
O’Brien as ‘the personification of the Enlightenment’18:
‘Dors-tu content, Voltaire, et ton hideux sourire,
Voltige-t-il encore sur tes os décharnés ?
Ton siècle était, dit-on, trop jeune pour te lire ;
Le nôtre doit te plaire, et tes hommes sont nés.
Il est tombé sur nous cet édifice immense
Que de tes larges mains tu sapais nuit et jour […]’19

(‘Sleep you content, Voltaire, and does your hideous smile,

Flit o’er your fleshless skull in mockery the while?
Your century was too young to read you so they say;
Our own must please you well – your men are born today!
The mighty edifice with your industrious hands
Worked with such zeal to undermine, no longer stands […]’20)

What the narrator is asserting is that the influence of Voltaire as what has called, while exerting minimal
influence on the eighteenth century itself, impacted the nineteenth, and specifically Musset’s own generation,
with a leviathan-life force which he views as wholly destructive, this being especially true with regard to
religious faith in France. Yet, what Paul Lawrence Rose describes as ‘Voltaire’s anti-Christian sentiments’21
were to a degree reflective of the French Enlightenment as a whole; as Terence Nichols writes:
‘The French Enlightenment, led by men like Voltaire, Rousseau and Diderot, was […] much more anti-
Christian and anti-clerical than the English, American or German Enlightenments.’22
Accordingly, Musset’s mal du siecle, expressed firstly through Rolla, and subsequently through La
Confession d’un enfant du siecle, was significantly rooted in a conviction that his generation had been
blighted by, one the one hand, the impact of the Enlightenment, and specifically Voltaire, on the Christian
faith, and on the other, a distinctly morbid strain within Romanticism epitomised in its earliest stages by such
fictional characters as Werther, Faust, and Manfred.
Musset’s anguished critique of the Paris of the 1830s, expressed in Rolla, and to an even greater degree in
La Confession d’un enfant du siècle, is remarkably applicable to our own post-war Western culture, and
while Musset was in nowise immune to the temptations tendered by societal dissolution, he was yet
something of Jeremiah for his times. It was, one might say, as if he foresaw the Parisian fin de siècle of
which the 1830s was a foretaste (Maria Filomena Mónica has described him as ‘The precursor of fin de
siècle pessimism’23); in fact not just the fin de siècle, but the far greater decadence that, according to the
conservative worldview, afflicted the entire Western World during the second half of the twentieth century,
with the 1960s very much the starting point. With respect to Britain, although they could equally have been
writing about the United States, among other Western nations, Anthony Adams and Witold Tulasiewicz
asserted in 1995:
‘[…] the conservative Right identified the ‘1960s’ as the period of moral decline when pride in the nation
diminished and the moral decadence of relativism in values began.’24
A similar declension in terms of the absolute nature of traditional values was at the heart of the misery that
afflicted several of the anti-heroes Musset forged during the turbulent years of 1833-36, which were of
course coincidental with his love affair with George Sand, one of, if not the, defining event in his life.
By the time of Sand’s relationship with Musset, she was already a divorcee with two young children, as well
as being a Baroness through her marriage to Casimir Dudevent. Born Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin in Paris
in 1804, of aristocratic lineage through her father, she was clearly a woman of quite extraordinary magnetic
power, inspiring much of Musset’s finest work (while in addition to Musset, as well as Jules Sandeau,
Prosper Merimee and others, she was also, famously, Chopin’s lover from 1838 until some ten years
thereafter). For in addition to La Confession d’un enfant du siècle, the famous series of poems known as Les
Nuits spring from his unhappy relationship with Sand, and they are rightly considered to be among the
unimpeachable masterpieces of French Romanticism, indeed of French literature as a whole, as Germaine
Mason writes of them:
‘His liaison with George Sand (1833-35) gave him the great love he had dreamed of, but their separation, in
Venice, nearly brought him to despair. The repercussions of this sentimental crisis inspired his deepest and
most moving verse, the four poems of Les Nuits (1835-37): Nuit de mai; Nuit de décembre; Nuit d’août; Nuit
d’octobre. No other Romantic poetry has such an intense and poignant beauty, none sounds so deeply sincere.
