Chapter-2

Data collection and sampling

Sampling concepts

The process of selecting the right individuals, objects or events for a study is known as sampling.
Sampling involves the study of a small number of individuals, objects chosen from a larger group. Before
we get into the details of various issues pertaining to sampling, it would be appropriate to discuss some
of the sampling concepts.

Merits of Sampling

 Size of population

 Fund required for the study

 Facilities

 Time

Disadvantages or Limitation of Sampling:

1. Scope of biasness.(Less accuracy)

2. Problem of representative sample-Difficulty in selecting a truly representative sample.

3. Need of eligible researchers.

4. Instability of sample subjects or changeability of units i.e. in heterogeneous population.

5. There are certain situations where sampling is possible.

Steps in sampling process:

1. Defining the Target Population:

Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in sampling process. In
general, target population is defined in terms of element, sampling unit, extent, and time frame.
The definition should be in line with the objectives of the research study. A well defined
population reduces the probability of including the respondents who do not fit the research
objective of the company. For ex, if the population is defined as all women above the age of 20,
the researcher may end up taking the opinions of a large number of women who cannot afford
to buy a micro oven.

2. Specifying the Sampling Frame: Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher
should decide on the sampling frame. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the
sample may be drawn. Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would be a
database that contains all the households that have a monthly income above Rs.20,000.
However, in practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive sampling frame that exactly fits the
requirements of a particular research. In general, researchers use easily available sampling
frames like telephone directories and lists of credit card and mobile phone users. Various private
players provide databases developed along various demographic and economic variables.
Sometimes, maps and aerial pictures are also used as sampling frames. Whatever may be the
case, an ideal sampling frame is one that entire population and lists the names of its elements
only once.

A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does not accurately represent the total
population or when some elements of the population are missing another drawback in the
sampling frame is over –representation. A telephone directory can be over represented by
names/household that have two or more connections.

3. Specifying the Sampling Unit:

A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of elements of the
population to be sampled. The sample units could be geographical (ecological region, districts,
cities, wards etc.)

4. Selection of the Sampling Method:

The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be selected. The choice
of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the business research, availability of
financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the problem to be investigated. All
sampling methods can be grouped under two distinct heads, that is, probability and non-
probability sampling.

5. Determination of Sample Size:

The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various ways of classifying
the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple those hold primary importance and
are worth mentioning are whether the technique deals with fixed or sequential sampling and
whether its logic is based on traditional or Bayesian methods. In non-probability sampling
procedures, the allocation of budget, thumb rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed,
importance of the decision, number of variables, nature of analysis, incidence rates, and
completion rates play a major role in sample size determination. In the case of probability
sampling, however, formulas are used to calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable
error and level of confidence are specified. The details of the various techniques used to
determine the sample size will be explained at the end of the chapter.

6. Specifying the Sampling Plan:

his means that one should indicate how decisions made so far are to be implemented. For
example, if a survey of households is to be conducted, a sampling plan should define a household,
contain instructions to the interviewer as to how he should take a systematic sample of
households, advise him on what he should do when no one is available on his visit to the
household, and so on. These are some pertinent issues in a sampling survey to which a sampling
plan should provide answers.

7. Selecting the Sample:

This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the sample elements
is carried out. At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to the rules outlined for the
smooth implementation of the business research. This step involves implementing the sampling
plan to select the sampling plan to select a sample required for the survey

Sampling Design

Sampling design refers to the process of selecting samples from a population.

Types

• 1. Probability sampling: – a method of sampling that uses of random selection so that

all units/ cases in the population have an equal probability of being chosen.

Probability sampling designs are used in conclusive research.

Types of probability sampling

A) Simple Random Sampling: is the easiest form of probability sampling. All the
researcher needs to do is assure that all the members of the population are
included in the list and then randomly select the desired number of subjects.

B) Stratified Random Sampling: is also known as proportional random sampling. This

is a probability sampling technique wherein the subjects are initially grouped into
different classifications such as age, socioeconomic status or gender.

C) Systematic Random Sampling: can be likened to an arithmetic progression wherein

the difference between any two consecutive numbers is the same. Say for example
you are in a clinic and you have 100 patients.

The first thing you do is pick an integer that is less than the total number of the
population; this will be your first subject .

