Heat changes in physical changes of state

• To melt a solid, or boil/evaporate a liquid, heat energy must be absorbed or taken in from
the surroundings, so these are endothermic energy changes (ΔH +ve). The system is
heated to effect these changes.
• To condense a gas, or freeze a solid, heat energy must be removed or given out to the
surroundings, so these are exothermic energy changes (ΔH -ve). The system is cooled to
effect these changes.

Changes of State for gas <=> liquid <=> solid

Evaporation and Boiling (liquid to gas)

• On heating, particles gain kinetic energy and move faster.

• In evaporation and boiling the highest kinetic energy molecules can ‘escape’ from the
attractive forces of the liquid particles and become completely free to form a gas or vapour.
• Energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces in the liquid and is taken in from the
surroundings. This means evaporation and boiling are endothermic processes (ΔH +ve).
• If the temperature is high enough boiling takes place.

Condensing (gas to liquid)

• On cooling, gas particles lose kinetic energy and eventually become attracted together to form
a liquid.
• The particles are much closer together and can form clumps of molecules.
• The process requires heat to be lost to the surroundings so condensation is exothermic
(ΔH -ve).

Freezing (liquid to solid)

• On cooling, liquid particles lose kinetic energy and so can become more strongly attracted to
each other.
• Since heat must be removed to the surroundings, so freezing is an exothermic process
(ΔH -ve).

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Melting (solid to liquid)

• When a solid is heated the particles vibrate more strongly Eventually, at the melting point,
the attractive forces are too weak so the solid melts.
• The particles become free to move around and lose their ordered arrangement.
• So heat is taken in from the surroundings and melting is an endothermic process (ΔH +ve).

Sublimation

Sublimation is when a solid, on heating, directly changes into a gas without melting,and the gas on
cooling re-forms a solid directly without condensing to a liquid. They usually involve just a physical
change.

When the solid is heated the particles vibrate with increasing force from the added thermal energy.
Overall endothermic change, energy absorbed and 'taken in' to the system.

On cooling, the particles move slower and have less kinetic energy. Overall exothermic change, energy
released and 'given out' to the surroundings.

Dissolving solids, solutions and miscible/immiscible liquids

• When a solid (the solute) dissolves in a liquid (the solvent) the resulting mixture is called a solution.
o In general: solute + solvent ==> solution
o Only its physical change involve.
o mass of solid solute + mass of liquid solvent = mass of solution
o If the solvent is evaporated, then the solid is reformed, the process is called crystallisation.
• If two liquids completely mix in terms of their particles, they are called miscible liquids because they fully
dissolve in each other. The process can be reversed by fractional distillation.

If the two liquids do NOT mix, they form two separate layers and are known as immiscible liquids. These
two liquids using a separating funnel.