It is indeed the purest poetry of the heart.’25
Musset’s dramatic career began as early as 1830 with La Nuit venitienne, whose failure caused him to
temporarily forego writing for the physical stage, even while he continued to compose theatrical works, such
as Lorenzaccio from 1833, and On ne badine pas avec l’amour from the following year. However, it would
not be until 1847 that Musset achieved success as a dramatist, when Un caprice, produced at the Comédie-
Française by the actress Madame Allan-Despréaux, provoked a revival of interest in his plays; as Felicia
Hardison-Londré writes of this felicitous occurrence:
‘[…] Madame Allan-Despréaux performing in St. Petersburg, saw Musset’s Un Caprice (1837) presented
there in Russian. Charmed by the delightful and psychologically penetrating three-character play, she took it
to the Comédie-Francaise, performed it there with great success, and became Musset’s mistress.’ 26
From towards the end of the 1830s, Musset wrote increasingly little, as Karen L. Taylor confirms:
‘After 1838, Musset seemed to lose inspiration. He […] was elected to the Académie Française in 1853, the
same year that he was appointed librarian to the Ministry of Education, but he no longer wrote […] Musset’s
most creative period was during his youth and ended by 30.’27
In the respect that Musset’s period of greatest glory took place during the frenetic 1830s, he was akin to
other artistic legends who have ascended to pre-eminence during decades of unusual incandescence and
significance, only to become indelibly associated with the epoch that made their name, such as F. Scott
Fitzgerald, who effectively defined the Jazz Age, and The Beatles, who will forever be associated with the
Swinging Sixties, even while they were unable to survive it as a functioning entity. Yet, like his close
contemporary Théophile Gautier, Musset attained respectability in late middle age, receiving the Légion
d’honneur in 1845, at the same time as another contemporary, Balzac, while being elected to the Académie
française in 1852.
He died four years later at the early age of 46 from a case, allegedly syphilitic in origin, 28 of aortic
regurgitation, thereby lending his name to one of the latter’s symptoms, which subsequently became known
as ‘De Musset’s sign’. Delicate as a child, he’d attained a powerful degree of physical soundness by his
twenties; however, his health started to decline from 1840, which marked both the year marking the end of
the revolutionary 1830s, and Musset’s own thirtieth birthday on December the 11th. Thence, while his life
was in many ways a tragic one of what some might describe as unfulfilled promise, his reputation has
ascended by degrees since his death, as Susan McCready has asserted:
‘Musset’s road to redemption had begun in 1847, when his Caprice, a play written in 1837, was performed
at the Comedie-Francaise for the first time […] By the time Emile Fabre took the helm of the Comédie-
Française in 1915, a shift in the way Musset was appreciated both as a poet and playwright was underway
[…] From the beginning of his tenure, Emile Fabre wished to pay homage to Musset by adding his name to
the list of playwrights whose birthdays were traditionally celebrated at the Comédie. Musset was thus
promoted to the select group of Moliere, Corneille, Racine and Hugo. The canon was indeed under
review.’29
Moreover, both La Confession d’un enfant du siècle, and the actual events at its heart, continue to inspire
creative artists, having recently birthed no less than two moving pictures in the shape of Diane Kurys’ Les
Enfants du Siècle from 1999, loosely based on the real life romance between Musset and Sand, and more
recently, a faithful adaptation of the novel itself by Sylvie Verheyde, featuring singer-songwriter Pete
Doherty as Octave, and Charlotte Gainsbourg as Brigitte. And if anyone can rightly be called a poète maudit
in the classic tradition, but within a millennial context, it is dandy-bohemian Doherty; while Charlotte
Gainsbourg is the deeply gifted daughter of chanson genius Serge, himself a latter-day poète maudit of the
old school.
As to the age of his passing…it appears to be quite a common one for great poets whose flaming, beautiful
youths were garlanded with the most magnificent promise imaginable, for as well as Musset, Nerval,
Baudelaire and Oscar Wilde all died at 46, and together they might serve as a testimony to the awful truth of
the brevity of even the most glorious of youths.
___________________________________________________________________________________
xxxvi
The Poets and Poetry of Europe, intr. and biographical notices by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (Boston: James R.
Osgood and Company, 1871), p. 850.
2
Francine du Plessix Gray, Rage and Fire: A Life of Louise Colet: Pioneer Feminist, Literary Star, Flaubert’s Muse
(New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo, Singapore: Simon and Schuster, 1994) p. 223.
