INTRODUCTION TO EXTENSION

The word Extension is derived from the Latin roots, “tensio” meaning “stretching,
and “ex” meaning “out”. Thus the term “Extension Education” means the type of
education which is “stretched out” into the villages and fields beyond the limits of the
schools and colleges to which the formal type of education is normally confined. Hence
extension is informal education to rural people in an out - of - school system of education.
The term “Extension Education” was first introduced in 1873 by Cambridge University,
UK, to describe a particular educational innovation the term Extension was first coined in
England.
Need for extension
The need is obvious especially for the rural economy, with its major components of
agriculture and animal husbandry, to keep pace with the brisk changes in characteristics of
modern times. In other words, the rural people should know and adopt useful research
findings from time to time, and also transmit their problems to the research workers for
solution. The researchers neither have the time nor are they employed for the job of
persuading the villagers to adopt scientific methods and to ascertain from them the rural
problems. On the other hand, it is impracticable for millions of farmers to visit research
stations and learn things by themselves. Thus an agency is required to bridge the gulf
between the research workers and the people to play the dual role of interpreting the results
of research to the farmers as well as of conveying the farmers’ problems to the research
stations for solution. This agency is termed as ‘Extension’, and the personnel manning this
agency or organization are called ‘Extension Workers’.

To equip the prospective extension workers for their job, it is necessary for them to
train adequately in the formal ‘teaching institutions’. Thus we find that three kinds of inter-
related services are essential in the process of rural development.

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Need for studying extension
To be a successful extension worker he should not only know what to teach, but also
how to teach people. In other words, it is not enough that he is equipped with technical
knowledge in subject matter fields; but also he should have the ability to successfully
communicate his ideas to the people, taking the personal social and situational factors into
consideration.
The extension worker needs to understand not only his own programme and
objectives but also the nature of the people with whom he lives and works. He needs to
understand the motives of people; why certain people take the new ideas more rapidly than
others, why certain people want to take the leadership and why certain others hesitate.
The aim of all Extension work is to teach people living in rural areas how to raise their
standard of living, by their own efforts using their own resources of man power and materials
with the minimum assistance from Governments. The broader function of extension work is
to help people to solve their own problems through the application of scientific knowledge is
now generally accepted. Extension is largely educational in nature and approach.
In general, the more the transfer of knowledge is directed at the improvement of the
performance of actual tasks and farming practices, the more effective agricultural
development will be.
Education
Education is the process of bringing desirable change into the behaviour of human
beings. The education is effective when it results in changes in all the behavioural
components.
i) What an individual knows (Knowledge)
ii) What he can do (Physical & Mental skills)
iii) What he thinks (Attitudes)
iv) What he actually does (Action)

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Types of Education
Coombs & Ahmed (1974) drew a distinction between the three types of education as follows:
Informal Education : the day to day process of learning, whereby knowledge is transferred
in the context of the family, the neighborhood, the daily working relationships between the
people and through experience. There is neither a fixed curriculum nor a rules for learning.
It is the most important source of knowledge for successive farming generations, but not for
rapid agricultural development. It tends to be static and traditional. It serves as a basic for
the other categories of education.
Formal Education: the education which takes place in the schools and colleges. It starts
from theory to practice. It can either be general or vocational. Three is a fixed curriculum and
set pattern of examination mostly leading to the award of degrees or diplomas. The audience
is homogeneous with similar characteristics of age, education, common goals etc. Teaching
is vertical in the sense it flows from the teacher to the students. The primary education
contributes a lot to agricultural/livestock production indirectly, as it enlarges the absorption
capacity for vocational education following it.
Non-formal Education: all organized education outside the formal education system. It is
mostly practical and problem oriented. The audience is heterogeneous and they may have
varied goals. Teaching is mostly horizontal in the sense the teacher also learns from the
farmers. The subject matter delivered should be directly applicable which is necessary for
Animal husbandry development. The subject matter should be based on the training needs
of the farmers. Extension education is a type of non formal education.
Definition
Extension Education is an applied science consisting of contents derived from research,
accumulated field experiences and relevant principles drawn from behavioral sciences
synthesized with useful technology into a body of philosophy, principles, contents and
methods focused on the problems of out of school education for adults and youth. (Paul
Leagans, 1961)
It may be observed that the common concept in the above definitions is that extension is an
non formal education, or “out of school system of education”.
Hence, Animal Husbandry Extension may be defined as a special branch of extension
education which deals with the people through educational procedures, in improving
livestock farming methods and techniques, increasing the livestock production, efficiency
and income, stepping up the level of living and elevating the educational standards of rural
life, through the development of livestock farmers.
Target Groups : Agricultural development involves a number of target groups.
1. Groups within the agricultural population.
- farmers, farm women, farmers’ organization (Co-ops, Banks etc.)

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2. Those directly serving the farming community
- Extension agents
- Bankers
- Insurance agents
3. Those indirectly serving the farming community.
- Traders
- Agro-related industries
4. Leaders of the farming community and policy makers.
Purpose of Extension
Animal Husbandry extension involves systematic and organized communication with
livestock owners with a view to help them,
o To obtain a better insight into their present and future position as farmers.
o To choose feasible, optimum objectives.
o To acquire sufficient knowledge and skills necessary to increase production.
o To identify problems, to look for solutions, to solve the problems identified and to
evaluate the results.
There is no means by which a large number of livestock owners spread throughout
the length and breadth of the country can be forced to practice animal husbandry in a
specific way. Such attempts usually meet with passive and even at times active form of
resistance. The only course left open is to influence their decision making through Animal
Husbandry Extension so that their decisions will be to their own and to their country’s
advantage. Animal Husbandry extension alone is seldom sufficient to increase animal
production.
Philosophy
Philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom, body of general principles or laws of field of knowledge.
Essentially philosophy is a view of life and its various components. The practical implication
is that the philosophy of a particular discipline would furnish the principles or guidelines with
which to shape or mould the programmes or activities relating to that discipline.
Horton (1952) described four principles, which make the philosophy of extension. These are
(i) the individual is supreme in democracy,
(ii) the home is the fundamental unit of civilization,
(iii) the family is the first training group of the human race, and
(iv) the foundation of any permanent civilization must rest on the partnership of man
and land.

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According to Ensminger (1965) the philosophy of extension is
1. Extension is fundamentally a system of out of school education for adults and young.
It is a system where the people are motivated through a proper approach to help
themselves by applying science in their daily lives in farming, home-making and
community living.
2. Extension is education for all the farmers, farm women, youth and villagers as a whole.
3. Extension is bringing desirable changes in the knowledge, attitude and skill.
4. Extension is helping people to help themselves by education and not merely by
service.
5. Extension is working with men and women, boys and girls to answer their felt needs
and wants
6. Extension is teaching people what to want (ie. Converting unfelt needs into felt needs)
as well as how to work out ways of satisfying these wants, and inspiring them to achieve
their desires.
7. Extension is teaching through “Learning by doing and seeing is believing”.
8. Extension is to work in harmony with culture of the people.
9. Extension is a two way channel; it brings scientific information to village people and it
also takes the problems of village people to the scientific institutes for solution.
10. Extension is working together to expand the welfare and happiness of the people with
their own families, their own villages, their own country and the world.
11. Extension is a living relationship between the extension workers and the village
people. Respect and trust for each other and sharing of joys and sorrows results in
friendship through which village extension works continues.
12. Extension is development of individuals in their day today living, development of their
leaders, their society and their world as a whole.
13. Extension is a continuous educational process in which both learner and teacher
contribute and receive.
According to Kelsey and Herne (1967) the basic philosophy of extension education
is to teach how to think, not what to think. Extension’s specific job is furnishing the
inspiration, supplying specific advice and technical help, and counseling to see that the
people as individuals, families, groups and communities work together as a unit in blue
‘printing’ their own problems, charting their own courses, and that they launch forth to
achieve their objectives. Sound extension philosophy is always looking ahead.
In stating the philosophy of extension, Bhatnagar and Desai (1987) said that
extension is an educational, cooperative, collaborative, democratic, persuasive and never-
ending process that generates harmony, leadership, effective communication, participation
and involvement of the people in organizing self-help activities and projects. It is a system of

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‘learning by doing’ and seeing is believing’ at an individual level and mutual learning’ at
group level amongst professional and target beneficiaries, result in a high degree of rapport
and empathy.
Principles of Extension
Principles are generally guidelines, which form the basis for decision and action in a
consistent way. The universal truths in extension, which have been observed and found to
hold good under varying conditions and circumstances, are presented.
I - Principle of cultural difference: Culture simply means social heritage. There is cultural
difference between groups of farmers also. The differences may be in their habits,
customs, values, attitudes and way of life. Extension work, to be successful, must be
carried out in harmony with the culture of the people.
II - Grassroots principle: Extension programmes should start with local groups, local
situations and local problems. It must fit to the local conditions. Extension work should start
with the people where they are and what they have.
III – Principle of indigenous knowledge: People everywhere have indigenous knowledge
systems which they have developed through generations of work experience and
problem solving in their own specific situations. The indigenous knowledge systems
encompass all aspects of life and people consider it essential for their survival. Instead
of ignoring the indigenous knowledge systems as outdated, the extension agent
should try to understand them and their ramifications in the life of the people, before
proceeding to recommend something new to them.
IV – Principles of interests and needs: People’s interests and people’s needs are the
starting point of extension work. To identify the real needs and interest of the people are
challenging tasks. The extension agents should not pass on their own need and interests as
those of the people. Extension work shall be successful only when it is based on the
interests and needs of the people as they see them.

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V – Principle of learning by doing: Learning remains far from the perfect, unless the
people get involved in actually doing the work. Learning by doing is most effective in
changing people’s behaviour. This develops confidence as it involves maximum
number of sensory organs. People should learn what to do, why to do, how to do and
with what results.
VI – Principle of participation: Most people of the village community should willingly
cooperate and participate in identifying the problem, planning of projects for solving
the problems and implementing the projects in getting the desired results. It has been
the experience of many countries that people become dynamic if they take decisions
concerning their own affairs, exercise responsibility for, and are helped to carry out
projects in their own areas. The participation of the people is of fundamental
importance for the success of an extension programme. People must share in
developing and implementing the programme and feel that it is their own programme.
VII – Family principle: Family is the primary unit of society. The target for extension work
should, therefore, be the family. That is, developing the family as a whole, economically and
socially. Not only the farmers, the farmwomen and farm youth are also to be involved in
extension programmes
VIII – Principle of leadership: Identifying different types of leaders and working through
them is essential in extension. Local leaders are the custodians of local thought and
action. The involvement of local leaders and legitimization by them are essential for
the success of a programme. Leadership traits are to be developed in the people so
that they of their own shall seek change from less desirable to a more desirable
situation. The leaders may be trained and developed to act as carriers of change in the
villages.
IX – Principle of adaptability: Extension work and extension teaching methods must be
flexible and adapted to suit the local conditions. This is necessary because the people,
their situation, their resources and constraints vary from place to place and time to
time.
X – Principle of satisfaction: The end product of extension should produce satisfying
results for the people. Satisfying results reinforce learning and motivate people to seek
further improvement.
XI – Principle of Evaluation: Evaluation prevents stagnation. There should be a continuous
built-in method of finding out the extent to which the results obtained are in agreement
with the objectives fixed earlier. Evaluation should indicate the gap and steps to be
taken for further improvement.
TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS
Teaching:

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Teaching is the process of providing situations in which learning takes place; in other
words, arranging situations in which the things to he learnt are brought to the attention of the
learners, their interest is developed, desire aroused, conviction created, action promoted and
satisfaction ensured.
Amplification:
1. The ultimate purpose of teaching is not merely to inform people but to transform
them, to bring about the desired change in their behaviour.
2. If the learner has not learnt, the teacher has not taught.
3. Teaching is not filling a bucket; it is lighting a lamp.
4. Teaching is an intentional or purposeful process, not a hit or miss undertaking.
5. Effective teaching is done according to design, not drift; it is done by plan, not by trial
and error.
6. Good teaching, therefore, requires careful planning of content, procedures, methods
and techniques.
7. Good teaching is essentially good communication and good communication requires
sympathetic sharing, and clear explaining.

Learning
Learning is a process by which a person becomes changed in his behaviour
through seIf-activity. Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation.
Amplification:
1. Learning is something that takes place within the learner.
2. It takes place within the individual when he feels a need, strives for fulfilling it, and
experiences satisfaction with the fruits of his labour.
3. Learning is the goal of teaching. We must, however, avoid any artificial separation,
since teaching and learning are really one process; they are, so to say the obverse
and the reverse of the same coin. We can symbolize this interaction as the
Teaching < -- > Learning process
Learning Experience
It is the mental and/or physical reaction one makes through seeing, hearing or
doing the things to be learned through which one gains meanings and
understandings of the material to be learned.
What Is a Learning Situation
A learning situation is a condition or environment in which all the elements necessary for
promoting learning are present; namely (1) Instructor (2) Learner (3) Subject matter (4)
Teaching materials and equipments, and (5) Physical facilities.
Extension Education Process

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This process has five essential phases in the extension educational process as given in the
figure.

Analysis of the situation: This required a large amount of facts about all aspects of the
situation. Facts are needed about the people, their interests, education, what they think they
need, their social customs, habits and folkways. Facts are needed about the physical
situation such as soils, type of farming, markets, size of farms, cropping systems, housing
condition, community services and communications. Some of these facts shape up into
problems, local, national, and international. Other facts show the resources that are available
through organizations and agencies. New facts and research findings should be introduced
by the extension workers to stimulate a fresh approach to the problems of the people. A
thorough analysis will examine changing conditions and take a careful look ahead,
comparing "what is" with "what should be".
Deciding upon objective: It is necessary to distinguish between levels of objectives by
separating the general objectives from the specific or working objectives. The planning
process must enable the people to select a limited number of problems and to state their
objectives clearly. The solutions to be offered must give satisfaction. Objectives should
express the behavioral changes in people as well as the economic or social outcomes which
are desired.
Teaching: This involves choosing (1) the content or what is to be taught and (2) methods
and techniques of communication. The first two phases are inherently teaching
opportunities, but now we must create learning situations. We must use from six to nine
different methods of communication to stimulate learning. These will be chosen from mass
media, group, and personal methods. The ability to choose and use those methods best
adapted to particular objectives is the measure of an extension worker's effectiveness.
Evaluation: This should determine to what extent objectives have been reached. This will
also be a test of how accurately and clearly the objectives have been stated. Plans for
evaluation should be built into the plans of work during earlier phases. Distinction is made
between mere records of accomplishments and the process of comparing these results with

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original objectives. The process of evaluation may be simple and informal or it may be formal
and very complex.
Reconsideration: This step consists of a review of previous efforts and results which reveal
a new situation. If this new situation shows the need for further work, then the whole process
may begin again, with new or modified objectives. Hence this process is continuous. The
new situation is different because: (1) the people have changed; (2) the physical, economic
and social changes may have occurred; (3) the extension worker is better prepared to
recognize new needs and interests.
In Summary, this concept is intended only to clarify the steps necessary in carrying out a
planned educational effort. It is not intended to imply that these steps are definitely separate
from each other. Experience shows that planning, learning and evaluation are taking place
continuously, in varying degrees, throughout all phases of extension activities
Steps in Extension Teaching:
According to Wilson and Gallop the teaching learning process has six steps:
Attention: The first task of the extension worker is to attract attention of the learner to the
new and better ideas. Farmers are to be made aware of the improvements until the
individuals attention has been focused on the change that is considered desirable, there is
no recognition of a problem to be solved or want to be satisfied. Attention is the starting point
to the arousing of interest.
Mass methods like radio, television, exhibition etc., and personal contact by the
extension worker, contact through local leaders are important at this stage.

Interest: Once attention has been captured it becomes possible for the teacher to appeal to
the basic needs or urges of the individual and arouse his interest in further consideration of
the idea. Extension worker reveals how new practice will contribute to the farmer’s welfare.
The message should be presented attractively.
Personal contact by the extension worker, farm publications, radio, television etc., is
important at this stage
Desire: The desire is concerned with the continuing learner’s interest in the idea or better
practice until that interest becomes a desire or motivating force. The extension worker

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explains the farmer that the information applies directly to the farmer’s situation that the
doing of this would satisfy his needs.
Field visit, method demonstrations, farm publications, personal contact by extension
worker, group discussion etc., are important at this stage
Conviction: Action follows when desire, conviction of the people, and prospect of
satisfaction makes it easier for the person to act than not to act. In this step learner knows
what action is necessary, and just how to take that action. He also makes sure that the
learner visualizes the action in terms of his own peculiar situation and has acquired
confidence in his own ability to do the thing.
Field day or field visit, slide show, personal contact by extension worker, and training
are important at this stage.
Action: Unless conviction is converted in to action, the efforts are fruitless. It is the job of
extension worker to make it easy for the farmers to act. If action does not quickly follow the
desire the new idea will fade away. Therefore this phase should never be neglected.
Demonstration, personal contact by extension worker, supply of critical inputs, and
ensuring essential services are important at this stage.
Satisfaction: This is the end product of teaching Process. Follow by the extension worker
helps the farmer to learn to evaluate their progress and strengthen satisfaction. Satisfaction
helps to continue his action with more confidence. It is the motivating force for further
learning.
Use of mass media, local leaders and personal contact by extension worker are
important at this stage.
The teacher has to arrange the learning situations in all the six teaching steps with
the help of the extension worker teaching methods. Various teaching methods are not
equally suited to advance each of the different steps in teaching each method under certain
circumstances makes a contribution in each step. The above six steps are often blending
with each other and lose their clear-cut identity.
EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS
Teaching
Teaching methods may be defined as the methods / devices used to create situations in
which communication can take place between the instructor and the learner. In other words,
arranging situations in which the things to he learnt are brought to the attention of the
learners, their interest is developed, desire aroused, conviction created, action promoted and
satisfaction ensured.
Amplification: The ultimate purpose of teaching is not merely to inform people but to
transform them, to bring about the desired change in their behavior. Teaching is an
intentional or purposeful process, not a hit or miss undertaking. Good teaching, therefore,

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requires careful planning of content, procedures, methods and techniques.
Learning
Learning is a process by which a person becomes changed in his behaviour
through seIf-activity. "Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation"
Amplification: Learning is something that takes place within the learner. It takes place
within the individual when he feels a need, strives for fulfilling it, and experiences satisfaction
with the fruits of his labour. Learning is the goal of teaching.
Teaching and learning are really one process; they are, so to say. the obverse and the
reverse of the same coin. We can symbolize this interaction as the
Teaching < -- > Learning process
Learning Experience
It is the mental and/or physical reaction one makes through seeing, hearing or
doing the things to he learned. Through which one gains meanings, intent and
understandings of the material to be learned.
Learning situation
It is a condition or environment in which all the elements necessary for promoting learning
are present; namely (1) Instructor (2) Learner (3) Subject matter (4) Teaching materials and
equipments, and (5) Physical facilities.
Functions of extension methods
1. To provide communication so that the learner may see, hear and do the things to be
learnt
2. To provide stimulation that causes the desired mental / physical action on the part of
the learner
3. In brief, to take the learner through one or more steps of the teaching - learning
process, viz., attention, interest, desire, conviction, action and satisfaction.
Classification of Extension methods
In Extension work, the farmers are being contacted in their farms, homes or in groups
or under impersonal situations. Moreover, they are contacted and communicated verbally or
through visual symbols or through writings. Taking these situations into considerations, the
extension teaching methods are classified in accordance with their use and form as follows:

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Farm and home visit
It is direct contact by the extension worker with the farmer or the members of his family at his
home or on his farm for a specific purpose.
Office call
It is a call made by a farmer on the extension worker at his office for obtaining information or
getting assistance or for developing acquaintance with him.

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Telephone call
It is a call made by the extension worker to give advice / information to the farmer or made
by the farmer to get advice from the extension worker through telephone
Personal letters
It is a personal and individual letter written by the extension worker to a farmer in connection
with the extension work.
Result demonstration
It is a method of teaching, design to show the value or worth of the improved practice
employed in the field. The best type of demonstration is the comparison of two situations.
Result demonstration meeting
Conducting meetings during demonstration to convince the farmers is result demonstation
meeting. It is a group contact method.
Method demonstrations
It is a relatively short term demonstrations given before a group to show how to carry out an
entirely new practice or an old practice in a better way. It is not concerned with proving the
worth of the practice but how to do something. It teaches the skill.

General meetings
It includes all kinds of meetings held by extension workers.
Lecture
It is extensively used to present authoritative or technical information to develop background
and appreciation and to integrate ideas. It is a one way of communications. The range of
subjects that can be covered by this method is unlimited but the speaker at a given meeting
presents a specific topic to a particular audience.
Debate
The common pattern is to have two teams. One representing the affirmative and the other
the negative side of the question. Usually there are two speakers for each side. Each
speaker is allowed a definite amount of time to make his speech. In this case there is two
way communication.
Symposium
This is a short series of lecture usually by two to five speakers. Each one speak for definite
amount for definite amount of time and present s a different phase or subdivision of general
topic. Advantage of symposium over lecture is that two or more expert presents different
phases of the topic.
Panel

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It is an informal conversation put on for the benefit of the audience, by a small
group of speakers, usually from 2 to 8 in number. Members are seated so that
they can see one another and also face the audience
Forum
It is a discussion period that may follow either lecture, symposium or panel. It consists of
question period in which the members of the audience may ask questions or make brief
statement.
Brain storming
It is a type of small group of interaction designed to encourage the free introduction of idea
on an unrestricted basis and without any limitations or feasibility. At a later period all the
contributions will be sorted out and evaluated.
Workshop
It is essentially a long meeting from one day to several weeks. There must be planning
session where all are involved in the beginning. There must be considerable time for work
sessions. There must be summarizing and evaluation session at the close. As the name
implies, it must produce something in the end a report, a publication, a visual or any other
material objects.
Seminar
First discussion leader introduces the topic to be discussed. Members of the audience
discuss the subject to which ready answers are not available. It may have two or more
plenary sessions.
Conference
Pooling of experience and opinions among a group of people who have special qualification
in an area.
Group discussion
It is a discussion between two or more persons, recognizing a common problem exchange
and evaluate information and ideas in an effort to solve the problem. Discussion usually
occurs in a face-to-face or co-acting situation.
Field Trips
It is a method in which a group of interested farmers accompanied and guided by an
extension worker goes on tour to see and gain first hand knowledge on improved practices
in their natural settings.
Training
It is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of the teaching of
vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies.
Flash cards

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They are series of illustrated cards which when flashed or presented before a group in
proper sequence tell a complete story. Since it is flashed before the audience it is called as
flash cards.
Flannel graph
A flannel graph is any graphic material used on a flannel board. A flannel board is a flannel-
covered on flat surface. Flannel is stretched and then glued to a piece of plywood (or) heavy
cardboard.
Leaflet
It is a single sheet of news or information. When folded it is described as a folder. A leaf
deals with specific information on a single topic.
Folder
It is a big sized single printed sheet of paper folded once or twice or more times containing
essential information relating to a particular topic.
Pamphlet
It is a small book consisting of two or more sheets stitched together and not bound. A
pamphlet deals with number of relative topics.
Bulletin
It is a official report of public news. It may deal with number of relative topics.
Newspaper
It may be daily or periodical with a news type or service type of information.
Circular letter
It is a letter reproduced and sent to many people by the extension worker, to publicize an
extension activity or to give timely information on farm and home problems.
News articles (News stories)
News is any timely information that interest a number of persons. It is an accurate, unbiased
account of the main facts of a current event that is of interest to the readers of the news
papers.
Radio
It is a medium of mass communication, a tool for giving information and entertainment.
Television
It is one of the important mass media for dissemination of information in rural areas. It has
an unique advantage over other mass media because it provides words with pictures and
sound effects like movies.
Campaign
It is an intense teaching activity undertaken at an opportune moment for a brief period;
focusing attention in a concerted manner on a particular problem with a view to stimulate the
widest possible interest in a community, block, geographical areas.

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Exhibits
A planned display of models, specimens. charts, posters etc., presented to public view for
instruction, judging in a competition, advertising or entertainment.
Posters
Poster is a visual combination of bold design, colour and message to catch and hold
the attention of the passerby long enough to implant or to reinforce the significant idea in his
mind.
Advantages and disadvantages of three categories of extension methods
The more important advantages and limitations of the 3 categories of extension
methods may be summarized as follows.
Individual Contacts
Advantages
1. Useful in contacting the "stay-at-home" type of people.
2. For teaching complex practices.
3. For selecting local leaders, cooperators, demonstrators.
4. To increase confidence of farmers in Extension.
5. To gain first-hand knowledge of farm and home conditions.
6. The farmer feels a sense of personal importance which is conducive to bring about
the desired changes.
7. Enhance effectiveness of group methods and mass media.
8. Effectiveness of group responsibility depends on willingness of individuals to share in
it.
9. It is individuals, not groups, who learn, who make choices and accept responsibilities.
Disadvantages
1. Relatively expensive, because time-consuming.
2. Low coverage of farmers.
3. Possibility of extension worker being charged with favouritism.
Group Methods
Advantages
1. Enable face-to-face contacts with large numbers at a time.
2. Facilitate sharing of knowledge and experience, and thereby strengthen learning.
3. Meetings are adaptable to almost all lines of subject matter.
4. Satisfy basic urge of people for social contacts.
5. Less expensive than individual contacts, due to saving of time.
6. More effective in stimulating action than mass contacts.
7. Group influence facilitates individuals to accept changes.
Disadvantages

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 1. Wide diversity in interests of audience creates a difficult learning situation.
2. Holding meetings may become "real objective".
3. Pitfall of working with caste groups or groups with vested interests should be
avoided.
Mass contact Methods:
Advantages
1. They reinforce individual and group contacts by complementing or supplementing
them.
2. They reach much larger and different audiences.
3. They save time and expense in reaching large numbers.
Disadvantages
1. Less intensive and less effective than individual and group contacts in bringing about
changes in practices.
2. Lack the advantage of "social contacts" or "personal touch."
3. Recommendations being general' may not apply to special situations or individual
needs.
4. Quick to evaluate the results.

