Sensor Signal Conditoning

MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM
SENSORS AND ACTUATOR

LECTURE NOTE #5:
SEMSOR SIGNAL CONDITIONING
Dr. Ir. Hanny J. Berchmans, M.T., M.Sc.

Saturday, 6 July 2019
OUTLINE
 Introduction
 Conditioning Bridge Circuits
 Amplifiers for Signal Conditioning
 Analog to Digital Converters for Signal Conditioning
 Signal Conditioning High Impedance Sensors
INTRODUCTION
 Typically a sensor cannot be directly connected to the

instruments that record, monitor, or process its signal, because
the signal may be incompatible or may be too weak and/or noisy.
The signal must be conditioned—i.e., cleaned up, amplified, and
put into a compatible format.
 In electronics, signal conditioning means manipulating an analog
signal in such a way that it meets the requirements of the next
stage for further processing. Most common use is in analog-to-
digital converters.
 In control engineering applications, it is common to have a
sensing stage (which consists of a sensor), a signal conditioning
stage (where usually amplification of the signal is done) and a
processing stage (normally carried out by an ADC and a micro-
controller). Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are commonly
employed to carry out the amplification of the signal in the signal
conditioning stage.
INTRODUCTION
 Applications of Signal Conditioning

 It is primarily utilized for data acquisition, in which sensor signals must be
normalized and filtered to levels suitable for analog-to-digital conversion so
they can be read by computerized devices. Other uses include preprocessing
signals in order to reduce computing time, converting ranged data to boolean
values, for example when knowing when a sensor has reached certain value.
 Types of devices that use signal conditioning include signal filters, instrument
amplifiers, sample-and-hold amplifiers, isolation amplifiers, signal isolators,
multiplexers, bridge conditioners, analog-to-digital converters, digital-to-analog
converters, frequency converters or translators, voltage converters or inverters,
frequency-to-voltage converters, voltage-to-frequency converters, current-to-
voltage converters, current loop converters, and charge converters.
Analoge to Digital Conversion Digital to Analoge Conversion

INTRODUCTION
 Signal inputs accepted by signal conditioners include DC voltage and current, AC

voltage and current, frequency and electric charge. Sensor inputs can be
accelerometer, thermocouple, thermistor, resistance thermometer, strain gauge or
bridge, and LVDT or RVDT. Specialized inputs include encoder, counter or
tachometer, timer or clock, relay or switch, and other specialized inputs. Outputs for
signal conditioning equipment can be voltage, current, frequency, timer or counter,
relay, resistance or potentiometer, and other specialized outputs.
 Signal conditioning processes:
1. Filtering is the most common signal conditioning function, as usually not all the
signal frequency spectrum contains valid data. The common example is 50/60
Hz AC power lines, present in most environments, which will produce noise if
amplified.
INTRODUCTION
 Signal Filtering:
1. Linear continuous-time filters Linear continuous-time circuit is perhaps the
most common meaning for filter in the signal processing world, and simply
"filter" is often taken to be synonymous. These circuits are generally designed
to remove certain frequencies and allow others to pass. Circuits that perform
this function are generally linear in their response, or at least approximately so.
Any nonlinearity would potentially result in the output signal containing
frequency components not present in the input signal.
 The modern design methodology for linear continuous-time filters is called network
synthesis. Some important filter families designed in this way are:
1. Chebyshev filter, has the best approximation to the ideal response of any
filter for a specified order and ripple.
2. Butterworth filter, has a maximally flat frequency response.
3. Bessel filter, has a maximally flat phase delay.
4. Elliptic filter, has the steepest cutoff of any filter for a specified order and
ripple.
 The difference between these filter families is that they all use a different polynomial
function to approximate to the ideal filter response. This results in each having a
different transfer function.
INTRODUCTION
 Signal Filtering:
1. Linear continuous-time filters
 The frequency response can be classified into a number of different band
forms describing which frequency bands the filter passes (the passband)
and which it rejects (the stopband):
 Low-pass filter – low frequencies are passed, high frequencies are attenuated.
 High-pass filter – high frequencies are passed, low frequencies are attenuated.
 Band-pass filter – only frequencies in a frequency band are passed.
 Band-stop filter or band-reject filter – only frequencies in a frequency band are
attenuated.
 Notch filter – rejects just one specific frequency - an extreme band-stop filter.
 Comb filter – has multiple regularly spaced narrow passbands giving the band form
the appearance of a comb.
 All-pass filter – all frequencies are passed, but the phase of the output is modified.
 Some Terminology:
 Cutoff frequency is the frequency beyond which the filter will not pass signals. It is usually measured at a specific
attenuation such as 3 dB.
 Roll-off is the rate at which attenuation increases beyond the cut-off frequency.
 Transition band, the (usually narrow) band of frequencies between a passband and stopband.
 Ripple is the variation of the filter's insertion loss in the passband.
 The order of a filter is the degree of the approximating polynomial and in passive filters corresponds to the number
of elements required to build it. Increasing order increases roll-off and brings the filter closer to the ideal response.
INTRODUCTION
 Filter Technologies
Filters can be built in a number of different technologies. The same transfer function can
be realized in several different ways, that is the mathematical properties of the filter are
the same but the physical properties are quite different. Often the components in different
technologies are directly analogous to each other and fulfill the same role in their
respective filters. For instance, the resistors, inductors and capacitors of electronics
correspond respectively to dampers, masses and springs in mechanics. Likewise, there
are corresponding components in distributed element filters.
INTRODUCTION
 Filter Technologies
 Electronic filters were originally entirely passive consisting of resistance, inductance and
capacitance. Active technology makes design easier and opens up new possibilities in filter
specifications.
 Digital filters operate on signals represented in digital form. The essence of a digital filter is
that it directly implements a mathematical algorithm, corresponding to the desired filter transfer
function, in its programming or microcode.
 Mechanical filters are built out of mechanical components. In the vast majority of cases they
are used to process an electronic signal and transducers are provided to convert this to and
from a mechanical vibration. However, examples do exist of filters that have been designed for
operation entirely in the mechanical domain.
 Distributed element filters are constructed out of components made from small pieces of
transmission line or other distributed elements. There are structures in distributed element
filters that directly correspond to the lumped elements of electronic filters, and others that are
unique to this class of technology.
 Waveguide filters consist of waveguide components or components inserted in the
waveguide. Waveguides are a class of transmission line and many structures of distributed
element filters, for instance the stub (electronics), can also be implemented in waveguides.
 Crystal filters use quartz crystals as resonators, or some other piezoelectric material.
 Acoustic filters
 Optical filters were originally developed for purposes other than signal processing such as
lighting and photography. With the rise of optical fiber technology, however, optical filters
increasingly find signal processing applications and signal processing filter terminology, such as
longpass and shortpass, are entering the field.
INTRODUCTION
A low-pass electronic filter realized by A digital filter Acoustic filter

an RC circuit
Crystal filter
Mechanical filter from a telephone

carrier system using torsional Optical filter
resonator elements
INTRODUCTION

2. Amplifying. Signal amplification performs two important functions: increases
the resolution of the input signal, and increases its signal-to-noise ratio. For
example, the output of an electronic temperature sensor, which is probably in
the millivolts range is probably too low for an analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
to process directly. In this case it is necessary to bring the voltage level up to
that required by the ADC. Commonly used amplifiers on signal on conditioning
include sample and hold amplifiers, peak detectors, log amplifiers, antilog
amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers and programmable gain amplifiers.
Op Amp Circuit
The blue signal is an amplification of
the red signal with gain 2
INTRODUCTION
 Electronic amplifier:
 is an electronic device that can increase the power of a signal. An amplifier
functions by taking power from a power supply and controlling the output to
match the input signal shape but with a larger amplitude.
 In this sense, an amplifier modulates the output of the power supply based
upon the properties of the input signal. An amplifier is effectively the opposite
of an attenuator: while an amplifier provides gain, an attenuator provides loss.
 An amplifier can either be a discrete piece of equipment or an electrical circuit
contained within another device.
 Amplification is fundamental to modern electronics, and amplifiers are widely
used in almost all electronic equipment.
 Amplifiers can be categorized in different ways. One is by the frequency of the
electronic signal being amplified; audio amplifiers amplify signals in the audio
(sound) range of less than 20 kHz, RF amplifiers amplify frequencies in the
radio frequency range between 20 kHz and 300 GHz. Another is which
quantity, voltage or current is being amplified; amplifiers can be divided into
voltage amplifiers, current amplifiers, trans conductance amplifiers, and trans
resistance amplifiers.
INTRODUCTION

2. Isolation.
 Signal isolation must be used in order to pass the signal from the source to the
measuring device without a physical connection: it is often used to isolate possible
sources of signal perturbations. Also notable is that it is important to isolate the
potentially expensive equipment used to process the signal after conditioning from
the sensor. Magnetic or optic isolation can be used.
 Magnetic isolation transforms the signal from voltage to a magnetic field, allowing
the signal to be transmitted without a physical connection (for example, using a
transformer). Optic isolation takes an electronic signal and modulates it to a signal
coded by light transmission (optical encoding), which is then used for input for the
next stage of processing.
A signal isolator in the process loop block ground currents to restore signal accuracy and reliability
OUTLINE
 Introduction
Conditioning Bridge
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM Circuits
Introduction
 Resistive elements are some of the most common sensors. They are inexpensive to
manufacture and relatively easy to interface with signal conditioning circuits. Resistive
elements can be made sensitive to temperature, strain (by pressure or by flex), and light.
Using these basic elements, many complex physical phenomena can be measured, such
as fluid or mass flow (by sensing the temperature difference between two calibrated
resistances) and dew-point humidity (by measuring two different temperature points), etc.
Bridge circuits are often incorporated into force, pressure and acceleration sensors.
 Sensor elements’ resistances can range from less than 100 Ω to several hundred kΩ,
depending on the sensor design and the physical environment to be measured. For
example, RTDs (resistance temperature devices) are typically 100 Ω or 1000 Ω.
Thermistors are typically 3500 Ω or higher.
RTD Circuits
Thermistor Circuits
Conditioning Bridge
Bridge Circuits
 Resistive sensors such as RTDs and strain gages produce small percentage changes in
resistance in response to a change in a physical variable such as temperature or force.
Platinum RTDs have a temperature coefficient of about 0.385%/°C. Thus, in order to
accurately resolve temperature to 1°C, the measurement accuracy must be much better
than 0.385 Ω, for a 100 Ω RTD.
 Strain gages present a significant measurement challenge because the typical change in
resistance over the entire operating range of a strain gage may be less than 1% of the
nominal resistance value. Accurately measuring small resistance changes is therefore
critical when applying resistive sensors.
 One technique for measuring resistance is to force a constant current through the resistive
sensor and measure the voltage output. This requires both an accurate current source and
an accurate means of measuring the voltage. Any change in the current will be interpreted
as a resistance change. In addition, the power dissipation in the resistive sensor must be
small, in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations, so that self-heating does
not produce errors, therefore the drive current must be small.
Measuring resistance indirectly