3
Sylvia Kahan, In Search of New Scales: Prince Edmond de Polignac, Octatonic Explorer (Rochester: university of
Rochester Press, 2009), p. 12.
4
Kahan, p. 12.
5
Tim Farrant, Introduction to Nineteenth-Century French Literature (London, Delhi, New York and Sydney:
Bloomsbury Academic, 2007), p. 17.
6
Karen L. Taylor, The Facts on File Companion to the French Novel (New York: Infobase Publishing, 2007), p. 276.
7
Alfred de Musset, La Confession d’un enfant du siècle (Paris: Larousse, 1900) p. 9.
8
Alfred de Musset, The Confession of a Child of the Century, transl. by T.F. Rogerson (Philadelphia: George Barrie and
Sons, 1899), p 15.
9
Arnold Hauser, intr. by Jonathan Harris, The Social History of Art: Volume III: Rococo, Classicism and Romanticism
(London and New York: Routledge, 1999), p. 199.
10
Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural and Historical Encyclopaedia, Volume 1: A-J, ed. by Michael Kimmel and
Amy Aronson (Santa Barbara, Denver and Oxford: ABC-CLIO, 2004) p. 122.
11
Musset, p. 12.
12
Musset, p. 20.
13
F. W. Stokoe, German Influence in the English Romantic Period: 1788-1818 (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1926), p. 165.
14
The Reception of Byron in Europe, Volume I, II, ed. by Richard A. Cardwell (London and New York: Continuum,
2004) p. 245.
15
Linda Kelly, The Young Romantics: Writers & Liaisons, Paris 1827-37 (London: Starhaven, 2005), p. 105.
16
Alfred de Musset, The Complete Writings of Alfred de Musset: Volume Two, trans. by George Santayana, Emily Shaw
Forman and Marie Agathe Clarke (New York: James L. Perkins and Company, 1908), p. 3.
17
Paul de Musset, The Biography of Alfred de Musset, trans. by Harriet W. Preston (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1877), p.
2.
18
Karen O’Brien, Narratives of Enlightenment: Cosmopolitan History from Voltaire to Gibbon (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1997), p. 21.
19
Alfred de Musset, Poésies nouvelles (Paris: Charpentier, 1857), p. 15.
20
Musset, The Complete Writings of Alfred de Musset: Volume Two, p. 21.
21
Paul Lawrence Rose, German Question/Jewish Question: Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to
Wagner (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), p. 47.
22
The Christian Theological Tradition, ed. by Catherine A. Cory and Michael J. Hollerich (London and New York:
Routledge, 2016), p. 384.
23
Maria Filomena Mónica, Eça de Queiroz, trans. by Alison Aiken (Woodbridge: Tamesis, 2005), p. 311.
24
Anthony Adams and Witold Tulasiewicz, The Crisis in Teacher Education: A European Concern? (London and
Washington D.C.: The Falmer Press, 1995), p. 20.
25
Germaine Mason, A Concise Survey of French Literature (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), p. 176.
26
Felicia Hardison-Londré, The History of World-Theatre: From the English Restoration to the Present (New York:
Continuum, 1999), p. 241.
27
Taylor, p. 276.
28
JV Pai-Dhunghat and Falguni Raik, Alfred de Musset’s Sign (Mumbai: Journal of the Association of Physicians of
India: Vol. 63, 2015).
29
Susan McCready, Staging France Between the World Wars: Performance, Politics and the Transformation of the
Theatrical Canon (Lanham, Boulder, New York, London: Lexington Books, 2016) p. 103.

Four - Born in a Cabin in Cuyahoga County: The Tragic Curtailed Presidency of James A. Garfield

That James Abram Garfield is one of America’s least remembered Presidentsxxxvi is something to lament in
the light of the fact that the 20th man to hold office as such was manifestly a man of genuine decency, a true
Christian gentleman. Yet, as the great American novelist Thomas Wolfe wrote of him in his short story The
Four Lost Men:
‘For who was Garfield, martyred man, and who had seen him in the streets of life?’xxxvi
This ‘martyred man’ was born in a log cabin in Cuyahoga County, Ohioxxxvi on the 19th of November 1831
into a family affiliated to the Disciples of Christ denomination, also known as the Christian Church xxxvi.