Select another integer which will be the number of individuals between subjects
e.g. (5).
 You subjects will be patients 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, and so on

There is no clear advantage when using this technique.

D )Cluster Random Sampling: is done when simple random sampling is almost impossible
because of the size of the population. Just imagine doing a simple random sampling when the
population in question is the entire population of Asia.

1. In cluster sampling, the research first identifies boundaries, in case of our example; it can be
countries within Asia.
2. The researcher randomly selects a number of identified areas. It is important that all areas
(countries) within the population be given equal chances of being selected.
3. The researcher can either include all the individuals within the selected areas or he can
randomly select subjects from the identified areas.
E)Mixed/Multi-Stage Random SamplingThis probability sampling technique involves a
combination of two or more sampling techniques enumerated above. In most of the complex
researches done in the field or in the lab, it is not suited to use just a single type of probability
sampling.

• 2. Non -probability sampling: – does not involve random selection and methods are not
based on the rationale of probability theory.

Non-Probability sampling designs are used in exploratory research.

TYPES OF Non -probability sampling

A) Convenience Sampling: is probably the most common of all sampling

techniques. With convenience sampling, the samples are selected
because they are accessible to the researcher. Subjects are chosen simply
because they are easy to recruit. This technique is considered easiest,
cheapest and least time consuming.

B) Consecutive Sampling: is very similar to convenience sampling except

that it seeks to include ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample. This
non-probability sampling technique can be considered as the best of all
non-probability samples because it includes all subjects that are available
that makes the sample a better representation of the entire population.
 C) Quota Sampling: is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the
researcher ensures equal or proportionate representation of subjects
depending on which trait is considered as basis of the quota

D) .Judgmental Sampling: is more commonly known as purposive sampling.

In this type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with
a specific purpose in mind. With judgmental sampling, the researcher
believes that some subjects are more fit for the research compared to
other individuals. This is the reason why they are purposively chosen as
subjects

E) Snowball Sampling: is usually done when there is a very small population

size. In this type of sampling, the researcher asks the initial subject to
identify another potential subject who also meets the criteria of the
research. The downside of using a snowball sample is that it is hardly
representative of the population.

Determination of sample size:

 The size of a sample depends upon the basic characteristics of the population, the type of
information required from the survey and the cost involved. Therefore, a sample may vary in
size for several reasons. The size of the population does not influence the size of the sample as
will be shown later on.

There are various methods of determining the sample size in practice:

• Arbitrary approach: Researchers may arbitrarily decide the size of sample without giving
any explicit consideration to the accuracy of the sample results or the cost of sampling.
This arbitrary approach should be avoided.

• total budget :For some of the projects, the total budget for the field survey (usually
mentioned) in a project proposal is allocated. If the cost of sampling per sample unit is known,
one can easily obtain the sample size by dividing the total budget allocation by the cost of
sampling per unit. This method concentrates only on the cost aspect of sampling, rather than
the value of information obtained from such a sample.

• There are other researchers who decide on the sample size based on what was done by the
other researchers in similar studies. Again, this approach cannot be a substitute for the formal
scientific approach.

The most commonly used approach for determining the size of sample is the confidence
interval approach covered under inferential statistics. Below will be discussed this approach
while determining the size of a sample for estimating population mean and population
proportion. In a confidence interval approach, the following points are taken into account for
determining the sample size in estimation of problems involving means:

(a) The variability of the population: It would be seen that the higher the variability as
measured by the population standard deviation, larger will be the size of the sample. If
the standard deviation of the population is unknown, a researcher may use the
estimates of the standard deviation from previous studies. Alternatively, the estimates
of the population standard deviation can be computed from the sample data.

(b) The confidence attached to the estimate: It is a matter of judgement, how much
confidence you want to attach to your estimate. Assuming a normal distribution, the
higher the confidence the researcher wants for the estimate, larger will be sample size.
This is because the value of the standard normal ordinate ‘Z’ will vary accordingly. For a
90 per cent confidence, the value of ‘Z’ would be 1.645 and for a 95 per cent confidence,
the corresponding ‘Z’ value would be 1.96 and so On. It would be seen later that a
higher confidence would lead to a larger ‘Z’ value.
 (c) The allowable error or margin of error: How accurate do we want our estimate to be is
again a matter of judgement of the researcher. It will of course depend upon the
objectives of the study and the consequence resulting from the higher inaccuracy. If the
researcher seeks greater precision, the resulting sample size would be large.