using a constant current source.
Conditioning Bridge
Bridge Circuits
 Bridges offer an attractive alternative for measuring small resistance changes
accurately. The basic Wheatstone bridge (actually developed by S. H. Christie in 1833) is
shown in Figure below. It consists of four resistors connected to form a quadrilateral, a
source of excitation (voltage or current) connected across one of the diagonals, and a
voltage detector connected across the other diagonal. The detector measures the
difference between the outputs of two voltage dividers connected across the excitation.
 A bridge measures resistance indirectly by comparison with a similar resistance. The two
principal ways of operating a bridge are as a null detector or as a device that reads a
difference directly as voltage.
 When R1/R4 = R2/R3, the resistance bridge is at a null,
regardless of the mode of excitation (current or voltage, AC
or DC), the magnitude of excitation, the mode of readout
(current or voltage), or the impedance of the detector.
Therefore, if the ratio of R2/R3 is fixed at K, a null is
achieved when R1 = K·R4. If R1 is unknown and R4 is an
accurately determined variable resistance, the magnitude of
R1 can be found by adjusting R4 until null is achieved.
Conversely, in sensor-type measurements, R4 may be a
fixed reference, and a null occurs when the magnitude of
the external variable (strain, temperature, etc.) is such that The Wheatstone bridge.
R1 = K·R4.
Conditioning Bridge
 For the majority of sensor applications employing bridges, however, the deviation of one or
more resistors in a bridge from an initial value is measured as an indication of the
magnitude (or a change) in the measured variable. In this case, the output voltage change
is an indication of the resistance change. Because very small resistance changes are
common, the output voltage change may be as small as tens of millivolts, even with VB =
10 V (a typical excitation voltage for a load cell application).
 In many bridge applications, there may be two, or even four, elements that vary. Figure
below shows the four commonly used bridges suitable for sensor applications and the
corresponding equations which relate the bridge output voltage to the excitation voltage
and the bridge resistance values. In this case, we assume a constant voltage drive, VB.
Note that since the bridge output is directly proportional to VB, the measurement accuracy
can be no better than that of the accuracy of the excitation voltage.
 In each case, the value of the fixed bridge
resistor, R, is chosen to be equal to the nominal
value of the variable resistor(s). The deviation of
the variable resistor(s) about the nominal value
is proportional to the quantity being measured,
such as strain (in the case of a strain gage) or
temperature (in the case of an RTD).
Output voltage and linearity error for constant voltage

drive bridge configurations.
Conditioning Bridge
Sensitivity of a bridge
 The sensitivity of a bridge is the ratio of the maximum expected change in the output
voltage to the excitation voltage. For instance, if VB = 10 V, and the full-scale bridge
output is 10 mV, then the sensitivity is 1 mV/V.
 The single-element varying bridge is most suited for temperature sensing using RTDs or
thermistors. This configuration is also used with a single resistive strain gage. All the
resistances are nominally equal, but one of them (the sensor) is variable by an amount
ΔR. As the equation indicates, the relationship between the bridge output and ΔR is not
linear. For example, if R = 100 Ω, and ΔR = 0.152, (0.1% change in resistance), the output
of the bridge is 2.49875 mV for VB = 10 V. The error is 2.50000 mV – 2.49875 mV, or
0.00125 mV. Converting this to a percent of full scale by dividing by 2.5 mV yields an end-
point linearity error in percent of approximately 0.05%. (Bridge end-point linearity error is
calculated as the worst error in % FS from a straight line which connects the origin and the
end point at FS, i.e. the FS gain error is not included). If ΔR = 1 Ω (1% change in
resistance), the output of the bridge is 24.8756 mV, representing an end-point linearity
error of approximately 0.5%. The end-point linearity error of the single-element bridge can
be expressed in equation form:
Single-Element Varying Bridge End-Point Linearity Error ≈ % Change in Resistance ÷ 2
 It should be noted that the above nonlinearity refers to the nonlinearity of the bridge itself
and not the sensor. In practice, most sensors exhibit a certain amount of their own
nonlinearity which must be accounted for in the final measurement.
Conditioning Bridge
 In some applications, the bridge nonlinearity may be acceptable, but there are various
methods available to linearize bridges. Since there is a fixed relationship between the
bridge resistance change and its output (shown in the equations), software can be used to
remove the linearity error in digital systems. Circuit techniques can also be used to
linearize the bridge output directly.
 There are two possibilities to consider in the case of the two-element varying bridge. In the
first, Case (1), both elements change in the same direction, such as two identical strain
gages mounted adjacent to each other with their axes in parallel. The nonlinearity is the
same as that of the single-element varying bridge, however the gain is twice that of the
single-element varying bridge. The two-element varying bridge is commonly found in
pressure sensors and flow meter systems. A second configuration of the two-element
varying bridge, Case (2), requires two identical elements that vary in opposite directions.
This could correspond to two identical strain gages: one mounted on top of a flexing
surface, and one on the bottom. Note that this configuration is linear, and like two-element
Case (1), has twice the gain of the single-element configuration. Another way to view this
configuration is to consider the terms R + ΔR and R – ΔR as comprising the two sections
of a center-tapped potentiometer.
 The all-element varying bridge produces the most signal for a given resistance change and
is inherently linear. It is an industry-standard configuration for load cells which are
constructed from four identical strain gages.
Conditioning Bridge
 Bridges may also be driven from constant current sources as shown in Figure below.
Current drive, although not as popular as voltage drive, has an advantage when the bridge
is located remotely from the source of excitation because the wiring resistance does not
introduce errors in the measurement. Note also that with constant current excitation, all
configurations are linear with the exception of the single-element varying case.
 In summary, there are many design issues relating to bridge circuits. After selecting the
basic configuration, the excitation method must be determined. The value of the
excitation voltage or current must first be determined. Recall that the full scale bridge
output is directly proportional to the excitation voltage (or current). Typical bridge
sensitivities are 1 mV/V to 10 mV/V.
Although large excitation voltages yield
proportionally larger full scale output voltages,
they also result in higher power dissipation and
the possibility of sensor resistor self-heating
errors. On the other hand, low values of excitation
voltage require more gain in the conditioning
circuits and increase the sensitivity to noise.
 Regardless of its value, the stability of the
excitation voltage or current directly affects the
overall accuracy of the bridge output. Stable
references and/or ratio-metric techniques are
Output voltage and linearity error for constant current drive
required to maintain desired accuracy. bridge configurations.
Conditioning Bridge
HOMEWORK.
1. What do you need to consider carefully in the selection Wheatstone Bridge for your
transducer signal conditioning?
2. What the level of linearity error in (i) single element varying, (ii) double element
varying and (iv) all element varying?
Conditioning Bridge
Amplifying and Linearizing Bridge Outputs
 The output of a single-element varying bridge may be amplified by a single precision op-amp
connected in the inverting mode as shown in figure a below. This circuit, although simple, has
poor gain accuracy and also unbalances the bridge due to loading from Rf (feedback resistor)
and the op amp bias current. The Rf resistors must be carefully chosen and matched to
maximize the common mode rejection (CMR). Also it is difficult to maximize the CMR while at
the same time allowing different gain options. In addition, the output is nonlinear. The key
redeeming feature of the circuit is that it is capable of single supply operation and requires a
single op amp. Note that the RF resistor connected to the non-inverting input is returned to VS/2
(rather than ground) so that both positive and negative values of ΔR can be accommodated, and
the op amp output is referenced to VS/2.
a. Using a single op amp