Largely of English ethnicity, he was a descendant of Mayflower passenger and convicted murderer John
Billingtonxxxvi, while French Huguenot ancestry arose through his mother Eliza Ballou. His father, Abram
Garfield, died when he was less than two years old and he was subsequently raised by his mother xxxvi,
notwithstanding a brief second marriage.
Aged 16, he worked for six weeks as a canal driver near the big city of Cleveland, before malaria forced him
home.xxxvi
In March 1849, he joined the Geauga Academy in Chester, Ohio, founded by Free Will Baptists in 1842,
where he discovered a taste for academia, which led to his being offered a teaching post in 1849, which he
accepted, although his teaching career was not without its problems.xxxvi
A year later, aged 18, he was baptised and would remain a member of the Disciples of Christ denomination
for the remainder of his life, as he wrote in his diary:
‘”Today, I was buried with Christ in baptism, and arose to walk in newness of life’”.xxxvi
 From 1851 to 1854, he was a student at the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute, now known as Hiram
College, founded by the Disciples of Christ in Hiram, Ohio, where he developed a special interest in Greek
and Latin, and ended up teaching there, while serving as a preacher in local churches, then at Williams
College, Williamstown, Massachusetts, from which he graduated in 1856. However, he decided against
preaching as a vocationxxxvi, returning instead to the Eclectic Institute, where he taught Classical languages,
and where, while still only in his mid-twenties, he was elected principal in 1857 (a position he held until
1860 or 1861 according to the account).xxxvi
A year later, on the 11th of November 1858, he married one of his more gifted Greek pupils, Lucretia
Rudolph, who, of German, Welsh, English and Irish ethnicity, was a Mayflower descendent such as himself,
whose ancestors James and Mary Chilton had been among the original pilgrimsxxxvi. She went on to bear him
seven children.
In 1859, he entered politics for the first time, becoming elected an Ohio state senator in 1859, serving as
such for two years, while in 1860, he began to study Law, being admitted to the Ohio bar in that yearxxxvi.
When the Civil War began on April the 3rd 1861, he joined the Union Army, and the following August (the
18th), while still under 30 years old, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel of the 42cnd Ohio Volunteer
Infantry, rising to the rank of brigadier general of the Twentieth Brigade in the Army of Ohio on the 10th of
January 1862. Also in 1862, he was elected by the Republicans to the United States House of
Representatives; and by the time he resigned his commission in December 1863 to take his seat in congress,
he had been promoted to major general of volunteersxxxvi. He was elected the 20th president of the United
States in March 1881, an office he held for four months.
On the 2cnd of July 1881, President Garfield was shot by a one-time author influenced by the religious
writings of John Humphrey Noyes, founder of the Oneida Community of New York with which he had been
unhappily associated as a young manxxxvi, and very briefly, lawyer, by the name of Charles Julius Guiteau.
Like Garfield, Guiteau was a Midwesterner, born in Freeport, Illinois on the 8th of September 1881, of
partial French ancestry, who had latterly written a pamphlet in support of the soon to be president, before
becoming a desperate - and consistently rejected - seeker of political office.xxxvi
Garfield survived the attempt on his life, and was bedridden for several weeks in the White House, before
being moved to the Atlantic Coast of New Jersey in September in the hope that the fresh air might provoke a
recovery, but this was not to be and he died on the 19th of that month from a massive heart attack
exacerbated by a variety of factors including severe infection of the wound, which served to fatally
compromise his immune system.xxxvi
Before being so violently cut down, Garfield had led a brilliant and heroic life, having transcended the
utmost indigence to ascend to the highest political office in America, becoming the only serving church
minister to do soxxxvi, and it was his faith that had inspired his affiliation with the Union cause, as Fred Rosen
has written of him in this respect:
‘For him, fighting for the Union was a spiritual calling. It was quite simple; slavery was against the laws of
God and Man and should be abolished.’xxxvi
Had he lived, it is possible that he would be spoken of in the 21st Century in the same breath as Washington,
Lincoln, Roosevelt, Eisenhower, Kennedy, as one of the greatest and most fabled of all American Presidents,
rather than being spoken of - if he is spoken of at all - as a mere ‘martyred man’ of American history. Yet,
despite his obscurity, he could be said to be the very quintessence of all that is noblest in the American
Dream.