Individual Contacts
Farm & Home Visits
It is a face-to-face type of individual contact by the extension worker with the farmer
and or the members of his family on the latter’s farm or at his home for one or more specific
purpose connected with extension.
Purpose / Objectives
1. Obtain and or give first hand information on matters relating to farm and home
conditions
2. Give advice or otherwise assist to solve a specific problem; or to teach skills etc.
3. Arouse the interest of those not reached by other methods
4. Select local leaders, demonstrators or co-operators
5. Promote good public relations
6. Strengthen the extension organization or facilitate extension programme.
Procedure
1. Decide upon the place
2. Clarify the purpose
3. Plan the visit
4. Make the visit

18
 5. Record the visit
6. Follow up the visit
Advantages
1. Provides extension worker with firsthand knowledge of farm and home conditions
and the view points of farm people.
2. If made on request, the farmer or home-maker is likely to be ready to learn.
3. The ratio of ‘takes’ (acceptance) to ‘exposures’ (efforts) is high.
4. Builds confidence between the extension worker and the farmer
5. May increase greatly the effectiveness of group methods and mass media
6. Contributes to selection of better local leaders, demonstrators and co-operators
7. Develops good public relations
8. Useful in contacting those who do not participate in extension activities and who are
not reached by mass media.
Limitations
1. Requires relatively large amount of extension worker’s time
2. Number of contacts possible is limited
3. Comparatively costly
4. Time of visit may not be always opportune from the standpoint of farmer
5. Danger of concentrating visits on the progressive farmers and neglecting those who
are most in need of such personal contacts.
Group contact methods
Result Demonstration
It is a method of teaching, designed to show by example the practical application of
an established fact, or group of related facts. It is a way of showing people the value or worth
of an improved practice whose success has already been established on the research
station. Result demonstration is an individual contact method while result demonstration
meeting a group contact method.
Objectives
1. To show the utility and feasibility of a recommended practice under village conditions.
2. Chiefly to establish confidence on the part of the farmer as well as the extension
teacher.
Procedure
1. Analyze situation and determine need
2. Decide upon specific purpose
3. Plan the result demonstration
4. Select demonstrators
5. Start the demonstration

19
 6. Supervise the demonstration
7. Complete the demonstration
8. Follow-up
Advantages
1. Gives the extension worker extra assurance that recommendation is practical and
furnishes local proof of its advantages
2. Increases confidence of farmers in extension worker and his recommendations
3. Useful in introducing a new practice
4. Contributes to discovery of local leaders
5. Provides teaching material for further use by extension worker
Limitations
1. Requires lot of time and preparation on the part of extension worker
2. A costly teaching method
3. Difficult to find good demonstrators who will keep records
4. Teaching value frequently destroyed by unfavourable weather and other factors
5. Few people see the demonstration at the stage when it is most convincing.
6. Unsuccessful demonstrations may undermine the prestige of Extension, and entail
loss of confidence.
Method Demonstration
It is a relatively short time demonstration given before a group to show how to carry
out an entirely new practice or an old practice in a better way. It is not concerned with
proving the worth of a practice but how to do something.
Objectives
1. To enable the people to acquire new skills
2. To enable people to improve upon their old skills
3. To make the learners do things more efficiently, by getting rid of defective practices.
4. To save time, labour and annoyances and to increase satisfaction of learners.
5. To give confidence to the people that a particular recommended practice is a
practicable proposition in their own situation
Procedure
1. Analyze the situation and determine the need
2. Plan the demonstration in detail
3. Rehearse the demonstration
4. Give the demonstration
5. Follow-up
Advantages
1. Peculiarly suited in teaching skills to many people

20
 2. Seeing, hearing, discussing and participating in a group stimulates interest and
action
3. The costly ‘trial and error’ procedure is eliminated
4. Acquirement of skills is speeded
5. Builds confidence of extension worker in himself and also confidence of the people in
the extension teacher, if the demonstration is performed skillfully
6. Simple demonstrations readily lend themselves to repeated use by local leaders
7. Introduces changes of practice at a low cost
8. Provides publicity material
Limitations
1. Suitable only for practices involving skills
2. Needs good deal of preparation, equipment and skill on the part of extension worker.
3. May require considerable equipment to be transported to the work place
4. Requires a certain amount of showmanship not possessed by some extension
workers.
Mass Contact Methods
Radio
It is a medium for mass communication, a tool for giving information and
entertainment.
Objectives
1. To reach large numbers of people quickly and inexpensively
2. To reach people not reached by other means
3. To stimulate participation in extension through all other media
4. To build enthusiasm and maintain interest
Procedure
1. Determine its place in the teaching plan
2. Be clear about the purpose of your broadcast
3. Keep the interests and needs of the audience in view
4. Select topics of current interest
5. Time the broadcast to synchronize with the farmers leisure hours
6. Decide what treatment to give - straight talk, interview, panel, drama etc.
7. For writing the script, follow the principles given for writing news articles.
8. Encourage people to listen to rural programmes
9. Encourage them to write to the broadcasting stations about their likes, needs and
opinions.
10. Encourage talented local people to participate in broadcasting.
Advantages

21
 1. Can reach more people quickly than any other means of communication.
2. Especially suited to give emergency and timely information
3. Relatively cheap
4. Reaches many who read little or none at all.
5. Reaches people who are unable to attend extension meetings
6. A means of informing non-farm people about agricultural matters
7. Builds interest in other extension media
8. Possible to do other things while listening
Limitations
1. Limited number of stations broadcasting farm informations
2. Not within reach of all farmers
3. Recommendations may not apply to individual needs
4. No turning back if not understood
5. Frequently loses out in competition with entertainment
6. Difficult to check on results
Television
Television is an audio-visual aid used for mass communication, designed to help in
the presentation of materials and transfer of information to make them easily and clearly
understandable, appreciable and applicable. This medium is more personal than radio. The
viewer meets the speaker in a simulated ‘face to face’ situation even though the speaker
does not share this relationship. Two types of television media are available for teaching
purpose.
1. Broadcast television: In this programmes are aired over a large geographical area.
2. Closed circuit television: This usage takes a video signal from tape /CDs and carries
it over a cable to one or more monitors.
Purpose
1. To facilitate teaching and training
2. To communicate ideas and information to a large number of persons in a shorter
time.
3. To effectively use the time and scope for easy assimilation and application of subject
matter presented to the learner by making it pleasant and enjoyable.
Procedure
All the aspects in the preparation of a radio script have to be looked into while
preparing a script for TV. The TV programmes are to be developed both for ears and eyes.
All the programmes should have an attractive, natural, relevant, realistic and pleasing
background so that they will be appealing, convincing, understandable and practicably useful
to the audience

22
Advantages
Useful to reach the illiterate
Learning will be better as both audio and video component is involved
Limitations
1. Cannot be used where there is no electricity facility
2. Extension programmes have intense competition with entertainment programme
3. It requires careful script preparation and skilful presentation for which rehearsals
have to be made. This is a time consuming process.
4. There is no immediate feed back from the viewers.
Factors to be considered in selection and use of extension methods
No single rule of thumb can be given for the selection and use of the various
extension methods to ensure success in all situations. However some guiding principles will
be helpful in general.
A. Selection of Methods
1. The audience
2. The Teaching objective
3. The subject matter
4. The stage of development of extension organization
5. Size of extension staff
7. The availability of certain communication media
8. An extension workers’ familiarity
B. Combination of Methods
Combined use of several different methods is of the utmost importance in extension
teaching. The adoption of practices was found to be high when more than five methods were
used as compared to single and two to five methods.
C. Using the Methods in Proper Sequence
The extension plan of work must include methods to enable farmers to see, hear and do the
thing to be learned, to reach large number of people and create confidence – building
situations. Completed plans should provide not only doing these things but must be so
organized that the completed plan, as a unit, does all the things. One method helps another,
and many of them are used in combination and sequence to repeat the story. Organized,
followed-up teaching activity means more improvement in farm and home conditions.
KINDS OF FARMING
Farming is an activity that involves the use of land for cultivation of crops, raising of
animals etc. There are several factors, which determine the type of farming undertaken by
an individual / organization and these factors are classified as physical, economic and social
as given below.

23
Factors determining type of farming
A. Physical factors
i) Climate
ii) Soil
iii) Topography
B. Economic factors
i) Marketing cost
ii) Changes in relative value of farm products
iii) Availability of labour and capital
iv) Land values
v) Cycles of over and under production
vi) Competition between enterprises
vii) Miscellaneous – Seasonal availability of raw material, diseases etc.
C. Social factors
i) Type of community
ii) Cooperative spirit
Classification of farming
A. Based on how income is derived from a farming enterprise
i) Specialised farming
ii) Diversified farming
iii) Mixed farming
B. Based on mode of ownership and organization of farms
i) Peasant farming
ii) State farming
iii) Co-operative farming
iv) Collective farming
v) Capitalistic farming
vi) Contract farming
C. Based on scale of operations
i) Small scale farming
ii) Large scale farming
D. Based on water resources
i. Dry farming
ii. Irrigated farming
E. Others
i) Ranching
Specialised farming

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 A specialized farm is one in which 50 per cent or more receipts are derived from one
source. Advantages of specialized farming are
1. Best suited to particular soil, climate, topography and other physical conditions like
market type
2. Work easily reduced to routine
3. Better marketing
4. Better management
5. Less equipments and labour needed
6. Efficiency and skill of personnel increased
7. Costly and efficient machinery can be kept
8. Farmer can secure complete mastery over the conditions, problems of production,
processing and sale
9. Under favourable and specific conditions extremely profitable
Diversified farming
When a farming is organized to produce one main product but also has several other
enterprises each of which itself is the direct source of income, it is called diversified farming.
Mixed farming
According to the 12th National Conference of Agricultural Economists (1960) a farm
where at least 10 per cent of its income is contributed by livestock is called a mixed farm.
The upper limit of gross income to be contributed by livestock activities was fixed at 49 per
cent under Indian conditions. This conference restricted the scope of mixed farming to the
livestock activities, which would largely include milch cattle and buffaloes. Any extension of
mixed farming by supplementary enterprises like sheep and goat farming, fishery and poultry
were classified under diversified farming. Advantages of mixed / diversified farming are
1. Well suited for adoption round the year under Indian conditions.
2. Income obtained throughout the year.
3. Offers opportunity for better use of land, capital and labour.
4. Helps in maintaining soil fertility.
5. Reduces the risks due to failure, unfavourable market price etc.
6. Income is regular and quick.
7. Cost of transportation and sale of by-products can be reduced to minimum.
8. Offers opportunity for complete use of agricultural wastes.
9. Provides balanced and protective farming.
Peasant farming
The farmer himself is considered as the owner, manager, organizer, worker of his
farm. The farmer himself cultivates the land. He makes decision in planning for his farm
depending upon the resources available. The advantage is he is free to take any decision

25
regarding the farm. But the resources of the individual are less in comparison with the other
systems.
State farming
It is managed by the government. All the labours are hired on daily / monthly basis and
they have no right to decision making. Here the resources are plenty but the efficiency is
less. Operations and management is done by officials.
Co-operative farming
Co-operative farming is one in which agricultural / livestock producers cooperate with
one another to secure advantages of cooperative buying of agricultural / livestock requisites
and co-operative selling of agricultural/livestock produce or they may cooperate in order to
obtain credit on easier terms. Classification of cooperative farming societies are
(i) Co-operative better farming society: In this kind, independent land holding members
agree to follow a plan of cultivation / operation laid down by the society
(ii) Co-operative tenant farming society: This differs from the above in the fact that the
society (which may hold land on freehold or leasehold) leases out the plots to members
for individual cultivation. Otherwise, its objectives and spheres of action are the same as
that of better farming society.
(iii) Co-operative joint farming society: In this type, landowners pool their lands for joint
cultivation. The ownership of each member in his holding continues and is recognized
by the payment of dividend in proportion to the value of his land.
Collective farming: In collective farming societies, members do not have an individual land
ownership right in the society’s land. The society holds land in free hold or leasehold and
undertakes joint cultivation. Types of collective farming societies are
a. Type I Collective farming societies: It is marked by transfer of land ownership rights by
members in return for shares of equivalent value.
b. Type II Collective farming societies: It is marked by transfer of land ownership rights by
members without any consideration.
c. Type III Collective farming societies: It is marked by absence of the transfer of any prior
land ownership rights by members, because members did not possess any ownership
rights in society’s land.
Capitalistic farming
The ownership of the land is with rich persons. The size of the farm is large and
management is efficient. The ownership is with individuals, or groups or share holders.
Resources are plenty and latest technologies are used. General policies are laid by the
managing body of the board of directors. Good supervision, strong organizational setup and
sufficient resources are found in this farming.
Contract Farming

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 Is as an agreement between farmers and marketing or processing firms for
production and supply of agricultural / livestock products under forward agreements
frequently at predetermined rates.

Types
 Market specific contracts
 Resource providing contracts
 Production management contracts
Advantages
Farmers
1. Provision of inputs and services
2. Access to credit
3. Introduction of appropriate technology
4. Skill transfer
5. Guaranteed and fixed pricing structure
6. Easy access to reliable market
Sponsors/Companies/Integrators
1. Timely availability of products
2. Easy access to resources
3. Shared risks
4. Quality consistency
Disadvantages
Farmers
1. Lack of timely supply of resources
2. Delay in payment
3. Unsuitable technologies
4. Domination by monopoly
5. Corruption
Sponsors/Companies/Integrators
1. Land availability constraints

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 2. Farmers discontent
3. Input diversion
Large and small scale farming
There are different means of describing scale of livestock enterprise viz. depending
on how much of the commodity is produced and marketed by the unit within a time period,
number of animals / birds maintained or area of holding over which the livestock enterprise is
based. The advantages of large-scale production over small-scale production are called the
economies of scale.
Comparison between small and large scale farming
S.No. Aspects Large scale Small scale
Division of labour
1. Possible Limited
(Specialization)
2. Mechanization Possible Not possible
3. Quantity of the output More Less
4. Cost of production Low High
5. Cost of management Low High
6. Marketing facilities Better Poor
7. Economy of buying and selling More Less
Possibility of using improved
8. More Less
technology
9. Danger of over production More Less
10. Supervision Poor Better
11. Flexibility Inflexible Flexible
Chances of unhealthy
12. More Less
competition

Dry farming
It refers to the farming area which receives 20 inches or less annual rainfall. The
major problem here is that the crops are entirely dependent on rain only.
Irrigated farming
It refers to the area where the rainfall is irregular, seasonal and insufficient and the
crops are raised through the bore well and canal irrigation.
Ranching
It is a practise of grazing the animals in public areas, i. e. The land is not utilised for
tilling or raising the crops. It is found in some parts of Rajasthan. It is vanishing in India
because of population pressure.
SOCIOLOGY AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR EXTENSION WORKER
Man does not ordinarily live in isolation; he lives in physical and social proximity to
other human beings. Man identifies himself to some human beings more than others. This
exhibits a feeling of belonging, both with them and with the geographical area, within which
all reside. Thus human relationships and human interaction are the central core of the field

28
of sociology around them are built social groups, organisations, institutions and other
components of the structure of society. Yet another key word in understanding sociology is
"Groups". Man interacts with groups from birth. He is constantly subjected to influence them
to varying extents. Group relation is the chief foci of the field of sociology.
Meaning
Sociology is the youngest of social sciences, focuses on the study of human
behaviour in its entirety. Man himself has been an object of study and man has tried to
understand his human behavoiur in relation to others.
Auguste Comte(1789 - 1857) - Father of Sociology named the field of study from
two words
- the Greek "logos" - word speech, reasoning or calculation
- the Latin "socius" meaning companion
The word "logus" as suffix indicates scientific study. Sociology would therefore
means the study of companions, especially in human groups and their interaction with
each other.
Definition
Rural Sociology is defined as scientific study of man's behaviour in relationship to
other groups and individuals with whom he interacts in a rural society.
Need for Rural Sociology
Rural Society is changing rapidly, it is especially true in developing countries through
various developmental programmes. This change influences both the tempo and the
direction of change. Adequate knowledge of rural society is lacking. We do not have a clear
idea of rural society as it, really is today. To achieve the expected development or growth, a
thorough knowledge of the science of rural Sociology and its application to all programmes
in rural areas is essential. The world's population is more rural than urban. Rural society
invests more on agricultural population. Hence in various forms rural sociologist will continue
to be in demand.
Why study Rural Sociology?
1. To develop greater understanding of the behaviour of rural people and their society
2. Sociology is a part of student’s general education. All people must live in society and all
have social roles irrespective of their occupation or profession they follow. Hence of
value to the learner.
3. It helps individual to understand himself and his social nature, his relation to other
people in society.
4. Helps to develop scientific attitude of thinking, critically and objectively with precision.
5. Professional training as a rural sociologist for more academic interest as a teacher or
researcher.

29
6. As a consultant of change agent and rural life analyst in programmes promoting rural
Community Development
7. It helps to understand social groups.
8. It also helps to understand religious beliefs and the strength of these beliefs in the area.
9. It provides an understanding of social and economic implications of the materials
necessary for the social groups.
10. It helps to understand the involvement of formal and informal groups or institutions,
which are necessary for promotion of rural development.
Its significance for extension worker
- Extension aims at bringing about development of the people. It is of importance to know
the people before inducing changes in them.
- It also helps to make correct diagnosis of social, technological and economic problems
of the villagers.
- It helps the extension worker to understand the social values, mores, taboos,
convictions etc., which would eventually direct the extension worker to diffuse
technology.
Primary concepts of Sociology
Society: It is a group of people who have lived together, sharing common values and
general interests, long enough to be considered by others and by themselves as a unit.
Society may be defined as a group of people in more or less permanent association
who are organised for their collective activities and who feel that they belong together.
Structure - is the systematic arrangement characteristics of a society, the smaller parts
arranged to form a larger perceived unit. A society structure is composed of institutions (Eg:-
government schools), neighbours and communities, organisations and collectivities. The
constituent parts may differ one from another in type and number.
Function - Function is an aspect of the relationship between components mentioned above.
It may involve the services provided by one component to another within the total structure.
Eg:- The function of the school is to provide sound education to the children so that they
acquire the skill, knowledge and attitudes necessary to the citizens and members of the
society.
Change - means that some aspect of function or structure which differs over a period of
time. Change involves the process of disorganisations, organisations or reorganisation. Eg:-
the Hindu caste system in Indian village functions smoothly until certain caste members
change their caste occupation by working in nearby mills / industries.
Groups - are defined as two or more people in reciprocal interaction with one another.

30
Organisations - are groups with special concerns and interests that have developed a
structure involving specific roles for various members and that have a more or less formal
set of rules and regulations for operation.
Communities - are groups of people living within a geographical area, sharing common
values and having a feeling of belonging to the group, who come together in a common
concerns of daily life. A community can be a village, a caste - community cutting across
village boundaries or a college campus. Neighbourhoods are smaller entity than the
community characterised by much more frequent face to face contacts.
Association - Association is functional groups that are brought into existence for various but
well defined purpose by collective action and functioning. An association is a group of
people expressly organised around a particular interest. When a group of people organise
itself for the pursuit of some common interests an association is born.
Institution - is an organised system of social relationship, which embodies certain common
values and procedures and meets certain basic needs of society.
Major institutions in rural society
The recognised five basic institutions in both rural and urban society are
1. Family
2. Religion
3. Economic
4. Government
5. Education

SOCIAL GROUP
The word group is used to designate a collection of items (animate or inanimate
objects). But a consideration of the following three terms will give you a clear concept of
what we generally means by a "social group".
Category: Category means a collection of items that have at least one common
characteristic that distinguishes them from other items which have other characteristics
in common. E.g. Urban population, rural population.
Aggregation: Aggregation is a collection of individuals in physical proximity of one another.
Ex. Assemblages such as spectators at a football game.
Social Group: A social Group is a collection of two or more individuals, in which there are
psychological interactions and reciprocal roles based upon durable contacts, shared
norm and interests, distinctive patterns of collective behaviour, and structural
organisation of leadership and follower ship.
All collectivities of people, including aggregations and social groups, may be thought
of as categories. The minimum requirement for a category is that the items have at least one

31
characteristic in common. An aggregation is a category plus the added characteristic of the
individuals being in physical proximity of one another. All Aggregations are categories, but
not all categories are aggregation.
A Social group is a category plus psychological interactions, roles, norms, interests,
patterns of behaviour, leadership and followership of the members of the social group.
Types of Groups
There are several classifications of Social groups, depending mostly upon the chief
interest or focus of attention in terms of which social groups are classified. The following are
some of the important classification.
Primary and Secondary Group
Primary groups are characterized by intimate face to face interaction, informal personal
relationships and a definite “we feeling” on the part of the member. Primary groups have a
sort of permanency, are small in size and have the responsibility to socialize the individuals.
E.g. Family.
Secondary groups are characterized by formal, contractual, utilitarian and goal oriented
relationships. Secondary groups are large in size, have little face to face communication and
maintain a more or less anonymous relationship. E.g. Political party, cooperative society,
club etc.
Formal and Informal Groups
Formal groups are organised, have a membership roll, definite roles, rules or procedures of
operation and rigidity enforced behaviour of it’s members. E.g.. Panchayats, registered
societies etc.
Informal Groups are not formally organised, and rules and procedures are no rigidly
enforced. E.g. Friendship groups, play groups etc.
In group and Out group
In group is one to which the persons feel they belong and with which they identify
themselves strongly. Not only they themselves, but others also feel them t be an integral part
of the group. Matters of vital interest to the group are confined with the group.
Out group is one with which other individuals cannot identify themselves. The individuals
feel themselves as outsiders to the group and the group also has a similar reciprocal feeling
towards the individuals. Matters of vital interest are not shared with the out group members.
Involuntary and voluntary group
involuntary group is one, for the membership of which, an individual does not have any
choice or is not required to put any effort. E.g. Membership by birth or residence such as
family, neighbourhood, community etc.
Voluntary group is one for the membership of which one has to have some deliberate
choice or put in some conscious effort. E.g. Cooperative society, youth clubs etc.

32
Delegate groups
Members representative of and chosen by groups. E.g. United Nations, federations.
Reference group
An individual’s feels identified and may refer to in taking decision and action.
Organisation of a group
 A group may be organised at any time when some individuals feel that there is a need
that cannot be satisfied individually, and there is no group already in existence to meet
the need.
 A new group may be organised even if similar groups are located elsewhere or these can
not serve their interests.
 A group may be organised with or without a stimulus from outside.
 In organising groups for action, the needs, interests and goals of the individuals are to be
made subservient and channelled to the needs, interests and goals of the group.
 A minimum amount of cooperation amongst the group members is essential to hold the
group together and act as a unit.
 In a democratic group, decisions are generally based on majority opinion.
 Compromise decision or decision by consensus may sometimes be required to make, to
avoid conflict situation in the group.
 The group process is as important as the group decision.
Functions of groups
 Socialise the individual as a member in the society – primary groups
 Members learn acceptable behaviour – Informal groups
 Need analysis & solve the problems of the individuals/groups - Formal/ Voluntary
groups
 A group fulfil the social desires and need of each individual in the group
 It’s a helping process with dual purpose of individual & group growth.
 Promotes Physical and mental health
 Develops Social skills like leadership, empathy etc.,
 Helps in planning and implementation
 Motivates the members in the group to a desired goal
 Linkages with other financial and educational institutions

SOCIAL CHANGE AND FACTORS INFLUENCING CHANGE

Need to study the processes of social change
Sociologist and anthropologists during the end of 19th century were involved in
research pertaining to the formation of society from their original primitive form. The

33
formation of colonialism in 17th and 18th century followed by democratic institutions,
industrialisation and emergence of democratic institutions in the 19 th century made the
sociologist to work on the onset of these changes. The first world war which took place in
Europe, the tremendous communist revolution in Russia, the second world war (1939 -
1945) and the formation of new states like India in 1947, saw the emergence of newer
problems of social change and development. Many colonies have become independent
states and have accepted modern economic organisations by industrialisation, so as to
increase their standard of living. These changes have included sociologist to engage in the
study of social change.
In India the task of changing from agriculture to industrial society, from colonial to
republican society and a society based on caste and class to a society which aims to be
casteless and classless with equal opportunity is looked upon. Hence it is necessary to study
how the transformation and analyse the nature of resistance, slowing down the process of
transformation.
Definition
Social change is defined as the process in which there is a significant alteration in the
structure and functioning of a particular social system. The term change is wholly neutral and
is measured over a period of time.
Factors of social change
All societies are characterized both by continuity and change. Continuity is
maintained by social controls, particularly by the methods, which transmit the accumulated
social heritage to the new organisation. Eg:- Methods in child rearing, education etc.,
Many factors influence social change. Each of these factors are discussed for the
purpose of understanding. However it must be made clear that each of these factor cannot
influence social change independently to other factors.
The following are the factors influencing the social change
The Demographic factor
The change in the size and the composition of the population is an important factor leading
to social change. The expanding population brings about many changes in the nation's
economy. It is in a position to produce more, consume more and also engage in better trade.
Similarly as the composition of population changes rapidly social changes are likely to occur.
Eg. Population of minority community increases compared to majority. Advances in science
and technology, indirectly boost world population by delaying death. Population growth
appears to pass through a series of three stages.
1. There is a period of high birth rate and high death rate leading to small increase in
population. This was characteristics of all parts of the world in the middle of 19 th
century.

34
 2. High birth rate with low death rate leading to population explosion. Characteristic
feature in all countries especially Europe and Asia.
3. Low birth rate and low death rate., leading to population stabilization characteristic of
the existing nature in European and US.
The demographic trend accelerated the economic growth, increased industrial production,
however there has been no decrease in poverty. In other words the increase in population
trend has served as an inhibiting factor and has preserved social change in the country.
Hence small family norms have been advanced in all sections of the society. Also, the trend
of late marriage to help to complete their education and training to earn enough to provide
reasonable standards of comfort, education, etc. to their children is currently in practise.
Thus in order to bring about social change towards increased productivity and improvement
in standard of living, family limitation programmes is to followed in a deliberate manner.
Technological factor
Many social thinkers have felt that technological invention is the primary factor in explaining
social and cultural change. The invention of wheel, the pot, the compass, the printing press,
the steam engine, the telephone, the motor car, radio, aeroplane, atom bomb, computers
etc., have brought many changes in the society. Similarly use of new fuels like gas and
electricity has reduced the toiling of woman in the kitchen. Also technological developments
have brought about many changes in attitudes, beliefs and even in tradition. The
establishment of industry, railway, bus services, restaurant etc., have brought about change
with respect to caste and class behaviour. People of various caste work side by side in the
modern working atmosphere. Technology has brought about mass production leading to
lowering of costs. In the field of agricultural technology there have been immense changes in
the last 50 years. The total food grains production in India itself has made spectacular
advance in the last 50 years. There is a significant change in social life to that of
transportation and communication. There has been a higher standard of living too due to
advanced technology usage by common man. However a rational outlook and an objective
outlook are necessary for technological advance.
The economic factor
The economic interpretation of social change is closely associated with Karl Marx. He
envisages that finding a classless society has to emerge in which no one owns anything and
everyone owns everything. In other words it is total abolition of the institution of poverty.
Today, we can distinguish five types of economy
 Tribal economy - Over 20 million tribal people live in three broad regions of our
country

35
  The peasant economy - Nearly 80 per cent of people live in villages. Agriculture is the
main stay of the rural economy and so the entire economic and social structure
revolves round it.
 The pre-industrial urban economy
 Industrial economy
 Corporate economy
This has led to the class differentiation of the people from the caste differentiation. Thus
Indian economy should overcome poverty and have a balanced co-existence of all the types
of economy, with increased production, which would increase employment particularly in the
rural area.
Cultural factors
The main cause of social change is the cultural factors. Contacts with other cultures bring
about change such as assimilation, borrowing from other cultures, combining of cultural
factors into new forms - all of this interplay in the process of social change. The changes in
the conditions of life have also influence changes in values, attitudes, beliefs and habits. An
individual's status today is not determined by birth, the principle determinant of status today
is the possession of wealth and of power.
Legislation as a factor of social change
The function of law is to influence the groups and persons belonging to a society to confirm
to the group expectation. In olden days the king administered Dharmasatras. Law is an
instrument of social change E.g. Untouchability Act, 1955; Prohibition against alcohol; Sati or
burying of widow on the funeral of the husband; Female infanticide prevention act, 1870.
Planning as a factor of social change
Planning involves deliberate thinking, deliberate action and evaluation to assess the extent
of changes in the society. Hence for effective planning we should understand the present
and in its relationship to the past and future trends. The five - year plans is bring about
economic development, which would distribute social change. For plans to be successful
peoples co-operation and basic needs has to be met with.
Education as a factor of social change
The aim of education is to transmit the knowledge, skill and attitude inherited from the past.
There is an urgent need to make the population total literate, making primary education
compulsory. Education also develops a favourable and receptive attitude towards social
change. The focus is on improvement on the social and personal living. It includes teaching
about health education, agriculture and other cottage industries for school dropout, students,
parents etc., Education is expected to bring about break-through.
Geographic factors: Climate and all factors of the Earth’s surface influence man’s
livelihood. Heat, cold, atmospheric conditions, draught, earthquakes etc are factors whose

36
interplay conditions man. The abundance or scarcity of topographical factors including the
soil and its resources of gas, chemicals, oil and other minerals influence the possible
development of industry and agriculture. The level of land and its general contour also
influence the development of agriculture and industry, perhaps by affecting general
transportation and ease of communication in a country. Man increasingly gains control over
his environment to meet his needs. Man modifies and adds to the natural landscape by
constructions, such as dams, embankments, canals, highways, or irrigation channels go to
create the cultural landscape, which changes with far greater rapidity. Thus, the impact of
geographic factors on man and their influence on change work both ways with the interplay
of cultural factors and man creates a cultural landscape, which is subject to constant
change.
Biologic factors: plants and animals form a part of man’s non-human environment, and, as
in the case of his geographic environment, man modifies and uses it in ways that are
culturally determined. The biological, non-human environment is constantly changing, as in
the struggle for survival and existence as one species gains at the expense of another, with
some species perhaps losing out entirely and becoming extinct. Geographic factors
influence such a change, as do man’s efforts. Using scientific knowledge and skill, man has
changed a wild grass into high yielding food grain; he has taken a wild bird of the jungle and
converted it into an “egg producing machine”; and so the list could continue of man’s efforts
in modifying and changing his plant and animal environment in such ways as to serve his
purposes more effectively. Both are significant as factors in social change. A genetic change
ie. Increase in level of natural intelligence leads to cultural development. Rapid population
growth with other social factors stimulates rapid social change. Population movement from
rural to urban, concentration of population in cities and other demographic changes
significantly influence the social change in the society.