DATA COLLETION Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements,

observations or even just descriptions of things.

Qualitative vs Quantitative

Data can be qualitative or quantitative.

Qualitative data is descriptive information (it describes something)

Quantitative data is numerical information (numbers)

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

1. PRIMARY DATA: The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first
time, and thus happen to be original in character.
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
A)Observation Method
The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating
to behavioural sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of
observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the
method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research
purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls
on validity and reliability. Under the observation method, the information is sought by
way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent.
• Kinds of observation:
• Structured observation:In case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of
the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized
conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the
observation is called as structured observation
• .
 • Unstructured observation: When observation is to take place without these
characteristics to be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured
observation.
• Participant observation: If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a
member of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the members of
the group experience, the observation is called as the participant observation.
• Non-participant observation: When the observer observes as a detached emissary
without any attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel,
the observation of this type is often termed as non-participant observation.
• Disguised observation: When the observer is observing in such a manner that his
presence may be unknown to the people he is observing, such an observation is
described as disguised observation.
• Controlled observation: When observation takes place according to definite pre-
arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled
observation.
• Uncontrolled observation: If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be
termed as uncontrolled observation, in non-controlled observation, no attempt is made
to use precision instruments.
• The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and
persons. It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of behaviour,
allowing sufficient time for observing it.

2. Interview Method

The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses.

(a) Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer
asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.

This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect
oral investigation. In the case of direct personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the
information personally from the sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet
people from whom data have to be collected. This method is particularly suitable for intensive
investigations.

Structured interviews:
The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually carried out in a
structured way. As such we call the interviews as structured interviews. Such interviews involve
the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized techniques of recording.

In case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the technique of structured interview because
of its being more economical, providing a safe basis for generalization and requiring relatively
lesser skill on the part of the interviewer.

Unstructured interviews

The unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning.

Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized
techniques of recording information.

In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case
of need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so
requires

Focused interview

Focused interview is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and
its effects. Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence in
which the questions would be asked and has also the freedom to explore reasons and motives.

The main task of the interviewer in case of a focused interview is to confine the respondent to a
discussion of issues with which he seeks conversance. Such interviews are used generally in the
development of hypotheses and constitute a major type of unstructured interviews.

Clinical interview

The clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the
course of individual’s life experience. The method of eliciting information under it is generally
left to the interviewer’s discretion.

(b) Telephone interviews:

This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself. It

is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in
developed regions.

. Collection of Data through Questionnaires:A questionnaire consists of a number of questions

printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to
respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply
in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer
the questions on their own.

Main aspects of a questionnaire:

1. General form: So far as the general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be
structured or unstructured questionnaire.

Structured questionnaires:

Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete and
pre-determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in
the same order to all respondents. . .

Forms of Questions:

The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open (i.e.,
inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not constructed during questioning.

Unstructured or non-structured questionnaire

In an unstructured questionnaire, the interviewer is provided with a general guide on the type
of information to be obtained, but the exact question formulation is largely his own
responsibility and the replies are to be taken down in the respondent’s own words to the
extent possible; in some situations tape recorders may be used to achieve this goal.

Question sequence:

In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a
researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire. A
proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being
misunderstood.

Forms of questions

Concerning the form of questions, we can talk about two principal forms, viz.,

Multiple choice questions and

Open-end questions
Multiple choice or closed questions

The respondent selects one of the alternative possible answers put to him, whereas in the
latter he has to supply the answer in his own words. The question with only two possible
answers (usually ‘Yes’ or ‘No’) can be taken as a special case of the multiple choice question, or
can be named as a ‘closed question.’

Open-ended questions:

Open-ended questions which are designed to permit a free response from the respondent
rather than one limited to certain stated alternatives are considered appropriate. Such
questions give the respondent considerable latitude in phrasing a reply. Getting the replies in
respondent’s own words is, thus, the major advantage of open-ended questions. But one
should not forget that, from an analytical point of view, open-ended questions are more
difficult to handle, raising problems of interpretation, comparability and interviewer bias.

C) Collection of Data through Schedules

This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire,
with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of
questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.