_____________________________
xxxvi
Ira Rutkow, James A. Garfield: The American Presidents Series: The 20th President, 1881 (New York: Henry Holt,
2006), p. 3.
xxxvi
Thomas Wolfe, The Four Lost Men: The Previously Unpublished Long Version, edit. by Arlyn and Matthew J.
Brucolli (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2008), p. 78.
xxxvi
Ruth Tenzer Feldman, James Garfield (Twenty-First Century Books, 2005), p. 10.
xxxvi
The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement, edit. by Douglas A. Foster (Wm. B Eerdmans Publishing,
2004), p. 95.
xxxvi
Michael Newton, Crime and Criminals (Infobase Publishing, 2010), p. 24.
xxxvi
Feldman, p. 11.
xxxvi
Feldman, p. 17.
xxxvi
Allan Peskin, Garfield, a Biography (Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press, 1978), p. 16.
xxxvi
Feldman, p. 28
xxxvi
William C. Ringeberg, The Religious Thought and Practice of James A. Garfield: The Stone-Campbell Movement:
An International Religious Tradition, edit. by Michael W. Casey and Douglas Allen Foster (Knoxville: University of
Tennessee press, 2002), p. 219.
xxxvi
Michale Duvalle, Complete Book of Historic Presidential Firsts: With Fascinating Details & Factual Tidbits
(Bloomington, Indiana; XLibris Corporation, 2009), p. 125.
xxxvi
Chronology of the U.S. Presidency: Volume One: George Washington through James Knox Polk, edit. by Matthew
Manweller (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2012), p. 629.
xxxvi
Duvalle, p. 125.
xxxvi
American Civil War: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection, edit. by Spencer C. Tucker (Santa
Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2013) p. 744.
xxxvi
Charles E. Rosenberg, The Trial of the Assassin Guiteau: Psychiatry and the Law in the Gilded Age (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 19.
xxxvi
Jonathan Goodman, Bloody Versicles: The Rhymes of Crime (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1993), p. 36.
xxxvi
David J. Phillips, On This Day (Bloomington, Indiana: iUniverse, 2007), p. 159.
xxxvi
Duvalle, p. 125
xxxvi
Fred Rosen, Murdering the President: Alexander Graham Bell and the Race to Save James Garfield (Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press, 2016), p. 34.

Five - Arminius, Wesley, Seymour and the Inexorable Ascent of Pentecostalism

Of the world’s two billion Christians at the dawning of the 2010s, some 27% were either Pentecostal or neo-
Pentecostal, aka Charismatic, with some 279 million identifying as Pentecostal and some 305 million as
Charismaticxxxvi, Pentecostalism itself being widely seen as a branch of Evangelical Christianityxxxvi, the latter
historically predicated on certain key tenets, such as the nature of salvation arising as a result of faith alone
through the grace of Godxxxvi, the centrality of the born again experiencexxxvi, the literalism and inerrancy of
Scripture xxxvi , and the necessity of evangelism as a means of spreading the Gospel. xxxvi While the term
Pentecostal is derived from the Biblical day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit descended on the Apostle and
other early Christians in Jerusalem during the Feast of Weeks, as depicted in the Acts of the Apostles, Acts 2:
1-31, and which represents the birth of the early church.xxxvi
Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians maintain that the more supernatural Gifts of the Holy Spirit such as
prophecy, healing and speaking in tonguesxxxvi, also known as glossolalia, are still available to Believers, and
that the Gospel is made more complete thereby, thence the description of ‘the whole Gospel.’