as a bridge amplifier for a
single-element varying
bridge.
Conditioning Bridge

 A much better approach is to use an instrumentation amplifier (in-amp)
as shown in figure b. This efficient circuit provides better gain accuracy
(usually set with a single resistor, RG) and does not unbalance the
bridge. Excellent common mode rejection can be achieved with modern
in-amps. Due to the bridge’s intrinsic characteristics, the output is
nonlinear, but this can be corrected in the software (assuming that the
in-amp output is digitized using an analog-to-digital converter and
followed by a microcontroller or microprocessor.
b. Using an
instrumentation
amplifier
with a single-
element varying
bridge.
Conditioning Bridge
 Various techniques are available to linearize bridges, but it is important to distinguish between
the linearity of the bridge equation and the linearity of the sensor response to the phenomenon
being sensed. For example, if the active element is an RTD, the bridge used to implement the
measurement might have perfectly adequate linearity; yet the output could still be nonlinear due
to the RTD’s nonlinearity. Manufacturers of sensors employing bridges address the nonlinearity
issue in a variety of ways, including keeping the resistive swings in the bridge small, shaping
complementary nonlinear response into the active elements of the bridge, using resistive trims
for first-order corrections, and others.
 Figure below shows a single-element varying active bridge in which an op amp produces a
forced null, by adding a voltage in series with the variable arm. That voltage is equal in
magnitude and opposite in polarity to the incremental voltage across the varying element and is
linear with ΔR. Since it is an op amp output, it can be used as a low impedance output point for
the bridge measurement. This active bridge has a gain of two over the standard single-element
varying bridge, and the output is linear, even for large values of ΔR. Because of the small output
signal, this bridge must usually be followed by a second amplifier. The amplifier used in this
circuit requires dual supplies because its output must go negative.
Linearizing a single-
element
varying bridge
method 1.
Conditioning Bridge
Driving Bridges
Wiring resistance and noise pickup are the biggest problems associated with remotely located bridges. Figure below
shows a 350 Ω strain gage which is connected to the rest of the bridge circuit by 100 feet of 30 gage twisted pair copper
wire. The resistance of the wire at 25°C is 0.105 Ω/ft, or 10.5 Ω for 100ft. The total lead resistance in series with the 350
Ω strain gage is therefore 21 Ω. The Temperature Coefficient (TC) of the copper wire is 0.385%/°C. Now we will
calculate the gain and offset error in the bridge output due to a +10°C temperature rise in the cable. These calculations
are easy to make, because the bridge output voltage is simply the difference between the output of two voltage dividers,
each driven from a +10 V source. The full-scale variation of the strain gage resistance (with flex) above its nominal 350
Ω value is +1% (+3.5 Ω), corresponding to a full-scale strain gage resistance of 353.5 Ω, which causes a bridge output
voltage of +23.45 mV.
Notice that the addition of the 21 Ω RCOMP resistor compensates for the wiring resistance and balances the bridge when
the strain gage resistance is 350 Ω. Without RCOMP, the bridge would have an output offset voltage of 145.63 mV for a
nominal strain gage resistance of 350 Ω. This offset could be compensated for in software just as easily, but for this
example, we chose to do it with RCOMP. Assume that the cable temperature increases +10°C above nominal room
temperature. This results in a total lead resistance increase of +0.404 Ω (10.5 Ω × 0.00385/°C × 10°C) in each lead.
Note: The values in parentheses in the diagram indicate the
values at +35°C. The total additional lead resistance (of the
two leads) is +0.808 Ω. With no strain, this additional lead
resistance produces an offset of +5.44 mV in the bridge
output. Full-scale strain produces a bridge output of +28.83
mV (a change of +23.39 mV from no strain). Thus the
increase in temperature produces an offset voltage error of
+5.44 mV (+23% full scale) and a gain error of –0.06 mV
(23.39 mV – 23.45 mV), or –0.26% full scale. Note that these
errors are produced solely by the 30 gage wire, and do not
include any temperature coefficient errors in the strain gage
itself. Errors produced by wiring resistance for remote resistive bridge sensor
Conditioning Bridge
Errors produced by wiring resistance

for remote resistive bridge sensor
Conditioning Bridge
Driving Bridges
The effects of wiring resistance on the bridge output can be minimized by the 3-wire connection shown in Figure
(a) below. We assume that the bridge output voltage is measured by a high impedance device, therefore there is no
current in the sense lead. Note that the sense lead measures the voltage output of a divider: the top half is the bridge
resistor plus the lead resistance, and the bottom half is strain gage resistance plus the lead resistance. The nominal
sense voltage is therefore independent of the lead resistance. When the strain gage resistance increases to full scale
(353.5 Ω,), the bridge output increases to +24.15 mV.
Increasing the temperature to +35°C increases the lead resistance by +0.404 Ω in each half of the divider. The
full scale bridge output voltage decreases to +24.13 mV because of the small loss in sensitivity, but there is no
offset error. The gain error due to the temperature increase of +10°C is therefore only –0.02 mV, or –0.08% of
full scale. Compare this to the +23% full scale offset error and the –0.26% gain error for the two-wire connection
shown in Figure (b).
(a) 3-wire connection to remote bridge element (b) Errors produced by wiring resistance
(single-element varying). for remote resistive bridge sensor.
Conditioning Bridge
Driving Bridges
The three-wire method works well for remotely located resistive elements which make up one leg
of a single-element varying bridge. However, all-element varying bridges generally are housed in
a complete assembly, as in the case of a load cell. When these bridges are remotely located from
the conditioning electronics, special techniques must be used to maintain accuracy.
Of particular concern is maintaining the accuracy and stability of the bridge excitation voltage. The
bridge output is directly proportional to the excitation voltage, and any drift in the excitation
voltage produces a corresponding drift in the output voltage.
For this reason, most all-element varying bridges (such as load cells) are six-lead assemblies: two
leads for the bridge output, two leads for the bridge excitation, and two sense leads. This method
(called Kelvin or 4-wire sensing) is shown in Figure below. The sense lines go to high impedance
op amp inputs, so there is minimal error due to the bias current induced voltage drop across their
lead resistance.
The op amps maintain the required excitation voltage to
make the voltage measured between the sense leads
always equal to VB. Although Kelvin sensing eliminates
errors due to voltage drops in the wiring resistance, the
drive voltages must still be highly stable since they directly
affect the bridge output voltage. In addition, the op amps
must have low offset, low drift, and low noise.
Kelvin (4-wire) sensing
minimizes errors due to lead resistance
Conditioning Bridge
Driving Bridges
The constant current excitation method shown in Figure (a) below is another method for minimizing the
effects of wiring resistance on the measurement accuracy. However, the accuracy of the reference, the
sense resistor, and the op amp all influence the overall accuracy.
A very powerful ratiometric technique which includes Kelvin sensing to minimize errors due to wiring
resistance and also eliminates the need for an accurate excitation voltage is shown in Figure (b). The
AD7730 measurement ADC can be driven from a single supply voltage which is also used to excite the
remote bridge. Both the analog input and the reference input to the ADC are high impedance and fully
differential. By using the + and – SENSE outputs from the bridge as the differential reference to the
ADC, there is no loss in measurement accuracy if the actual bridge excitation voltage varies. The
AD7730 is one of a family of sigma-delta ADCs with high resolution (24 bits) and internal programmable
gain amplifiers (PGAs) and is ideally suited for bridge applications. These ADCs have self- and system
calibration features which allow offset and gain errors due to the ADC to be minimized. For instance, the
AD7730 has an offset drift of 5 nV/°C and a gain drift of 2 ppm/°C. Offset and gain errors can be
reduced to a few microvolts using the system calibration feature.
(b) Driving remote bridge using Kelvin (4-wire) sensing and

(a) Constant current excitation minimizes wiring resistance errors.
ratiometric connection to ADC..
Conditioning Bridge
Driving Bridges
Maintaining an accuracy of 0.1% or better with a full-scale bridge output voltage of 20 mV requires that
the sum of all offset errors be less than 20 μV.
Figure below shows some typical sources of offset error that are inevitable in a system. Parasitic
thermocouples whose junctions are at different temperatures can generate voltages between a few and
tens of microvolts for a 1°C temperature differential. The diagram shows a typical parasitic junction
formed between the copper printed circuit board traces and the kovar pins of the IC amplifier. This
thermocouple voltage is about 35 μV/°C temperature differential. The thermocouple voltage is
significantly less when using a plastic package with a copper lead frame.
The amplifier offset voltage and bias current are other sources of offset error. The amplifier bias current
must flow through the source impedance. Any unbalance in either the source resistances or the bias
currents produce offset errors. In addition, the offset voltage and bias currents are a function of
temperature. High performance low offset, low offset drift, low bias current, and low noise precision
amplifiers are required. In some cases, chopper-stabilized amplifiers may be the only solution.
Typical sources of offset voltage.

Conditioning Bridge
Driving Bridges
AC bridge excitation as shown in Figure below can effectively remove offset voltages in series with the
bridge output. The concept is simple. The net bridge output voltage is measured under two conditions as
shown. The first measurement yields a measurement VA, where VA is the sum of the desired bridge
output voltage VO and the net offset error voltage EOS. The polarity of the bridge excitation is reversed,
and a second measurement VB is made. Subtracting VB from VA yields 2VO, and the offset error term
EOS cancels as shown.
Obviously, this technique requires a highly accurate measurement ADC (such as the AD7730) as well
as a microcontroller to perform the subtraction. If a ratiometric reference is desired, the ADC must also
accommodate the changing polarity of the reference voltage. Again, the AD7730 includes this capability.
AC excitation minimizes offset

errors.
Conditioning Bridge
Driving Bridges
P-Channel and N-Channel MOSFETs can be configured as an AC bridge driver as shown in Figure
below.
Dedicated bridge driver chips are also available, such as the Micrel MIC4427. Note that because of the
on-resistance of the MOSFETs, Kelvin sensing must be used in these applications. It is also important
that the drive signals be non-overlapping to prevent excessive MOSFET switching currents. The
AD7730 ADC has on chip circuitry to generate the required non-overlapping drive signals for AC
excitation.
Simplified AC bridge drive circuit..

OUTLINE
 Introduction
Amplifiers for Signal
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM Conditioning
Operational amplifiers
 The operational amplifier in the middle of the circuit was added in this circuit to isolate the
high-pass from the low-pass filter so that they do not effectively load each other. The op-amp
simply works as a buffer in this case. Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are electronic devices
that are of enormous generic use for signal processing. The use of op-amps can be complicated,
but there are a few simple rules and a few simple circuit building blocks which designers need to
be familiar with to understand many common sensors and the circuits used with them.
 An op-amp is essentially a simple 2-input, 1-output device. The output voltage is equal to the
difference between the non-inverting input and the inverting input multiplied by some extremely
large value (105). Use of op-amps as simple amplifiers is uncommon.
 Feedback is a particularly valuable concept in op-amp applications. For instance, consider the circuit
shown in figure Band-pass filter above, called the follower configuration. Notice that the inverting input is
tied directly to the output. In this case, if the output is less than the input, the difference between the
inputs is a positive quantity, and the output voltage will be increased. This adjustment process
continues, until the output is at the same voltage as the non-inverting input. Then, everything stays
fixed, and the output will follow the voltage of the non-inverting input. This circuit appears to be useless
until you consider that the input impedance of the op-amp can be as high as 109 ohms, while the output
can be many orders of magnitude smaller. Therefore, this follower circuit is a good way to isolate circuit
stages with high output impedance from stages with low input impedance.
Non-inverting unity gain amplifier.