This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting
respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selected.

Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross-examination in order
to find out the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, and hardworking and should
have patience and perseverance.

Some Other Methods of Data Collection

1. Warranty cards: Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of
consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information sought is
printed in the form of questions on the ‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside the package
along with the product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the
dealer.

2. Distributor or store audits: Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well
as manufactures through their salesmen at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores
audited through salesmen and use such information to estimate market size, market share, and
seasonal purchasing pattern and so on. The data are obtained in such audits not by questioning
but by observation. Store audits are invariably panel operations, for the derivation of sales
estimates and compilation of sales trends by stores are their principal ‘raison detre’. The
principal advantage of this method is that it offers the most efficient way of evaluating the
effect on sales of variations of different techniques of in-store promotion.

2. Pantry audits: Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of
goods at the consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory
of types, quantities and prices of commodities consumed. Thus in pantry audit data are
recorded from the examination of consumer’s pantry. The usual objective in a pantry
audit is to find out what types of consumers buy certain products and certain brands,
the assumption being that the contents of the pantry accurately portray consumer’s
preferences.

2. SECONDARY DATA:

The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by
someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.

Published data

Usually published data are available in:

(a) Various publications of the central, state are local governments;

(b) Various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their

subsidiary organizations;

(c) Technical and trade journals;

(d) Books, magazines and newspapers;

(e) Reports and publications of various associations connected with business and
industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;

(f) Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different

fields; and

(g)Public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published
information.
Unpublished data

The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters,
unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars
and research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/ private
individuals and organisations.

Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must make a minute
scrutiny because it is just possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may be
inadequate in the context of the problem which the researcher wants to study.

In this connection Dr. A.L. Bowley very aptly observes that it is never safe to take
published statistics at their face value without knowing their meaning and limitations
and it is always necessary to criticise arguments that can be based on them.

Case Study Method

Meaning:

The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a
careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an
institution, a cultural group or even the entire community.

It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study places more
emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their
interrelations.

The case study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship.

Characteristics:

Under this method the researcher can take one single social unit or more of such units
for his study purpose; he may even take a situation to study the same comprehensively.

Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in minute details.

In the context of this method we make complete study of the social unit covering all
facets.

Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative and not quantitative. Mere
quantitative information is not collected. Every possible effort is made to collect
 information concerning all aspects of life. As such, case study deepens our perception
and gives us a clear insight into life.

In respect of the case study method an effort is made to know the mutual inter-
relationship of causal face Under case study method the behavior pattern of the
concerning unit is studied directly and not by an indirect and abstract approach.

Potential Sources of Error in Research Desing

Total Error

Random Sampling Error Non-sampling Error

Response Error Non-response Error

Researcher Error Interviewer Error Respondent Error

Surrogate Information Error Respondent Selection Inability Error

Error
Measurement Error
Questioning Error Unwillingness
Population Definition Error
Recording Error
Error
Sampling Frame Error
Cheating Error
Data Analysis Error
  Types of Data & Measurement Scales/ levels of measurement in research
nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio

Nominal scale of measurement: also called the categorical variable scale, is defined as a scale
used for labeling variables into distinct classifications and doesn’t involve a quantitative value
or order. This scale is the simplest of the four variable measurement scales. Calculations done
on these variables will be futile as there is no numerical value of the options.

Ordinal Scale: is defined as a variable measurement scale used to simply depict the order of
variables and not the difference between each of the variables. These scales are generally used
to depict non-mathematical ideas such as frequency, satisfaction, happiness, a degree of pain
etc. It is quite straightforward to remember the implementation of this scale as ‘Ordinal’
sounds similar to ‘Order’, which is exactly the purpose of this scale.

Interval Scale: is defined as a numerical scale where the order of the variables is known as well
as the difference between these variables. Variables which have familiar, constant and
computable differences are classified using the Interval scale. It is easy to remember the
primary role of this scale too, ‘Interval’ indicates ‘distance between two entities’, which is what
Interval scale helps in achieving.

Ratio Scale: is defined as a variable measurement scale that not only produces the order of
variables but also makes the difference between variables known along with information on the
value of true zero. It is calculated by assuming that the variables have an option for zero, the
difference between the two variables is the same and there is a specific order between the
options.