Of all the spiritual ancestors of modern Pentecostalism, the English theologian John Wesley is assuredly
foremost among them, for his emphasis on personal Holinessxxxvi went on to exert an incalculable influence
on its inexorable evolutionxxxvi, via the Holiness denominations that preceded it, the Salvation Army and the
lesser known Church of the Nazarene among themxxxvi, as well as the Charismatic movement that emerged
from it.xxxvi
Wesley was an Arminian, which is to say, he subscribed to the classical Arminianism of the Dutch
theologian Jakob Hermanszoon, better known as Jacobus Arminiusxxxvi, and so maintained what Evan Minton
has described as ‘God’s universal salvific will’xxxvi, which the Bible appears to manifestly express through
such passages as 2 Peter 3: 8-10:
‘The Lord is no slack concerning his promise, as some men count slackness; but is longsuffering to us-ward,
not willing that any should perish, but that all should come to repentance.’xxxvi
He was also an adherent of the Arminian tenet of Conditional Salvationxxxvi, which presupposes that it is
possible for a Christian to make a shipwreck of their faithxxxvi, and even while there is much divergence of
opinion with regard to this issue within both the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements, several passages
point to the possibility of loss of salvation on the part of a believer, such as Hebrews 6:4-6:
‘For it impossible for those who were once enlightened, and have tasted of the heavenly gift, and were made
partaker of the Holy Ghost,
And have tasted the good word of God, and the powers of the world to come,
If they shall fall away, to renew them unto repentance; seeing they crucify to themselves the Son of God
afresh, and put him to an open shame.’xxxvi
Both the theory of ‘God’s universal salvific will’ and that of Conditional Salvation run contrary to
traditional Reformed or Protestant theology, which is Calvinist, after the French theologian John Calvin,
Calvinism being centred on the Doctrines of Grace, or Five Points of Calvinism, which stem from the
Protestant Reformation, and according to which, God predestined a limited Elect of men and women to be
saved, this election being unconditional, given Man’s total inability, born of total depravity, to respond to the
Gospel without Grace, which is irresistible according to Calvinist theology, while the Elect will perforce
persevere in faith.xxxvi
While Wesley was its spiritual antecedent par excellence, the modern Pentecostal movement is widely
believed to have begun with the celebrated Azuza Street Revival of 1906-1915xxxvi, which was initiated by an
Africa-American preacher by the name of William J. Seymour, even while the early 20th Century witnessed
several kindred major Christian revivals, such as the Wonsan Revival of 1903, the Welsh Revival of 1904-
1905, the Khasi Hills Revival of 1905-1906, the Mukti Revival of 1905, the Mizo Outpouring of 1906, the
Pyongyang Revival of 1907-1910, the Manchurian Revival of 1908-1911, and the Chile Revival of 1909.xxxvi
Seymour had been born in Centerville in southern Louisiana on the 2cnd of May 1870 as the child of freed
slaves, and baptised as a Roman Catholic aged four years oldxxxvi, to be raised in poverty in the early years of
the Post-Reconstruction era, which came in the wake of the Civil War and Reconstruction respectively.
As a young man around 1896, he went in search of work in Memphis, St. Louis, and Indianapolis, where he
worked as a waiter in various upmarket hotels.xxxvi Soon afterwards, he became affiliated with the Simpson
Chapel Methodist Episcopal Church, part of the interracial Methodist Episcopal Church, which had refused
to segregate even while provision was extended to black clergy to form conferences within the denomination
in 1876, subsequently undergoing a born again experience.xxxvi
In 1900, he moved to Cincinnati, where he became apprised of the radical Holiness teachings of Martin
Wells Knapp, as well as David S. Warner’s Church of God Reformation movement, also known as the
Evening Light Saints, in which he experienced sanctification, and by whom he was ultimately licensed and
ordained.xxxvi However, it was in Cincinnati that he contracted the smallpox that left him facially scarred and
blind in one eye, which necessitated the use of a glass eye for the remainder of his life. xxxvi
in 1902, he moved to Houston in search of relatives lost to slavery, and where he began attending the
Holiness church of the black Holiness minister Pastor Lucy Farrow, and through Farrow, he became
acquainted with Charles Fox Parhamxxxvi, who ran a bible school in Topeka, Kansas, accepting Parham’s
advocacy of the speaking in tongues as serving as evidence of the Pentecostal experience, which resulted in
his being rejected by the Evening Lights Saints.xxxvi
Seymour was subsequently invited to preach in Los Angeles by Neely Terry, an African American woman
who had helped to organise a small black Holiness church affiliated with the Church of the Nazarene, the
Santa Fe Street Holiness Mission, which was being pastored by another African-American woman, Julia W.
