CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION ............. A GENERAL SURVEY

Language is a unique combination of sound and sense. It means that it is an expressed

idea where speech sounds combined into words. Otherwise it can be said that language is
a mode of speaking or writing common to a group of people.1 Therefore, the primary

object of linguistic approach is language. India is a vast country and we have an amazing
collection of languages and dialects, which enhanced our literature from ancient to
modem. Before we go through the divisions or classifications of Indian languages, we
have to see the origin of Indian languages. Actually, languages of the world are of two
types — classified and unclassified. The following chart shows the origin of Indian
languages:—

Branches of Classified Languages of World 2

1r
f l '
1
Indo-European Bantu Turka-Mohgal Dravidian Vote-Chinese Eskimo
(i) (Hi) (v) (vfi) (ix) (xi)
' '’ ' * ' r ▼

Semitic- Finno- Kakesian Austric North- Old languages

Hemitic Ugriya Eastern of America
(ii) (iv) (vi) (viii) (x) (xu)

1. Asher. R.E.(ed.), The Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics,(Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1994), v.4,
-1896.
Cl
r

. Sen. S.. Bhasar Itivrtta. (Calcutta: Ananda Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1999). p-69.
i

3
 The Branches Of Indo-European
_______________ I_____________

Centum Satam

n
i
i
Greek Germanic Tokharian Albanian Armenian
(i) , , (iii) (v) (i) , (“0 ,
Latin Ki itic Balto-Slavic Aryan ( ndo-Iranian)
(ii) (iv) (ii) (iv)
1
Iranian
i
Dardic Indian
r
(i) (ii) (iii)
The linguistic history of India is great. The Indo-Aryan languages, which happened to be
the mother of other Indian languages was initially, introduced in India by the intruding
Aryans during 1500 B.C. Chronologically the Indo-Aryan languages are divided into
three distinct categories and these are — (1) Old-Indo-Aryan (1500B.C. to 600B.C.), (2)
Middle-Indo-Aryan (600B.C. to . 12.00A.D.) and (3) New-Indo-Aryan (1200 A.D.). 34 In
each period there was literary ‘standard’ dialect, which constitute our main source of
information regarding the phonetics and other details of the various spoken dialects also.5

Actually, Language, the medium of communication, can not be bound by time. It is really
difficult to say when the particular language is evolved. Its area can be described, its
development can be examined, its grammar can be explained and its characteristics can
be discussed. But the correct time of its evolution just is apprehended. It is important to
say that we can discuss about its ranges (in respect of popular use). However, the object
of this study is to see the historical development of Middle-Indo-Aryan Language with
reference to Buddhist Literature and Epigraphy. So, we have to consider both languages
of the inscription and literature.

3.Baneijee, S.R., A Handbook of Sanskrit Philology, (Calcutta: Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar, 2000), p-xxi.

4.Chatterjee. S.K.. On the Development of Ml A,(Calcutta : Sanskrit College, 1983), p-1.

5. Taraporewala, U S.,Clements of the Science of Language.(Calcutta rllniversity of Calcutta, 1978). p-24I

4
The total range of the development of Middle-Indo-Aryan language is vast It plays a
great part in the formation of modem Indian vernaculars. The probable date of the
emergence of Buddhism in India is 6th century B.C. 6 It is a noticeable factor that the

formation and growth of the Classical (Sanskrit) stage synchronized with the-time of the
rise of Buddhism. Buddhism virtually disappeared from the land of its birth by 12th
century A.D,7 but was established throughout the rest of Asia. Pali, Prakrit, Prakrit

influenced by Sanskrit and Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit (formerly known as

Epigraphical Hybrid Sanskrit and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit respectively), belonging to
the category of MIA languages contained vast amount of historical materials related to
Buddhism. Pali is the language of the sthaviravSda (Theravada). On the other hand, while
the Sarvastivada sect composed Tipitaka in Mixed Sanskrit (Sanskrit Buddhist literature),
Sammitfyas composed the same in Apabhram^a and Mahasamghikas composed the same
in Prakrit8