Conditioning Bridge
 The output of a single-element varying bridge may be amplified by a single precision op-amp
connected in the inverting mode as shown in figure a below. This circuit, although simple, has
poor gain accuracy and also unbalances the bridge due to loading from RF and the op amp bias
current. The RF resistors must be carefully chosen and matched to maximize the “common
mode rejection” (CMR). Also it is difficult to maximize the CMR while at the same time allowing
different gain options. In addition, the output is nonlinear. The key redeeming feature of the
circuit is that it is capable of single supply operation and requires a single op amp. Note that the
RF resistor connected to the non-inverting input is returned to VS/2 (rather than ground) so that
both positive and negative values of ΔR can be accommodated, and the op amp output is
referenced to VS/2.
 A much better approach is to use an instrumentation amplifier (in-amp) as shown in figure b.
This efficient circuit provides better gain accuracy (usually set with a single resistor, RG) and
does not unbalance the bridge. Excellent common mode rejection can be achieved with modern
in-amps. Due to the bridge’s intrinsic characteristics, the output is nonlinear, but this can be
corrected in the software (assuming that the in-amp output is digitized using an analog-to-digital
converter and followed by a microcontroller or microprocessor).
a. Using a single op b. Using an

amp as a bridge instrumentation
amplifier for a amplifier
single-element with a single-
varying bridge. element varying
bridge.
 Various techniques are available to linearize bridges, but it is important to distinguish between
the linearity of the bridge equation and the linearity of the sensor response to the phenomenon
being sensed. For example, if the active element is an RTD, the bridge used to implement the
measurement might have perfectly adequate linearity; yet the output could still be nonlinear due
to the RTD’s nonlinearity. Manufacturers of sensors employing bridges address the nonlinearity
issue in a variety of ways, including keeping the resistive swings in the bridge small, shaping
complementary nonlinear response into the active elements of the bridge, using resistive trims
for first-order corrections, and others.
 Figure below shows a single-element varying active bridge in which an op amp produces a
forced null, by adding a voltage in series with the variable arm. That voltage is equal in
magnitude and opposite in polarity to the incremental voltage across the varying element and is
linear with ΔR. Since it is an op amp output, it can be used as a low impedance output point for
the bridge measurement. This active bridge has a gain of two over the standard single-element
varying bridge, and the output is linear, even for large values of ΔR. Because of the small output
signal, this bridge must usually be followed by a second amplifier. The amplifier used in this
circuit requires dual supplies because its output must go negative.
Linearizing a single-
element
varying bridge
method 1.
 Another circuit for linearizing a single element varying bridge is shown in Figure (a) below. The
bottom of the bridge is driven by an op amp, which maintains a constant current in the varying
resistance element. The output signal is taken from the right hand leg of the bridge and amplified
by a non-inverting op amp. The output is linear, but the circuit requires two op amps which must
operate on dual supplies. In addition, R1 and R2 must be matched for accurate gain.
 A circuit for linearizing a voltage-driven two-element varying bridge is shown in Figure (b). This
circuit has twice the sensitivity. A dual supply op amp is required. Additional gain may be
necessary.
 The two-element varying bridge circuit in Figure (c) uses an op amp, a sense resistor, and a
voltage reference to maintain a constant current through the bridge (IB = VREF/RSENSE). The
current through each leg of the bridge remains constant (IB/2) as the resistances change;
therefore the output is a linear function of ΔR. An instrumentation amplifier provides the additional
gain. This circuit can be operated on a single supply with the proper choice of amplifiers and
signal levels.
(b) Linearizing a two-element

(a) Linearizing a single element varying bridge method 1 (constant (c) Linearizing a two element varying
varying bridge method 2. voltage drive). bridge method 2 (constant voltage drive).
OUTLINE
 Introduction
Analog to Digital Converters
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM for Signal Conditioning
 The trend in ADCs and DACs is toward higher speeds and higher resolutions at reduced
power levels. Modern data converters generally operate on ±5 V (dual supply) or +5 V (single
supply). In fact, many new converters operate on a single +3 V supply. This trend has created a
number of design and applications problems which were much less important in earlier data
converters, where ±15 V supplies and ±10 V input ranges were the standard.
 Lower supply voltages imply smaller input voltage ranges, and hence more susceptibility to
noise from all potential sources: power supplies, references, digital signals, EMI/RFI, and
probably most important, improper layout, grounding, and decoupling techniques. Single-supply
ADCs often have an input range which is not referenced to ground. Finding compatible single-
supply drive amplifiers and dealing with level shifting of the input signal in direct-coupled
applications also becomes a challenge.
 In spite of these issues, components are now available which allow extremely high
resolutions at low supply voltages and low power. This section discusses the applications
problems associated with such components and shows techniques for successfully designing them
into systems.
 The most popular precision signal conditioning ADCs are based on two fundamental architectures:
successive approximation and sigma-delta. The tracking ADC architecture is particularly suited for
resolver-to-digital converters, but it is rarely used in other precision signal conditioning applications.
The flash converter and the sub ranging (or pipelined) converter architectures are widely used
where sampling frequencies extend into the megahertz and hundreds of megahertz region, but are
overkills in both speed and cost for low frequency precision signal conditioning applications.
 Low power, low voltage ADC design issues:
 Typical Supply Voltages: ±5V, +5V, +5/+3V, +3V
 Lower Signal Swings Increase Sensitivity to all Types of Noise (Device, Power Supply, Logic, etc.)
 Device Noise Increases at Low Currents
 Common Mode Input Voltage Restrictions
 Input Buffer Amplifier Selection Critical
 Auto-Calibration Modes Desirable at High Resolutions
 ADCs for signal conditioning OR TYPE of ADCs:

 Successive Approximation
 Resolutions to 16-bits
 Minimal Throughput Delay Time
 Used in Multiplexed Data Acquisition Systems
 Sigma-Delta
 Resolutions to 24-bits
 Excellent Differential Linearity
 Internal Digital Filter, Excellent AC Line Rejection
 Long Throughput Delay Time
 Difficult to Multiplex Inputs Due to Digital Filter Settling Time
 High Speed Architectures:
 Flash Converter
 Subranging or Pipelined
Successive Approximation ADCs

 The successive approximation ADC has been the mainstay of signal conditioning for many
years. Recent design improvements have extended the sampling frequency of these ADCs
into the megahertz region. The use of internal switched capacitor techniques along with
auto calibration techniques extend the resolution of these ADCs to 16-bits on standard
CMOS processes without the need for expensive thin-film laser trimming.
 The basic successive approximation ADC is shown in Figure below. It performs conversions
on command. On the assertion of the CONVERT START command, the SAMPLE-AND-
HOLD (SHA) is placed in the hold mode, and all the bits of the SUCCESSIVE
APPROXIMATION REGISTER (SAR) are reset to “0” except the MSB which is set to “1”.
The SAR output drives the internal DAC. If the DAC output is greater than the analog input,
this bit in the SAR is reset, otherwise it is left set. The next most significant bit is then set to
“1”. If the DAC output is greater than the analog input, this bit in the SAR is reset, otherwise
it is left set.
The process is repeated with each bit in turn. When all
the bits have been set, tested, and reset or not as
appropriate, the contents of the SAR correspond to the
value of the analog input, and the conversion is
complete.
MSB = MOST SIGNIFICANT BIT ADC = ANALOG DIGITAL CONVERTER
SHA = SAMPLE-AND-HOLD
SAR = SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION REGISTER Successive approximation ADC.
LEAT SIGNIFICANT BIT (LSB) AND MOST SIGNIFICANT BIT (MSB)

 Least Significant Bit (LSB): is the bit position in a binary integer giving the units value, that
is, determining whether the number is even or odd. The LSB is sometimes referred to as the
right-most bit, due to the convention in positional notation of writing less significant digits
further to the right. It is analogous to the least significant digit of a decimal integer, which is
the digit in the ones (right-most) position.
 Most Significant Bit (MLSB): is also called the high-order bit) is the bit position in a binary
number having the greatest value. The MSB is sometimes referred to as the left-most bit
due to the convention in positional notation of writing more significant digits further to the
left.
The binary representation of decimal 149, with the LSB highlighted. The MSB
in an 8-bit binary number represents a value of 128 decimal. The LSB
represents a value of 1.
Bit Number 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Assigment order 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Binary Value System 2^7 2^6 2^5 2^4 2^3 2^2 2^1 2^0
Decimal Value System 10^7 10^6 10^5 10^4 10^3 10^2 10^1 10^0
Example:
Binary Value 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
Decimal Value 1 x 2^7 0 x 2^6 0 x 2^5 1 x 2^4 0 x 2^3 1 x 2^2 0 x 2^1 1 x 2^0
128 0 0 16 0 4 0 1
Total Value 149
MSB LSB
OUTLINE
 Introduction of Data Acquisition System (DAS)

 Signal Conditioning in DAS
 Signal Conditioning and Linearization of RTD Sensors
 DAS Criteria
 DAS Implementation
What is Data Acquisition?

 Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real
world physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital
numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer.
 Data acquisition systems (abbreviated with the acronym DAS or DAQ)
typically convert analog waveforms into digital values for processing.
 The components of data acquisition systems include: Sensors that convert
physical parameters to electrical signals.
 Signal conditioning circuitry to convert sensor signals into a form that can
be converted to digital values.
 Analog-to-digital converters, which convert conditioned sensor signals to
digital values.
 Data acquisition applications are controlled by software programs
developed using various general purpose programming languages such as
BASIC, C, Fortran, Java, Lisp, Pascal.
 Specialized software tools used for building large-scale data acquisition
systems include EPICS. Graphical programming environments include
ladder logic, Visual C++, Visual Basic, and LabVIEW.
A Very Simple Data
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM Acquisition System
Measuring Temperature
 Suppose you are given a Pt100 thermo-
resistor
 We read the temperature as a voltage with a
digital voltmeter
47
Reading Out Automatically Computer

 Note how
#include <libusb.h>
small the struct usb_bus *bus;
struct usb_device *dev;
usb_dev_handle *vmh = 0;
sensor has usb_find_busses(); usb_find_devices();
for (bus = usb_busses; bus; bus = bus->next)
become. for (dev = bus->devices; dev;
dev = dev->next)
 In DAQ we if (dev-
>descriptor.idVendor == HOBBICO) vmh =
usb_open(dev);
normally need usb_bulk_read(vmh ,3,&u,sizeof(float),500);
not worry
about the
details of the
things we
USB/RS232
readout
48
Read-out 16 Sensors
• Buy 4 x 4-port USB

hub (very cheap) (+
15 more
voltmeters)
• Adapt our little
DAQ program
• No fundamental
(architectural)
change to our DAQ
Read-out 160 Sensors

 For a moment we (might) consider to buy 52 USB hubs, 160
Voltmeters
 …but hopefully we abandon the idea very quickly, before we
start cabling this!
 Expensive, cumbersome, fragile 
our data acquisition system is not scalable
Data Acquisition System Block Diagram

TYPICAL DAQ SYSTEM

ELEMENTS
OUTLINE

 DAS Criteria
Analog vs. Digital Signal

• Analog signals:
– Continuous, expressed in decimal system
– No limitation on the maximum/minimum value
– Can not be processed by computer
• Digital signals: binary number system

– All numbers are expressed by a combination of 1 & 0
– The maximum value is limited by # of bits available
– Can be processed by computer
Signal types and
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM classes
• Two types of Digital signals:
- on-off - pulse train,
• Three types of analogue
- DC - AC - frequency domain
•Total of 5 signal classes
• ADC - analogue to digital converter, which converts the analogue signal

into a digital signal which can be read by a computer
• DAC - digital to analogue converter, which converts a digital signal to an
analogue signal
• TTL - transistor to transistor logic
In electronics, impedance matching is the practice of designing the input
impedance of an electrical transmission line or the output impedance of its
corresponding signal source line to maximize the power transfer or minimize
signal reflection from the load. In electronics, impedance matching is the practice
of designing the input impedance of an electrical transmission line or the output
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM impedance of its corresponding signal source line to maximize the power transfer
or minimize signal reflection from the load.
Steps of Signal Conditioning

1. Transducer excitation: use of an external voltage or current to excite
the transducer (ex: strain gauges)
2. Isolation:isolation of the transducer signal from the computer and other
transducers
3. Signal Amplification or Attenuation: increase of the output signal
of the transducer to increase accuracy and signal to noise ratio
4. Level shifting, Span and Base adjustment
5. Impedance transformation
6. Linearization: creation of a linear relationship between the
transducer output and the physical phenomenon being measured
7. Conversion
8. Filtering: to reduce noise or interference. conditioning of a
signal to reduce unwanted components (i.e., noise, high or low
frequency components, etc.)
SIGNAL GROUNDING
• Two types of signal sources
- grounded: signals which are referenced
to a system ground
ex:110V outlets, signal generators, power
supplies
- floating: signals which are not connected
to an absolute reference
ex: battery powered sources, thermocouples
transformers
Signal Amplification
 First step of signal conditioning is signal amplification by using
amplifier.
 For maximum resolution, the voltage range of the input signals should
be approximately equal to the maximum input range of the A/D
converter.
 Amplification expands the range of the transducer signals so that they
match the input range of the A/D converter.
 For example,
input signal Amplifier output signal
Amplitude =1v (Gain=10) amplitude =10v
Span and Base

 Applies to both the physical variable and the
electrical signal.
Example:
Temperature sensor: -20 to +150 degrees Celsius
BASE = -20 degrees, SPAN = 170 degrees
Transducer output: 4 mA to 20 mA of electric current

BASE = 4 mA, SPAN = 16 mA
So 11.6 mA corresponds to 60.8 degrees

Signal Linearization
Conversion & Filtering

 Convert one type of electrical variation to
another.
 Filtering is used to pass the signals with desired
frequencies and blocks the unwanted
frequencies to the A/D converter input.
Converter
 Converter is an electronic circuit that converts
signal in one form to another form.
 Types of converters: 2 types
 A/D ( Analog to Digital) converter

 D/A ( Digital to analog) converter
A/D Converter
 A/D converter converts analog signal into digital
signal.
 Single chip integrated circuit
 A single input connection for the analog signal
 Multiple pins for digital output
 Each pin responds an output bit
A/D Conversion
Function: convert analog signals into digital signals

– Sample & hold
– Quantization
– Coding
y(t)=f(t) yk=f(tk)
A/D Conversion
 The process in which analog signal is converted into
digital signal is called A/D conversion. Changes a
continuous electrical signal into a discrete numerical
value, represented by a binary number.
 Steps of A/D conversion:
 Sampling
 Quantizing
 Encoding
Sampler Quantizer Encoder
Analog
Sampled Quantized Digital
Signal
Signal Signal Signal
Sampling
 Sampling is the process in which a continuous time
signal is sampled to produce discrete time signal.
 Sampling Rate is the number of sample per second.
 The higher the sampling rate, the better reconstruction of
original signal.
Analog 4 Samples/cycle 8 Samples/cycle
Input
16 Samples/cycle
Sampling
Sampling: Numerical evaluate the signal at
discrete distance in time, yk=y(kDt)
Digitized Signal: a sequence of numbers that is
an approximation to an analog signal
Sampling time/Period: time duration between
two consecutive samples, Dt
Sampling rate fs (Hz): fs = 1/Dt
Nyquist Frequency: 2fmax
Sampling theory: fs > Nyquist Frequency
Sampling
• Shannon-Nyquist sampling theorem
– The maximum frequency component a sampled data system can
accurately handle is its Nyquist limit (i.e., Nyquist frequency).
Sampling
 Aliasing: Acquired signal gets distorted if sampling rate is
too small(less than Nyquist Rate)
 Nyquist Rate=2*Frequency of original signal
The Nyquist Rate

A signal must be sampled at a
rate at least twice that of the
highest frequency component
that must be reproduced.
Example – Hi-Fi sound (20-

20,000 Hz) is generally sampled
at about 44 kHz.
Anti-aliasing Filter
• One way of avoiding the problem of aliasing is to
apply an anti-aliasing filter to the signal, prior to
the sampling stage, to remove any frequency
components above the "folding" or Nyquist
frequency (half the sampling frequency).
• An anti-aliasing filter is a low-pass filter.
An anti-aliasing filter (AAF) is a filter used

before a signal sampler to restrict the
bandwidth of a signal to approximately or
completely satisfy the sampling theorem over
the band of interest.
Quantization
Definition: transformation of a continuous

analog input into a set of discrete output state
– Coding: the assignment of a digital code word or
number to each output states
– # of possible state: N=2n, n is # of bits
– Quantization resolution: Q=(Vmax-Vmin)/N
– Quantization Error:
D   f (tk )  f k
N
Quantizing & Encoding

Quantization Error
 When a signal is quantized, we introduce an error - the
coded signal is an approximation of the actual amplitude
value.
 The difference between actual and coded value

(midpoint) is referred to as the quantization error.
 The more zones, the smaller Δ which results in smaller

errors.
Timing
• Aperture time: the duration of the time window that
the analog is sampled
• Jitter:
jitter is the deviation from true periodicity of a presumably
periodic signal, often in relation to a reference clock signal. In
clock recovery applications it is called timing jitter. Jitter is a
significant, and usually undesired, factor in the design of almost
all communications links.
Jitter can be quantified in the same terms as all time-varying
signals, e.g., root mean square (RMS), or peak-to-peak
displacement. Also like other time-varying signals, jitter can be
expressed in terms of spectral density.
D/A Converter
 D/A converter converts digital signal into analog signal.
 Single chip integrated circuit
 A single output connection for the analog signal
 Multiple pins for digital input
 Each pin takes an input bit
OUTLINE

 DAS Criteria
Contents
•RTD Overview
•RTD Nonlinearity
•Analog Linearization
•Digital Acquisition and Linearization
What is an RTD?
• Resistive Temperature Detector
• Sensor with a predictable resistance vs. temperature
• Measure the resistance and calculate temperature based on the
Resistance vs. Temperature characteristics of the RTD material
RTD Resistance vs. Temperature

400
360
320
280 PT100
Resistance (Ohms)
R RTD RTD (Temp)

240
200
α = 0.00385
160
120
80
40
0
 200  100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature (C)
How does an RTD work?

 L • L = Wire Length
Resistance R • A = Wire Area
A
• e = Electron Charge (1.6e-
19 Coulombs)
1
Resistivity p • n = Electron Density
e n  
• u = Electron Mobility
• The product n*u decreases over temperature, therefore

resistance increases over temperature (PTC)
• Linear Model of Conductor Resistivity Change vs.
Temperature
( t)  
0 1   t  t0 
What is an RTD made of?

Resistivity
• Platinum (pt) Metal (Ohm/CMF)
Gold (Au) 13
• Nickel (Ni)
Silver (Ag) 8.8
• Copper (Cu) Copper (Cu) 9.26
Platinum (Pt) 59
•Have relatively linear change in resistance over temp
•Have high resistivity allowing for smaller dimensions Tungsten (W) 30
•Either Thin-Film or Wire-Wound Nickel (Ni) 36
How Accurate is an RTD?

• Absolute accuracy is “Class” dependant - defined by DIN-IEC 60751. Allows for easy
interchangeability of field sensors
**Temperature Range of
Error Error over
Validity
at Wire-
Tolerance Class Wire- Resistance at 100C Wound
(DIN-IEC 60751) Wound Thin-Film Tolerance Values (C) 0C (Ohms) (C) Range (C)
*AAA (1/10 DIN) 0 - +100 0 - +100 +/-(0.03 + 0.0005*t) 100 +/- 0.012 0.08 0.08
AA (1/3DIN) -50 - +250 0 - +150 +/-(0.1 + 0.0017*t) 100 +/- 0.04 0.27 0.525
A -100 - +450 -30 - +300 +/-(0.15 + 0.002*t) 100 +/- 0.06 0.35 1.05
B -196 - +600 -50 - +500 +/-(0.3 + 0.005*t) 100 +/- 0.12 0.8 3.3
C -196 - +600 -50 - +600 +/-(0.6 + 0.01*t) 100 +/- 0.24 1.6 6.6
*AAA (1/10DIN) is not included in the DIN-IEC-60751 spec but is an industry accepted tolerance class for high-performance measurements
**Manufacturers may choose to guarantee operation over a wider temperature range than the DIN-IEC60751 provides
• Repeatability usually very good, allows for individual sensor calibration

• Long-Term Drift usually <0.1C/year, can get as low as 0.0025C/year
Why use an RTD?