LEADERSHIP
In India, veterinarian has to play a dual role of a doctor as well as an extension
worker or livestock advisor. It is not possible for a veterinarian to contact each and every
farmer in a village. To disseminate improved technologies to a large number of farmers he
needs some intermediaries, who know the farmers well. In every society there are some
people within groups who makes decisions on behalf of others, who can influence others in
the group and they are commonly designated as leaders.
Definition
Leader is a person who effectively influences a group t co-operate in setting and
achieving goals. Leadership is an activity in which effort is made to influence people to co-
operate in achieving a goal. In other words leadership is the ability to get people work

37
willingly by influence or example. It is a social process which initiates action for and with
followers.
Types of leaders : Leaders can be classified into different categories based on various
criteria. Some of these are
a. Democratic leader, Autocratic leader and Laissez Faire
b. Formal leader and informal leader
c. professional leader and lay leader
d. Operational leader, popularity leader and prominent leader
e. Elected leader, selected leader and nominated leader
f. Political leader, religious leader, social leader, academic leader, business leader,
recreational leader, etc.,
Qualities of good leadership:
Spirituality, intellectuality and physically a leader should be high above his followers.
The following are the three important qualities of a good leader.
1. Integrity – honest and pure in thought, word and action
2. Intelligence – mental ability
3. Physical health – energy
Where and how to spot the leader?
The elders of the village, the politically important men, the persons have connections
with higher ups, the richest man, owners of largest herd of cattle, men of higher castes, the
retired government servants are some of the many classes and groups, help in spotting the
leader.
Physical stamina may be necessary for a leader and may indicate the direction to
look for. But personality and character cannot be judged by outside appearances. There is
no relationship between a person’s looks and his capacity, ability and personality. Interest,
ability, occupation and location should be looked for, in fixing up who be of use as a village
leader for extension work.
Use of local leader
A good extension worker / veterinarian always try to get the support of the local
leaders / farmers in his extension work. In any extension organization there will be a small
number of professional extension agents. It is not possible for the extension agent to contact
each and every farmer in his area of operation. This can be solved by appointing or
engaging local leaders in their extension activities.
The local leaders serve the following purposes
a. Can assume responsibility for certain activities in the absence of extension agent.
b. Help to organize local extension groups

38
c. Assist directly in the spread of new ideas and practices by demonstrating them in their
fields
d. Serve as a point of contact between the agent and the farmers
e. Working with local leader also builds closer ties with local farmers, and encourages
farmers’ confidence in the extension service
Identification of local leaders
Local leader (lay leader / informal leader / prominent leader / opinion leader / natural
leader / key communicator) can be selected by following methods.
Sociogram: This method is very useful to the extension worker in finding out the local
informal leader in the villages, who are the influential persons that help in the introduction
and popularization of new improved practices in their communities. An extension worker
goes into a given area and asks the farmers to indicate whom they ordinarily consult for
advice on say dairy farming. Usually, after a few interviews it becomes clear which farmer is
the influential person or natural leader.
Group observer method: The extension worker should watch a community or group in
action and then he will be able to spot potential leaders. He may observe the community in
any type of situation. For obtaining the best results, the group should not be aware of this.
Discussion method: through discussions the person with sound knowledge and ability is
soon recognised and a mere talker easily spotted. Discussion gives encouragement and
assurance to the potential leader to express himself, and over a period of time may make
him more confident in accepting some position of leadership, and emerge as a valuable
leader.
Election method: The election method can also be used for selecting persons to receive
leadership training. A group can be asked to indicate what members of the group they think
would be good leaders and what persons they would be willing to follow after the individuals
has received specialised training. It is better for the extension worker to accept the chosen
leaders of a group than to try to impose others by any pressure.
Workshop method: Through this method, where the large group breaks up into smaller
groups and the responsibility of the programme and decision making rests upon the smaller
unit, leadership emerges, in each group. Over a period of time, the extension worker can
spot certain leaders who come to the fore in taking responsibilities. The extension worker or
professional leader in the workshop has the position of consultant observer, discussion
group leader etc.
Key informant technique: In a community may be asked to indicate opinion leaders in that
area. This is cost-saving and time saving when compared to the sociometric method.
Self-designating technique: Consists of asking a respondent a series of questions to
determine the degree to which he perceives himself to be an opinion leader.

39
Working with local leader
The extension worker should ensure that the trained leaders are actually used for
augmenting extension work. For this purpose there should be regular follow up by the
extension worker by way of frequent contacts in person as well as by correspondence with
the trained leader. Local leaders are not only to adopt improved practices in their own farm
and home but also they should consciously try to influence others to adopt the practices.
The extension worker’s own relationship with local leaders will be more important
and he should always try to be available to support and encourage their work. There are four
main aspects of working with local leaders, which the agent should keep in mind.
a. Inform the local leader(s) about his extension activities
b. Visit the places of extension work
c. Train the local leader as they need
d. Encourage them to adopt new practices
Advantages of using local leader
 Local leader virtually plays the role of extension agent and there by the area of
coverage is increased. By the use of local leaders extension worker multiplies himself
 Cost of extension is reduced because local leaders are not paid for their work
 Local leaders speak in the language of the people and they are better understood by
the people.
 Leader of the village can analyse local problem better than a stranger / extension
agent
 The time of extension worker is used more productively
 People accept a new idea more readily from a local person who has practically tried it
 Frequent contact of extension worker with local leader enhances his prestige, which
in turn increases the possibility of extensive adoption of new practices.
Problems of working with local leader:
 Selected person may not have the qualities and he may not be willing to devote
required time for the work
 Considerable time is required to locate and train local leaders
 Some local leaders use their favoured position with the extension worker for their
personal advantage
 There are chances of misinterpretation and may give wrong advice to their fellow
farmers
 If the extension agent spends too much time on one or more of local leaders then the
issue of favouritism may arise
MAN ANIMAL RELATIONSHIP

40
 Domestication of plants and animals altered the occupation of the early humans from
hunting and gathering to alert hunting, herding and advanced agriculture. The domestication
of livestock, mainly pigs, cows, sheep, horses, and goats is considered to have occurred
between 9,000 and 5,000 BC as agriculture became more of an issue in human societies.
The dog is thought to have been the first animal to be domesticated by humans, sometime
around 13,000–10,000 BC, from its wolf-like ancestor Canis lupus. The ability to keep and
control groups of meat-supplying animals allowed humans to give up their previously
nomadic lives and produce excess food. Animals affect everyone's life ranging from
companionship to food source.
 Companionship: Pets impact human lives on a face-to-face basis by being our
companions, whether it's a cat or a dog or a guinea pig.
 Rehabilitation: Pet animals are often used for rehabilitation. Certain dogs, with special
certification, are allowed to visit the residents in nursing homes and similar living
arrangements. Not only does it lend variety to the day, but a dog or puppy can often
bring the most introverted and grumpy person out of her shell. Rehabilitation with pets
happens most on rehabilitating at social level.
 Caretaking Skills: Having a pet is a great way to teach a child caretaking skills. A pet
must be fed and watered daily, on some days given a bath, and trained. Having a child
take charge of some or all of these tasks instills a sense of compassion along with
responsibility.
 Working Animals: Animals have helped throughout history by working for humans.
Horses and oxen have pulled plows for farming, and carriages and covered wagons for
traveling. Now horses are used to win awards or just for easy rides into town for families
living on acreages. Dogs are also used by the police for many activities.
 Livelihood: Many farmers use animals for their livelihood. Farmers raise cattle, lamb,
sheep, goats and other animals simply to make a living. Many of these animals are used
for meat or for milk, and the milk and meat have several different uses.
 Food: Animals raised on farms are often our food sources. Vegetarians avoid this food
choice, but are still impacted by milk and related food items.
 Sport & Leisure: Animals are often used in sport and leisure activities. Dogs are used
to hunt pheasants, quail, and other birds. Other animals are trackers. Horseback riding
and polo are sports that revolve around horses.
Role of animals
Role of animals on economy, health and socio-psychology among the human being
can be studied through the following dimensions:
Employment Dimension
1. Livestock provides employment for the rural community by undertaking livestock
enterprises like dairy farming, poultry farming, sheep and goat farming and piggery

41
 etc. which provides both primary and secondary income to the main occupation of
rural farmers.
2. In view of the development programmes undertaken by the government agencies as
a means of poverty alleviation programme livestock enterprises are considered as
one of the potential source of employment generation particularly to the weaker
sections in rural areas.
Economic Dimension
1. Livestock farming provides direct cash income which is regular daily and quick
through the sale of livestock produce like milk, milk products, eggs, meat and direct
income through draft power, production of organic manure and fuel.
2. Livestock serves as an important alternate source of living
3. Utilized in Army, Police and in Research
4. Livestock and human beings are interlinked with each other because these two units
are generally carried out under the mixed farming system.
Health, Cultural and Social Dimension
1. One of the major relationship of livestock with human beings is the domestication of
animals particularly cows, buffaloes, sheep and goat etc.
2. These animals are chief producers of animal protein such as milk, milk products,
eggs, meat etc. to human beings.
3. Milk and eggs are considered as an important article of diet especially for infants,
growing children, adults, expectant and locating woman and people convalescing
from sickness.
4. Livestock is a mark of social status, donated to daughters at time of marriages
5. Livestock is a source of recreation and sports.
6. Livestock and religion is interlinked (animal sacrifices, considered as gods and
considered sacred).
7. Superstitious beliefs attached to livestock farming.
Psychological Dimension
1. Livestock provides a prestige value to the rural families because of the possession of
very valuable and high yielding livestock. It also provides self reliance and confidence to
the rural farmers who are successful in rearing livestock and also deriving benefits
through this enterprise. It is used as a symbol of sacredness in religious events and
during sacred activities.
2. Livestock is considered as an asset value to rural families, as it provides a means of
security at times of crises. It also helps when the rural families are affected with natural
calamities like floods, drought, earthquakes etc. where in the livestock enterprises
comes as a rescue to the rural farmers and sustain them in the above crises.

42
3. The small animals particularly canines play an important role as companion animal in
the form of a watch dog to the owner and also as a pet animal.
4. The sport animals especially horses which are commonly used in racing event. For this
purpose there are stud farms where in the choicest race horses are bred and reared for
this purpose.
Difference between urban, rural and tribal societies
Characteristics Urban Rural Tribal
Orientation to Away from nature Very Close to nature Closest to nature
nature
Occupation Non-agricultural agricultural occupations agricultural and
occupations similar occupations forest occupations
like service, same occupations
business, etc
Varied
occupations
Density of Very High Low Very Low
population
(No. of
population/sq.km)
Total population About 30% About 60% Less than 10%
Location of Very close to each close to each other Far apart
houses other
Family type Mostly Nuclear Most of the relatives live Joint
in the same village
Gender Not seen Clearly seen Clearly seen
differentiation
Rate of literacy Very high Medium to high Very low
Infrastructure Very good public Poor public amenities Very Poor public
facilities like amenities amenities
communication,
drinking water,
health care,
education and
electricity
Social Low, medium and Mostly homogeneous homogeneous
stratification high:
heterogeneous
Social solidarity Weak Strong Very strong
and sense of Not fully aware of Aware about all the Fully aware about all
belongingness their neighbours families in the village the families
Standard of living Very high Medium to high Very low
Basis of election Not known by Known qualities Heredity
of leaders qualities
Migration People migrate to People migrate from Nomadic or no
urban areas from rural areas to urban migration
rural areas areas
Culture Secular Sacred Strong sacred
culture specific to
tribe
Social mobility Very high low Very low
for daily work

43
Social contacts Secondary contacts Primary contacts more Primary contacts
more predominant predominant more predominant
Institutions Man made Natural outgrowth of Natural outgrowth of
rural social life tribal social life
Range between Very high – very Medium low
poor to rich poor
Level of industrial Very High Low Very low
pollution

Animal rearing patterns

Differences exist between rural and urban areas in the animal rearing patterns. These
differences stem from the purposes for which the animals are being reared.
S.No Particulars Urban Area Rural Area Tribal Area
1. Purpose Economic as well Economic as
Primarily economic
as social well as social
2. No. of animals/household Few Many As herds
3. Quality of animals Good Average Poor
4. Productivity of animals Medium-High Low- Medium Low
5. Type of animals Productive
All types All types
animals(mostly)
6. Dry: Milk animals ration Low High Very high
7. Animal sheds Kucha/Semi Under the
Mostly pucca
Pucca trees/ as herds
8. Feeding Mostly stall feeding Mostly grazing Only grazing
9. Type of feeds Dry fodder with little Dry + Green
or no green fodder. fodder with little Dry + Green
Concentrate feeding or no fodder
common concentrates
10. Management of animals Good Poor Very poor
11. Adoption of technologies to
improve productivity of Fast Slow Very slow
animals
12. Sale of animals Frequent Less frequent Rare
13. Cost of production per kg of
High Low Very low
milk/meat
14. Profit per unit of milk/meat Low
High Medium
sold
15. Sentiment attachment with Much more
animals Not to that extent as Very much
than rural
in rural areas. present
areas
16 Persons involved in the All members of Groups
Specific person as
maintenance of animals the family / part
full time job
time

ADOPTION AND DIFFUSION OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY INNOVATIONS

Adoption

44
It is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available
Diffusion
It is a process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time
among the members of the social system
Adoption process
It is the mental process through which an individual passes from hearing about an innovation
to final adoption
Diffusion process
It is the spread of a new idea from its source of invention or creation to its ultimate users or
adopters
Innovation
It is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of
adoption
Innovativeness
It is the degree to which an individual or other unit of adoption is relatively earlier in adopting
new ideas than other members of a system.
Innovation decision process
Is a process through which an individual or other decision making unit passes from first
knowledge of an innovation, to forming an attitude towards the innovation, to a decision to
adopt or reject the new idea and to confirmation of this decision.
Innovation decision period
The length of time required for an individual or organization to pass through the innovation
decision process
Rejection
It is the decision not to adopt an innovation
Discontinuance
It is a decision to reject an innovation after previously adopting it. It may be because of
replacement or disenchantment
Rate of adoption
It is the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by the members of the social
system
Attributes of Innovation
1. Relative advantage: is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better
than the idea it supersedes. It has many dimension, e.g. a new technology gives more
income, saves time, labour, cost, less risk, multiple use, location advantage, etc. the
innovation which has more relative advantage is adopted quickly.
2. Compatibility: is the degree to which an innovation is consistent with existing values and

45
 past experiences of the adopters. The dimensions are situational compatibility and
cultural compatibility. An idea or new variety is suited for a particular situation. An idea
that is not compatible with the cultural norms of a social system will not be adopted so
rapidly as an idea that is compatible e. g., the lack of compatibility of beef production
with cultural values in India
3. Complexity: is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to
understand and use. It should be less complex for the farmer to understand and use.
However complexity of an innovation will not deter its use if it has a relative advantage.
Complex technologies require consistent training and communication support for the
clientele.
4. Trialability: is the degree to which an innovation may be tried on a limited basis. New
ideas that can be tried on a small scale· or on the installment plan will generally be
adopted more rapidly than innovations that cannot be tried at small level.
5. Observability: is the degree to which the result of an innovation may be visible to others.
It facilitates diffusion. The results of some practices are easily observed (e.g. deworming
of calf), while the results of some innovations are not easily observed (e. g. vaccination)
6. Predictability: is the degree of certainty of receiving expected benefits from the adoption
of an innovation. Farmers are reluctant to adopt any technology which has higher level
of uncertainty in farm enterprise.
Adopter categories
All individuals in a social system do not adopt an innovation at the same time. They
adopt in an ordered time sequence and they are classified based on their innovativeness.
Adopter Salient values Personal Communication Social
category characteristics behaviour relationship
Innovators "Venturesome"; Youngest age; Closest contact Some opinion
(2.5%) willing to accept highest social with scientific leadership;
risks. status; largest, and information very cosmopolite.
most specialized sources;
operations; interaction with
wealthy. other innovators;
relatively greatest
use of impersonal
sources
Early "Respect"; High social status; Greatest contact Greatest opinion
adopters regarded by large and with local change leader-ship of any
(13.5%) many others in specialized agents category in
the social system operations most social

46
 as a role model. systems; very
localite.
Early " Deliberate"; Above average Considerable Some opinion
majority willing to social status; contact with leadership
(34%) consider average-sized change agents
innovations only operation and early adopters
after peers have
adopted.
Late majority "Skeptical", Below average Secure ideas from Little opinion
(34%) overwhelming social status, small peers who are leadership.
pressure from operations, little mainly late
peers needed specialization, majority of early
before adoption small income majority, less use
occurs. of mass media
Laggards "Tradition"; Little specialization, Neighbours, Very little opinion
(16%) oriented to lowest social status friends and leadership; semi
the past. smallest operation, relatives with isolates.
lowest income, similar values are
oldest main source of
information

Constraints faced in adoption

Farmer related constraints:
 Less number of contacts with extension agencies
 Elderly farmers resist to adopt new technologies
 Low education level of farmers resist adoption of new technologies
 Traditionalism among the farmers
 Isolationism of the farmers from other members of the society
 Security from the current practices will not allow farmers to take risk
 Influence of informal leaders who are non adopters
 Rigid class structure among the members of the social system
 Mentally rigid person has lower adoption rates
 Small size of farm and low farm income do not give opportunity to the farmer to take
risk
 High dependence on relatives and friends as sources of information
Technology related constraints:
 complex practices of the new technology

47
  more changes required in the existing operations
 practices that are contrary to the established customs and tradition of the people
 practices which are expensive
 practices which yield less marginal returns per rupee invested
 idea that is not compatible with the cultural norms
 ideas that cannot be tried on a small scale
 results of practices that are not easily observed
Institution related constraints:
 less credibility of the institutions
 poor organizational setup of the extension institution
 less manpower in extension institution
 no proper coordination among the various units involved in transfer of technology
 no proper monitoring, evaluation and reconsideration while adopting new
technologies
 delay in financial aid for transfer of technology
 inadequate resources for adopting new technologies
 inadequate information and training on new technologies
 no proper follow up
 inadequate market support
 inadequate field trial
Role of Women in Livestock production
Women constitute about half of the population of which 75% live in rural areas. Rural
women in India share abundant responsibilities and perform a wide spectrum of tasks in
running the family, maintain households, attending to farm labour, performing several farm
activities, tending to domestic animals and extending a helping hand in rural artisanship and
handicrafts. The work often remains physically visible, but conceptually and culturally
invisible. It often leads to gross underestimations of the magnitude and importance of
women’s work.
Women play an important role in animal husbandry activities. Most of the livestock
activities are incomplete without the assistance of women. In dairy farming, the activities of
women range from care of animals, fodder collection, grazing, cleaning the shed, collection
and processing dung and processing of milk and livestock products. Women accounted 93%
of total employment in dairy production. Sheep and goat farming are a means of opening the
door for women to micro economic enterprise and the opportunity to contribute significantly
to family food security. Women were involved in cleaning the paddock, collecting fodder,

48
looking after lamb, watering and hygienic maintenance of small ruminants. In poultry sector,
the women were involved in egg collection, feeding, watering and cleaning the shed and
equipments. They were involved more in management activities than health care which
required more knowledge and skill. Studies have shown that women are members of dairy
cooperative societies receiving the benefits of cooperative activities. Also there are many
women dairy cooperative societies which are managed by women.
The importance of women as an important human resource which was recognized by
the Constitution of India which not only accorded equality to women but also empowered the
states to adopt positive measures in their favour. Though the Constitutional commitment was
translated through planning process, legislation, programmes and policies over the last six
decades, a situational analysis of social and economic condition of women reflects less than
satisfactory achievements in almost all important human development indicators.
Problems faced by women in livestock farming:
 lack of awareness, education, knowledge and skill on animal husbandry activities
 lack of training in livestock farming
 limited access to credit facilities in the male dominated society
 inadequate investment in women managed activities
 cultural norms restricting women’s participation in society activities
 social neglect of women of their farm activities
 involvement in farm and home activities
 lack of time due to workload
 fear / shyness to socialize in the society
 inadequate access to modern technologies
 limited access to inputs necessary for farming
 domination of males in marketing
A Brief History of Microfinance in India
Several pro-poor financial services, support by both the State and Central
governments were available, which included credit packages and programs customized to
the perceived needs of the poor. Credit came to be recognized as a remedy for many of the
ills of the poverty. The post-nationalization period in the banking sector, in 1969, witnessed a
substantial amount of resources being earmarked towards meeting the credit needs of the
poor. While the objectives were laudable and substantial progress was achieved, credit flow
to the poor, and especially to poor women, remained low. This led to initiatives that were
institution driven that attempted to converge the existing strengths of rural banking
infrastructure and leverage this to better serve the poor. The pioneering efforts at this were
made by National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), which was given

49
the tasks of framing appropriate policy for rural credit, provision of technical assistance
backed liquidity support to banks, supervision of rural credit institutions and other
development initiatives.
In the early 1980s, the Government of India launched the Integrated Rural
Development Program (IRDP), a large poverty alleviation credit program, which provided
government subsidized credit through banks to the poor. It was aimed that the poor would be
able to use the inexpensive credit to finance themselves over the poverty line.
Also during this time, NABARD conducted a series of research studies, which showed
that despite having a wide network of rural bank branches servicing the rural poor, a very
large number of the poorest of the poor continued to remain outside the fold of the formal
banking system. The existing banking policies and products were perhaps not well suited to
meet the most immediate needs of the poor. It also appeared that what the poor really
needed was better access to these services and products, rather than cheap subsidized
credit. Against this background, a need was felt for alternative policies and products, which
would fulfil the requirements of the poorest, especially of the women members of such
households.
To answer the need for microfinance from the poor, the past 25 years has seen a
variety of microfinance programs promoted by the government and NGOs. Some of these
programs have failed and the learning experiences from them have been used to develop
more effective ways of providing financial services. In the early stages, NGOs played a
pivotal role in innovating the SHG model and in implementing the model to develop the
process fully. In the 1980s, policy makers took notice and worked with development
organizations and bankers to discuss the possibility of promoting these savings and credit
groups. Their efforts and the simplicity of SHGs helped to spread the movement across the
country. State governments established revolving loan funds which were used to fund SHGs.
By the 1990s, SHGs were viewed by state governments and NGOs to be more than just a
financial intermediation but as a common interest group, working on other concerns as well.
The agenda of SHGs included social and political issues as well. The spread of SHGs led
also to the formation of SHG Federations which are formal institutions while the SHGs are
informal.
In 1999, the Government of India merged various credit programs together, refined
them and launched a new programme called Swaranjayanti Gram Swarazagar Yojana
(SGSY). The mandate of SGSY is to continue to provide subsidized credit to the poor
through the banking sector to generate self-employment through a self-help group approach
and the program has grown to an enormous size.
Self Help groups

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 A Self-Help Group (SHG) is a registered or unregistered group of micro entrepreneurs
having homogenous social and economic backgrounds, voluntarily coming together to save
regular small sums of money, mutually agreeing to contribute to a common fund and to meet
their emergency needs on the basis of mutual help. Also it is a group of 10-20 local women
who pool in their resources to become financially stable by taking loans from the money
collected by that group and by making everybody of that group self-employed.
Goals
Self-help groups are instruments for a variety of goals including empowering women
and developing leadership abilities among poor people.
Objectives
 To sensitize women of target area for the need of SHG and its relevance in their
empowerment process.
 To create group feeling among women.
 To enhance the confidence and capabilities of women.
 To develop collective decision making among women.
 To encourage habit of saving among women and facilitate the accumulation of their
own capital resource base.
 To motivate women taking up social responsibilities particularly related to women
development.
Functioning of Self help Groups
SHGs are formed and supported usually by NGOs or increasingly by Government
agencies. Linked not only to banks but also to wider development programmes, SHGs are
seen to confer many benefits, both economic and social. SHGs enable women to grow their
savings and to access the credit which banks are increasingly willing to lend. SHGs can also
be community platforms from which women become active in village affairs, stand for local
election or take action to address social or community issues
The group members use collective wisdom and peer pressure to ensure proper end-
use of credit and timely repayment. This system eliminates the need for collateral and is
closely related to that of solidarity lending, widely used by microfinance institutions. To make
the book-keeping simple enough to be handled by the members, flat interest rates are used
for most loan calculations.
SHG Bank Linkage
A most notable milestone in the SHG movement was when NABARD launched the
pilot phase of the SHG Bank Linkage programme in February 1992. This was the first
instance of mature SHGs that were directly financed by a commercial bank. The informal
thrift and credit groups of poor were recognised as bankable clients. Soon after, the RBI

51
advised commercial banks to consider lending to SHGs as part of their rural credit
operations thus creating SHG Bank Linkage.
The linking of SHGs with the financial sector was good for both sides. The banks were
able to tap into a large market, namely the low-income households, transactions costs were
low and repayment rates were high. The SHGs were able to scale up their operations with
more financing and they had access to more credit products.
Problems in Self help Groups
 No clear assessment of the need for forming self help groups
 Lack of clarity of the concept of self help groups
 Heterogeneity and large size of the group
 Lack of regularity in contribution and recovery of loans
 Lack of officials for monitoring the group activities
 Lack of knowledge in maintaining financial accounts
 Threat from money lenders / socially dominant people
 Lack of cooperation from men at home
 Illiteracy among the members
 Lack of common place and time to hold meetings
 Eligibility criteria of members not clear
Client Dealing
In veterinary profession, most clients are those who possess livestock, poultry and
pets. They are important since the management of the animal is the responsibility of the
owner. Livestock owners need to understand the rearing pattern, its management and to
take care of it during ill health. To have a better understanding of these aspects of animal
care, they generally contact a veterinarian.
The veterinarians possess a wealth of scientific knowledge regarding the potential care
of their animal patients. However they probably possess little skill to deal with their client
requirements socially and psychologically. Clients look at the veterinarians as an authority.
They depend on veterinarians for guidance and emotional reassurance. The veterinarian’s
role as a professional is to influence and satisfy client’s expectation. During ill health of their
animal the client draws strength and look for guidance and leadership from veterinarian.
When clients feeling are not acknowledged with sincerity and respect, many become
dissatisfied, disillusioned and even angry with the veterinarians. Thus a lack of
compassionate care, even when it is unintentional may lead to misunderstanding between
client and veterinarian.

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 Effective communication creates an ambience of trust, friendship, intimacy and mutual
respect. Communication plays a significant role in veterinary profession. To have an effective
communication between veterinarian and client, TEAM model can be used.

T – Trust and rapport

E – Evaluate problems and feelings
A – Alternatives and resources
M – Meet needs with plan of action

The TEAM model of helping relationship has four parts. It is implemented clockwise.
Although all parts are represented equally, the individual parts differ in different situations.
For e. g. it may be easy to build rapport, but takes more time in the other three parts.
Hence it is of utmost importance that the veterinarians deal with their clients in a
cordial way so as to provide the best services for animal health and welfare. The following
points can be followed:
 Maintain a pleasant association
 Be friendly, sympathetic and complementary
 Allow the clients to let out all his feelings
 Listen carefully
 Do not interrupt
 Avoid arguments
 Understand his problems clearly
 Be empathetic
 Gain their confidence
 Use natural and easy language
 Talk in terms of client’s interest
 Be sure of your facts
 Give a meaningful reply
 Render a real service

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  Never loose control
 Try to avoid outside distraction
 Never loose your control
 Be sincere in your attempts
History taking
The main job of a veterinarian is to provide the service of diagnosis and treatment and
suggestions for prevention and control of the disease affecting animals. History taking is the
first step in conducting any clinical examination of the animal. The veterinarian records the
history in the case sheet. He has to also follow up the cases and appraise the prognosis of
the case to the owner.
Delivering bad news
Sometimes the veterinarians are compelled to deliver the bad news to the clients,
news that can be death, diagnosis of a chronic or terminal illness, treatment ups and downs
and the decision of euthanasia. It can be unsettling for both the veterinarian and the client.
No strategies or methods are available to deliver the news painlessly. They should prepare
themselves to deal with shock, disbelief, anger, sadness and even hysteria. The delivery of a
diagnosis works better when you explain test results, radiographs and prognosis in a soft
voice with your words spoken slowly than usual. Well planned diagnostic presentations
greatly increases clients understanding of the disease and its treatment. Understanding and
positive way of delivering bad news in mostly preferred.
The veterinarian should educate the clients that euthanasia has to be done only to
terminate the suffering of the animals which have been injured or due to diseases. He should
explain the procedure clearly. The client will appreciate small kindness towards them before,
during and after the animal loss. These small gestures are often remembered the most.
Veterinarian should
1. Explain the procedure,
2. Structure and guide the procedure
3. Escort the clients away from the site
4. Arrange for disposal of carcass
5. Make follow up calls.