As far as my observation is concerned, Middle-Indo-Aryan language can be divided into

four stages from linguistic point of view. The first stage ranging from 6Q0 B.C. to 100
B.C., consists of Pali and Prakrit All the texts of Pali canonical literature Tipitaka were
written within this period. The earliest written document of Prakrt is Piprahwa Buddhist
Vase inscription (5th century B.C.) .9 Later, all the Asokan inscriptions are included in
this phase.10 Again, Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga is also belonged to

this period because it has close resemblance with the Gimar version of Asoka and with
Pali.*11 The second stage is the transition period (100B.C. - 400A.D.). In this phase or

period we have four languages, which are found in the records (epigraphs, manuscripts)
related to Buddhism. The languages are — (i) Prakrit, (ii) Prakrit influenced by Sanskrit,

6. Haldar(De), M.K. Bauddhadhamer Itihas, (Calcutta :Mahabodhi Book Agency, 1996), p-1.
7. Asher. R.E., The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, (Oxford : Pergamon Press. 1994), p-422.
8. Bandopadhyaya,A.C.Buddha O Bauddhadharma.fCalcutta :Firma K.LM Pvt. Ltd., 1989), p-96.
9. Pandey, R.B.. Historical and Literary Inscriptions, (Varanasi :The Chowkhamba Sanskrit
Studies, v.xxii. The Chowkhamba Series Office, 1962). p-1.
10. Majumdar. P.C., Sanskrita O Prakrt Bhasar Kramavikas*. (Calcutta : Saraswat Library, 1971). p-269.
11. ibid., p-291.

5
 (iii)Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit and (iv) Languages of the fragments of Aivaghosa’s

drama. It is important say that the languages — Prakrit and Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit
are found both in epigraphs and manuscripts and the Prakrit influenced by Sanskrit are
only found in epigraphs. Though Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit is found both in
manuscripts and epigraphs, but as they do not deals with the Buddhism, so the
manuscripts, i.e., literatures are taken for the study only. Although our discussion is about
the development of Middle-Indo-Aryan languages, but Sanskrit literatures, mainly drama,
are taken where we get the application of different dialects of Prakrit languages. It is
important to mention that in the fragments of in Asvaghosa’s drama (restored and edited
by H.Luders), we get three distinct dialects of Prakrit, viz., Old MagadhT, Old SaurasenT
and Old Ardha MagadhT according to Liiders.12 He also claimed that those three dialects

conform to the phonetic standard of Pali and has several similarities and dissimilarities
with the Asokan Prakrit. 13 However, it is really of great importance in case of the history

of Indian languages as well as the development of Middle-Indo-Aryan language.

The period between 400 A.D. and 600A.D. is a particular stage of development of literary
Prakrits such as Maharastri, SaurasenT, MSgadhT, Ardha-MagadhT and PaisacT The
aforesaid literary Prakrits have also several sub-dialects of them. Unfortunately we have
not any Buddhist literature written in any of the literary Prakrits, still I have to consider
those in my work because the development of the Middle-Indo-Aryan language will be
incomplete until and unless I mention it.

In the next phase, between 600A.D. and 1200A.D, the later development of MIA (Apab­
hramsa and avahattha) will be discussed. Dr. Sukumar Sen also given a chart of the Apa-
bhramsa where shows the time of Apabhramsa is between 350 A.D. and 650A.D. 14

Again, Dr. Suniti Kumar Chattel]ee shows Apabhramsa of different dialects of Prakrits
like Maharastri Apabhramsa, SaurasenT Apabhramsa, MSgadhT Apabhramsa etc. 15 But,

12. Sen, S., A Comparative Grammar of MIA, (Poona : Linguistic Society of India, Decan College, 1960).
p-I2.
13. ibid.
14. ibid., p-4.
15. Chatterjee, S.K.,Origin and Development of Bengali Language. (London : George Allen and Unwin
Ltd.. 1970). v. 1, p- Face Page 6.