Table Comparing Advantages and Disadvantages of Temp Sensors
How to Measure an RTD Resistance?

• Use a…….
Current Source or Wheatstone Bridge
+Vsource
RA RA
+
RRTD VMEAS ISOURCE
-
VMEAS
+
-
RA RRTD
Vmeas Isource  RRTD

Isource RRTD
 RRTD  1
Vmeas Vmeas Vsource    
 RA  RRTD  2
Vmeas 2 RA  Vmeas  RA  Vsource
RRTD RRTD
Isource Vsource  2 Vmeas
Note on Non-Linear Output of Bridge

+Vsource
 RRTD  1
Vmeas Vsource    
RA  RRTD 100 100
  2

ΔRTD = 50Ohms
-
VMEAS
+
Denominator causes a non-linear 100 RTD
output even for a linear sensor
500.00m
375.00m
Voltage (V)
250.00m
125.00m
0.00
100.00 112.50 125.00 137.50 150.00
Input resistance (ohms)
Simple Current Source
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM / Sink Circuits
+5V +5V
REF200
R9 10k
+5V RTD 100

R3 40k
R12 10k
U1 OPA333 -
+
+
Q1 +
R4 10k + Q2
- U2 OPA333
AM5
I_Out 100uA R8 40k +5V 100uA
Rset 10k RTD 100
U8 REF5025 V3 2.5
+5V R2 200k
Vin Vout -
R1 INA326T1 INA326T
+
1u Tem p
10u Vdiff -49.85m
GND Trim R1 +
+
R3 49.9
R2
1u
Rset 25k
+
V2 2.5
R1 10k
Vcm 2.5
- I_Out 100.05uA
C1 100n
R4 100
+
+5V +
U9 OPA340
I_Out 100uA
RTD 100
RTD Types and Their
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM Parasitic Lead Resistances
RL RL White
White
2-Wire RRTD 3-Wire RRTD
Red Red
RL RL
Red
RL
RL White
RL White
RL White
RRTD
2-Wire with Red
4-Wire RRTD Compensating RL
Loop RL Blue
Red
RL Blue
Red
RL
RL
2-Wire Measurements
RL +Vsource
+
RA
RRTD
A
VMEAS I SOURCE
R
-
-
RL
VMEAS
+
RL RRTD
RA
Vmeas Isource  RRTD  Isource  2 RL
Error Isource  2RL

RL
 RRTD  2RL  1
In a 2-wire RTD the lead resistances of the wire Vmeas Vsource     
connecting the RTD to the measurement circuitry
appear in series with the RTD element and therefore
 RA  RRTD  2.RL  2

appear as errors in the measurement. There is no
way to cancel the lead resistances in a 2-wire RTD.  2 RA  RL 
Error Vsource  
With a current source as the excitation, the error is   RA  RRTD   RA  2 RL  RRTD

simply 2*Rl * Isource
3-Wire Measurements
With a 3-wire RTD an additional wire is connected to one end of the RTD element allowing for the
cancellation of the lead resistances by placing one lead resistance in series with both the positive and
negative measurement connections. When the differential measurement is made, the two lead resistances
cancel in the subtraction.
Using current sources as the excitation source, the lead resistances can completely cancel as long as the two
current sources are matched and the lead resistances are equal. The 3-wire RTD provides improvements
from the 2-wire solution by placing one lead resistance in series with both the top and bottom leg of the
bridge. However the lead resistances unbalance the bridge resulting in a remaining error.
ISOURCE1
RL
+Vsource
RRTD
+
RA RA RL
VMEAS
-
ISOURCE2
VMEAS
-
+
RL
RL RRTD
RL RA
RL
Isource1 Isource2 I
 RRTD  RL  1
Vmeas I RL  I RRTD  ( 2 I)  RL I RRTD  3 I RL Vmeas Vsource   
RA  RRTD  2 RL
+   
2
Vmeas I RL  ( 2 I)  RL
-
3 I RL
 
RL RA  RRTD  
Vsource  
  
Error
Vmeas  Vmeas
+ - I RRTD  3 I RL  3 I RL I RRTD
 RA  RRTD  RA  2 RL  RRTD
Error = 0 as long as Isource1 = Isource2 and RL are equal

4-Wire Measurements
With a 4-wire RTD all lead resistance errors are removed from the measurement circuit by providing a Kelvin
connection to the RTD. Two wires carry the current and the other two wires connect to the high impedance
measurement circuitry. In this method the measurement circuitry does not include any lead resistance.
In a bride a “2-wire with compensating loop” can be used to provide further improvement by actually using the
compensating loop to balance the bridge.
+Vsource
RL
RL RA RA
+
RL
RRTD VMEAS
-
+
VMEAS I
- RL
RL RRTD
RA
RL
RL
RL
Vmeas Isource  RRTD 

RA  Vsource  RA  RRTD 
Vmeas 
2 2
2 RA  6 RA  RL  2 RRTD RA  4 RL  2 RRTD RL
 RL  2.0 RA  2.0 RRTD 

System Errors reduced to Error Vsource  
measurement circuit accuracy
  RA  RRTD   RA  4.0 RL  RRTD

Self-Heating Errors of RTD
• Typically 2.5mW/C – 60mW/C

• Set excitation level so self-heating error is <10% of the
total error budget
Self-Heating Error of an RTD vs. Exciation Current
10
0.1
Temperature (C)
Errorselfheat200n( I) 0.01
Errorselfheat0( I) 3
110
Errorselfheat850( I)
4
110
5
110
6
110
7
110
5 4 3
110 110 110 0.01
I
RTD Resistance vs
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM Temperature
Callendar-Van Dusen Equations Equation Constants for
For (T > 0) : RTD( T)  R0 1  A  T  B T  2 IEC 60751 PT-100 RTD (α = 0.00385)
R0  100
RTD( T)  R0 1  A  T  B  T   C  T   ( T  100)
2 3
For (T < 0) : 3
A  3.9083 10
RTD Resistance vs. Temperature 7
400 B  5.775 10
 12
C  4.183 10
360
320
280
Resistance (Ohms)
240
RTD (T)
200
160
120
80
40
0
 200  100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature (C)
RTD Nonlinearity
RTD Resistance vs. Temperature
400
360
Linear fit between the two end-points 320
shows the Full-Scale nonlinearity 280
Resistance (Ohms)
240
RTD( Temp)
R LINFIT( Temp)
200
160
120
80
40
Nonlinearity and Temperature Error vs. Temperature 0

5 50  200  95 10 115 220 325 430 535 640 745 850
Temperature (C)
4.5
4 40
Nonlinearity = 4.5%
Temperature Nonlinearity (%FSR)
3.5
Temperature Error (C)
3 30 Temperature Error > 45C

2.5
2 20
1.5
1 10
0.5
0 0
 200  95 10 115 220 325 430 535 640 745 850
Temperature (C)
RTD Nonlinearity
For (T > 0) : RTD( T)  R0 1  A  T  B T  2

RTD( T)  R0 1  A  T  B  T   C  T   ( T  100)
For (T < 0) :
2 3 RTDlinear ( T)  R0 ( 1  A  T)
R0  100 RTD Resistance vs. Temperature

450
3
A  3.9083 10 405
7
B  5.775 10 360
 12
C  4.183 10
315
Resistance (Ohms)
RTD( Temp) 270
RTD linear (Temp)

225
180
B and C terms are negative so
2nd and 3rd order effects 135
decrease the sensor output 90

over the sensor span.
45
0
 200  95 10 115 220 325 430 535 640 745 850
Temperature (C)
Measurement Nonlinearity
+
RRTD VMEAS ISOURCE
-
Vmeas Isource  RRTD
RTD Sensor Output vs. Temperature (Isource = 100uA)

0.045
0.0415
0.038
0.0345
0.031
Voltage (V)
V RTD (Temp)
0.0275
V RTD_linear (Temp)
0.024
0.0205
0.017
0.0135
0.01
0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800
Temperature (C)
Correcting for Non-Linearity
Sensor output decreases over span? Compensate by increasing excitation over span!
+ +
RRTD VMEAS
-
ISOURCE  I SOURCE RRTD VMEAS
-
I CORRECTION
Icorrection = gain*Vmeas+Offset
Vmeas Isource  RRTD Vmeas (Isource + I correction   R RTD

0.045
0.0415
Increasing excitation source over measurement

0.038
span produces linear sensor output
0.0345
0.031
Voltage (V)
V RTD (Temp)
0.0275
V RTD_linear (Temp)
0.024
0.0205
0.017
0.0135
0.01
0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800
Temperature (C)
Isource  0.0005
VRTD( T)  RTD( T)  Isource

Correcting for Non-
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM VRTD_linear ( T)  RTDlinear ( T)  Isource
linearity
Isource  0.0005
VRTD_linear (T)  VRTD( T) 
Isource_correction ( T)  Isource 
RTD( T)
VRTD( T)  RTD( T)  Isource
VRTD_correction ( T)  RTDlinear ( T)  Isource_correction ( T)
VRTD_linear ( T)  RTDlinear ( T)  Isource

VRTD_linearized ( T)  Isource_correction ( T)  RTD( T)
VRTD_linear (T)  VRTD( T) 

Isource_correction ( T)  Isource  RTD Resistance vs. Temperature
0.25 RTD( T)
VRTD_correction ( T)  RTDlinear ( T)  Isource_correction ( T)

0.225
0.2
VRTD_linearized ( T)  Isource_correction
0.175 ( T)  RTD( T)
VRTD ( Temp ) 0.15

Voltage (V)
VRTD_correction ( Temp )
0.125
VRTD_linearized ( Temp )
0.1
0.075
0.05
0.025
0
 200  100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temp
Temperature (C)
Analog Linearization
Circuits
Two-Wire Single Op-Amp
R2 49.13k R3 60.43k
Example
Amplifiers:
Vout
R4 1k - Low-Voltage:
R1 4.99k
V1 5 OPA333
+
OPA376
R5 105.83k
High Voltage:
I_Correction
OPA188
RTD 100
OPA277
A voltage-controlled current
source is formed from the op-amp
I_RTD
output through R4 into the RTD
This circuit is designed for a 0-5V output for a 0-200C temperature span. Components R2, R3,
R4, and R5 are adjusted to change the desired measurement temperature span and output.
Analog Linearization Circuits