Social Survey
Survey, in simple terms means to “look over” or “see over”. Social survey is a
process by which quantitative facts are collected about the social aspects of a community’s
composition and activities. In other words, it is a fact finding study dealing with nature and

54
problems of the community. In the words of Carter V. Good ‘Survey studies provide
knowledge about the nature of objects, events and persons’.
Social survey is a method of analysis in scientific and orderly form for defined
purpose of a given social situation or problem of a population.
Purpose of social survey
1. To obtain facts regarding social aspects of community.
2. To study social problems and the economic conditions of farmers / livestock owners
and factors responsible for these conditions.
3. To evaluate the programmes and assess the benefits derived from it.
4. It ultimately helps in bringing about social welfare and betterment of people.
Steps in Social survey
1. Selecting the problem
2. Definition of aim
3. Determination of scope
4. Definition of time limits
5. Examination of the means of information
6. Determination of the unit of survey
7. Determination of the amount of refinement
8. Preparedness of respondents
9. Construction of tools for data collection
10. Field work and data collection
11. Processing and analysis of collected data
12. Interpretation and report writing
Subject mater of social surveys:
Moser identified four broad types of subject matter to conduct social survey. They
are:
1. Demographic characteristics: include subject matters like family - type of family,
size of family, material status, sex, age etc.
2. social environments: cover all the social and economic factors such as
occupation, income from different sources, housing conditions, social amenities
etc.
3. Social activities: include the use of leisure time, traveling habits, expenditure
pattern, thrift, savings etc.
4. Opinion and attitude survey: covers the aspects pertaining to opinions, attitudes,
motives, expectations of the people towards social and economic factors etc.
Types of social survey

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 Social survey may be classified according to its subject matter, technique of data
collection, area covered, regularity etc.,
1. General and Specific Survey: General survey is conducted for collecting general
information about any population or institution in a general way without any particular
object or hypothesis at hand. E.g.: Census survey undertaken by the Government for
supplying regular data on socio-economic problems. Specific survey is conducted to
study specific problems or particular aspect of the community. Therefore, specific
surveys are more pointed and only such information as is directly related to the
particular purpose is collected. E.g.: Unemployment, Child – welfare, hygienic milk
production, Calf management etc.
2. Direct and indirect survey: In case of direct surveys quantification is possible
whereas in indirect surveys quantitative description is not possible.
E.g. Direct survey – Demographic surveys
Indirect survey – Health and nutrition status surveys
3. Census survey and sample Survey: In the census all units are covered separately
and studied. Whereas, in sample survey, only some representative unit is studied.
Compared to census, sample survey consumes less time, energy and money but it is
valid only if the sample is true representative of population.
4. Primary and secondary Survey: In the primary survey, the task of survey is taken
up afresh and the survey or himself sets the goals and collects relevant facts. But if
some facts are already available and there is no need to examine them afresh by a
new survey then the survey is called secondary survey. Primary survey is far more
reliable than the secondary survey.
5. Initial and repetitive Survey: If the survey is being made for the first time it is called
initial survey and if it is being made second or third time it is called repetitive survey.
E.g.: Initial survey – Bench mark survey
Respective survey – Surveys to study the impact of a programme
6. Preliminary and final Survey: A preliminary survey is called as ‘pilot study’. It
occupies the place of fore runner of the final survey. The purpose of this survey is to
get the first hand knowledge of the universe to be surveyed. It helps a person to get
acquainted with the problem and the nature of the respondents, to prepare the
schedule or questionnaire and organizing the survey on proper lines. Final survey is
conducted after the completion of pilot survey.
7. Official, Semi – official and private survey: Official Surveys are conducted by the
government through its various departments. The surveys conducted by quasi-
government institutions like university, corporations, boards etc., are semi-official

56
 surveys. If the survey is conducted by non government persons or agency, it is called
private survey.
8. Public and Confidential Survey: Some surveys are not of highly personal in nature
and accordingly no secrecy is maintained in the collection of data or publication of
results. These surveys are therefore known as public surveys. If the nature of the
survey is such that information collected or source of information is not to be
revealed to public, the survey is confidential.
9. Widespread and limited Survey: In widespread survey, a very large area or
multiple purposes is involved, whereas in a limited survey only a small area and
usually a specific aspect or problem is studied. The latter is comparatively more
reliable.
10. Postal, personal and electronic survey: When the data is collected through
despatch of questionnaires by post, it is known as postal survey whereas, if the
information is collected through direct interview of the respondents usually through
schedule, it is known as personal survey. The current trend of information collection
is through social networking, emails, mobile phones etc.
11. Regular and ad-hoc survey: Regular surveys are repeated after regular intervals
without fail. Majority of such surveys are mainly economic in nature. E.g.: Livestock
census, Nutritional status surveys. The Ad-hoc surveys are conducted for specific
purpose once for all. It is mostly used for testing the hypothesis.
Advantages
 Survey is the only practical way to collect any type of information.
 Survey facilitates drawing generalization about large population.
 It helps the researcher to find out the new problems.
 Survey helps to construct plan for the development of the society
Limitation
 Expensive and time consuming

Programme planning
Concepts
1. Extension Programme: is a statement of situations, objectives, problems and solutions.
It is relatively permanent but requires constant revision.
2. Programme Planning: is a decision making process involving critical analysis of the
existing situation and the problems, evaluation of the various alternatives to solve these
problems and the selection of the relevant ones, giving necessary priorities based upon

57
 local needs and resources by the cooperative efforts of the people both official and non-
official with a view to facilitate the individual, community growth and development.
3. Project is a specification of work to be done or procedure to be followed in order to
accomplish a particular objective.
4. Plan is a predetermined course of action, Plans may be tailored to specific projects, or
they may be established as standing plans (ex. Five Year Plans) for future actions.
Planning not only involves predetermining a course of action to be taken, but also
includes mentally searching for possibilities of future problems that might appear.
5. Plan of work is an outline of activities so arranged as to enable efficient execution of the
programme. It is a statement of activities to be undertaken by an individual, a group of
people or an organization, within a definitely stated time, to carry out the
recommendations in the programme. The plan of work indicates what is to be done, who
is to do it, how it is to be done, when it is to be done, who are to be served or reached
and how the results will be measured.
6. Calendar of work is a plan of activities to be undertaken in a particular time sequence.
7. Objectives are the expression of the ends towards which are efforts are directed.
8. Goals may be defined as the distance in any given direction one expects to go during a
given period of time
9. Need is the difference between ‘what is’ and ‘what ought to be’.
Objectives of having a programme
1. To ensure careful consideration of what is to be done and why.
2. To furnish a guide against which to judge all new proposals.
3. To establish objectives towards which progress can be measured and evaluated.
4. To have a means of choosing the important (deep rooted) from incidental (minor, less
important) problems and the permanent from the temporary changes.
5. To develop a common understanding about the means and ends between various
functionaries and organization.
6. To ensure continuity during changes in personnel.
7. To help develop leadership.
8. To avoid waste of time and money and promote efficiency.
9. To justify expenditure and to ensure flow of funds.
10. To have a written form of statement for public use.
Principles of Extension Programme Planning
1. Extension Programmes should be based on an analysis of the past experiences,
present situation and future needs. For programme determination adequate
information about the people and their situation have to be collected. The present

58
 situation is to be analyzed and interpreted on the basis of past experiences, by taking
local people into confidence. This shall help in arriving at the future needs.
2. Extension programmes should have clear and significant objectives, which could
satisfy important needs of the people. The ultimate objective of programme building
is to satisfy the needs of the people. For this purpose, significant objectives pertaining to
important needs of the people should be selected and clearly stated. The emphasis
shall be on what is attainable rather than on what is ideal, although one should not lose
sight of the later.
3. Extension programmes should fix up priority on the basis of available resources
and time. The rural people, particularly in the developing countries, have a multitude of
problems. All problems cannot be taken up at a time for solution, because of the
limitations of trained personnel, availability of funds, facilities and other resources. Time
is also a limiting factor as both the people and the funding agencies cannot wait for an
indefinite period of time to get the results. Considering all these parameters, it is
essential to fix up priorities in the programme.
4. Extension programmes should clearly indicate the availability and utilization of
resources. All extension programmes should clearly state where from the funds,
facilities, supplies and the needed personnel shall be made available and how these
shall be utilized. This shall make the programme practical and workable.
5. Extension programme should have a general agreement at various levels.
Programmes prepared at various levels such as village, district, state and national levels
should conform to each other and shall not work at cross purposes. Similarly, extension
programmes of a particular department should not be in conflict or contradiction with the
extension programme of another department.
6. Extension programme should involve people at the local level. Extension
programmes are implemented at the local level. Local people should, therefore, be
involved all through, from programme formation to programme implementation.
7. Extension programmes should involve relevant institutions and organizations.
Extension programmes cannot be implemented in isolation. It requires the support of
many institutions and organizations. The programme should broadly indicate the
institutions and organizations to be involved and how they shall contribute in attaining the
programme objectives.
8. Extension programme should have definite plan of work. The plan of work may be
separately drawn up or incorporated in the programme. The programme should broadly
indicate how it will be executed. Unless the plan of work is drawn up, the programme
remains a theoretical exercise.

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 9. Extension programmes should provide for evaluation of results and
reconsideration of the programme. Extension programme is not a static outline of
activities. The programme should make provision for periodical monitoring and
evaluation of results to judge its progress. On the basis of the findings of evaluation, the
programme should be suitably modified to facilitate its reaching the objective within the
stipulated period of time.
10. Extension programmes should provide equitable distribution of benefits amongst
the members of the community. It has been found that, in a community generally the
resource rich persons benefit more in comparison to the resource poor, from the
implementation of extension programmes. As this may generate social disparity and
social tensions, the planning of extension programmes should give adequate emphasis
on the weaker sections of the community.
Steps in extension programme planning
The following steps involved in preparing, executing and evaluating extension
programmes in a continuous cycle are
1. Collection of facts: It is the starting point of programme planning process. Pertinent
data may be collected from the available records and by survey of the area. Information
relating to the people, their enterprises, levels of technology, facilities and constraints,
values etc. relevant to programme building may be collected. Information may also be
collected from Panchayats, Cooperatives and other organizations in the area.

. STEPS IN EXTENSION PROGRAMME PLANNING

Determination of
objectives and
goals
4

Identification of 3 5 Developing a plan of

problems work& calendar of
operation
Programme
Execution
Analysis of
situation 2 Programme 6 Following through
Formulation plan of work &
calendar of operation

Programme
Evaluation
60

1
 7 Collecting data
for Evaluation
Collection of
facts
8
9
Analysis for
Evaluation of
Reconsideration and
revision of programme

2. Analysis of situation: The data and information collected are then analyzed in an
unbiased way, keeping in view the feelings expressed by the client system. This shall
help in understanding the situation in its proper perspective.
3. Identification of problems: A correct analysis and interpretation of the data shall help in
identifying the problems. There may be many problems, but only the urgent and
significant ones, which may be solved within the available resources and within the limits
of time, should be selected. Selection of a large number of problems, which cannot be
properly managed, may lead to a failure of the programme and generate frustration
among the people.
4. Determination of objectives and goals: The objectives are set forth on the basis of the
significant needs identified. The objectives should be direct and stated in clear terms.
To make the objectives realistic and actionable, there is need to state them in
terms of specific goals. In the determination of goals it may be necessary to again go
through the data and information analyzed, to find out what could actually be done in the
existing situation, with the available resources and time, which will be compatible and
with which the people shall cooperate. It is necessary to discuss with the local people
and local institutions, which shall also legitimize the programme planning process
5. Developing plan of work and calendar of operations: The plan of work should be in
written form and shall indicate who shall do what job i.e. what the change agent system
and the client system shall do; which institutions, organizations, service departments
shall be involved; what will be the financial requirement and how it shall be met; what
arrangements shall be made for marketing of the produce, training of the farmers and so
on. The plan should have all the essential details and no important point should be left
out.
The calendar of operations shall be prepared on the basis of the plan of work and
shall specify when a particular work shall be done, preferably mentioning date and time;
how much quantity of different inputs, including credit shall be required and when these
must be made available; when, where and for how many days the farmers and farm
women shall be trained, who are the specialists to be involved in training and preparing

61
 the handouts, when the publications shall be ready for distribution etc. That is, the
calendar of operations shall specifically state how and when all the significant activities
shall be performed. This should be at least for one season or for a period of one year.
In that case, they may be termed as ‘seasonal plan’ or ‘annual plan’.
6. Follow through plan of work and calendar of operations: Training of participants,
communication of information, conducting method demonstrations, making regular visits
and monitoring are some of the important functions the extension agent shall perform at
this stage. The work shall include solving unforeseen problems and taking corrective
steps where needed. The performance of the extension agent and the organizational
support received at this state may make the difference between success or failure of a
programme. Obtaining feedback information as to what is happening to the farmers after
introduction of new technology is extremely important at this stage.
7. Collecting data for Evaluation: Evaluation is the process of determining the extent to
which the objectives have been achieved. All programmes must have an in-built system
of evaluation to know how well the work is done. It should be a continuous process not
only to measure the end result but also to ensure that all the steps are correctly followed.
Data has to be collected which may be formal or informal, depending on the importance
of the programme and also on the availability of trained manpower, funds, facilities and
time.
8. Analysis and evaluation of the progress: the data has to be analysed and the
problems in the current working programme has be identified to make changes during
the programme so that the end results can be achieved.
9. Reconsideration and revision of the programme: On the basis of the results of
evaluation, the programme should be reconsidered, and revised if needed. This
reconsideration should be done not only with the participants; but also with the scientists,
administrators in extension organizations and local bodies like panchayats etc.
Reconsideration shall help in making necessary corrections and modifications in the
programme. In reconsideration, emphasis should be on the removal of technical defects
if any, and how to obtain more cooperation and involvement of the participants and
various organizations. The purpose of such an exercise is to make the extension
programme more effective by removing the defects.

EVALUATION OF EXTENSION PROGRAMMES

Meaning of evaluation

- derived from latin word “vale” which means to value

Definition of evaluation

62
Defined as an endless or continuous and systematic process of appraising the value of
extension programmes
Definition of monitoring
Supervising activities in progress to ensure they are on-course and on-schedule in
meeting the objectives and performance targets.

“Evaluation” in its broadest sense means judging the value of something.

Extension evaluation is the process of determining how well the desired behavioral
changes have taken place or are taking place as a result of extension educational effort.
Purpose of evaluation
• Finding people’s reaction
• Assess the progress
• Ascertain merits and demerits
• Analyse reason for success and failures
• Derive lessons for improvement
Types of evaluation
1. Formal and informal
2. Formative and summative
3. On-going and ex-post facto
Ongoing (internal, concurrent) - During the project, improve the project
Terminal evaluation - Done immediately after completing the project
Expost facto evaluation
• After a time lag
• Impact of programme
• Used for future formulation
The three important elements in the evaluation process are
1. Observations or collecting some information.
2. Applying some standards or criteria to our observation.
3. Finally, forming some judgment, drawing some conclusions or making some decisions
SIX KEYS TO EVALUATING EXTENSION WORK
1. Statement of objectives
o State the objectives of an activity to be evaluated in terms of behaviour
changes in the people who are to do the learning.
o e.g. Dairy farmers to learn full hand milking of cow
2. Source of evidence
o Only those people whom you try to reach can provide proof of success or
failure.

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 o e.g. Those dairy farmers who attended the full hand milking demonstration
3. Representative sample
o Those persons who actually provide the evidence of success must be
representative of all whom you tried to approach.
o e.g. Every 'n' th name from the list of dairy farmers who attended the full
hand milking demonstration meeting.
4. Appropriate methods
o The methods of obtaining evidence must be appropriate to the kinds of
information being collected.
o e.g. Recorded observation of the dairy farmers on how he milk his cow before
and after the full hand milking demonstration.
5. Reliable questions
o Word questions carefully so as to obtain reliable, unbiased data
o e.g. When asking questions about a field visit during a dairy training
programme; Did you see any new methods of feeding dairy animals?
6. Plan to use results
o Decide how you will analyse and use your evaluation results before
evaluation is done.
o Is the percentage of adoption of a practice high, low, expected or
unexpected?
o What the extension programme have done or not done to make it high, or
keep it so low?
o What other factors are related to it?
o How should the extension methods or programmes be changed to bring
about a different kind or different amount of change?
Monitoring
• Intermittent series of observation
• Regular or irregular
• Show extent of compliance, deviation
• Assist decision making
Purpose of monitoring
• Analyse situation in the community
• Determines whether inputs well utilized
• Identify problems facing the community and solutions
• Ensure all activities carried out properly, in time
• Determine problem solving method is the most appropriate

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Problems in evaluation
• Error of observation
• Error of measuring instrument
• Error of measurement
• Error of quantification
• Error due to lack of control
• Error of operational difficulties

EVOLUTION OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY EXTENSION IN INDIA

India was a self sufficient and self sustained country a long time back. This situation
changed and by invaders of Mogul rule as well as Europeans. The British government never
took any serious attempt to uplift the Indian villages. Between 1800 to 1900, there were 31
famines which jerked the government into action.
Efforts of the British Government:
Famine Commissions were set up by the British government in 1880, 1898 and 1901. Based
on its recommendations, agricultural departments in most of the states started functioning.
Imperial Agricultural Research Institute, Agricultural college at Poona, district level
agricultural and livestock farms and experiment stations were started. The Indian Agricultural
service was constituted at the centre. Later Animal Husbandry, Irrigation, Rural development
departments were started. During the Government of India Act, 1919, Agricultural
development became state subject. The Royal Commission, 1928 established a body for
Agricultural research at National level for promotion, guidance and coordination of
agricultural animal husbandry research.
Individual / group / community efforts:
1. Scheme on Rural reconstruction (1903) – Daniel Hamilton

Daniel Hamilton made a model village and co – operative credit society in an area of
Sunderban near West Bengal based on co- operative principle. In 1934 a rural
reconstruction unit was also established and provided training facilities in cottage industries
2. Servants of India Society (1905) – Gopala Krishna Gokale

He founded a political society at Poona. It laid strong emphasis on socio – economic and
educational activities. He started training centers and published booklets like basic education
and labour problem.
3. Economic Conference of Mysore (1914-18) – Dr.M.Visweswaraya

This was a purposeful and methodical plan for achieving improvements over a wide range.
Agricultural was one of the main points in the scheme. He organized district and taluk

65
committees and these committees surveyed the needs and problems, examined them
carefully, arranged priorities, fixed targets and designed ways and means of achieving them
4. Gurgaon Experiment (1920) – F.L.Brayne

The Gurgaon experiment was a landmark in the history of rural reconstruction in this country.
It was a pioneer effort in the field and was marked by several novel methods which had not
been previously tried. The place pf the experiment was Gurgoan, a district of the old Punjab
situated half way between Delhi and Mathura. F.L. Brayne took charge of this district as
Deputy Commissioner at the end of 1920. He saw the miserable condition of the people by
their health, primitive methods of agriculture and animal husbandry , ignorance and squalor,
wastefulness of the social customs and the depressed state of women, He wanted to uplift
teh community and launched a campaign. He gave a wider range of propaganda for this
programme. He appointed village guides and these guides resided within their respective
villages and propagated the message for village regeneration. The Gurgaon experiment
aimed at more scientific collection and use of manure, improved method of cultivation and
irrigation, a better system of dry farming, the re- division of holdings into blacks, more
economical use of money, improvements in methods of keeping animals, development of co
– operation and communication. But, after the transfer of Brayne there were a lack of interest
and hence the scheme did not make any head way. Later the programme was shifted to co-
operative department when Brayne was appointed as commissioner of rural reconstruction
in Punjab.
5. Marthandam Attempt (1921) – Dr.Spencer Hatch

Dr.Spencer Hatch was an American agricultural scientist and he selected Marthandam as a

center for rural reconstruction work. The program was run by YMCA. The main objectives of
the project were five folded, namely, mental, spiritual, physical, economical, and social
development. He established a demonstration center at Marthamdam. Village association
were formed and these associations assisted the implementations of the various
innovations. After creating awareness, co –operative bull clubs and breeding associates
were formed. With the guidance of the demonstrations center, egg selling clubs, honey clubs
and weavers clubs, etc., were organized. At the center (Marthandam) prized bulls and goats,
model beehives demonstrations plots for improving grain and vegetable, seeds, poultry,
weaving sheds equipments like honey extracts were maintained.
6. Shriniketan Attempt (1921) – Rabindranath Tagore

Had help real interest in village welfare. Help the villages to develop their resources by
teaching them the best method of agriculture and co – operation. To improve village
sanitation.. To work out practically an all round system of basic education in the villages

66
based on the scout ideal (Brati Balika) To encourage a spirit of service To train students and
leaders in rural matters The institute conducted demonstrations on improved agricultural and
animal husbandry practices. Night schools, mobile library, film shows meetings were also
organized
7. Sevagram Attempt(1923) – Mahatma Gandhi

This programmes was organized by the All India Spinners Associations in 1920, The
objectives of the project were to provide service to the underprivileged, achieving self
dependency and adults alike. He named it as Nai Talim. The main activities of the project
were, organization of training center for cottage industries, prohibition , removal of
untouchability , equal status to women and basic education to all people.
8. Indian Village service (1945) – Arther T. Mosher and B.N.Guptha

To assist the people to realize the best in their own villages by developing individuals,
voluntary and local agencies to enable them to be effective in helping themselves and
others.
9. Firka development scheme of Madras State (1947)
This scheme was launched in the quarter of 1947 in 34 firkas based on the consideration of
general backwardness of the area the possibility of identifying the production of handloom
cloth, khadi and other cottage industries. The scheme consisted of short term plants for the
development of rural communications, water supply and pachayatraj, organizations of co-
operatives and programmes for sanitation. The long term plans were for making the area self
– sufficient through agriculture, irrigaton and livestock improvement and development of
khadi and other cottage industries.
10. Etawah Pilot project (1948) – Lt.Col.Albert Mayor

First 64 villages were selected and then increased to 97. The government of united province
and the 4- point programme of America helped for this project. In this project, the village,
level workers trained appointed The aim was not only to improve the selected villages, but
also to find out an isolated instance of benevolence. It was aimed at widening the horizon of
the villager, arousing his interest and initiative as well as improving his crops and livestock. It
encouraged the development of panchayats, increase in educational facilities, spread of
improved farming method and the construction of roads and soak pits.
11. Nilokheri Project (1948) – S.K.Dey

The project was started to rehabilitees 7000 displaced persons from Pakistan. This scheme
was started in an area of 1100 acres swampy land. The swamp was reclaimed as the
nucleus of an agro – Industrial Township, which also includes essential services for health
educations public works, power supply and provides facilities for marketing shopping,

67
recreation etc. The development phase was more or less completed by the end of 1951. The
scheme was also called “ Mazdoor Manzil: aimed at self sufficiently for rural cum urban
township.
12. Ford Foundation projects (1951) – Paul Hoffman

In 1951 Paul Hoffman, president of the American Ford Foundations came to India with the
project of how Ford Foundations could help India in basic development. The Ford
Foundations started 15 pilot projects more or less on the basis of Etawah in various states .
A training center for extension personnel was also initiated. Five training center attached to
five agricultural colleges in India were started with financial aid of Ford Foundations. Chester
Boules came to India with promise that U.S. Government is ready to provide 50 million
dollars for India’s reconstruction. Under this programme 15 pilot projects started earlier
under the Ford Foundations were absorbed . Hence it was decided by the central
government in conclusion with the state government in May 1952 to launch the community
development programme in India .
Failures of these proects:
 The attempts were mostly based on individual efforts
 Government backing and financial support was lacking
 The work was confined to a particular place
 Staff employed were inadequate, inexperienced and untrained
 The methods were not well defined
 Lack of involvement of the people
 Objectives were ill defined
 Research and evaluation were lacking
 Association with other departments was limited
 Plans, programmes and organizations were weak and unbalanced

Community Development Programme

Concepts
Community - A Community consists of persons in social interaction within a geographical
area and having one or more additional communities.
Community development
 It is a movement designed to promote better living for the whole community with the
active participation and on the initiative of the community

 It is technically aided and locally organized self-help

 It is used to describe the technique many governments have adopted to reach their
village people and to make more effective use of local initiative and energy for
increased production and better living standards.

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  According to Mukerji, ‘Community Development has been described as a process of
change from the traditional way of living of rural communities to progressive ways of
living; as method by which people can be assisted to develop themselves on their
own capacity and resources; as a programme for accomplishing certain activities in
fields concerning the welfare of the rural people; and as a movement for progress
with a certain ideological content.

Objectives of CD
Fundamental or basic objective
 of CD is the development of people of “Destination Man”

Broad Objectives
 Economic development
 Social justice
 Democratic growth
Specific Objectives
Through these village institutions, plan and carry out integrated multi-phased family,
village, block and district plans for:
 to assist each village in having effective panchayats, cooperatives and schools;

 increasing agricultural production

 improving existing village crafts and industries and organizing new ones.

 providing minimum essential health services and improving health practices

 providing required educational facilities for children and adult education programme.

 providing recreational facilities and programmes

 improving housing and family living conditions, and

 providing programmes for village women and youth

Community development (The End) and Extension Education (The Means)

Often it is said that CD is the objective and Extension Education the means of
attaining it. The CD approach requires a complete change in the mode of functioning of the
administrative machinery, in the role it discharges and in the attitude of Government
functionaries. The change is from the ‘Executive’ to the ‘Extension role’. It is essentially an
educational process. If CD is in essence conceived of as an objective and Extension

69
Education as the means for achieving it, then achievement of the ends is dependent on the
effective use of the means.
Difference between Community Development and Extension Education
Extension Education Community Development
Emphasis on the individual Emphasis on cooperation
Education aimed at individual Education aimed at groups of individuals to
development to obtain economic and work collectively to obtain economic and social
social improvement improvement
Has as its main theme the individual’s Has as its main theme the communities needs.
needs
Emphasises decision-making for Emphasises decision-making by groups and
change by individuals and families representatives of groups.
Extension is an educational arm of Community Development is usually a direct
Government, usually through educational Government approach to straight line
institutions or other Governments organizations
departments.
Emphasises an organization that either Emphasises the coordination of
carries out educational services directly service agencies by a working team made up of
or transmits knowledge from other representatives of different services.
resources to people.
Usually represents a transfer of Usually a tight control held by a Government
responsibility from administering administering agency to cut across participating
Government organization to another Governmental departments:
“Educational Group”.  To recognize and include various
departments that must provide service.
 To eliminate departmental reluctance to
participate.

Permits cooperation between Forces departments and agencies to

departments and agencies. participate.

Similarities between Community Development and Extension Education

 To improve social and economic development.
 Tackles the problem at the people’s level.
 Basically an educational approach.
 Recognizes that people need help if they are to help themselves.
 Designed to extend knowledge to rural people.
 Aimed at bringing about change.

Community Development programme

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 The programme started on October 2, 1952 was meant to be a pilot scheme in order
to see how people reached to it and what pitfalls were likely to be encountered in the
propagation of the movement. There were 55 projects. Each covered about 300 villages with
an area of about 450 to 500 square miles, a population of about 2 lakhs and a cultivated
area of about 1,50,000 acres. Each project area was divided into three development blocks.
A development block consisted of about 100 villages and a population of 60,000 to 70,000.
Each block in turn was divided into groups of 5 to 10 villages each, each group being the
field of operation for a Village Level Worker (V.L.W) now known as "GRAM SEVAK." To
begin with, only areas with assured rainfall and facilities for irrigation and soil capable of
giving quick returns were selected.
A project was to be completed in three years with 5 stages of work.
S.No. Stage Period Activities
1 Conception 3 months Selection of the area for project, its economic survey
and planning
2 Initiation 6 months Arrangements for temporary houses for block
personnel. Cost of communication and collection of
required materials.
3 Operation 18 months Approved activities were taken up
4 Consolidation 6 months Operation was wound up
5 Finalization 3 months Final touches were given. Finalizatation of report
and submission to Government
This was experimental. The villagers were expected to continue after they become
well versed with the nature of activities. But the initial projects and blocks suffered from
several handicaps in the beginning, which retarded the pace of progress. The period of
operation was extended by one year and these continued to operate upto September 30,
1956. The experience of these pilot projects indicated that people were ready, even keen for
the programme. So, there was a need for rapid extension of the programme of same
magnitude. (as in 55 projects). The government therefore decided to launch another
programme alongside Community Development Programme, of less intensive nature and
less financial assistance called National Extension Service(NES) formulated in April, 1953
and was inaugurated on October 2nd 1953.(One year after CDP).
CD and NES were a major development in the sphere of rural reconstruction in India.
Since the basic idea underlying both CD and NES was same, two were integrated under on
agency at the centre and states. The idea behind both was to cover the entire country within
a period of 10 years. Both NES and CDP have identical aims and operation units. The
blocks showing good progress and with abundant people’s participation were selected.
Community development blocks after completing scheduled period of operation are

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called post-intensive blocks. Intensive phase of programme financed by specific provisions
in the block budget ceases at this stage. It is the stage called as real people’s programme.