Hutchins. Seymour agreed, and he arrived in Los Angeles on the 22cnd of February 1906. xxxvi However,
when he began preaching about the Baptism of the Holy Spirit with the evidence of the speaking in
tonguesxxxvi, he found himself locked out of church, only to be offered hospitality by a member of Hutchins’
congregation, Edward Lee, moving into Lee’s small cottage with his family on 114 South Union Street.xxxvi
Soon after having been excluded from Hutchins’ church, Seymour set about preaching at the home of
Richard and Ruth Asberry at 214 North Bonnie Brae Street, and it was there in April 1906 that the revival
began in earnestxxxvi, with Seymour himself receiving the Baptism of the Holy Spirit with the evidence of
tongues for the first time at the Asberrysxxxvi, and before long, the small fellowship had moved to a former
African Methodist Episcopal church at 312 Azusa Street in downtown Los Angeles, which ultimately
became known as the Apostolic Faith Mission, with the first service taking place on the 14th of April.xxxvi
Thousands travelled to Azusa Street, where inter-racial services were conducted almost without interruption,
with one meeting blending into the otherxxxvi, which led Frank Bartleman, an evangelist from a German,
English and Welsh family from Carverville in Pennsylvania to declare that ‘The “color line” was washed
away in the blood’.xxxvi While among those who received the Baptism of the Holy Spirit at Azuza was one-
time sceptic Julia Hutchins, who, some five months after the beginning of the Revival, set out for Liberia on
the west coast of Africa as a missionary, in the company of, among others, Pastor Lucy Farrow, at which
point she faded from history.xxxvi
For Seymour, the interracial nature of the Revival was evidence of the fact that Azuza was a latter-day
Pentecostxxxvi, while those who were blessed by it were no longer black or white, but of a new race, the
Christian race. Seymour himself was so anointed that any who touched him received something akin to an
electric shock, and people commonly arrived in wheelchairs only to leave on foot, while sight was restored to
the blind, and those who were disabled or afflicted with agonising conditions were miraculously healed, and
souls close to death had years added to hitherto hopeless lives. At times, the entire church was filled with a
kind of heavenly mist, known as the Shekinah Glory, during which miracles were especially intensive.xxxvi
In time though, the revival faded, until only a remnant, faithfully served by William and his wife Jennie,
remained, while shortly before his death from a heart attack in 1922, Seymour entrusted the ministry to
Jennie, who went on to serve as pastor over an even smaller congregation, which she did until her own health
started to fail in early 1936, and she died later that year.xxxvi Yet, the work of the Seymours was done; and
today, William J. Seymour is recognised as the prime mover of one of the most significant Christian
movements in history, while his spiritual children can be found today in ever corner of the globe, this being
especially true of the developing world, for as of 2006, there were some 84 million Pentecostal and
Charismatic Christians in Brazil alone, with some 72 million in China, 41 million in Nigeria, 38 million in
India, and 25 million in the Philippines,xxxvi while it has been estimated that by 2015, there will be around
800 million worldwide, a preponderance of them in the Southern Hemisphere and East Asia, which has
become what Lamin A. Sanneh described in 2008 as ‘Christianity’s new stronghold’.xxxvi
At the same time, Europe has become, to use Sanneh’s words, ‘a new Christian margin’ xxxvi; and while the
United States remains intensively Christian, with around a quarter of all Americans identifying as
Evangelical as of 2014xxxvi, any relevant internet search will produce article after article proclaiming the
moral decline of America and the West at large, consequent on other forms of decline such as the traditional
family, and traditional notions of right and wrong centred on the West’s ancient Judeo-Christian
foundations.xxxvi
Yet, if the Christian flame is currently burning like a raging wildfire in the Global South, while it is barely a
flicker in Europe, the fact remains that early 21st Century Christendom owes that great and tragic continent
an inestimable debt in the light of her status as the historical keeper of what the Bible refers to as ‘[…] the
faith which was once delivered unto the saints’xxxvi; while the same is true of the great evangelist William J.
Seymour, and all who have been blessed by the inexorable ascent of Pentecostalism.
______________________________
xxxvi
Christian Movements and Denominations (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Centre, 2011).
xxxvi
David Masci, Why has Pentecostalism grown so dramatically in Latin America? (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research
Centre, 2014).
xxxvi
Ephesians 2: 8-9.
xxxvi
John 3: 3.
xxxvi
2 Timothy 3: 16.
xxxvi
Mark 16: 15-16.
xxxvi
Bryan P. Stone, A Reader in Ecclesiology (Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge, 2016), p. 260.
xxxvi
Allan Heaton Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2013), p. 19.
xxxvi
Arminius’ Influence on the Wesleyan Doctrine of Holiness – Wynkoop (Society of Evangelical Arminians, 2018).