With the option of true zero, varied inferential and descriptive analysis techniques can be
applied to the variables. In addition to the fact that the ratio scale does everything that a
nominal, ordinal and interval scale can do, it can also establish the value of absolute zero. Best
examples of ratio scales are weight and height. In market research, a ratio scale is used to
calculate market share, annual sales, the price of an upcoming product, number of consumers
etc.

Attitude measurement scale

Itemized Rating Scale: is an Ordinal Scale that has a brief description or numbers associated with
each category, ordered in terms of scale positions. The respondents are asked to select the
category that best describes the stimulus object being rated.
The following are the most commonly used itemized rating scales:
1. Likert Scale: A Likert Scale is a scale with five response categories that ranges from “strongly
disagree” to “strongly agree” ,where in the respondent is asked to indicate the degree of
agreement or disagreement with each of the statements related to the stimulus object under
analysis.

The format of a typical five-level Likert item, for example, could be:

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neither agree nor disagree
4. Agree
5. Strongly agree

2. Semantic Differential Scale: The semantic differential scale is a seven-point rating scale with
the extreme points having the semantic meaning. The scale is used to measure the meaning or
semantics of words, especially the bi-polar adjectives (such as “evil” or “good”, “warm” or
“cold”) to derive the respondent’s attitude towards the stimulus object.
3. Stapel Scale: Staple scale is a single adjective rating scale with 10 categories ranging from -5 to
+5 with no zero points. This scale is usually a vertical scale in which the single adjective is placed
in the middle of the even-numbered range (-5 to +5). The respondent is asked to identify how
correctly or incorrectly each term describes the stimulus object by choosing an appropriate
response category.
4. Multi Dimensional Scaling:It consists of a group of analytical techniques which are used to study
consumer attitudes related to perceptions and preferences. It is used to study-

I. The major attributes of a given class of products perceivedby the consumers in

considering the product and by which they compare the different ranks.
II. To study which brand competes most directly with each other.
III. To find out whether the consumers would like a new brand with a combination of
characteristics not found in the market.
IV. What would be the consumers ideal combination of product attributes.
V. What sales and advertising messages are compatible with consumers brand
perceptions.

It is a computer based technique. The respondents are asked to place the various brands
into different groups like similar, very similar, not similar, and so on. A goodness of fit is
traded off on a large number of attributes. Then a lack of fit index is calculated by computer
program. The purpose is to find a reasonably small number of dimensions which will
eliminate most of the stress. After the configuration for the consumer’s preference has been
developed, the next step is to determine the preference with regards to the product under
study. These techniques attempt to identify the product attributes that are important to
consumers and to measure their relative importance.
 This scaling involves a unrealistic assumption that a consumer who compares different
brands would perceive the differences on the basis of only one attribute. For example, what
are the attributes for joining M.Com course. The responses may be -to do PG, to go into
teaching line,to get knowledge, appearing in the NET. There are a number of attributes, you
can not base decision on one attribute only. Therefore, when the consumers are choosing
between brands, they base their decision on various attributes. In practice, the perceptions
of the consumers involve different attributes and any one consumer perceives each brand
as a composite of a number of different attributes. This is a shortcoming of this scale.

Whenever we choose from a number of alternatives, go for multi- dimensional scaling. There
are many possible uses of such scaling like in market segmentation, product life cycle,
vendor evaluations and advertising media selection.

The limitation of this scale is that it is difficult to clearly define the concept of similarities and
preferences. Further the distances between the items are seen as different

b. Thurston Scales
These are also known as equal appearing interval scales. They are used to measure the
attitude towards a given concept or construct. For this purpose a large number of
statements are collected that relate to the concept or construct being measured. The judges
rate these statements along an 11 category scale in which each category expresses a
different degree of favourableness towards the concept. The items are then ranked
according to the mean or median ratings assigned by the judges and are used to construct
questionnaire of twenty to thirty items that are chosen more or less evenly across the range
of ratings.

The statements are worded in such a way so that a person can agree or disagree with them.
The scale is then administered to assemble of respondents whose scores are determined by
computing the mean or median value of the items agreed with. A person who disagrees with
all the items has a score of zero. So, the advantage of this scale is that it is an interval
measurement scale. But it is the time consuming method and labour intensive. They are
commonly used in psychology and education research.

5.