Organizational Setup

Recommendation of Sri. B Metha

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  Division of community development programme into three phases, viz, the extensive
development stage the intensive development stage and the post-intensive
development stage is not necessary, useful or convenient.
 Implement the programme in two stages of six years each.
 The period of the coverage of the entire country by this programme should be
extended by at least three years.
 The community development is not achieved by a mere increase in the number of
blocks, but the increased number should be accompanied by effective work.
 The decision to cover the entire country with these development blocks within the
second five year plans in unwise.
 Community development is not a thing which is achieved once and the work is
finished. It is a continuing programme and needs continuous efforts.

These recommendations were accepted by the central committee and the National
Development council with some modifications. According to the new plan which came into
force with effect from April1, 1958 there was no distinction between NES blocks and CD
blocks and there was no phase like post intensive phase.

This plan implied that all the existing NES blocks had become CD blocks. The
implementation of the programme was to be brought about in two stages of five years each
with a budget provision of Rs.12 lakhs and five lakhs respectively. The complete coverage
was to be achieved by October 1963

PANCHAYATI RAJ (DEMOCRATIC DECENTRALIZATION)

The word democracy is derived from the Greek roots- cracy meaning rule of and
demo meaning the people. It is governance of the people, by the people and for the people.
The emphasis is on the people distinct from officers. The rule is by consultation between the
people’s representatives on one hand and with officers on the other. It is pooling the
intelligence and the experience of all concerned with the administration. Decentralization
means devolution of central authority among local units close to the area served. Where
authority devolves by this process on people’s institution, it is called democratic
decentralization.
Need for democratic decentralization: Our administration was described as democracy at
the top and dictatorship at the bottom because the people were not associated with the
administration on the lower tiers from the district downwards. Hence the study team on
Community Development headed by B.R.Mehta recommended democratic decentralization.
Implementation: The study team’s recommendations was approved by National
Development Council and communicated to the states for implementation in 1958. Madras
State started as an experiment a pilot block as early as 1957. Andra Pradesh State started in
July 1958, twenty pilot blocks more or less on the same lines of the recommendations of the

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study team. Inspired by this, the state of Rajasthan became the pioneer in bringing the whole
of Rajasthan under democratic decentralization on October 2, 1959. On November 1, 1959,
Andra Pradesh State introduced this scheme of democratic decentralization in the entire
state.

Panchayat Raj
The term democratic decentralization was not easily understood by the people and
was given an Indian name, Panchayati Raj. It means a system of government. Horizontally,
a network of village panchayat and vertically, it is an organic growth of the panchayat rising
up to the national level.
Election to Panchayati Raj Institutions(PRIs)
Elections to the Panchayats are to be conducted regularly under the supervision of
the Panchayati Raj Election Commission of the State. The elections of the members of the
Panchayats at village, intermediate and district levels have to be compulsorily elected
indirectly by and from amongst the elected members. However the election of President of
Village Panchayat has to be decided by direct election.
Reservation of seats
1. Reservation for the candidates belonging to the weaker sections, namely the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes at all levels in proportion to their population and in
proportion to the area has been provided in order to ensure participation of these groups
in the decision making process.
2. One third of the total number of seats has been reserved for women (including the
number of seats reserved for women belonging to SCs and STs.)
3. Not less than one-third of the total number of Chairpersons in Panchayats at each level
has been reserved for women. Likewise reservation for the offices of Chairpersons
belonging to the SC and ST categories has also been made.
Tenure: A term of five years has been provided for every Panchayat unless it is dissolved
earlier on specific grounds.
Resources: The Panchayats have been authorized to levy, collect and appropriate suitable
local taxes. A state can also provide grant-in-aid to Panchayats from its consolidated fund. A
State Finance Commission is appointed to review and assess financial position of the
Panchayats and recommend to the states the pattern of distribution of funds between the
state and PRIs. The Panchayati Raj functions in each state under three tier system with the
Village Panchayat at the grass root level, Panchayat Union at intermediate level and District
Panchayat at district level.

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Village Panchayat (Gram Sabha)
A Gram Sabha consists of all adult members registered as voters in the area of
Panchayat. It provides effective peoples’ participation in various programmes at local level. It
is considered as the only means of direct democracy where all important decisions have to
be arrived at and it may serve the purpose of training ground for all the people especially the
younger generation.
The Gram Sabha has to meet at least thrice in a year. The quorum for its meeting
shall be one-third of the total number of members of the Gram Sabha. The meetings shall be
presided over by the President of the Panchayat, in his absence, by the Vice President and
in the absence of both, a member chosen by the members present at the meeting.
Duties
1. Constitution, repair and maintenance of ward
2. Lighting of public wards and built up areas.

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3. Construction of drains and disposal of village water including sewage.
4. Cleaning of streets, removal of rubbish heaps and improvement of sanitary condition of
the village.
5. Provisions for public latrines and its cleanliness.
6. Opening and maintaining burial grounds
7. Sinking and repairing of wells, repair and maintenance of ponds, tanks, construction and
maintenance of water works.
Powers
1. Planting and preservation of trees.
2. Lighting of public roads and places other than built up area.
3. Opening and maintenance of public markets other than those classified as public
markets.
4. Control of fairs and festivals.
5. Opening and maintenance of cart stands and halting places, public cattle sheds.
6. Opening and maintenance of public slaughter house.
7. Opening and maintenance of reading home.
8. Establishment and maintenance of receiving sets, playgrounds, parks and sports clubs.
9. Opening and maintenance of literacy centers for imparting social education.
10. Construction of works of public utility, provision of facilities for safety, health, comfort,
conveyance, culture or recreation of the inhabitants of the village.
Taxation and Finance: Shares of local cess, house tax, vehicle tax, stamp duty surcharge,
house tax matching grant, tolls, fee for markets, income from endowment, share of
entertainment tax, ferries, porambokes, fines and penalties.
Economic development and social justice: Each Village Panchayat will prepare a plan for
economic development and social justice including implementation of programmes and
schemes of the government.
Panchayat Union (Panchayat Samiti)
Duties
1. Construction, repair and maintenance of public roads.
2. Maintenance of dispensaries.
3. Maintenance of maternity and child welfare centers.
4. Construction and maintenance of house for the poor, orphanages, shops and stalls.
5. Construction and maintenance of elementary schools.
6. Preventive and remedial measures of epidemics or malaria.
7. Control of notified fairs and festivals.
8. Veterinary relief.
9. Regulation of buildings.

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10. Opening and maintenance of public market.
11. Maintenance of statistics of birth and deaths.
12. Maintenance of choltries.
13. Promotion of agriculture.
14. Promotion of cottage industries.
15. Other duties as mentioned by the government.
The Government may entrust all measures relating to agriculture, animal husbandry,
village industries and schemes for economic development. Also review of schemes,
programmes and other activities executed by the government or any statutory body or any
agency within the Panchayat Union should be taken up.
Discretionary function: Public utility calculated to promote safety, health, convenience and
comfort of inhabitants of the Panchayat Union.
Taxation and Finance: Share of local cess, local cess surcharge, matching grant, land
revenue assignment, local educational grant, local road grant, fee on licenses, fees levied by
public market, fees for temporary occupation, fees for use of choltries, receipts from
dispensaries and income from endowments. Proportionate share from tax, income from
ferries, interest on investments, fines and penalties.
Economic development and social justice: Each Panchayat Union will prepare plan for
economic development and social justice of the union including implementation of
programmes and schemes of the government.
District Panchayat (Zilla Parishad)
Functions
1. Advise on all matters of development undertaken by Panchayats and Panchayat Unions
to the Government.
2. Watching and reviewing the progress of the programme.
Taxation and Finance: All grants, all rents from lands or other property, interest on
securities and penalities.
Economic development and social justice: Each District Panchayat will prepare plan for
economic development and social justice of the district including implementation of
programmes and schemes of the government.
District Planning Committee
Composition
MP, MLAs, Chairman of the District Panchayat
Function: The committee shall consolidate the plans prepared by the District Panchayat,
Panchayat Union Councils, Village Panchayats, Town Panchayat, Municipal Councils and
the Municipal Corporations in the district and prepare a draft development plan for the district
as a whole.

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 DAIRY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
Gausalas
Recognizing the potential of Gaushalas (about 10000) which were engaged in
rehabilitation of disowned cattle, the government of India in 1952 set up the Central Council
of Govsamvardana (CCG). Some of these gaushalas are providing quality indigenous / cross
breds / heifers / bulls at many places like Nasik, Urli, Kanchan, Amirtsar, Indore and
Ahmednagar. One gaushala at Bombay has completed a century of devoted work in 1986
and has established two institutes one for research and another for fodder research and
grassland development.
The Sabarmathi Ashram gaushala founded in 1915 by Mahatma Gandhi near
Ahmedabad is now being managed by NDDB and has a training centre for AI service
including embryo transfer.

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Objectives:
1. To preserve the Indian cows and progeny and to breed and upgrade them for supplying
plenty of unadulterated milk and milk products to the people and distribute the best
female calves to the villagers.
2. Prepare best pedigree Indian Bulls and supply to villagers for breeding and upgrading
village cows.
3. Production of best healthy bullocks for draught work and preserve male calves for
distribution to agriculturists.
History:The Gaushala movement is synonymous with the protection of cows and cattle
wealth of our country. Being practiced for the last five thousand years or so, its origin can be
traced in the Vedic period when social customs and rules laid great emphasis on protection,
preservation and development of cows for home, and oxen for agriculture-fields. At that time,
possession of herds of cows was the yardstick for measuring economic esteem and
prosperity of an individual. The Rishies (Ascetics) maintained Asharam Gaushalas, with
hundreds of milking cows, which helped them to offer hospitality to visitors. Cow being the
backbone of rural life and economy in India, care was taken for their well-being and
upliftment. Grazing areas and grasslands were kept reserved in abundance everywhere.
People used to donate their lands to Gaushalas on auspicious occasions so that cows may
have sufficient land for grazing. Thus the entire culture of ancient India was based on cow.
Even during muslim regime and particularly the mughal period, there was complete
ban on the slaughter of cow. For the British, who neither cared for the traditional rural
economy and rural crafts nor bothered for the sentiments of people or cultural heritage of
this subcontinent, cow was just a cattle and a good source of meat. After independence, with
the impact of the western world and growth of cities and towns, the entire socio-cultural and
socio-economic patterns of life got revolutionized solely on the basis of materialistic
considerations. The picture started taking a turn in the sixties, when the ‘Green Revolution’
introduced mechanical and chemical inputs to the agricultural activities. This led to a
situation where the only purpose of cow was milk. Buffaloes and exotic breeds pushed it
back on the pretext of yield and fat percentage. It was in 1946 that the Animal Husbandry
wing of the ICAR recognised the potentiality of the valuable work done by goshalas &
pinjarapoles and recommended a plan to encourage them to be the fountainheads of milk
and draught power in the country. They formulated a plan to constitute state-wise federations
of Goshalas & Pinjarapoles.
On November 19th, 1947 the Government of India appointed a ‘Cattle Preservation
and Development Committee’ under the chairmanship of Sardar Datar Singh, Vice President
of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Along with other issues, the Committee also
studied as to how agencies like Gaushalas and Cattle Protection Societies and Salvage

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Centres could be utilised for preserving cattle wealth and for promoting its development. The
Committee recommended establishment of ‘Gosadans’ where ‘uneconomic’ cattle could be
housed cheaply and allowed to die naturally.
Gosadan
The Gosadan scheme was launched during the First Five Year Plan with the idea to
segregate the old, unproductive and useless cattle from the good ones so as to control
promiscuous breeding and also to relieve pressure on the limited resources of feeds and
fodder available for the productive stock. They are generally located in remote forest area
and wastelands. In these Gosadans, the segregated cattle are housed in proper shelters or
shed and maintained on natural pastures and hay. The scheme was launched to solve the
problem of degraded cattle. A scheme for establishment of 160 Gosadans in the country was
included in the first Five Year Plan with an outlay of Rs. 97.15 lakhs for the purpose. One
Gosadan was designed to house 2000 cattle in a land of about 4000 acres. It was estimated
that a Gosadan, capable of housing 2000 cattle, would require Rs. 50,000 as non-recurring,
and Rs.20,000 per annum as recurring expenditure. The scheme could not achieve the
projected targets. Only 17 Gosadans could be started during the plan period. with 5293
cattle against the capacity of 34,000. Lack of funds with the State Governments for meeting
their share of expenditure, non-availability of suitable land, absence of legislative measures
for the compulsory removal of unproductive cattle from owner’s premises, transport
difficulties etc. are the reasons generally advanced as to why the ‘Gosadan’ scheme could
not succeed then.
Although the Gosadans established by the Government could not prove to be
successful, the Goshalas and Pinjarapoles managed by the community were still running. A
report published by the ‘Central Council of Gosamvardhan’, New Delhi under the heading
‘Gaushalas and Pinjarapoles in India’ informs that, during the First Five Year Plan, there
were nearly 3,000 Gaushalas and Pinjarapoles spread over the whole country. These
institutions maintained over six lakh cattle at an annual cost of Rs. 7 crores. It has been
realised that, in spite of their drawbacks, these institutions could, with better organisation,
very well serve as useful centres for the improvement of cattle and milk production,
supplementing Government’s efforts in this direction.
KEY VILLAGE SCHEME
It was taken up in August 1952.
First comprehensive and integrated programme
Mother of all livestock breeding programmes
Started with establishment of key village blocks.(KVB) in the breeding tract of bovines

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Each block consist of one AI centre and four key village units to cover 10, 000
breedable cows and buffaloes. Each key village is a compact unit of contiguous villages
having population of 500 adult cows/buffaloes
Objectives :
Rapid multiplication of crossbred cattle for meeting the shortage of high quality animals by
grading up of the indigenous cattle population.
Technical programme
 Designing a sound breeding policy for each state.
 Enact the Livestock improvement act and the control of animal contagious act.
 Prepare a plan for the initiation of Key village scheme and establishment of AI
CENTRES after survey of climatic, agricultural and a h conditions of the state and of
its resources and breeding bulls
 Advising and helping cattle breeders to solve husbandry problems by implementing
the following
 Castration of unapproved bulls
 Breeding naturally or artificially of all cows from better bulls provided under this
scheme
 Assistance and advice for better feeding
 Provision of better marketing facilities through organisation of villagers as
multipurpose cooperative breeders society
 Organisation of cattle shows and calf rallies
Intensive Cattle Development Programme
A special development programme, the Intensive Cattle Development Project (ICDP) was
started to replace Key Village Scheme. It is a comprehensive project (1964 – 65) covering all
aspects of cattle development .The target was to operate 114 projects in 20 states in the milk
shed areas of the large dairy plants. These ICDPs were started in the milk-sheds of dairy
projects. Various other inputs such as propagation of good variety of fodder, proper health
cover, AI service and milk collection centers were incorporated in this programme. The
project was a crash programme to cross bred non-descript cattle in the milk –shed areas
around the metropolitan cities covering 126 districts. Each covered 0.1 million breedable
population to meet the demand of milk for urban population. Exotic cattle breeding farms
were established throughout the country to provide bulls for production of semen to support
this scheme. Simultaneously, bilaterally aided projects were started to produce purebred
exotic bulls of Holstein Friesian, Brown Swiss and Jersey for cross breeding in these project
areas.

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 Besides distributing some of these exotic breeds to the state governments, the
government of India also established farms for multiplying the exotic breeds.
In the fourth plan, it was decided to preserve the well-defined breeds and undertake
selective breeding and progeny testing programmes in their home tracts. Thus large central
cattle breeding farms were established, one at Suratgarh (Rajasthan) for Tharparkar, one at
Chiplima (Orissa) for Red Sindhi, one at Dhamrod (Gujarat) for Surti buffaloes and one at
Alamadi near Avadi (Tamilnadu) for Murrah. The state governments were also encouraged
and central assistance was provided for progeny testing programme in selected farms.
There are more than 330 cattle and buffalo farms in the country today. Some of these
maintain exclusively imported dairy cattle herds to produce breeding bulls. A cooperative
breeding programme for each important breed networking the existing herds should be
initiated for breed improvement and conservation.
COOPERATIVE MILK ACTIVITIES IN INDIA
Definitions:
Cooperation has been defined as a form of organization in which persons voluntarily
associate together on the basis of equality for the promotion of their economic interest.
Those who have come together have a common economic aim, which they cannot achieve
because of their economic weakness this element of individual weakness is overcome by the
pooling of their resources, by making self-help effective through mutual help.
A cooperative organisation is an association which furnishes an economic service
with entrepreneur profit and which is owned and controlled on a substantially equal basis by
those for whom the service is rendered.
A cooperative society is an enterprise formed and directed by an association of
users, applying within itself the rules of democracy and directly intended to serve both its
members and the community as a whole.

Objectives of cooperatives:
1. Economic objective: as an institution it caters to the members needs based on self-
help. It needs the mutual cooperation of the members and workers for their own benefit
and consequently for that of the community as a whole. The overall economic objective
of the cooperatives is the welfare of the members of the society through supply of cheap
credit, development of banking habits, secure better price for farm produce, eliminating
exploitation by middle men and creation of storage facilities for the produce until sold at
appropriate time.
2. Social objective: is to develop democratic leadership and to motivate people to opt for
voluntary participation and group action. Individuals are treated equal without any
discrimination. It also aims at industry, self-reliance and mutual help. It fosters a sense of

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 responsibility and integrity. It brings a sense of security and harmony among the
members.
3. Educational objective: is to bring about knowledge of cooperatives to its participants
and to develop responsibility and honesty among the members.
Principles of cooperation:
Cooperative movement made its first appearance in England. It was started to give
relief to persons exploited by middlemen during the Industrial Revolution. About 28 poor
weavers of Rochdale came together with the capital of one pound each to open a small retail
shop in 1844. They adopted a set of rules, which was later known as Rochdale Principles
and was accepted worldwide. They are
1. Democratic control
2. Open membership
3. Limited interest on capital
4. Patronage divided
5. Cash trading
6. Political and religious neutrality
7. Promotion of education
With the eventual growth in science and technology and diversification in cooperative
business, it was felt that these principles needed some modification, clarifications and
adjustments. Consequently the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) appointed a sub
committee in 1934 for this purpose. The committee in its report (1937) classified these
principles into two broad groups
Essential principles Non essential principles
1.Open membership 1.Political and religious neutrality
2.Democratic management 2.Cash trading
3.Limited interest on capital 3.Education to members
4.Payment of dividend in proportion
to transaction
These principles did not leave enough scope for interpretation and understanding.
Accordingly, the ICA again appointed a commission in 1964 and this commission submitted
its report in 1966. It had two characteristic features. Firstly it did not classify the principles as
essential and non-essential and secondly the principles were explained as accurately as
possible. The reformulated principles were accepted as below.
1. Voluntary association and open membership: Membership of a cooperative society
shall be voluntary and available without artificial restriction or any social, political, racial
or religious discrimination to all persons who can make use of its services and willing to
accept the responsibilities of membership. There is no compulsion on anybody to join a
cooperative society and one may withdraw from membership as and when he wishes.

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 The principle of voluntarism is considered as cordial and vital to the cooperative
character of the society.
2. Democratic control: Cooperative societies are democratic organizations. Their affairs
shall be administered by the persons elected from among members in a manner agreed
to by the members and accountable to them. Members of primary societies should enjoy
equal rights of voting and rights to participate in taking decisions affecting their societies.
Administration should be conducted on a democratic basis.
3. Limited interest on capital: Share capital shall receive a strictly limited interest rate to
safeguard the non-profit character of the cooperatives. Within the cooperative economy,
capital has to serve and not to dominate.
4. Equitable division of surplus: the economic results arising out of the operations of the
society belong to the members of the society and shall be distributed in such a manner
that it would avoid any member gaining at the expense of others. This may be decided
by the members by providing for the development of the business, common services and
distribution of surplus among the members in proportion to their transactions with the
society.
5. Cooperative education: It has been widely acknowledged that the strength and
success of cooperative movement depend on the existence of enlightened membership.
Hence all cooperative societies shall make provisions for the education of their
members, officers, employees and the general public in the principles and techniques of
cooperation, both economic and democratic.
6. Cooperation among cooperatives: all the cooperative organisations, in order to serve
the interest of their members and communities shall actively cooperate in every practical
way with other cooperatives at local, national and international levels. In the competitive
conditions the whole trend of modern economy is towards closer economic integration
and larger units. To realize the benefits of science and technology, the principle of unity is
vital not only among individuals but also for the cooperative institution.
7. Concern for the society: Cooperatives should not only be concerned about the
individual members of the institution, but also about the society.
Dairy cooperatives:
The earliest attempts at dairy development can be traced back to British rule, when
the Defence Department established military dairy farms to ensure the supply of milk and
butter to the colonial army. The first of these farms was set up in Allahabad in 1913;
subsequent facilities were established at Bangalore, Ootacamund and Karnal. These farms
were well maintained and even in the early stages, improved milch animals were raised. As
animals were reared under farm conditions, some herd improvement was made using
artificial insemination. This approach did not have any impact on the supply of milk to urban

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consumers, which was of major concern to civilian authorities but less important to the
military. With the growth of the population in urban areas, consumers had to depend on milk
vendors who kept cattle in these areas and sold their milk, often door-to-door. As a result,
several cattle sheds came into existence in different cities. This was not an environmentally
sound approach. As the main objective of the milk vendors was to maximize profit, they
started increasing the lactation period. In the process, these high-yielding cattle developed
sterility problems, which considerably reduced the number of calvings. Once the cattle
became unproductive, they were sold to slaughter houses. This practice systematically
drained the country of its genetically superior breeds. To some extent, the Second World
War gave impetus to private dairies with modestly modernized processing facilities. In the
cities of Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Delhi and even in some large townships, processed
milk, table butter and ice cream were available, though not on a large scale. Polsons,
Keventers and the Express Dairy were some of the pioneer urban processing dairies. These
dairies were not concerned with improving the breed of milch animals reared in rural pockets
but instead were content with contracting milk supplies through middlemen or their own staff.
Milk producers as well as consumers were exploited. These early modern systems did not
bring about significant shifts in milk production, nor did they develop quality milch animals.
To a large extent, despite modernized processing facilities, dairying remained unorganized.
With the initiation of India's first Five-Year Plan in 1951, modernization of the dairy
industry became a priority for the government. The goal was to provide hygienic milk to the
country's growing urban population. Initial government action in this regard consisted of
organizing "milk schemes" in large cities. To stimulate milk production, the government
implemented the Integrated Cattle Development Project (ICDP) and the Key Village Scheme
(KVS), among other similar programmes. In the absence of a stable and remunerative
market for milk, milk production remained more or less stagnant. During the two decades
between 1951 and 1970, the growth rate in milk production was barely one per cent per
annum, while per capita milk consumption declined by an equivalent amount.

During the 1960s, various state governments tried out different strategies to develop
dairying, including establishing dairies run by their own departments, setting up cattle
colonies in urban areas and organizing milk schemes. Almost invariably, dairy processing
plants were built in cities rather than in the milk sheds where milk was produced. This urban
orientation to milk production led to the establishment of cattle colonies in Bombay, Calcutta
and Madras. These government projects had extreme difficulties in organizing rural milk
procurement and running milk schemes economically, yet none concentrated on creating an
organized system for procurement of milk, which was left to contractors and middlemen.
Milk's perishable nature and relative scarcity gave the milk vendors leverage, which they

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used to a considerable advantage. This left the government to run dairy plants for use in
large quantities of relatively cheap and commercially imported milk powder. The daily per
capita availability of milk dropped to a meagre 107 g during this time. High fat buffalo milk
was extended with imported milk powder to bring down the milk price, which resulted in a
decline in domestic milk production. As the government dairies were meeting barely one-
third of the urban demand, the queues of consumers became longer while the rural milk
producer was left in the clutches of the trader and the moneylender. All these factors
combined left Indian dairying in a most unsatisfactory and low level of equilibrium. The
establishment and prevalence of cattle colonies emerged as a curse for dairying as it
resulted in a major genetic drain on the rural milch animal population, which would never be
replaced. City dairy colonies also contributed to environmental degradation, while the rural
producer saw little reason to increase production.

AMUL AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE ANAND MODEL

Milk procurement from the rural areas and its marketing in the urban areas was the
major problem in Indian dairying at the time when India gained independence. In one of the
earliest urban milk supply schemes, Polsons - a private dairy at Anand - procured milk from
milk producers through middlemen, processed it and then sent the milk to Bombay, some
425 km away (Korten, 1981). Bombay was a good market for milk and Polsons profited
immensely. In the mid-1940s, when the milk producers in Kaira asked for a proportionate
share of the trade margins, they were denied even a modest increase. The milk producers
went on strike, refusing to supply milk to Polsons. On the advice of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel,
a leader in India's independence movement, the milk producers registered the Kaira District
Cooperative Milk Producers' Union, now popularly known as AMUL, in 1946. The Kaira union
procured milk from affiliated village-level milk societies. This was the genesis of organized
milk marketing in India, a pioneering effort that opened a new vista for dairy development in
the country. Between 1946 and 1952, AMUL's policy was directed towards obtaining
monopoly rights for the sale of milk to the Bombay milk scheme. In 1952, it succeeded in
achieving its purpose after the Government of Bombay cancelled the contract with Polsons
and handed over the entire business of supplying milk from the Kaira district to AMUL.
However, as the Bombay milk scheme was committed to purchasing all the milk produced by
the Aarey Milk Colony in Bombay, it would not take AMUL's milk during the peak winter
months. The disposal of this surplus milk posed difficulties for AMUL, forcing it to cut down
on purchases from its member societies, which affected members' confidence. The answer
was the production of milk products. In 1955, a new dairy plant was set up at Anand to
produce butter, ghee and milk powder. A second dairy was built in 1965, and a product-
manufacturing unit was established in 1971 to cope with increasing milk procurement. In

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1993, a fully automatic modern dairy was constructed adjacent to the original AMUL dairy
plant at Anand.
AMUL formed the basis for the Anand Model of dairying. The basic unit in this model
is the milk producers' cooperative society at the village level. These cooperatives are
organizations of milk producers who wish to market their milk collectively. Membership is
open to all who need the cooperative's services and who are willing to accept the
responsibilities of being a member. Decisions are taken on the basis of one member
exercising one vote. Whether profit or loss, are divided among the members in proportion to
patronage. Each cooperative is expected to carry out the continuing education of its
members, elected leaders and employees. All the milk cooperatives in a district form a union
that, ideally, has its own processing facilities. All the unions in a state are normally members
of a federation whose prime responsibility is the marketing of milk and milk products outside
the state.
There is also a fourth tier, the National Cooperative Dairy Federation of India
(NCDFI), which is a national-level body that formulates policies and programmes designed
to safeguard the interests of all milk producers. Each tier of the Anand organizational
structure performs a unique function: procurement and services by the cooperative;
processing by the union; marketing by the state federation; and advancing the interests of
the cooperative dairy industry by the national federation. Thus, the Anand Model has evolved
into an integrated approach to systematic dairy development.
The three tier system in Anand pattern of dairy cooperatives are:
1. Primary milk producers cooperative society
The first and basic unit is the village primary milk producers’ cooperative society. The
functions of the society can be broadly classified into managerial, operation and input
services.
i. Managerial: all the members form the general body, which has supreme powers.
The society has a managing committee of 11 members elected among them. The
managing committee in turn elects the president. The committee decides the policy,
forms the guidelines and employs paid staff such as secretary and assistants for the
efficient running of the society. The committee holds the meeting every month.
ii. Operational:
a. Every society has a milk collection center and the producers bring the milk every
morning and evening. The quantity of the milk supplied is measured properly.
b. A sample is taken for testing the milk for fat percent. The entire milk is pooled and
a sample is drawn for testing solids non-fat.

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 c. Every morning, a truck from the Union comes to the society for milk collection.
Necessary entries are made in the truck sheet. The empty cans are unloaded for
the next collection.
d. The payment is done on the basis of both quantity and quality. The producers are
paid in cash on a weekly basis. The entries of payment are made both in
producer’s passbook and society records.
e. The job of accounting starts right from the time the producer supplies the milk to
the society. Most of the registers are posted twice a day. The accounts reflect the
financial standing of the society at any time. A society prepares its balance sheet
on a yearly basis.
f. Daily cleaning of all equipments in the society is done to avoid contamination and
spoilage of milk.
g. Apart from the regular payment for the milk, the society at the end of each year
pays bonus to the members based on the profits and dividends to shares.
h. The society also performs activities such as disposal of sample milk, local sale of
milk, standardization of equipments and chemicals, etc.
iii. Input services: the services include artificial insemination, veterinary first aid, selling
cattle feed, providing quality fodder seeds, organizing meetings, arranging
educational tours, cattle insurance, etc.
Organisation and registration of milk producers cooperative society
The first and foremost step is the survey of the village is data analysis. The villages
are graded based on the milk potential. A milk procurement officer/supervisor from the visit
the selected village and arranges a meeting presided by a socially respected person. The
officer/supervisor explains the advantages of organizing a milk society. Once the decision is
taken to start a society, a chief promoter is selected from amongst them. Then the Gram
Sabha is organized. A general body meeting of the members is called to elect the president
of the society and to pass resolution regarding the area of operation, constitute an adhoc
managing committee comprising 11 directors for a proposal.
Procedure for registration
The proposed milk cooperative society is allowed to function as such for three
months. Then the union supervisor puts forth the proposal for registration. The proposal is
recommended by the milk procurement section’s head and forwarded to the competent
authority in the Dairy Development department. Before registering the society
1. The application form should be filled as per the acts and rules. Specimen of the form is
available in the Act book.
2. All the members of the society should sign the application as promoters.