xxxvi
From Aldersgate to Azusa Street: Wesleyan, Holiness and Pentecostal Visions of the New Creation, edit. by Henry
H. Knight III (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2010), p. 218.
xxxvi
Holiness as a Liberal Art, edit. by Daniel Castelo (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2012), p. 69.
xxxvi
Matthias Deininger, Global Pentecostalism: An Inquiry into the Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Hamburg,
DE: Anchor Academic Publishing, 2014), p. 47.
xxxvi
Roger E. Olson, Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities (Downers Grove, Il: InterVarsity Press, 2006), p. 169.
xxxvi
Evan Minton, Addressing Calvinist Responses to 2 Peter 3:9 (Society of Evangelical Arminians, 2018).
xxxvi
2 Peter 3: 8-10
xxxvi
The Calvinist’s Fallacious Reasoning - John Wesley (Wells, TX: Theology for the Sanctified, 2016)
xxxvi
1 Timothy 1: 19-20.
xxxvi
Hebrews 6: 4-6.
xxxvi
The Doctrines of Grace (GraceNet UK).
xxxvi
Bradley Truman Noel, Pentecostalism, Secularism, and Post-Christendom (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2015), p.
30.
xxxvi
Chet and Phyllis Swearingen, Revival Stories (Auburn, IN: Beautiful Feet).
xxxvi
Vinson Synan & Charles R. Fox Jr., William J. Seymour: Pioneer of the Azuza Street Revival (Alachua, FL: Bridge
Logos, 2012), p. 24.
xxxvi
Craig Borlase, William Seymour: A Biography (Lake Mary, FL: Charisma House, 2006), p. 45.
xxxvi
Synan & Fox Jr., p. 32.
xxxvi
Estrelda Y. Alexander, Black Fire: One Hundred Years of African American Pentecostalism (Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity Press, 2011), p. 113.
xxxvi
Alexander, p. 113.
xxxvi
Alexander, p. 115.
xxxvi
Cheryl J. Sanders, Saints in Exile: The Holiness-Pentecostal Experience in African American Religion and Culture
(New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 28.
xxxvi
Earle E. Cairns, An Endless Line of Splendor: Revivals and their Leaders from the Great Awakening to the Present
(Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2015), p. 180.
xxxvi
Dr John A. Lombard Jr, Speaking in Tongues: The Initial Evidence of Holy Spirit Baptism
(churchofgod.org.s3.amazonaws.com/downloads/doctrine-and-polity-papers/Speaking-in-tongues-English.pdf).
xxxvi
Gaston Espinosa, William J. Seymour and the Origins of Global Pentecostalism: A Biography and Documentary
History (Duke University Press, 2014).
xxxvi
Denzil R. Miller, From Azuza to Africa to the Nations (Springfield, MO: AIA Publications, 2015), p. 16.
xxxvi
Miller, p. 13.
xxxvi
Miller, p. 17.
xxxvi
Miller, p. 20.
xxxvi
Frank Bartleman, How Pentecost Came to Los Angeles: As It Was in the Beginning
(http://www.dealpentecostal.co.uk/How%20Pentecost%20Came%20To%20Los%20Angeles%20F%20Bartleman%201
925.pdf), p. 32.
xxxvi
Miller, p. 54.
xxxvi
From Aldersgate to Azuza Street: Wesleyan, Holiness and Pentecostal Visions of the New Creation, edit. by Henry
H. Knight III (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2010), p. 221.
xxxvi
Tommy Welchel and Michelle P. Griffith, True Stories of the Miracles of Azuza Street and Beyond (Shippensburg,
PA: Destiny Image Publishers, 2013).
xxxvi
The Azuza Street Revival and its Legacy, edit. by Harold D. Hunter and Cecil M. Robeck Jr. (Eugene, OR: Wipf
and Stock, 2009), p. 76.
xxxvi
The New Face of Global Christianity: The Emergence of “Progressive Pentecostalism” (Washington D.C.: Pew
Research Center, 2006).
xxxvi
Lamin Sanneh, Disciples of All Nations: Pillars of World Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p.
275.
xxxvi
Sanneh, p. 275.
xxxvi
David Masci and Gregory A. Smith, 5 facts about U.S. evangelical protestants (Washington D.C.: Pew Research
Center, 2018).
xxxvi
Dennis Prager, America’s Accelerating Decay (New York: National Review, 2015).
xxxvi
Jude 1:3.