R2 49.13k R3 60.43k
Two-Wire Single Op-Amp Vout

-
R4 1k
R1 4.99k
V1 5
+
Non-linear increase in excitation current over temperature R5 105.83k
span will help correct non-linearity of RTD measurement I_Correction
RTD 100
I_RTD
50.00u
37.50u
I_Correction (A)25.00u
12.50u
0.00
1.01m
1.00m
I_RTD (A) 996.00u
988.00u
980.00u
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00
Temperature (C)
Temperat
100.0
Circuits
75.00
Without Linearization
Two-Wire Single Op-Amp R2 49.13k R3 60.43k
50.00
Vout
-
This type of linearization typically provides a 20X - 40X
R4 1k
R1 4.99k
V1 5
+
improvement in linearity
25.00
R5 105.83k
I_Correction
RTD 100
5.00
I_RTD
4.38 0.00
3.13
2.50
1.88
1.25
0.00
625.00m
3.75
3.13 Without Correction

Voltage (V)
tage (V) 2.50
1.88 With Correction
1.25
625.00m
0.00
0.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00
Temperature (C)
Three-Wire Single INA
A voltage-controlled current
+15V
source is formed from the INA Example
R1 4.99k
R2 4.99k
output through Rlin into the RTD
Amplifiers:
V1 15
I_Bias
Low-Voltage:
I_Correction Rlin 105.83k
V2 5 INA333
-15V
INA114
V3 15
-
Rg
Rz 100
Vout
Rg 801
-15V
Ref High Voltage
Rg
+ U2 INA826 INA826
+
+15V
INA114
I_RTD
This circuit is designed for a 0-5V output

for a 0-200C temperature span.
RL1 1
RL2 1
RL3 1
Components Rz, Rg, and Rlin are adjusted

to change the desired measurement
temperature span and output.
RTD 100
Remote RTD
Three-Wire Single INA +15V
R7 4.99k
R9 4.99k
V1 15
I_Bias
I_Correction R2 105.83k
V2 5
-15V
V3 15
This type of linearization typically provides a 20X - 40X -

Rg
R14 100
Vout
R6 801
-15V
improvement in linearity and some lead resistance cancellation

Ref
R1 10k
Rg
+ U2 INA826
+
+15V
I_RTD
5.00
RL1 1
RL2 1
RL3 1
RTD 175.8
4.37 Remote RTD
3.75
3.12
Without Correction
Voltage (V) 2.50
1.87 With Correction
1.25
622.27m
0.00
0.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00
Temperature (C)
XTR105 4-20mA Current Loop Output
Iref1 800u
XTR105
Rlin1 16.099k i_lin i_jfet

Iref2 800u
Q1_EXT
R4 1k
OA1
+
Q1_INT
VIN+
R5 1k
i_rtd -
Rlin 1k
Rg 162.644
R_CL 0
OA3
-
VIN- V_PS 24
Q1
+
-
+
OA2
RTD 100 Rz 100 i_afe
VCM Rcm 1.5k

R2 25
R1 975
V_420
I_Out
i_Q1
RL 250

20.00m
18.00m
16.00m
14.00m
Without Correction
I_Out (A) 12.00m
10.00m
With Correction
8.00m
6.00m
4.00m
0.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.0
Temperature (C)
Analog + Digital
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM Linearization Circuits

Digital Acquisition Circuits

and Linearization Methods
ADS1118 16-bit Delta-Sigma 2-Wire Measurement with Half-Bridge
+V source
RA RA
RL AIN0
RRTD
RL
AIN1
RL AIN2
RRTD
AIN3
RL

ADS1220 24-bit Delta-Sigma Two 3-wire RTDs
R REF
+V source +Vdig
RL
RL
R RTD
RL
RL
RL R COMP
R RTD
RL
3-wire + Rcomp shown for AIN2/AIN3

ADS1220 24-bit Delta-Sigma One 4-Wire RTD

R REF
+V source +Vdig
RL
RL
R RTD
RL
RL
ADS1247 24-bit Delta-Sigma Three-Wire + Rcomp

ADS1247 24-bit Delta-Sigma Four-Wire

Digital Linearization
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM Methods
• Three main options

– Linear-Fit
– Piece-wise Linear Approximations
– Direct Computations
0.04
0.037
0.034
0.031
0.028
Voltage (V)
V RTD (Temp) 0.025
0.022
0.019
0.016
0.013
0.01
0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800
Temperature (C)
Linear Fit
Pro’s: Con’s:
•Easiest to implement Least Accurate
•Very Fast Processing Time
•Fairly accurate over small temp span
TLinear ( t) A  RTD( t)  B
End-point Fit Best-Fit
RTD Sensor Output vs. Temperature (Isource = 100uA) RTD Sensor Output vs. Temperature (Isource = 100uA)
0.04 0.04
0.037 0.037
0.034 0.034
0.031 0.031
0.028 0.028
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
V RTD( Temp ) V RTD( Temp)

0.025 0.025
V Lin_Fit ( Temp) V Lin_Fit (Temp)
0.022 0.022
0.019 0.019
0.016 0.016
0.013 0.013
0.01 0.01
0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800 0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800
Temp Temp
Temperature (C) Temperature (C)

Piece-wise Linear Fit

Pro’s: Con’s:
•Easy to implement •Code size required for coefficients
•Fast Processing Time
T( n  1)  ( T( n )  T( n  1) )  
RTD  RTD( n  1)
•Programmable accuracy TPeicewise 
 RTD( n)  RTD( n  1) 
0.04
0.037
0.034
0.031
0.028
Voltage (V)
V RTD (Temp) 0.025

V Lin_Fit (Temp)
0.022
0.019
0.016
0.013
0.01
0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800
Temperature (C)
Direct Computation
Pro’s: Con’s:
•Almost Exact Answer, Least Error •Processor intensive
•With 32-Bit Math Accuracy to +/-0.0001C •Requires Math Libraries
•Negative Calculation Requires
simplification or bi-sectional solving
0.04
Positive Temperature Direct Calculation 0.037
A  4B  1 
RTD( t) 
0.034
2
A 
R0 
0.031
  0.028
Voltage (V)
TDirect( t) V RTD (Temp) 0.025
+ 2B 0.022
0.019
0.016
Negative Temperature Simplified Approximation 0.013
3 6 8
0.01
2 0 80 160 240 320
3
400 480 560 640 720 800
TDirect ( t) 241.96  2.2163 RTD ( t)  2.8541 10  RTD ( t)  9.9121 10  RTDTemperature

( t) (C) 1.7052 10  RTD(
-
3 2 6 3 8 4
10  RTD( t)  9.9121 10  RTD( t )  1.705210   RTD( t )
Direct Computation
Bi-Section Method for Negative Temperatures
RTDError  100 Res  60.256 Tlow  250 Thigh  50
TBisection  RTDTemp  0  99.999

-
while ( RTDError  0.0001)
( Tlow  Thigh )
Tmid 
2
Rcal  100 1  A  Tmid  B Tmid  ( Tmid  100)  C Tmid

2 3
 if Tmid  0

Rcal  100 1  A  Tmid  B Tmid
2  if Tmid  0
Rcal  0 if Rcal  0
RTDError  Res  Rcal
Tlow  Tmid if RTDError  0
Thigh  Tmid if RTDError  0
RTDTemp  Tmid
return RTDTemp
TBisection  99.999
-
OUTLINE

 DAS Criteria
ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL
CONVERSION CONSIDERATIONS
The quality of the analogue to digital conversion is
dependent on the following four parameters:
1. Resolution
2. Device range
3. Signal input range
4. Sampling rate
These will be set using hardware (board switches)
or software (Measurement and Automation
Explorer in Labview)
RESOLUTION
• Resolution: The number of bits used to represent the
analogue signal The term bit is a portmanteau of binary digit. These values
are most commonly represented as either a 0 or 1
16-bit
The above example shows the difference

between 3 (23 =8 divisions) and 16 bit (216 =
65,536 divisions) resolution
RESOLUTION
• Resolution can be thought of as representation.

• Resolution is how the analog-to-digital converter
(A/D) represents whatever analog signal it
receives.
• The A/D does this by using a set number of bits.
• Assuming some set range (VOLTS) that the
signal from the sensor falls into, the A/D breaks
this range into a set number of digitized divisions.
• The greater the resolution, the more
digitized divisions into which the range can be
broken.
• As resolution increases we are able to detect
smaller and smaller changes in voltage.
The DAQ device can only represent the signal it

collects on the PC.
• A 3-bit analog-to-digital converter is something you may
not ever see in a modern laboratory….
• A 3-bit A/D will split the range of whatever signal it
receives into 23 or 8 divisions.
• The A/D will represent each division as some binary
value between 000 and 111.
• Each division represents a discrete portion of the
overall waveform.
A low number of divisions will show a segmented representation of a

given signal. A higher number of divisions shows something that
looks closer to the original waveform.
Devices with higher resolution (14-bit, 16-bit, etc) give us data that
better approximates the original signal
111
110
101
Volts
100
011
010
001
000
T, sec
3-Bit Representation 16-Bit representation

of Waveform of Waveform
DEVICE RANGE
• device range: minimum and maximum analogue
signal levels that the ADC can convert.
• The device range should be matched to the range
of the analogue input signal to best take
advantage of the available resolution!
RANGE
• Range can be viewed as everything between the

minimum and maximum voltage that is being sent to the
DAQ device.
• The analog-to-digital converter on the DAQ device will
need to digitize this input signal. Most DAQ devices offer
us the ability to adjust the given range that we want the
A/D to convert.
• In LabVIEW this can be done through the DAQ Assistant.
• Ranges that are seen include: (-10V to +10V), (-20V to
+20V), and (0 to +10V).
• Ranges in LabVIEW are selectable, so the experimenter
can readily change min and max values.
• Typically experimenters will adjust the range to take
advantage of a given DAQ device’s resolution capability.
DEVICE RANGE
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM (cont’s)
• Example: If a 3-bit ADC (having 8 divisions) is used over

a range of 0 to 10 volts, voltage changes of 1.25V can be
measured.
However, if the range is increased to -10 to 10V, then the
smallest voltage change which can be measured rises to
2.5V
SIGNAL INPUT
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM RANGE
• signal input range: the maximum and minimum value of

the signal being measured.
• The closer the signal input range is to the incoming
analogue signal max and min, the more digital divisions
will be available to the ADC to represent the signal
SMALLEST DETECTABLE
VOLTAGE CHANGE
• Determined by the resolution and range of a DAQ device

and the signal input range.
• This change in voltage represents 1 least significant bit
(LSB) of the digital value and is often called the code width.
• This smallest code width, Vcw is calculated as follows
(Where the resolution is given in bits)
Example: a 12 bit DAQ device with a 0 to 10V range can

detect a 2.4 mV change.
• Unipolar signals range from 0 to a positive value
• bipolar signals range from a negative to a positive value.