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3. The application should be submitted along with seven copies of bylaws signed by the
chief promoters, a list of members with number of shares held by each of them, one copy
of all the resolutions passed at the society’s organization meeting, a copy of accounts for
the period it has worked as a proposed society and a certificate regarding jurisdiction of
the respective village panchayat.
The registrar after satisfying that the proposed society is in conformity with the rules
and regulation in force and the principles and philosophy of cooperation and the proposed
society has a reasonable chance to succeed, appoints a chief promoter who is authorized to
collect the share money of Rs.10/- along with Re.1/- as entrance fee for all the members.
The amount is then deposited in the bank. The society is considered to be registered only
when a registration certificate with a registration number is issued by the registering
authority. After registration, the secretary in consultation with the president of the society
calls for a general body meeting to consider certain agendas such as accepting the
registered bye-laws, election for a managing committee, regularization of membership,
affiliation of the society with the milk producers union and the district cooperative banks and
appointment of local auditors for processing of the accounts.
2. District dairy cooperative union
The second tier is the District Dairy Cooperative Union. Each and every village milk
cooperative society becomes a member of district dairy cooperative union with a share
capital and an entrance fee.
Organisation and registration of milk union
The district level milk producers union comprises of minimum 25 organised and
registered village societies, which form the basic unit of the union. The organizational
function is regulated by the approved byelaws of the District Registrar of the cooperative
societies at district level. In some cases the implementing agency (Government /
Corporation / Federation) may nominate the union directors to organize the societies. The
application for registration is made on the prescribed form available with the District
Registrar along with 7 copies of bye-laws duly signed by promoter and members along with
a copy of the minutes of the organization meeting, bank balance certificate, etc.
After the registration, the chief promoter must issue an agenda indicating the date,
time, purpose and place of the meeting to all the eligible member societies for holding the
first general body meeting of the union. The meeting’s agenda should be the selection of
president, acceptance of registered byelaws, election of regular board, approval of accounts,
fixing the borrowing limits of the union and other works. The office bearers are elected
according to the norms prescribed in the bye-laws/ Rules and Acts of the state.
The dairy cooperative union is controlled by a board of directors of 17 members of
which 12 are elected representatives of the village societies. The remaining 5 members

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comprise the managing director, an official of the union as a member secretary, a
representative of the registrar of cooperative societies, a representative of the state
federation and one or two representatives of financial institutions. These 5 members are not
eligible in contesting for the post of the chairman. The general policy of the union is framed
by the board. The board employs the managing director. While the board determines the
number, type and scale of the post, it is the managing director who appoints the staff.
The union carries out 5 important functions:
1. Procurement of milk
2. Processing and marketing of milk
3. Providing technical inputs such as animal health, artificial insemination, feeds and
fodder development
4. Strengthening of milk cooperative movement
5. Organization of extension activities and rural development.
The district dairy cooperative union owns and operates a dairy plant for processing of
milk and other byproducts, a cattle feed plant for mixing feed and selling to the farmers at
cost price, operation of bull mother farms, semen collection banks and a headquarter center
for animal husbandry activities.
3. Milk producers cooperative federation
The third tier is the Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation operating at state level.
The district dairy unions become members of the federation by subscribing at least the
minimum prescribed share capital. The federation is responsible for the implementation of
the policies of cooperative marketing, product price, provision of services (AI, health cover,
etc.) and cooperative marketing of technical inputs to the members.
The board of the federation consists of the elected chairmen of all the cooperative
unions and managing director. Other members are the representatives of the registrar of
cooperative societies, a representative of financing agency, nominee of NDDB and one
nominee of the state government. These members elect a chairman of the board and the
board evolves the federation’s policies on all its functions. The federation’s managing
director is the committee’s chairman and the general manager its secretary. The committee
meets once in a month and implements policies and plans.
The federation controls the centralized technical input programme (Milk production
enhancement programme), which covers the essential activities such as animal health,
artificial insemination, feed and fodder development and extension activities. The facilities
available with the federation for performing these activities are a central diagnostic
laboratory, frozen semen banks (production and supply), liquid nitrogen production and
delivery system and a centralized publication unit for publishing news on various dairy
activities.

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Extension programmes of dairy cooperatives
Technical knowledge and skill are the most essential inputs, which the dairy
cooperatives provide through their extension programmes to the producers. The dairy
extension programmes aim at inducting and orienting the milk producers towards dairy
development on cooperative lines and seeking their participation in building up a strong
cooperative base.
The cooperative dairy federation is actively involved in the centralized publication of
news bulletins, posters, leaflets, folders, handbills, etc. in local language on farmers’
problems, reaction of farmers on various issues, latest information on scientific development,
adoption of various methods, package of practices in various animal husbandry activities,
etc.
The district union engages a wide range of extension activities such as arranging of
field tours, farmers visit to the unions infrastructure, successful societies, etc. The union also
undertakes screening of motion pictures with projectors in villages, organizes calf rallies and
cattle shows. It also helps the farmers in establishing demonstration units such as dairy
farms, fodder farms, etc. which serves as a model farm for a number of farmers. By visiting
these places the farmers interest is stimulated, leading to the adoption of newer technologies
at a faster rate. The staff employed in the union popularizes new technologies through
campaigns such as infertility camps, vaccination camps, rallies, etc. the other ways of
extension service are provided in the form of incentives for AI in cattle and sale of cattle feed
at cost price.
The most pivotal role in the area of extension service is played by the village milk
cooperative societies. They act as a vital link through which the union communicates its
programme to the milk producers. Societies play a greater role in creating a better impact on
farmers and help their active participation in societies. They are also engaged in induction of
local farmers, animal health camps, livestock shows, competitions, etc.

Problems in dairy cooperatives:

The dairy cooperatives are confronted with numerous difficulties in the day-to-day affairs
of milk production and distribution. They are as follows:
1. The societies are not absolutely loyal to the unions in the supply of milk and in the
absence of binding contract to deliver a specified supply, the unions are faced with an
acute shortage during the lean season and surplus during the flush season.
2. Shortage of supply of milk to the plants lead to the under utilization of these plants.
3. Malpractices such as adulteration of the milk by the milk producers
4. Delay in the payment to the societies by the dairy plant leading to dissatisfaction among
the producers.

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5. Inappropriate testing of fat by the fat testers / secretary.
6. Intervention by middlemen / milk vendors.
7. Curdling of milk due to delay in transportation
8. Failure to increase the milk production by the cooperatives.
9. The demand in milk is steady and continuous, but the supply is often subjected to
fluctuation
10. The cooperatives are at disadvantaged state when compared to private vendors in the
qualitative aspect of collection, testing, transport and storage.

The foundation for a viable modern and self- sustaining dairy industry based on cooperative
concepts was laid in 1970 in the form of Operation Flood.The Government of India set up the
Indian Dairy Corporation to handle the commercial transactions under the title “INDIAN WFP
PROJECTS 618”.The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) implemented this biggest
dairy development project in the world in three Phases, and in fact it has made a
tremendous impact on the dairy development scenario in the country. Dr.Verghese Kurien,
the then Chairman of NDDB is rightly considered as the “Father of White Revolution “ in
India. Operation Flood is a unique approach to dairy development. During the 1970s, dairy
commodity surpluses were building up in Europe, and Dr. Verghese Kurien, the founding
chairman of NDDB, saw in those surpluses both a threat and an opportunity. The threat was
massive exports of low-cost dairy products to India, which would have tolled the death-knell
for India's staggering dairy industry.The large quantities that India was already importing had
eroded domestic markets to the point where dairying was not viable. The opportunity, on the
other hand, was built into the Operation Flood strategy. Designed basically as a marketing
project, Operation Flood recognized the potential of the European surplus as an investment
in the modernization of India's dairy industry. With the assistance of the World Food
Programme, food aid - in the form of milk powder and butter oil - was obtained from the
countries of the European Economic Community (EEC) to finance the programme. It was the
first time in the history of economic development that food aid was seen as an important
investment resource. Use of food aid in this way is anti-inflationary, it provides a buffer stock
to stabilize market fluctuations and it can be used to prime the pump of markets that will later
be supplied by domestic production. The overriding objective of all aid is or rather should be
the elimination of the need for aid. The use of food aid as an investment is the most effective
way of achieving this objective. Operation Flood is a programme designed to develop
dairying by replicating the Anand Model for dairy development, which has stood the test of
time for almost half a century.

OPERATION FLOOD I (1970-81)

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The basic objectives under this phase were to

 increase the capacity and throughput of dairy processing facilities

 resettlement of city cattle in rural areas

 development of basic transportation and storage net work to facilitate regional and
seasonal balancing of milk supply and demand

 development of milk procurement systems in rural areas

 to improve the productivity of animals

 to assure the rural milk producers of a year round stable milk market and

 to establish 14 milch animal centres

Under this project, WFP donated 1, 26,000 MT of Skim Milk Powder and 42,000 MT of Butter
oil. Through sale of these commodities, funds to the tune of Rs.1164 millions were generated
and were utilized for creating infrastructure facilities necessary for dairy development.

The major achievements in the first phase were

 increase in milk production from 21 m. tons in 1970 to 30 m. tons in 1979-80,

 reaching the target of 29 lakh litres per day in processing of milk for supply to the four
metropolis,

 establishment of dairy cooperatives in 18 major milk shed areas and

 establishment of 14 milch animal centres and the Institute of Rural Management at

Anand (IRMA).
OPERATION FLOOD II (1981-85)

 The objectives were

 to enable 10 million rural milk producer families to build a viable self sustaining dairy
industry by mid 1985,

 to enable the milk producers to rear a National Milch Herd of 14 million crossbred
cows and upgraded buffaloes during 1980s and

 to establish a National Milk Grid which will link the rural milk sheds to the major
demand centres with urban population of about 150 million.

Some of the notable achievements were

 generation of funds amounting to Rs. 2323 millions through sale of gift commodities
up to November, 1984,

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  expansion of handling capacities of four metro dairies from 31 lakh litres per day to
35 lakh litres per day by the end of October, 1984,

 increase in the number of village cooperatives to 43,000 covering 4.25 million milk
producers,

 substantial increase in the production of milk powder,

 putting 622 road and 87 rail milk tankers into service under National Milk Grid and
establishment of godowns with a capacity of 3000 tons to store dairy commodities.

OPERATION FLOOD III (1985-96)

The gains obtained in the earlier phases were further consolidated in Phase III. Some of the
significant achievements of OF were

 Increase in the production of milk leading to a raise in the per capita availability of
milk to 193 grams per day in 1994 from 107 grams in 1975.

 Supply of milk to about 300 million consumers spread in 550 cities and towns at a
reasonable price.

 Procuring milk daily from 10 million producers spread in 74,000 villages and earning
an incremental income of about Rs.2500 crores from sale of milk.

 Establishment of a nation wide network of multi - tier milk producers co-operative

societies.

 Modernization and expansion of dairy industry.

 Self-sufficiency in milk and milk products thus putting an end to commercial imports
of milk solids.

 Indigenous production of dairy equipments.

STRATEGY ADOPTED AND INTERVENTIONS IN OFP

Strategies adopted

Operation flood was designed on some simple assumptions viz.

Dairying is complementary to agriculture and provides supplementary income.

Production by million of farmers who are living far-off from the market.

Market and price incentives are essential to increase production.

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Interventions based on assumptions

Strategic intervention

Traditionally development activities in the developing countries are supported by assistance

from the developed countries in the form of capital, technology and food.

We received food aid from the UN and European Economic Community (EEC). Food
assistance may be used to meet short-term food shortages that occur due to natural
calamities or it may be used to generate employment under the food for work programme or
for generating resources.

Had the assistance been used just for meeting the food shortage alone it would have
damaged the dairy industry in the country.

Institutional intervention

In replicating the Anand pattern, Operation flood attempted to promote a grassroot level
democracy with the participation of producer members irrespective of the size of landholding
or social stratification.

These co-operatives must operate viably to ensure payment of remunerative prices to the
members.

Another important element in the strategy is its special focus on professional management.

Technological intervention

Operation Flood provided adequate price incentives to encourage farmers to make major
input purchase decisions.

Technology is also made use of in testing the milk, transporting and its processing.

It is proved that once the farmer is convinced of an assured price and regular payment linked
with a guaranteed marketing channel they are more responsive for better technology.

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Operation Flood may be considered the central event of twentieth-century dairying in India.
An analysis of the lessons learnt through the implementation of the programme should be
useful for those involved in formulating dairy development policies and programmes for the
developing nations of Asia and Africa. The network of cooperative institutions created
through the Operation Flood programme comprises 70000 dairy cooperative societies in 170
milksheds, encompassing 8.4 million milk-producer families. Average milk procurement by
these cooperatives has reached some 12.3 million kg per day, of which 8.2 million litres are
marketed as liquid milk, while the remaining is converted into products such as milk powder,
butter, cheese, ghee and a wide range of traditional milk products. Milk-processing capacity
of approximately 15.6 million litres per day, chilling capacity of 6.5 million litres per day and
milk powder production capacity of 726 tonnes per day have been established through the
programme. One of the challenging aspects of dairy development in a tropical or subtropical
country is the movement of milk over long distances. In Operation Flood, this has been
made possible through the operation of about 140 insulated rail milk tankers, each with a
capacity of 40000 litres, supplemented by another 25 rail tankers of 21000-litre capacity.
Approximately 1000 other insulated road milk tankers operate throughout the country as
well. This has enabled the operation of a national milk grid, balancing regional fluctuations in
milk procurement and demand-and-supply gaps resulting from concentrated production of
liquid milk in selected milk sheds. To balance seasonal variations in milk supply and demand
caused by low milk production during the summer months, a large milk powder storage
capacity has been created for buffer stocking. The investment and achievements in
modernizing the Indian dairy industry have had a major impact on milk production. Annual
production, which had stagnated between 20 million and 22 million tonnes during the 1960s,
has steadily increased to around 59 million tonnes, an annual growth rate of about 7.8
percent. Per capita availability of milk, which had declined consistently during the two
decades between 1951 and 1970, dropping to 107 g at the start of Operation Flood, is now
187 g per day, despite a substantial increase in population.

Commercial imports of dairy commodities were a regular feature in the 1950s and 1960s,
comprising 50 to 60 percent of the dairy industry's total throughput. Today, imports of dairy
commodities are restricted to those donated by the EEC for implementing Operation Flood
(Mielke, 1993) and their percentage of the total dairy throughput is negligible. All these
developments have helped raise India to the top ranking in milk production in the world. A
number of programmers and policies have played a role in this success. Certainly, the
introduction of modern technology, both at the farmer level and in the processing of milk and
products, has been important. Similarly, establishing an urban market has provided the
stability necessary to encourage farmers to invest in increased milk production. The

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induction of professional managers to serve farmers has reversed the usual pattern of
farmers as supplicants and officials as "benefactors". Perhaps most important, however, is
the cooperative structure itself. By giving farmers command over the resources they create,
Operation Flood has ensured that they receive the maximum return from each rupee spent
by consumers on milk and milk products, and it is this that has provided the incentive on
which the growth of the dairy industry has been based.

The success of Operation Flood has resolved many difficult issues relating to development.
It has demonstrated how food aid can be used to enhance domestic production if
administered with care. It has also shown how technology can be harnessed so that neither
the dependence on imported technology nor its capital intensity becomes counterproductive.
Some of the dairy plants set up by NDDB during the implementation of Operation Flood are
based on the latest technology and are comparable to those in advanced countries. The
unique cooperative infrastructure with which NDDB works make the adoption of technologies
and the dissemination of knowledge relatively easy, and this has enabled Operation Flood to
facilitate the application of modern technologies to enhance milk production.

Central Mini kit Testing Programme on Fodder Crops

Objectives
 Fodder seed Minikits (1-5 kg. of fodder seed along with pamphlet) of different fodder
varieties
 Supplied to the State AH Depts
 onward distribution to farmers free of cost
 Popularize latest improved fodder varieties
 fodder/fodder seed production
 Bridge gap between demand and supply
Implementing Agency
 Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India
Milk and Milk Product Order 1992
 1992 after de-licensing of Dairy Sector in 1991
 any person/dairy plant handling more than 10,000 l/day of milk or 500 MT milk
solids/annum has to register
 to maintain and increase the supply of liquid milk of desired quality
 regulating the production, processing and distribution of milk and milk products
 Amended from time to time in order to make it more liberal and oriented to facilitate
the dairy entrepreneurs
Features of the new amendments

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  The provision of assigning milkshed has been done away with.
 The registrations will cover sanitary, hygienic condition, quality and food safety
measures
 inspection of dairy plant made flexible.
 registration in 45 days
 State Registering Authority to 2.00 lakh litre/ day
 Achievement: 818 units milk processing capacity 952.93 lakh litre per day in Co-
operative, Private and Government Sector
National Programme for Prevention of Animal Diseases
Objectives of the Scheme
 To prevent ingress of livestock diseases, to provide export certificate for livestock and
livestock products
 Monitoring the quality of vaccines and biological
 Strengthening Central/ Regional Disease Diagnostic Laboratories
Implementing Agencies is Government of India. The entire nation is the target
group/beneficiaries. It is 100% Centrally assisted. The scheme was started in 8th Plan
period.
National Programme for Prevention of Animal Diseases
Objectives of the Scheme
 To prevent ingress of livestock diseases, to provide export certificate for livestock and
livestock products
 Monitoring the quality of vaccines and biological
 Strengthening Central/ Regional Disease Diagnostic Laboratories
Implementing Agencies is Government of India. The entire nation is the target
group/beneficiaries. It is 100% Centrally assisted. The scheme was started in 8th Plan
period.

Livestock Health
 crossbreeding and upgradation of indigenous breeds, ingress of exotic diseases
 animal health programmes in the states.
 control the economically important livestock diseases
 scheme has the following components.
Assistance to States for Control of Animal Diseases (ASCAD)
 immunization, strengthening of existing State Veterinary Biological Production Units,
strengthening of existing State Disease Diagnostic Laboratories

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  workshops/seminars and in-service training to Vets and ParaVets
 collection of information on the incidence of various livestock and poultry diseases
75:25 sharing – centre:state
100 % assistance for training and seminar/workshops
National Project on Rinderpest Eradication (NPRE):
 strengthen the veterinary services to eradicate Rinderpest and Contagious Bovine
Pleuro-Pneumonia (CBPP)
 Provisional freedom from Rinderpest disease for the whole country was achieved
with effect from 1st March 1998
 Second stage of “Freedom from Rinderpest disease” approved by OIE on 27-05-
2004.
 third and final stage - submitted to OIE
 provisionally free from CBPP from October 2003
Foot & Mouth Disease Control Programme
 implemented in 54 specified districts
 100% central funding cost of vaccine, cold chain
 State Govt - other infrastructure, manpower
 Five rounds of vaccinations
Professional Efficiency Development
 regulate veterinary practice
 establishing Veterinary Council of India at the Centre and the State Veterinary
Councils
 implemented in all States and Uts
 100 % Central Assistance is provide to the VCI and the Union Territories
 50 % to the states
Intensive Dairy Development Programme
 A Centrally Sponsored Plan Scheme.
 Started in 1993-94.
 Implementing Agency: State Dairy Federations / District Milk Union.
 Target/Beneficiaries: Rural milk producers irrespective of caste, class and gender.
Cattle induction only for SC, ST and BPL families.
Objectives/Aims
 Development of milch cattle.
 Increase production by giving Technical Inputs services
 Procurement, Processing and Marketing of milk in a cost effective manner.

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  Ensure remunerative prices to milk producers.
 Generate additional employment opportunities.
 Improve social, nutritional and economic status of residents
Pattern of Assistance & Eligibility Criteria
 100% aid from Central Government grant in OF was less than Rs 50.00 lakh.
 Maximum Rs 3 crore / district
 Establishment of dairy processing capacity up to 20,000 litres/day will be 100% aid
basis
 For others, OF pattern will be followed, namely, 70% loan and 30% grant.
Strengthening Infrastructure for Quality & Clean Milk Production
Objectives:
 Creation of necessary infrastructure for production of quality milk from producer to
consumer
 Improvement of milking procedure at the farmers level.
 Training and Strengthening of infrastructure to create mass awareness about
importance of clean milk production.
 Implementing Agencies: District Cooperative Milk Union/State Level Milk Federation.
 Target group/beneficiaries: members of Primary Dairy Co-operative Societies
 Year of start: Oct 2003
Pattern of Assistance:
 100% grants-in-aid for training of farmer members, supply of detergents and
antiseptic solutions, stainless steel utensils, strengthening of existing laboratory
facilities
 75% financial assistance to set up milk chilling facilities at village level (bulk milk
coolers)
Achievement:
 144 projects for 21 states and 01 UT
 5.43 farmers were trained
 1716 Bulk milk coolers (capacity - 31,27,300 L/day
 1157 existing laboratories strengthened.
Assistance to Co-operatives
 Objectives: To revitalize the sick dairy co-operative unions / federations within seven
years
 Implementing Agency:: Co-operative Milk Unions/State Dairy Federation through
NDDB.

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  Pattern of Assistance/Funding Pattern: state: Centre = 50:50 sharing
 Year when the Scheme Started: 1999-2000 (January, 2000)
 rehabilitation proposals were sent for milk unions in 12 states
Dairy Venture Capital Fund
 Objectives of the scheme:
 To promote setting up of small dairy farms for milk production.
 To bring structural changes in the unorganized sector: processing and marketing of
pasteurized milk at village level.
 To bring about upgradation of quality and traditional technology to handle milk on a
commercial scale.
 Implementing Agencies: NABARD - Nodal Agency, commercial Banks, Co-operative
Banks and Regional Rural Banks implement scheme
 Target group/beneficiaries: Dairy Co-operative Society level.
 Pattern of Assistance: Entrepreneur’s contribution - 10%, Interest free Loan by GOI -
50%, Bank loan with interest - 40% with 50% interest subsidy in regular/timely
repayment
 Year when the scheme started: Dairy/Poultry Venture Capital Fund scheme started in
Dec 2004, dairy and poultry components have been separated into two new schemes
during 11th Plan renamed as Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme
 Physical Targets and achievements: Progress as on 31.03.2010 sanctioning of 15368
Dairy Units
Central Herd Registration Scheme
Objectives
 Identification and location of superior germ plasm.
 Using this data for producing superior germ plasm.
 Preservation of indigenous germ plasm.
 Milk recording of cattle and buffaloes as the first step for improving dairy cattle milk
production.
Implementing Agencies
 CHRS Unit Rohtak (Haryana), Ahmedabad (Gujarat), Ajmer (Rajasthan) and Ongole
(Andhra Pradesh )
Target Group/Beneficiaries:
 Indigenous breeds covered are Gir, Kankrej, Hariana, Ongole of cattle and Murrah,
Jaffrabadi, Surti and Mehsani of buffaloes

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  Incentives for rearing of elite cows, buffaloes and their male calves is given to the
owners of the elite animals.

SHEEP DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

Sheep rearing plays a major role in the rural economy and to uplift the people below
poverty line.
Objectives of sheep development programmes
1. To improve the socio-economic condition of the rural population in the area of
operation through sheep husbandry practices.
2. To provide adequate employment for under-employed people in villages through
development of small scale cottage industries based on sheep production.
3. Provision of adequate infrastructure support including pasture / fodder development
for the improvement of sheep, import of exotic breeds of sheep and establishment of
exotic breeding farm and ram multiplication farms.
4. To bring about improvement in the economic traits of sheep by effective genetic
improvement through scientific breeding for more mutton and carpet wool production.
5. Distribution of improved rams to selected breeders for breed improvement.
6. Provision of in-service training to farmers and project staff, to improve the scientific
methods of sheep management practices.
7. To augment quality mutton production through improvement in the sheep population.
8. Improvement of facilities in respect of health cover, field veterinary extension services
and research.
9. Improvement of marketing system of sheep
10. Improvement of selected slaughter houses for hygienic mutton production.
11. Ensuring an effective supervised credit programme for small holders to promote
breed improvement, sheep production and marketing through viable farmers,
cooperative societies and their federation.

Five Year Plans and sheep development

During the second five-year plan period breeding policy for sheep was evolved which
included.
1. Selective breeding.
2. Upgrading of non-descriptive breeds with superior breeds.
3. Cross breeding with foreign breeds in selected hilly areas.
In the third plan period, new sheep breeding farms were established. Old farms
expanded and quality rams were supplied to the farmers. Further during the fourth plan
period, sheep and woolly Extension centres and wool grading-cum marketing centres were
established. In the Fifth plan period, cross breeding with wooly type sheep was encouraged.

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Various programmes were launched during the other plan period also. During the ninth plan
period, the production of wool was increased from 43.3 million kg in 1996-97 to 49 million kg
in 2001-02. The fine wool production in the country is around 4 million kg.
The programme of providing exotic males for improvement of sheep in the northern
temperate region will continue in the Tenth Plan. A new Centrally Sponsored Scheme
"Conservation of threatened livestock breeds of small ruminants, pack animals and equine"
to conserve and protect threatened breeds of livestock, has been initiated during 10th Plan.
Under the scheme, assistance is provided to the States for the conservation of sheep, goat,
pigs, camels, yak, horse, donkey and ponies. The grant is given through the State
Governments to the State Government farms / State Government Undertakings / Boards /
Federations / Government Institutes like ICAR, etc. / NGOs / Self-help Groups / farmers /
breeders / professional scientists of repute involved in conservation work.
Other programmes
The government is implementing sheep development programmes through
state Animal Husbandry Departments, Rural Development Departments and other Social
Welfare Departments. The sheep development programmes like,

1. Special Animal Husbandry Programme

2. Special Assistance Programme
3. Special Central Livestock Breeding Programme
4. Intensive Health Cover for Sheep and
5. EEC assisted sheep development projects were financed by Central and State
governments.
Apart from this assistance was given through other programmes like SFDA, DPAP,
HADP, ITDP, IRDP, etc.
Constraints
1. Most of the beneficiaries are selected wrongly and the unit cost was found to be
inadequate.
2. Exploitation by middlemen in the purchase of sheep.
3. Untimely assistance and diversion of the loan amount.
4. Absence of sufficient fodder banks to meet the demand during drought and also
reduction in grazing lands.
5. Inadequate infrastructure in production and marketing of sheep and their byproducts,
lack of modernization of abattoirs or slaughterhouses and carcass utilization plants.

GOAT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

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 Despite various adverse comments about the impact of goat rearing on the flora, the
number of goats in fact has gone up in recent years. Considerable size of rural community,
especially women farmers and landless labourers are rearing one or two goats. This
traditional mini husbandry practices still has its roots throughout rural India because the
goats are the poor man’s cows. They give milk and also meet the farmer’s timely needs
through selling of kids. They are a sort of money-spinners to the poor people. Rural poor
below the poverty line are given assistance for purchase of goats. Insurance cover and
fodder development are provided to promote goat rearing under various rural development
programmes like IRDP, SGSY, NWDPRA, Ambedkar Videsh Rojgar Yojna and DANIDA
project. During the ninth plan period, instead of increasing the goat population, emphasis
was made on productivity per animal, organized marketing and prevention of emerging new
diseases.

POULTRY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

Poultry keeping is one of the best tools available for integrated rural development
and to bring about socio economic transformation of small entrepreneurs. No other branch of
agriculture / animal husbandry has made such rapid strides in their development as poultry
husbandry.

Past efforts: Poultry raising in India dates to prehistoric times. The first major step towards
poultry development in India was taken during 1939 with the establishment of poultry
research division at IVRI, Izatnagar in UttarPradesh, which developed an effective vaccine
against Ranikhet disease. Intensive poultry development made its beginning in the early
sixties after the government poultry farms, particularly in Orissa, demonstrated the efficacy
of modern poultry rearing. It gained wide popularity with extension activities of the then
newly set up veterinary colleges under agricultural universities. State Animal Husbandry
departments and the American Peace Corps volunteers also helped to popularize modern
poultry production in Indian villages.