6
 S.M.Katre claimed that Apabhramsa was used in the East of India by the Northern
Buddhists. 16 It is important to mention here that according to Vimtadeva (8th century

A.D.) Apabhramsa used by the Sammifiya sect of Buddhists, Prakrit by the

Mahasanghikas and Pai^acT by the Sthaviravadins in their religious literature. However,

Apabhramsa is basically the late form of Prakrit. It may be put in other way that the
Prakrit language due to its locational variation, assumed some phonological and
morphological changes, which ultimately had come to be known as Apabhramsa.
The ultimate form of Apabhramki is known as Avahattha or Apabhrasta, which in other

way is the ruin of Prakrit language. 17 Abhibhrasta is a synonym of MIA

Avahattha(‘fallen down’). 18 Mahamahopaddhyaya, Dr. H.P.Shastri used the special

terminology regarding the language of the Dohas is ‘Sandhya-Bhasa’ (twilight

language).19 But Pandit Bidhusekhar Bhattacharya corrected it as Sandhabhasa
(intentional speech). 20 Tibetan translators and commentators also confirm that the
meaning of the term ‘Sandha-Bhasa’ is ‘intentional speech’. 21 However, the Buddhist

Dohas are written in a late or simplified form of Apabhramsa. It is important to note that
the literary evidence of Avahattha language is of two types geographically — (i) Western
and (ii) Eastern. Western Avahattha prevalent in Sauraseru Prakrit region was full of
linguistic material. 23 Eastern Avahattha correspond the works of Kanha, Saraha and Tillo

(Buddhist Siddhas). In this period erotic Buddhism of Eastern India, was called Sahaja. It
reflects in the Avahattha
••
literature.

16. Katre, S.M.,Priikrt Languages and their Contribution to Indian Culture,(Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya
Bhavan, 1945), p-22.
17. Majumdar, P.C., Sahskrt O Prakrt Bhasar K^amavikas,, op.cit. p-335.

18. Sen,S.K.,Proto New-Indo-Aryan, (Calcutta :Eastem Publishers, 1973), p-13.

19. Bagchi.P.C., in collaboration with Santi Bhiksu Shastri, Caryagitikosa of Buddhist Siddhas.
(Santiniketan :Viswa Bharati,195), p-xi.
20. ibid.
21. ibid.
22. . Sen.S.K..Proto New-!ndo-Arvan, op.cit.
23. ibid.

7
The total range is shown in the following chart-----

INDO-ARYAN

1
1 I i
Old-Indo-Aryan Middle-Indo-Aryan N ew-Indo-Aryan
(1500B.C.-600 B.C.) (600B.C.-1200A.D.) (After 1000 A.D.)
[OLA] [MIA] [NIA]
1
▼
1st MIA (600B.C.-100B.C.)

I
Pali
l
Asokan Prakrit
1

Transitional Stage (100 B.C. -400 A.D.)

r
Prakrit
I
Prakrit influenced
I
Sanskrit influenced
1
Languages of the
By Sanskrit by Prakrit fragments of
A^vaghosa’s drama
1

2"1 MIA (400 A.D. - 600 A.D.)

Literary Prakrits / Dialects of Prakrit

MSharastn MagadhT Saurasem Ardha-MiSgadhT PaisScf

1

3rd MIA (600A.D.-1200A.D.)

Apabhramsa

Avahattha

8
 Phonology of each and language of each stare will be discussed only in my paper.
Therefore, the development of the total range of MIA will be shown from the
phonological point of view.
The work also contains the palaeographic records of MIA languages. As regards the
Palaeographic records of MIA language it may be mentioned that the Mahenjadaro and
Harappan scripts represented the oldest form of writing. 24 These scripts are not basically
the Aryan in origin but can be considered as the primitive form of Dravidian script. 25 On

the other hand, the BrahmT was the oldest script, which was introduced to write the Aryan
language in India. Mauryan period onwards many old Prakrit inscriptions were found
written in BrahmT and Kharotthi scripts. Subsequently, more developed BrahmT and
KharotthT scripts were found to be used in inscriptions of Kusana kings and scriptures is
Sanskrit Buddhist (100A.D.-400A.D.). Between 400A.D. and 600A.D,, the scriptures and
Sanskrit and Sanskrit dramas were written in developed BrahmT with its regional variety.
The period between 600A.D. and 1200A.D. witnessed the development and use of the
BrahmT belonging to Northern and Southern classes in different religious scriptures and
use of Apabhramsa and Avahattha in SSrada and Newari scripts respectively.26

******************

24. Hazra. K.L.,Pali Language and Literature, (New Delhi: D.K.Print World (P) Ltd.,1994) v.l, p-49.
25. ibid.
26. ibid.