Five Year Plans and poultry development:

Even in the First Five Year Plan recognition was given to poultry as a vital tool for the
socioeconomic upliftment of a large majority in rural areas. A pilot project approved in 1956
had the provision to establish 56 extension centres. The scheme was assisted under the
Indo-US Technical Cooperation programme.
In the Second Plan, 5 regional farms equipped with superior stock were started along
with 269 poultry extension centres. Training programmes were conducted for private poultry
breeders in modern methods of poultry rearing.
During the Third Plan, poultry farms emerged as vital commercial enterprise.
Development of deep litter system, multiplication of exotic breeds and organisation of inter-

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state poultry development projects occurred during this period. Extension cum development
centres and commercial hatcheries were set up in different states.
The fourth Five Year Plan placed much emphasis on breeding better stock and
popularizing the latest scientific practices in new area. Central Government implemented a
support programme with tax reduction for income from poultry industry, special credit lines
and insurance for poultry against loss through epidemic diseases. Egg and poultry
production cum marketing centres were established. Old farms were expanded and new
farms were started.
During the Fifth Plan attempts were made to improve the quality of inputs needed for
poultry farming and to establish proper marketing facilities.
In the Sixth and Seventh Plan periods, all aspects of poultry industry had
developed. It was aptly called the ‘Decade of Poultry’. Broiler farming emerged as a new
wing. The Seventh Plan envisaged improvement in infrastructure for taking up scientific
breeding in egg and broiler strains and the proposed development of new lines of broilers.
NAFED assisted in the marketing of poultry products.
In the eighth plan, attempts were made to establish poultry cooperatives on the
pattern of Anand in the processing, storage and marketing facilities. State level poultry
training centres were started. A task force was set up to work out details of establishment
and operation of National Poultry Development Board.
In the Ninth Plan it was estimated that the egg production in the country is about 33.6
billion numbers (2001-02) against the Ninth Plan target of 35 billion numbers. The significant
achievement in poultry development has come from the initiatives taken up by the private
sector for commercial pure-line breeding.
For the Tenth Plan, The present system of production of commercial hybrid broilers
and layers has become highly successful. To give a boost to export of poultry products,
measures will be undertaken for the development of infrastructure like cold storage,
pressured air cargo capacity and reference laboratory for certification of health and products.
Programmes will be formulated to improve indigenous birds and promotion of backyard
poultry farming which could help employment generation as well as economic empowerment
of poor women in rural areas. There is tremendous scope for exporting poultry products
produced from birds fed on organically produced feed.
Other efforts
Some efforts were made to make more attractive the unorganized sector through a
number of central and state sector schemes, notable among them being Intensive Poultry
Development Project, Mass Poultry Production Programme involving small/marginal farmers
and agricultural labourers emanated from the recommendation of National Commission of
Agriculture as a result of which 60 districts were identified in 1975 for introducing poultry

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production as a component of special scheme called SLBP. The poultry development was
also given due consideration under the area development programmes like DPAP, DDP,
IRDP, ITDP, etc.

Various poultry development institutions like Central Poultry Training Institute, Central
Duck Breeding Farm, Random Sample Poultry Performance Testing Centres, Regional Feed
Analytical Laboratories, etc., were established in various parts of India. The Government of
India had increased the total outlay from Rs.28 million during the Second Plan to Rs.602
million during the Seventh Plan for the development of poultry. The Eighth Plan poultry
development strategy includes availability of quality chicks, establishment of poultry
cooperatives, processing marketing, storage infrastructure facilities, state level poultry
training centres and National Poultry Development Board.
In general, poultry industry in India is proved to be sustainable during the last three to
four decades. This was mainly due to the long term strategy with clear objectives by the
Government and the private sector, governmental support through incentives, adequate
institutional framework and finally flexible regulations for the import of essential inputs. All the
inputs like chicks, feed, vaccines, etc., were produced and supplied by private
entrepreneurs.
Poultry venture capital funds
Objectives:
 To encourage farming activity in non traditional states and provide employment
opportunities for backward people
 Improve production of poultry products
 Provide quality meat to consumers
 Improve productivity of ducks, quails, turkey, etc
Year when the Scheme Started: 01.04.2011, sanction by NABARD
Eligibility
 Farmers, entrepreneurs, NGOs, companies, cooperatives, SHGs
 Biosecurity norms maintained
 Subsidy: 25% for other poultry farms, central grower units, hybrid layer and broiler
units, feed mixing unit, transport vehicle, retail outlets, processing units, cold storage,
mobile marketing units,

RABBIT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

In India, rabbit farming is at the infant stage, in a few states, emerging with
government assistance through rural development programmes. It is estimated that the
rabbit skin constitutes more than 50 per cent of fur trade in international market. India

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imports about half a million rabbit fur skin annually to meet the demand of fur industry in
Jammu and Kashmir state. The rabbit fur skin obtained as by-product from the rabbit meat
production enterprise can serve as an import substitute. This can also be adopted as a
cottage industry to generate employment and income to the rural masses.

Rabbit production is a boon for the hilly regions of our country. The task force on
sheep, goats and rabbit production has recommended that Angora rabbit rearing in
temperate regions should be encouraged all over the country. Maintenance of breeding lines
on scientific grounds for generating highly adaptable and high wool producing breeding stock
at a central location, strengthening of extension programme to demonstrate and work hand
in hand with the private breeders in implementing the managemental norms for improvement
in rabbit production are to be initiated.

PIGGERY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

Piggery development programmes helped the weaker sections of the rural
communities. Before the introduction of the five-year plans except for some sporadic import
of a few superior quality pigs of exotic breeds by a few missionary organizations, no
organized measures were taken to improve pig production in the country. But it is an
important activity among the tribal people of northeastern region of the country. This region
has about 25 per cent of the pig population of the country. The major difficulty in pig rearing
is the shortage of breeding males.

During the second Five-Year plan, a coordinated pig development programme was
launched. Under this programme, schemes were drawn up for establishment of bacon
factories, regional pig breeding stations, pig breeding farms / units and piggery development
blocks. The selected blocks for implementation of piggery development are called the
piggery block. Each piggery block is linked to a district livestock farm for supplying the
foundation stock to the pig growers. The beneficiaries were selected from below poverty line
groups of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. They were given 50 per cent subsidy,
free health coverage and 3 to 4 days off campus training.

These schemes were further extended during the subsequent plan periods. Piggery
development scheme was strengthened by a special development programme taken up at
the end of the third Five-Year plan. In preparing a model scheme for this programme, the
central Government rightly took the decision of attaching the regional pig breeding stations
to the bacon factories. Veterinary colleges and Agricultural Universities had started research
farms and they were utilized to give training to the farmers. The regional pig breeding

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stations supply pure breeding stocks of exotic pigs to the farmers for further multiplication
and surplus stock for slaughter in bacon factories and local sales.

With the fifth plan period, 23 pig breeding farms were established with the assistance
provided by the Northeastern council. A pig breeding station for maintaining a genetic pool of
high quality imported stock has also emerged. Special efforts are being made to take up
piggery programme in the Northeastern states. Financial assistance and subsidy were given
to the rural poor for establishing piggery units under several developmental programmes
such as IRDP, ITDP, HADP, SLBP and DPAP.

The programme of providing exotic males for improvement of pigs in the

Northeastern region will continue in the Tenth Plan.
Constraints:
1. Absence of animal health and scientific know how.
2. Lack of supply of balanced pig feed at economic price.
3. Wrong selection of beneficiaries and location
4. Lack of proper system of purchase of pigs.
5. Lack of credit facilities and market outlets
6. Absence of training programme
Conservation of Threatened Breeds of Small Ruminants, Rabbits, Pigs, Pack Animals
and Equines
 Objectives of the Scheme: To preserve the breeds of Small Ruminants, etc. which
are on the verge of extinction by providing proper infrastructure and germ-plasm in
association with State Governments and their undertakings NGOs, professional
bodies and Institutes, Private Limited Companies, etc.
 Implementing Agencies: States/U.Ts.
 Target Group/Beneficiaries: Entire Nation as some of the indigenous breeds are at
the verge of extinction.
 Pattern of Assistance/Funding: 100 %
 Year when the Scheme Started: 2002-2003

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 INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
The concept of Integrated Rural Development Programmes (IRDP) was first
proposed and started in 1976-77 with the intention to end the multiplicity of programmes of
development through multiple agencies. It has the unified field instead of the multipurpose
approach of the Community Development Programme. It is not a technique, but a plan of
detailed action for development of the rural areas. It was introduced in India on an expanded
scale in 1978-79 in 2300 Blocks. In 1979-80, another 300 blocks were added to the
programme. But from 2 October 1980, i.e., after the launching o
f the Sixth Five year Plan, the programme was extended to all the blocks of the
country under the revised 20 - Point Programme. In each block, 600 families were to be
covered under the programme and out of these, 400 were to be covered through agriculture
and related activities, 100 families through rural industries and thereof 100 families under
rural services, business enterprises etc. The allocation of fund per block was Rs. 35 lakhs
and this was to be equally shared between the Centre and the State Governments. In
addition to this, provision was to mobilize institutional finances for investment under the
programme. Under these schemes, both wage employment and self-employment are
provided to the people below the poverty line. This is a centrally sponsored scheme funded
on 50:50 basis by the center and the state. It is stipulated that at least 50 per cent of the
assisted families should belong to Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe Categories. It
is also required that at least 40 per cent of those assisted should be women under this
programme.
Any persons who are below poverty line can avail the subsidy under the IRDP
schemes. The target group comprises of small and marginal farmers, tenants and
sharecroppers, landless labourers and rural artisans. Members of Scheduled Caste and
tribal communities are also in the target group as they have been suffering from economic
and social handicaps. A family with an annual income of Rs 20,000/- and below per annum is
considered to be the below poverty line. . It is proposed to have only one agency – District
Rural Development Agency for formulation of projects and implement programmes of rural
development.
Objective: IRDP is to provide suitable income generating assets through a mix of subsidy
and credit to Below Poverty Line (BPL) families with a view to bring them above the poverty
line. It aims generally at the attainment of the following three objectives.
1. Economic development, which ensures overcoming the vicious circle of poverty, a major
hindrance to social security and stability. This includes raising productivity of the rural

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 people and thus increasing their income, ensuring equitable distribution of income and
participation in economic activity and productive employment by all sectors, properly
utilizing local resources including the management of land, improving basic social and
economic infrastructure and encouraging popular participation in decision making by all
the sectors of the community.
2. Social development, which aims at effecting, desired social change at a speed that
commensurate with the development of material resources.
3. Educational and cultural development, which aims at equipping the rural population with
the means to attain the goal of economic and social development.
Launch of IRDP: The implementation of the programme was on October 2nd 1980 and was
carried out by a special administrative set up in each district referred to as District Rural
Development Agencies (DRDA). It was launched in three phases
First phase in 1976 - 20 selected districts
Second phase in 1978 – 79 - 2300 blocks
nd
Third phase on 2 Oct 1980 - All over India

To achieve the objectives, draft sixth plan 1978-1983 (revised) visualized an

integrated programme of rural development, within which a specially directed programme for
the rural poor was conceived. More specifically, it involves a sharp focus on target groups
comprising small and rural artisans, and extremely location specific planning in rural areas.
As such, within the overall strategy of development, “IRDP has been conceived essentially
as an antipoverty programme”. The basic strategy was to promote self-employment of the
poor households through IRDP so that with the transfer of productive assets, they may earn
incomes that help them to cross the poverty level. The aim was to eradicate poverty with the
logo of “Gharibi Hatto”
The programme is based on a graded scheme of subsidies which amounts to 25% of
the capital cost for small farmers 33.3% for marginal farmers, agricultural labourers and rural
artisans and 50% for tribal beneficiaries. The programme is intended to reach the poorest
households first and later to reach other poor people in an ascending order. Community work
is eligible for 50% subsidy. Nearly 20% of the outlay is to be utilized for administrative and
infrastructural support and the balance 30% is meant for subsidies to beneficiaries for
acquisition of assets. In the seventh plan, instead of eradication of poverty, the thrust was on
the alleviation of poverty (20 point programme)
IRDP include
 Employment Guarantee Scheme
 Food for Work Programme (FWP)
 Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA)

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 Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers (MFAL)
 Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP)
 Desert Development Programme (DDP)
 Command Area Development Programme (CADP), etc.
Major weaknesses of the programme
 Selection of ineligible families
 In 72% cases, there was no difference in the cost as per record and value of asset in the
opinion of the beneficiary. In 18% cases, difference of more than Rs.500/- was found
which indicates malpractices and leakages.
 Training was not imparted to majority of the beneficiaries
 In about 22% cases, no incremental income was generated.
 Adequate infrastructure facilities were not available to beneficiaries. The input facility was
available to barely 40% cases, marketing in 14% cases and repair facility in 5% cases.
 These programmes were credit oriented and the flow of credit for financing these
programmes had not been adequate. Inadequate number of bank branches, insufficient
staff for processing loan applications, organisation’s problems were the major factors for
the relatively poor performance.
 Cumulative neglect of many years has rendered the block machinery somewhat
ineffective contributing to the poor performance of the programme in some states.
Remedial measures
The implementation of present rural development programme is far from satisfactory.
The following are some of the remedial measures to remove drawbacks of the strategy,
which need to be implemented in total.
1. Proper integration
2. Proper co-ordination
3. Proper supervision, inspection and guidance
4. Optimum utilization of local resources
5. Proper identification of beneficiaries
6. Adequate assistance
7. Linkage of Rural Development Programmes with Social Forestry Scheme
8. Management of wasteland
9. Rationalization of subsidy
10. Efficient system of programme implementation.
The strategy for rural development in the present time should aim at improving living
standards of low-income population through income generating opportunities and making
the process of their development self-standing. In order to enhance the economic
returns, IRDP schemes were merged with other development schemes.

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Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

On 1 April 1999, the IRDP and allied programmes, including the Million Wells
Scheme (MWS), were merged into a single programme known as Swarnajayanti Gram
Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY). The SGSY is conceived as a holistic programme of micro
enterprise development in rural areas with emphasis on organising the rural poor into self-
help groups for capacity-building, planning of activity, infrastructure support, technology,
credit and marketing linkages. It seeks to promote a network of agencies, namely, the
District Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs), line departments of state governments,
banks, NGOs and panchayati raj Institutions (PRIs) for implementation of the programme.
The SGSY recognises the need to focus on key activities and the importance of activity
clusters. The programme has in-built safeguards for the weaker sections. It insists that 50
per cent of the self-help groups must be formed exclusively by women and that 50 per cent
of the benefits should flow to SCs and STs. It is the merger of the following shemes and a
new holistic self-employment programme was formed.
IRDP – Integrated Rural Development Programme
DWACRA – Development of Women And Children in Rural Areas
TRYSEM – Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment
SITRA – Supply of Improved Technical kits to Rural Areas
GKY – Ganga Kalyan Yojana
MWS – Million Wells Scheme
Credit : 75:25 ( Centre : State )
Aim : To establish large number of micro-enterprises in rural areas.
Target group : Person assisted under this programme will be known as
swarozgaris, not beneficiaries as in IRDP. Group is Self Help Group (SHG).
Principle of SGSY: Every family assisted by the scheme will be brought above the
poverty line in three years and the programme aims at creating substantial additional
income for rural poor.
General action
 It is proposed to cover 30% of rural poor in each block in the next 5 years.
 SGSY is a holistic programme of micro enterprises covering all the aspects of self
employment, viz. organization of rural poor into SHG and their capacity building,
planning of activity clusters, infrastructure buildup, technology, credit and marketing.
 SGSY lays emphasis on activity cluster based on the resources, occupational skills of
the people and availability of markets, selection of key activities will be with the approval
of panchayat samitis at the block level and the District Rural Development Agency / Zilla
Parishad at the District level.

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Major share of SGSY assistance will be in activity clusters to enable extension of appropriate
facilities.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK)
On the recommendations of the Second Education Commission (1964-66), under the
chairmanship of Dr. D. S. Kothari, a vigorous effort to establish specialized institutions to
provide vocational education in agriculture and allied fields at the pre- and post matriculate
levels to cater the training needs of a large number of boys and girls coming from rural areas
was planned and such institutions are suggested to be named as ' Agriculture Polytechnics'.
This recommendation was thoroughly discussed during 1966-72 by the Ministry of
Education, Ministry of Agriculture, Planning Commission, ICAR and allied institutions. Finally,
the ICAR mooted the idea of establishing 'Krishi Vigyan Kendra' (Farm Science Centres) as
innovative institutions for imparting vocational training to the farmers and field level
extension functionaries to accelerate agriculture production and also to improve the socio-
economic conditions of the farming community. The first KVK was established in 1974 at
Pondicherry under the administrative control of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore (T.N.). Three fundamental principles which are the backbone of a KVK
programme are –
 Agriculture production as the prime goal.
 Work experience as the main method of imparting h·aining.
 Priority to weaker sections of the society.
Implementing Agency
Sponsoring agency is ICAR and is implemented by ICAR institutes, state agricultural
universities, state department of agriculture, etc.
From 1st April 1992 all the first line TOT projects of ICAR, viz., National Demonstrations,
Operational Research Project, Lab to Land Programme have been integrated into
KVK's. In the reorganized system the mandate of KVK is as follows -
 Farm advisory services - demonstration of larger technologies.
 Vocational training of farmers, farm women and young farmers and rural youths in
agriculture ad allied vocations.
 On farm research or operational research.

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 Organizing front line demonstrations in various crops to generate production data and
feedback information with emphasis on learning by doing for generating self
employment through institution financing and on- & off- campus training courses for the
farmers.
 Organizing training to update extension personnel.
 Collaborate with subject matter specialists of the state agricultural universities or
scientists of regional research stations (NARP).

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Operational Research Project (ORP)
For strengthening the interdisciplinary approach with proper division of labour among
scientists, ICAR introduced operational research project which aims at disseminating
the proven technology in a discipline / area among farmers on a watershed basis
(covering the whole village or a cluster of villages) and concurrently studying
constraints (technological, extension or administrative) as barriers to the rapid spread
of improved technical know-how. In order to disseminate the proven technology the
ORP was launched with the following specific objectives:
 To test, adopt and demonstrate the new agricultural technology on farmer's field in a
whole village or in a cluster of few villages / watershed areas.
 To determine the probability of the new technologies and their pace of spread among
the farmers.
 To identify the constraints both technological as well as socioeconomic about extension
and administrative barriers to rapid change.
 To demonstrate group action as a method of popularizing the modern technologies at a
faster rate.
Lab to Land Programme (LLP)
After having completed 50 years of commendable service, the IeAR celebrated its
Golden Jubilee in 1979 and lab to land programme was launched in June 1979, as a part of
this celebration. The Lab to Land programme was envisaged to select 75,000 small and
marginal farm families and landless agricultural labourers from the whole country with priority
to weaker sections of the society. The basic idea was to bring scirntists and farmers into
close contact as well as to introduce low cost relevant technologies which could help on
diversification of labour in order to create supplementary sources of income in the field of
agriculture, animal husbandry, sericulture, apiculture, fisheries, rural craft, etc.
Objectives
The lab to land programme was launched with the following objectives -
 To adopt small and marginal farmers, landless and agricultural labourers to educate
them about the latest agricultural and allied technologies and to adopt these
technologies and pave the way to improve their economic and social life.
ATMA
The National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) was launched with the
assistance of World Bank to address specific system constraints, weaknesses and gaps that
remained un-addressed by previous research and extension projects. There are many
system constraints and weaknesses in the extension system like multiplicity of technology
transfer systems, narrow focus of the agricultural systems, lack of farmer focus and

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feedback, inadequate technical capacity within the extension system, need for intensifying
farmer training, weak research and extension linkages, poor communications capacity
among the functionaries and departments, inadequate operating resources and financial
sustainability etc.
The main goal of Innovations in Technology Dissemination component of NATP was
to increase farmer input into program planning and resource allocation especially at block
level and to increase accountability of stakeholders. Further, it was also to increase the
coordination and integration so that thrust areas such as farming system innovations,
farmers’ organizations, technical gaps, natural resource management could be more
effectively and efficiently implemented. The reforms envisaged have been pilot tested in
November, 1998 in seven states. An autonomous institution — Agricultural Technology
Management Agency (ATMA) has been established in these project districts as a registered
society representing various stakeholders, including farmers, in project planning and
implementation under the guidance of the (MANAGE), Hyderabad.
The responsibility of ATMA is to bring together researchers, extensionists, farmers
and other stakeholders (including NGOs, corporate and private sectors), on the basis of joint
diagnostic studies, district extension plan and recommendations for expanded adaptive
research to introduce innovations in technology dissemination matching to local needs and
situations.
Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) is a registered society of key
stakeholders involved in agricultural activities for sustainable agricultural development in the
district. It is a focal point for integrating Research and Extension activities and decentralizing
day-to-day management of Agricultural Extension System.
Why ATMA
The ATMA at district level would be increasingly responsible for all the technology
dissemination activities at the district level. It would have linkage with all the line
departments, research organizations, non-governmental organizations and agencies
associated with agricultural development in the district. Research and Extension units within
the districts such as Zonal Research Stations (ZRS) or substations, Krishi Vigyan Kendras
(KVKs) and the key line Departments of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Horticulture and
Fisheries etc. would become constituent members of ATMA. Each Research-Extension (R-
E) unit would retain its institutional identity and affiliation but programmes and procedures
concerning district-wise R-E activities would be determined by ATMA Governing Board to be
implemented by its Management Committee (AMC). As a society, it would able be to receive
and expend funds, entering into contracts & agreements and maintaining revolving accounts
that can be used to collect fees and thereby recovering operating cost.
Aim

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  Focus on farms and the farming systems
 Integration of efforts of multiple service providers
 Ownership of the Agricultural Technology System (ATS) by key stakeholders
 Technological interventions in intensification / diversification of farming systems
 Value addition & marketing intervention
 Empowerment of the farming community
 Multiple communication & information support.
Objectives
 Identify location specific needs for farming system
 Setup priorities for sustainable agriculture development
 Draw plans for production based system activities
 To execute plans through various institutions
 To coordinate efforts of various institutions
 To facilitate empowerment of farmers
To facilitate market interventions
Organizational Structure of ATMA

To operationalize the above reform initiatives, an Agricultural Technology

Management Agency (ATMA) has been established in each district as an autonomous
institution providing flexible working environment involving all the stakeholders in project
planning and implementation. As depicted in the diagram, ATMA is a unique district level
institution, which caters to activities in agriculture and allied departments adopting a Farming
Systems Approach. Local research and extension priorities are set through Strategic
Research and Extension Plans (SREPs) which are developed by multi disciplinary team
using participatory methodologies such as Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). ATMA is
supported by a Governing Board (GB) and a Management Committee (MC). The

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programmes and procedures concerning district wise R-E activities are determined by
ATMA, GB and implemented by its MC.
In order to manage programme implementation at block level and below, ATMA has
established a Farm Information and Advisory Centre (FIAC) at each block in the district. In
effect, the FIACs act as extension planning and operational arm of ATMA. These are
supported by two groups; one is a group of technical officers at block derived from different
functional areas termed as Block Technology Team (BTT) whereas another is a Farmers
Advisory Committee (FAC) which is a body exclusively of farmers. While BTT develops the
Block Action Plans (BAPs) in light of the SREP and is responsible for its implementation, the
FAC plays a more proactive role by scrutinizing, improving and approving BAPs, before
these are referred to the ATMA GB for its final approval.
Commodity Interest Groups (CIGs) are promoted at block/village level to make the
technology generation/dissemination farmer driven and farmer accountable. These Village
level CIGs are ultimately federated at block/district level and represented in FACs and GB.
In order to address the extension needs of these groups, ATMA will establish close linkages
with various players operating at cutting edge level viz. public, private, NGOs, Para
extension workers, input dealers, etc.
In order to provide needed Human Resource Development support (HRD) in
innovative areas of extension delivery a State Agricultural Management and Extension
Training Institute (SAMETI) has been established either by strengthening one of the existing
apex training institute in the state or by creating a new SAMETI in a State Agricultural
University (SAU).
The activities of extension reform, at state level are closely monitored by an Inter-
Departmental Working Group (IDWG) functioning under the Chairmanship of Agriculture
Production Commissioner or Secretary (Agriculture) of the state. A Project Implementation
Cell with State Nodal Officer (SNO) is created at the State Headquarter in the Department of
Agriculture to provide support to the IDWG.

The scheme provides flexibility to the states to propose institutional framework

similar, and not same as ATMA of ITD-NATP, suited to its own situations while preserving the
key features of ATMA.

Functions
 Problems, constraints and needs are identified
 Line departments draw integrated plan and mobilize resources
 Draw plans for agriculture development
 Develop systematic linkage with all institutions at all levels (National, state, district,
block, village)

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  Capacity building of personnel / farmers involved
 Location based adaptive research
 Facilitate private investment
 Receive and expend funds and generate resources
 Make rules and byelaws to manage

Intensive Dairy Development Programme

 A Centrally Sponsored Plan Scheme.
 Started in 1993-94.
 Implementing Agency: State Dairy Federations / District Milk Union.
 Target/Beneficiaries: Rural milk producers irrespective of caste, class and gender.
Cattle induction only for SC, ST and BPL families.
Objectives/Aims
 Development of milch cattle.
 Increase production by giving Technical Inputs services
 Procurement, Processing and Marketing of milk in a cost effective manner.
 Ensure remunerative prices to milk producers.
 Generate additional employment opportunities.
 Improve social, nutritional and economic status of residents
Pattern of Assistance & Eligibility Criteria
 100% aid from Central Government grant in OF was less than Rs 50.00 lakh.
 Maximum Rs 3 crore / district
 Establishment of dairy processing capacity up to 20,000 litres/day will be 100% aid
basis
 For others, OF pattern will be followed, namely, 70% loan and 30% grant.

ONGOING ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SPECIAL SCHEMES IN TAMIL NADU

Livestock rearing is an important economic activity for the rural people. It generates
more value both economically and socially. To provide opportunities to weaker section of the
society for earning through livestock and poultry keeping, the department is implementing
various free and beneficiary oriented schemes.

1. SCHEME FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION OFMILCH COWS

S.No. SCHEME FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION OFMILCH COWS

The Hon'ble Chief Minister announced on 09.07.2011 that in order to usher in

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 another ‘White Revolution’ in Tamil Nadu, the Government would distribute Free
Milch Cows to 60,000 beneficiaries over a period of 5 year.

About 12,000 Milch Cows of Cross Bred Jersey/ Cross Bred Holstein-
Friesian breeds would be distributed each year to the poor needy families in the
rural areas.

SALIENT FEATURES
 Priority given to such Districts that are considered to be milk deficient and
where the number of Milk Cooperative less.
 Lactating cows that are in their first/second lactation are procured so as to
ensure a continuous production for the next 5 lactations.
 The age of the animal is not morethan 5 years.
 Actual beneficiary will be the Woman of the household.
 The Milch Cows are sourced from outside the State only and purchased by
the beneficiaries themselves.
 Rs. 30,000 - Purchase of a Milch Cow per beneficiary.
 Rs. 1,000 is allocated for travel of beneficiary to the shandy of the
neighbouring State to
 purchase the animal
 Rs. 2,000/Rs. 3,000 depending on the District for the transportation of the
animal to the village.
 Training to rear the distributed animals.
 Free deworming and vaccination camp for distributed animals.
 Distribution prizes to best reared animal.
 Doorstep free veterinary service.
 Eligibility Criteria
 Selection of beneficiaries is done by the Grama Sabhas concerned.
 Some of the common criteria for eligibility of the beneficiaries are:
 Women headed households are to be given priority. (Widows, Destitutes,
Disabled
 women and Transgender are to be given priority within this group).
 Beneficiaries are to be a permanent resident of the Village Panchayat
concerned.
 She should be below 60 years of age.
 At least 30% of beneficiaries should be SC/ST women.
 Beneficiaries and their family members should not be an employee of any
organized sector.

Beneficiary should not own land over Beneficiary must be landless Agriculture
1acre in their own name or family labourers.
members' name.

Achievement during 2011-12 Achievement during 2011-12

The Scheme has been implemented in The Scheme has been implemented in
170 Village Panchayats in 21 Districts. 1,138
Village Panchayats in 31 Districts.

2. SCHEME FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION OF GOATS/SHEEP

The Hon'ble Chief Minister also announced the implementation of a ‘Scheme for Free
Distribution of Goats/Sheep’ to the poorest of the poor in the State in order to improve

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their standard of living. Under this Scheme, 4 Goats/Sheep are to be given free of cost to 7
lakh poorest of poor rural landless families over a period of 5 years.

Scheme for free distribution of Goats/Sheep

Out of 4 Goats/Sheep given to each beneficiary, ordinarily one is male and 3 females. All the
Goats/Sheep are to be about 6 months of age.
The Goats/Sheep are permitted to be purchased by the beneficiaries themselves from the
local market shandies within the State/ from breeders supplying good quality Goats/Sheep/
from the neighbouring State shandies in case of the bordering Districts.
􀂙 In order to empower the women, it has been decided that the actual beneficiary will be the
Woman of the household.
􀂙 An amount of Rs. 2,500 is earmarked for the purchase of a Goat/Sheep and in addition,
another Rs. 500 is earmarked as the seed money for the construction of shed/ procurement
of nutrients per animal- thus totaling Rs. 3,000 per Goat/Sheep and Rs.12,000 per
beneficiary. In addition, an amount of Rs. 150 per beneficiary is earmarked for transportation
of the animals
from shandy to the village.

3. STATE INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

 During 2011-12, Under this Strengthening of Infrastructure and Renovation of
Existing Buildings Scheme,
 Rs.20.005 crores for repairing and renovation of existing buildings of Veterinary
Institutions.
 Rs. 3.00 crores for the purchase of required furniture.
 During 2012-13, further funds will be allocated.

4. NATIONAL BANK FOR AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT (NABARD–

RIDF XVII)
Under NABARD (RIDF XVII) fund, an amount of Rs.122.24 crores is allotted for
construction of buildings for 335 Veterinary Dispensaries, 15 Veterinary Hospitals, 2
Polyclinics, 2 Animal Disease Intelligence Units,5 Frozen Semen and infrastructure
development in 12 District Livestock Farms.

5. ESTABLISHMENT AND STRENGTHENING OF EXISTING VETERINARY HOSPITALS

AND DISPENSARIES (ESVHD)
There are many Veterinary Institutions in this State which are functioning without
adequate and proper infrastructure facilities. Improved infrastructure facilities will provide
improvedveterinary services contributing to reduction in the incidences of animal diseases
thereby increasing the overall productivity of animal wealth. Government of India have
sanctioned 1st installment of Rs.6.72 crores as Central share and Rs.2.24 crores as State
share for the above said purpose.

6. KALNADAI PADHUKAPPU THITTAM (KPT)/ Mass Contact Programme (MCP)

 To provide comprehensive animal health care at the doorstep of the farmers,

“Kalnadai Padhukappu Thittam” is being implemented from the year 2000-2001.

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  Under this Scheme, total health cover both preventive and curative is provided to
livestock and poultry reared by farmers in remote villages, which do not have an
access to veterinary services from veterinary institutions directly.
 Special camps are conducted at the rate of one camp per month in all the 385
Panchayat Unions at a cost of Rs.4,200/- per camp.
 On the day preceding the camp wide publicity is given in the village and surrounding
places.
 Pamphlets and leaflets are also distributed regarding the various services provided
during the camp.
 In these camps various activities like health care, disease prevention, deworming,
castration, artificial insemination, pregnancy verification, infertility treatment etc., are
carried out at free of cost. In the calf rally, prizes worth of Rs. 400/- per camp is being
distributed to the best calves.
 A team of veterinarians and para veterinarians working in the Panchayat Union and
nearby
 Panchayat Unions are drafted for conducting the camps. The service of the Tamil
Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University is also utilized in needy places.
 In addition, exhibition depicting various livestock diseases and their preventive
measures, fodder development measures are conducted.
 The beneficiaries are all animal growers in the villages and nearby villages.
 During the year 2011-12, 5,500 camps were conducted at a total cost of 2.31 crores.

7. WESTERN GHAT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

Under Western Ghat Development Programme during the year 2011-12, the
following Animal Husbandry activities are being implemented at a total cost of Rs.77.65
lakhs in the Western Ghat Districts of Coimbatore, Tiruppur, Dindigul, Madurai, Theni,
Tirunelveli, Kanyakumari and Virudhunagar.

 59 Acres of Green Fodder Cultivation with 100% subsidy.

 935 beneficiaries are supplied with Giriraja birds with 50% subsidy.
 150 beneficiaries are supplied with sheep units with 50% subsidy.
 30 beneficiaries are supplied with Goat units with 50% subsidy.

8. HILL AREA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

Under Hill Area Development Programme, during the year 2011-12, the Government
have sanctioned Rs.64.63 lakhs to implement various activities in Nilgiris District. In this,
Rs.43.63 lakhs has been allotted for the implementation of following Animal Husbandry
activities:
 Strengthening infrastructure and roads of the District Livestock Farm, Ooty
 500 beneficiaries are provided with Giriraja birds.
 500 beneficiaries are provided green fodder seeds are distributed to the farmers.

9. INTENSIVE HEALTH COVER PROGRAMME

Sheep and goats are highly vulnerable to parasitic infestations. To save them
from parasitic infestation, the Animal Husbandry Department is implementing an Intensive
Health Cover Programme since 1982-83. Under this programme, the sheep maintained by
farmers are dewormed periodically to overcome the problems due to parasites. During 2011-
12, drugs worth of Rs. 40.00 lakhs were used to deworm the sheep.

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10. NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (NADP)
Under the Scheme, “Enhancement of fertility in cows through Oestrous
Synchronization” it was put forward to swaddle 50,000 cows at a total cost of Rs. 378.98
lakhs to increase the conception rate of cows thereby increasing the number of calves and
milk production.
 Under the Scheme 'Revamping of Sheep Farm at Mukundrayapuram'.
 Increasing the Semen production of bulls maintained at District Livestock Farm,
Udhagamandalam by providing green fodder.
 Under 'Empowering women to become economically self reliant through buffalo
rearing’ Scheme buffalo with a calf each, concentrate feed and insurance are
given at 50% subsidy.
 To acquire quality and clean milk production, 10 milking machines are being
provided to District Livestock Farms at a total cost of Rs.6.00 lakhs and the work is
under progress.
 Establishing a fully automated Liquid Nitrogen (LN2) Plant at Exotic Cattle
Breeding Farm, Eachenkottai at a cost of Rs.5.50 crores and the work is under
progress.

11.a. NATIONAL MISSION FOR PROTEIN SUPPLEMENT (NMPS)

In the context of ensuring year round availability of animal protein for consumers and
to maximize economic returns to farmers, under the 'Development of Goat for enhancing
animal protein supplement scheme' Rs.160.00 lakh was allotted towards 'Promoting
Intensive Goat Production'. As per the scheme 4 Self Help Groups are selected from each
district and each Self Help Group will contain 9 beneficiaries. Each beneficiary will be
provided with 10 Goats, feed, shed, insurance, equipments, etc., free of cost, thereby
facilitating their living standards. The Scheme is being implemented in 15 districts.

12. EXTENDED FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE CONTROL PROGRAMME

Extended Foot and Mouth Disease Control Programme is a Government of India
Scheme implemented in all districts of Tamil Nadu.

13. NATIONAL CONTROL PROGRAMME OF PESTE DES PETITS RUMINANTS (NCP

PPR)
To control Peste des Petits Ruminant (PPR) disease, vaccination programme against
PPR is being undertaken in all the districts in the State for the targeted population of 145
lakhs sheep and goats.

14. ASSISTANCE TO STATES FOR CONTROL OF ANIMAL DISEASES (ASCAD)

Under this component, assistance is provided to State Government for control of
economically important diseases of livestock and poultry by way of immunization,
strengthening of existing State Veterinary biological production units, strengthening of
existing State Disease Diagnostic Laboratories, holding workshops / seminars and inservice
training to Veterinarians and Paraveterinarians. The main aim of the programme is protecting
livestock against endemic diseases. Vaccination agains
 Anthrax

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  Black quarter
 Haemorrhagic septicemia
 Sheep pox

15 NATIONAL ANIMAL DISEASE REPORTING SYSTEM (NADRS)

Under this Scheme, it is proposed to introduce an online disease reporting system
in the country in the form of National Animal Disease Reporting System (NADRS).

Block
↓ Electronic transmission of data
District head quarter
↓ Electronic transmission of data
State headquarter
↓ Electronic transmission of data
Country's Central Unit

NIC (National Information Centre) is governing the data transmission and processing.

16. NATIONAL CONTROL PROGRAMME FOR BRUCELLOSIS (NCPB)

To achieve the ultimate goal of 'Zero Incidence of Brucellosis' in Tamil Nadu
especially in 'Endemic areas (9 districts) and screening in all districts is in progress.

17. NATIONAL PROJECT ON RINDERPEST ERADICATION (NPRE)

The objective of the Scheme is to control and eradicate Rinderpest Disease from our
State and Country. The State was declared "Provisionally free from Rinderpest" from March
1998 onwards.
18. QUINQUENNIAL LIVESTOCK CENSUS
The census on livestock, poultry, agriculture implements and fisheries is conducted
once in 5 years since 1951 considering the shorter life span of livestock. It provides Animal
Husbandry Statistics to serve as a base for planning and monitoring developments in the
field of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sectors.
18th Quinquennial Livestock and Poultry Census - 2007.
19th Livestock Census - 2012.
19. INTEGRATED SAMPLE SURVEY SCHEME (50:50)
From the year 1977, the Government of India provides grant in-aid to the State on
50:50 sharing basis for the implementation of the Integrated Sample Survey Scheme during
3 seasons viz., summer, rainy and winter season districts. The main objective of the scheme
is to estimate the production of milk, egg, wool and meat in the State.
20. TAMIL NADU IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL MODERNIZATION AND WATER-BODIES
RESTORATION AND MANAGEMENT PROJECT (TNIAMWARM)
Tamilnadu Irrigated Agricultural Modernization and Water-bodies Restoration and
Management project (TN-IAMWARM project) is being implemented at a cost of Rs.2,547
crores

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integrating 8 Departments from 2007 to 2013 for a period of 6 years with the assistance of
the World Bank. The prime objective is to increase the income in farmers by improving the
utilization of each and every unit of water resource (more income per drop of water) in
agriculture and related activities in sub basins of river.

The objectives of Animal Husbandry Department in this project are:-

􀂙 To increase the productivity of livestock in the sub basins.
􀂙 To provide veterinary services and breeding support at the farmers door step.
􀂙 To ensure complete cattle protection (Disease prevention and Cure).
􀂙 To increase the conception and calving rate in bovines.
􀂙 To reduce the gap between the availability and demand for fodder.
􀂙 To increase awareness among farmers in best animal care techniques.
Information Delivery Systems
Important Information delivery tools:
Personal Computer
Computer is one of the powerful tools which can aid in processing information and
communicating it. It can store and display all kinds of information. It offers farmers many new
opportunities to obtain technical and economic information quickly and use it effectively for
decision making. Linked to a central information bank, farmers or extension agents can
continuously receive available information or interactively request information. It can be used
in planning, implementation and evaluation of community development programmes,
facilitate easy handling and storage of written text and publishing special magazines for a
small group at a cheaper cost and greater speed. A computer system can be used to
generate personal letters, circular letters, report of studies / programmes, data history of the
animals of a farm to compare the past and the present data and assess the progress
achieved and predict the future based on these data
Multimedia
It is a multi faceted instructional strategy that brings together text, graphics,
animation, video, still images audio and video. The computer integrates all these media into
a single platform and provides interactivity to the system. It allows the users to navigate
through the package on any path he wishes. Understanding the vast capabilities of
multimedia several software packages have been developed which are used as a teaching
tool by the instructor. It enable the learners to actually hear and see what is actually
happening in a given problem situation. It is more simplified than making slides,
transparencies and the teacher can create an entire lesson and present a running
commentary.
CD ROM technology

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 The latest technology available for wide distribution of information in the Compact
Disk Read Only Memory (CD ROM) which helps in information storage and retrieval.
Advantages include storage potential, low cost, durability and easy to use.
Desktop publishing
It can be used for printing and publishing books, literatures etc. this may be
combined with telecommunication to make production and distribution of publication
inexpensive. Also revision can also be easily done.
Expert system
It is an intelligence computer programme that uses knowledge to solve problems that
are difficult enough to require human expertise for their solution. It advices farmers with
alternatives to choose from a wide range of possible alternatives by processing data from a
large number of variables according to certain decision rules. Expert systems can be
developed for disease diagnosis, farm planning, feeding systems etc.
Geographic Information System (GIS)
GIS is a systematically designed, spatially indexed approach for organizing
information about places and regions in order to facilitate analysis of relationships between
different social, economic and environmental variables. It is rapidly becoming and affordable
technology with substantial, immediate and long term benefit for developing countries.
The main applications of GIS include land use analysis, thematic mapping, site
selection, socio economic studies, demographic analysis, analysis of biodiversity, disease
and health studies, watershed planning, etc.
Networking
We are familiar with networking of railways, post and telegraphs, etc. they are all
interconnected service locations. A network is a means by which computers share and
exchange information and resources across shorts distances ( LAN – Local Area Network) or
globally (WAN – Wide Area Network).
Internet
The internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks. It provides access to
communication services and information resources to millions of users around the globe.
The machines of one network can communicate with machines of other networks and send
data files and other information back and forth. The internet covers the globe and is not
owned by any individual, company or country. Through internet you could get information
about people, products, organization, research data, electronic version of printed material,
etc. For an organization or an institution, setting up a home page is a good way to let the
world know what its products and services are. The function that relate to provision of
information are publishing, teaching, extension, international communication, access to

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shared data, project coordination, coordinated information management resulting in
enhanced opportunities for innovative services.
E mail
E-mail or the electronic mail is one of the services provided by the Internet. Computer
users can interact using electronic mail network. Being cheaper than voicemail, it overcomes
the time zone difference that hinders that hinders the real time communication. E-mail also
offers to stay in touch with special groups. A mailing list is a special and easy way to share
information with many people on a specific topic or for a specific purpose. Once subscribed
you will receive regular information via E-mail on a subject with minimum cost and effort.
Sharing knowledge with other subscribers and getting help in case of a problem are all
possible. E-mail facilitates, by their speed, immediate availability of information and thereby
empowers the extension would then be multifold. The E-mail by itself would be a record for
information shared.
Virtual class room and self learning
Virtual education refers to instruction in a learning environment where teacher and
student are separated by time or space, or both, and the teacher provides course content
through the use of methods such as course management applications, multimedia
resources, the internet, and videoconferencing. "Virtual" is used here to characterize the fact
that the course is not taught in a classroom face-to-face but through some substitute mode
that can be associated with classroom teaching. That means people do not have to go to the
real class to learn. Students receive the content and communicate with the teacher via the
same technologies. It is a study program in which all courses, or at least a significant portion
of the courses, are virtual courses, whether in synchronous (i.e. real time) or asynchronous
(i.e. self-paced) formats.
Students in virtual education acquire knowledge in a uni-directional manner (e.g. by
studying a video, reading a textbook chapter), this would be known as asynchronous
instruction. Subsequent discussions of problems, solving exercises, case studies, review
questions, etc. help the students to understand better what they learned before. This
learning is delivered at the students pace, not instructed live by a teacher. Although
asynchronous courses are student driven, teachers are often needed to act as a guide.
Communication with teacher facilitators is accomplished through discussion boards and
email. Students enrolled in virtual classrooms or synchronous courses still acquire the
content via real life instruction. A real teacher in real time delivers virtual classroom
instruction. The virtual classroom teacher uses the computer screen as the board delivering
instruction by using videos, Power points, or podcasts in conjunction with audio of the
teacher's voice. Students enrolled in the virtual classroom have opportunities for immediate
teacher feedback and input while logged into class, just as they would in a traditional

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classroom. Students can also interact with other students via notes, texts, and emoticons.
Additionally, many conferencing platforms used by virtual educators allow for students to
work in small groups during class time, thus again mirroring the look and feel of a traditional
classroom. Electronic media like a discussion forum, chat room, voice mail, e-mail, etc. are
often employed for communication in both synchronous and asynchronous courses.
Homework assignments are normally submitted electronically. When help is needed,
lecturers, tutors, or fellow students, or a help desk are available, just like in a real university.
The difference is that all communication occurs via electronic media.
e-learning
E-learning comprises all forms of electronically supported learning and teaching. The
information and communication systems, sometimes networked, serve as specific media to
implement the learning process. The term will still most likely be utilized to refer educational
experiences via technology, even as advances continue in regard to devices and curriculum.
E-learning is essentially the computer and network-enabled transfer of skills and knowledge.
E-learning applications and processes include Web-based learning, computer-based
learning, virtual education opportunities and digital collaboration. Content is delivered via the
Internet, intranet / extranet, audio or video tape, satellite TV, and CD-ROM. It can be self-
paced or instructor-led and includes media in the form of text, image, animation, streaming
video and audio. Abbreviations like CBT (Computer-Based Training), IBT (Internet-Based
Training) or WBT (Web-Based Training) have been used as synonyms to e-learning.
Computer Aided Teaching / Learning
Computer aided Teaching / learning is self-paced learning activity accessible via a
computer or handheld device. While this can refer to the use of computers in a classroom,
the term more broadly refers to a structured environment in which computers are used for
teaching purposes. It typically present content in a linear fashion, much like reading an
online book or manual. Computer aided teaching are delivered via CD-ROM or Internet.
Assessing learning is done in form of multiple choice questions, or other assessments that
can be easily scored by a computer and recorded via online software, providing immediate
end-user feedback and completion status. Users are often able to print completion records in
the form of certificates. Instead of limiting students to attending courses or reading printed
manuals, students are able to acquire knowledge and skills through methods that are much
more conducive to individual learning preferences. For example, Computer aided teaching
offer visual learning benefits through animation or video, not typically offered by any other
means.
But Computer aided teaching / learning requires enormous resources. The software is
often more complex. In addition, the lack of human interaction can limit both the type of
content that can be presented as well as the type of assessment that can be performed.

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Many learning organizations are beginning to use smaller Computer aided teaching /
learning activities as part of a broader online learning program which may include online
discussion or other interactive elements.
Information kiosks
An information kiosk dispenses free information in the form of maps, pamphlets, and other
literature, and/or advice offered by an attendant. An electronic kiosk (or computer kiosk or
interactive kiosk) houses a computer terminal that often employs custom kiosk software to
store data locally, or retrieve it from a computer network. Some computer kiosks provide a
free public service, while others serve a commercial purpose. Touch screen kiosks are
commercially used as industrial appliances, eliminating paper, improving efficiency and
service. Their uses are unlimited. Combination of touch screen technology with multimedia
technology leads to innovate way of using computer technology. This sophisticated computer
technology could now be used by the illiterate poor livestock owners in the rural areas of
India. This innovate way of using computer leads to more demand for the computers by the
development departments or agencies. “E-contents ” are designed in such a way that the
information could be accessed with ease even by illiterate or less literate and not computer
savvy people by touch of the screen. The knowledge kit designed for the kiosk usually is
user-friendly and compatible to run through any windows operating systems. Farmers could
get information through farmer friendly touch screen information kiosks. With audio back up,
demand driven information and attractive pictures and animators, kiosks can be effective in
transfer of information. It is important to place the kiosk in an appropriate site for
accessibility. The advantages of information kiosk are
 able to get information in own language at an easily accessible place
 save time and money
 serves as store house of knowledge
 enable users to access the desired information as and when required
 when installed in a common service centre like veterinary dispensary can very often
supplement or complement the services offered by the service centres
 helps in knowledge dissemination during waiting time
 user friendly and needs less assistance to operate
 innovative way of making less literates use computers
 reduces the digital divide between rich and poor
Harnessing IT for Agriculture and Rural Development in Indian Scenario
Improved communication and information access is directly related to social and
economic development. There is a concern that the gap between the information rich and
information poor is getting wider. The challenge is not only to improve the accessibility of
communication technology to the rural population but also to improve the relevance of
information to local development. There are cases of application of information and

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communication technologies that have made a difference in the delivery of services in rural
India. Some of these include:
Warna Wired Villages
Warna nagar is small village which has demonstrated the effective contribution of an
Information Technology and communication systems in village network of cluster of 70
villages of Maharashtra State. The “Warna Wired Village” project has been started to serve
the information needs on different crops cultivation practices, pesticides and diseases
control, marketing, dairy and sugarcane processing unit etc. to the farmers right up to their
village level. And, it also has an aim of generating computer literacy, improving agriculture
output and ensuring greater transparency in the village administration.
M.S. Swaminathan Info Villages
M.S. Swaminathan, a well known person in the field of agriculture has also initiated
the concept of wired network in the form of Info Villages or Village Information Centers to
bring computer awareness in youth and women. They started the info project with 6 village
information shops in Pondicherry and a value addition center (VAC) or Central hub at
Villianur. A number of locally relevant information has been stored in the form of databases
to fulfill the needs of rural families. The major databases are families below poverty line,
entitlements to rural families, local transport information, directory of health specialists, price
relation information, women and child health etc. And, every day they also provide the
information on prices, Government notifications etc.
e-Choupal
Through the e-Choupal initiative, ITC aims to confer the power of expert knowledge
on even the smallest individual farmer, thus enhancing his competitiveness in the global
market. It is the single-largest information technology-based intervention by a corporate
entity in rural India, transforming the Indian farmer into a progressive knowledge-seeking
netizen, enriching the farmer with knowledge and elevating him to a new order of
empowerment. Farmers now log on to the site through Internet Kiosks in their villages
to order high quality agri-inputs , gets information on best farming practices, prevailing
market prices for their crops at home and abroad and the weather forecast – all in the local
language.
KISSAN-Agriculture Date Centre
Karshaka Information Systems Services And Networking is an innovative project by
the Department of Agriculture, Government of Kerala. The mission of this project is to
develop and deploy Information Systems, Network, Processess and services for Agriculture
in ways that lead to amelioration of farmers’distress and enhance their welfare. The objective
is to provide an effective knowledge management and smart information dissemination

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systems that provides linkage among farmers , public research institutions, administered and
private entrepreneurs to share the information and knowledge.
The e-experience of Amul.
Amul has become rural India’s flag bearer in the IT revolution. The GCMMF-Amul
has taken the initiative of installing the AMCUS – Automatic milk collection Unit Systems at
village societies to enhance the transparency of transaction between the farmer and the Co-
Operative Society. These systems not only ensured the transparency but also gave Co-
Operative societies a unique advantage by reducing the processing time to 10 percent of
what is used to be prior to this. The Dairy Information and Services kiosk (DISK) is another
initiative that is built upon the existing application by expanding the database of the milk
societies to include a complete history of milk cattle owned by the member farmers.
Gyandoot: Community – Owned Rural Internet Kiosks
‘Gyandoot’ is recognized as a breakthrough in e-government, demonstrating a
paradigm shift which gives marginalized tribal citizens their first ever chance to access
knowledge, with minimum investment. The goal of the Gyandoot project has been to
establish community –owned, technologically innovative and sustainable information kiosks
in a poverty-stricken, tribal dominated rural area of Madhya Pradesh.
Community Information Centres (CICs)
To provide a boost to all- round development of the North Eastern region through ICT,
487 Community Information Centres (CICs) have been set up in all the eight states of the
region as part of the CIC Project initiated by the Department if IT, Government of India. The
CICs provides information on forms , rules and procedures, government tenders, notification
for employment opportunities, information on tourism, culture, examination results, schemes
legal issues, guidelines for bank loans, weather information etc. CICs are also being set up
at block level in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
ASHA
NIC Assam in partnership with Agribusiness consortium has developed a model
ASHA for facilitating agribusiness through CIC The site aims at building up of information
useful for farmers and establish direct link between buyers and sellers thus promoting
agribusiness. The CIC operators are regularly updating the site.
Rural Bazar
RuralBazar is an e-commerce solution developed by NIC to address the marketing
needs of the rural producers. The software provides provision for simple showcasing of the
products , off line payments as well as on line payment . It ahs been implemented in the
States of Tripura , Goa and Tamil Nadu.
Agricultural portals
1. www.indiaagristat.com

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 2. www.isapindia.org
3. www.indiaagronet.com
4. www.agriwatch.com
5. www.carrittmoran.com
6. www.fciweb.nic.in
7. www.indiagriline.com
8. www.indiancommodities.com
9. www.kisan.net
10. www.mahindrakisanmitra.com
11. www.krishiworld.com
12. www.agroindia.org
13. http://www.agriculture-industry-india.com
14. http://agricoop.nic.in
15. http://www.apeda.com
16. http://fert.nic.in
17. http://agmarknet.nic.in
18. http://dacnet.nic.in
19. http://www.icrisat.org
20. http://www.ikisan.com
21. http://www.uttamkrishi.com
22. http://agricoop.nic.in
23. http://www.icar.org.in
24. http://www.irri.org
25. http://agriculture.exportersindia.com
E-commerce - scope and local application
Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce, refers to the buying and
selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other
computer networks. It also includes the entire online process of developing, marketing,
selling, delivering, servicing and paying for products and services. The amount of trade
conducted electronically has grown extraordinarily with widespread Internet usage. The use
of commerce is conducted in electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet
marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory
management systems and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce
typically uses the World Wide Web at least at one point in the transaction's life-cycle,
although it may encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail, mobile devices
and telephones as well.

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 The low cost of the PC and the growing use of the Internet has shown the tremendous
growth of Ecommerce in India, in the recent years. Although, as compared to the western
countries, India is still in is its initial stage of development. Undoubtedly, with the middle
class people, online shopping shows unlimited potential in India. The travel portals of
railways and airways share in the online business contributed to 50% of the online market in
2007-08. E- commerce among the rural produces and consumers is yet to make a marked
appearance in the Indian scenario. Local applications in e commerce can be made in areas
of
 Agri-Business (Agri-clinics and Agri-Business Centres)
 Marketing
 Trade
 Cooperatives
 Organic farming
 Statistics
web – sites dedicated to Veterinary and Animal Science education
Websites of Professional Bodies
American Animal Hospital Association www.healthmet.com
American Association of Feline Practitioners www.avma.org/aafp
American Canine Sports Medicine Association www.acsma.com
American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine www.vmth.ucdavis.edu/acvim/
American Kennel Club (AKC) www.akc.org/
British Small Animal Veterinary Association www.bsava.ac.uk
Cat Fancier's Association www.cfainc.org
Centre for Disease Control www.cdc.gov/healthypets/
Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau (CAB) www.cabi.org
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) www.cgiar.org/
European Society of Feline Medicine web.ukonline.co.uk/fab/esfm.html
Food & Agricultural Organization (FAO) www.fao.org/
Institute for Laboratory Animal Research (ILAR) dels.nas.edu/ilar_n/ilarhome/index.shtml
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) www.ilri.org/
Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council www.petsfomm.com/PIJAC/
World Association for the History of Veterinary Medicine (WAHVM) wahvm.vet.uu.nl/
World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) www.oie.int/eng/en_index.htm
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) www.panda.org/
Indian Organizations/Institutes
Central Avian Research Institute (CARI) www.icar.org.in/cari/index.html
Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB) www.cirb.gov.in/

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Central Institute for Research on Goats (CIRG) www.cirg.res.in/
Central Sheep & Wool Research Institute (CSWRI) www.cswri.ernet.in/
Dept. of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE) www.dare.gov.in/
Dept. of Agriculture & Cooperation agricoop.nic.in/
Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries dahd.nic.in/
Government of India india.gov.in/
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) www.icar.org.in/
Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI) www.igfri.ernet.in/
Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI) www.ivri.nic.in/
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) www.nbagr.ernet.in/
National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research www.ncap.res.in/
National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI) www.ndri.res.in/
National Institute of Animal Nutrition & Physiology (NIANP) www.nianp.res.in/
National Research Centre on Camel (NRCC) www.nrccamel.com/
National Research Centre on Equines (NRCE) nrce.nic.in/index1.htm
National Research Centre on Mithun (NRCM) www.nrcmithun.org/
National Research Centre on Yak (NRCY) www.nrcy.org.in/
Project Directorate on Cattle (PDC) www.pdcattle.ernet.in/
Project Directorate on Poultry (PDP) www.pdonpoultry.org/
State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) www.icar.org.in/sau.htm
Others :
www.avma.org/care4pets
www.epet-center.com.
www.fda.gov/cvm/default.html
www.peteducation.com
www.thepetcenter.com
www.vetcentric.com
www.vetinfo.com
www.vetseek.de/en/search.html
Web directories
A web directory is not a search engine and does not display lists of web pages based on
keywords; instead, it lists web sites by category and subcategory.
Agriculture Web directory: http://agro.indiamart.com/
Animal diseases directory:
http://www.dmoz.org/Health/Animal/Livestock/Conditions_and_Diseases/
www.animalworlddirectory.com/
www.expocentral.com/directory/Business/Agriculture.../Livestock/

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