SAMPLING RATE
• sampling rate: the rate at which the DAQ device
samples an incoming analogue signal
• Determines how often an analogue to digital conversion
takes place.
• Computing the proper sampling rate requires knowledge
of the max frequency of the incoming signal and the
accuracy required for digital representation.
• In general, a fast sampling rate acquires more points per
unit time and results in a better representation of the
incoming signal.
Sampling Rate
• We may utilize the LabVIEW DAQ Assistant to

communicate with the DAQ device and therefore the
sensor it is attached to.
DAQ Device
Temperatu
re Sensor
Pressure
Sensor PC Station and
Experimenter
Experimenta
l
Apparatus
Sampling Rate
• In LabVIEW a standard sample is usually 1000 data points.

• We decide that the “speed” or frequency that we wish to collect data at will be 1000
Hz.
• We can go through the initialization routine with the DAQ Assistant and set up our
standard collection parameters in the Timing Settings section of the DAQ Assistant.
• This DAQ Assistant has been set-up so that the Acquisition Mode for the device will
be to collect N Samples.
• We select the value for N as 1000 Samples to Read.
• The Rate (Hz) will be a frequency of 1000.
• So we have selected our standard data collection settings but what do these
parameters actually mean and how will they affect the VI’s overall timing? This is an
important question as it pertains to data collection.
Sampling Rate
• When we execute the VI with the rate of 1000 Hz and the number of samples set to
1000 data points we may get a result similar to the one in this figure.
• In this case we measure the output of a battery pack. The battery pack has a voltage
in excess of 6 volts. We run the DAQ frequency at 1000 Hz.
• The DAQ collects this information to a buffer. All the data it collects goes to the
buffer and is then displayed when the DAQ has finished collecting.
• Each data point enters the buffer in the form of an array. Each data point that we
collect will be given a specific address within the array.
• When it comes time to display this data the first point in will be the first point out.
Thus LabVIEW keeps track of the data it collects via the classic first-in/first-out or
FIFO method.
Sampling Rate
• The VI requires 1 second to collect 1000 data points at 1000 Hz.

• This makes sense when we consider the rate. The rate of collection is 1000 Hz or
1000 points per second.
• But what if we were measuring some voltage process where we needed to collect
data for several seconds? If that were the case then a collection time of 1 second
would not be sufficient.
• Also, note the overall resolution of our data. We see changes in millivolts. Our total
range was 40 volts and the gain was 1. The DAQ device is a 14 bit instrument. Thus
our resolution equates to (40V) / (1 x 214) = 2.4 mV. We see that this level of
resolution is achieved in the data collected by our VI.
Sampling Rate
• Let’s assume we need to take measurements for 4 seconds.

• As the rate is set to 1000Hz and we have learned that it takes 1 second to collect
1000 data points.
• So let’s adjust the number of samples to 4000. When we run the VI we see the result
below. Note that our VI collected data for 4 seconds.
Sampling Rate
• You may note that the screen looks remarkably busy!

• The VI collected a good deal of information. Perhaps we want less.
• Sure, we need to monitor our process for 4 seconds, but perhaps we only need 200
data points.
• One way to adjust the amount of information taken in is to change the rate.
• If we adjust the rate to 50 Hz and the number of samples to 200.
• The results are shown below. There are fewer data points but the range of data is
similar to our earlier samples. Also, we are able to collect valuable data on our
process in the required 4 seconds.
Sampling Rate
• Yet in terms of computer speed 4 seconds is really rather slow.

• Can LabVIEW collect data in shorter periods of time?
• The answer is yes!

• We can do this by adjusting the rate and number of samples collected.
• Let’s say we needed to collect information in 1/10th of a second.
• We could adjust our rate to 1000 Hz and then collect 100 samples.
Sampling Rate
• Clock rate for this DAQ instrument allows us to take samples at a rate up to 48000
Hz.
• This is very useful if we have a situation in which we need to record some event very
quickly.
• If an experiment was conducted where we had to monitor an event that happened in
less than 200 micro-seconds LabVIEW could help us.
• This could be a controlled detonation like the ignition of a model rocket engine or a
chemical reaction in which a precipitate forms in solution.
• In this case we would apply the maximum collection rate and opt to collect 10
samples within that interval.
Sampling Rate
• How might we go about recording an event over several minutes?

• Let’s say we wanted to monitor a robotic arm’s position and needed to capture data
for 120 seconds.
• In the prior examples we became fairly adept at finding combinations of rates and
samples to adjust our sample collection time as well as the quantity of data points
collected.
• We will set a rate of 1 Hz and request 120 samples be collected. The VI will capture
120 seconds of data.
• We could also set the rate to 1000 Hz and 120000 points or 0.5 Hz and 60 points.
• It all depends on how many samples we feel we need.
• Yet when we go to run our VI for the two minutes that the experiment requires we
notice that at around the 10 second mark the DAQ Assistant flashes ominously and
this message appears: Our beloved VI has crashed!
Sampling Rate
• We noted that the DAQ Assistant made a weird little flash just before our VI crashed.
• And so we take a closer look at it. Near the bottom of the menu under the DAQ
Assistant we note something we may have overlooked earlier. What, we ask, is this
orange terminal labeled timeout?
• With further investigation we realize that the DAQ Assistant has a default setting in
which it will only collect data for 10 seconds. This is an important discovery because
sometimes we need to collect data for longer periods of time!
• If you set the timeout to a value of -1 the VI will not shutdown until it has collected
all of the data that you have programmed it to collect.
• This is done by using the Wiring Tool to connect a constant to timeout. When we
run our VI again we get a full two minutes of data.
Sampling Rate
• In all of our examples we have collected data at varying rates and sample sizes.
• This has been done to illustrate VI timing. When we create a VI we may want it to
collect data for a very specific rate of time.
• When dealing with measurements it is important also to understand that there are
set collection rates that work better than others, and that if we set a rate too low we
can lose valuable information.
• Next week we will explore what this means and a tool that we can use to assure
ourselves that we are seeing all of the data that is relevant to our experiment.
MODE
• Mode essentially refers to how we wire stuff into

the DAQ.
• Remember the thermocouple experiment?
• In the case of thermocouples we have an
instrument (the thermocouple) that consists of two
wires (a positive leg and a negative leg).
• We need to connect those to the terminals on
some DAQ device.
• In doing so we had to decide whether it was to be
connected in differential mode or reference
single-ended mode.
MODE
• A differential voltage is “floating”, meaning that it has no reference to
ground. The measurement is taken as the voltage difference between the
two wires. The main benefit of a differential measurement is noise rejection,
because the noise is added to both wires and can then be filtered out by
the common mode rejection of the data acquisition system. Differential
measurements should be used if the sensor is in a noisy environment or for
sensors with output voltages susceptible to noise interference. For
example, we recommend that the thermopile output from Apogee SI-100
series infrared radiometers should always be measured differentially
because the small voltages are susceptible to noise.
• A single-ended measurement is taken as the voltage difference between
a wire and ground. The noise is only on the positive wire, and as a result, it
is still measured along with the output voltage from the sensor. Some
sensors, for example amplified versions of Apogee SP and SQ series
sensors, only have a single output and must be wired into a single-ended
channel. A sensor with a differential output can be wired for single-ended
by wiring the low side to ground. This is usually done to reduce the number
of channels needed to measure the sensors. It should be noted that some
sensors (for example, the thermopile output from Apogee SI-100 series
infrared radiometers) can output a negative voltage which means that the
data acquisition system needs to be able to measure negative voltages.
DIFFERENTIAL MODE
• The differential connection shown

represents an instrument with wires
plugged into AI0(+) and AI0(-).
• Differential connections are typically
used with signals under one volt or
when the instrumentation does not
meet the criteria for RSE.
• In a system wired for differential
inputs, each input has its own
reference.
• Differential inputs are also useful as
they eliminate noise problems
because any common-mode noise
picked up by the wires gets cancelled.
DIFFERENTIAL MODE
• Note that the instrument below is

plugged into ground (GND) and
channel AI0(+).
• Reference single-ended (RSE)
inputs all reference to some
common ground.
• Typically an experimenter will use
this type of connection with
relatively high signals (greater
than 1V).
• In addition to this high voltage the
wires coming from the instrument
should be relatively short (less
than 3 meters) and all of the other
input signals to the DAQ share a
common ground.
REFERENCE SINGLE
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM ENDED MODE
• Note that the instrument below is
plugged into ground (GND) and
channel AI0(+).
• Reference single-ended (RSE)
inputs all reference to some
common ground.
• Typically an experimenter will use
this type of connection with
relatively high signals (greater
than 1V).
• In addition to this high voltage the
wires coming from the instrument
should be relatively short (less
than 3 meters) and all of the other
input signals to the DAQ share a
common ground.
GAIN
• Suppose that due to time or cost the experimenter in the

previous example is simply stuck with the 3-bit DAQ device?
• What could an experimenter do in such a case?
• One strategy might be to adjust the gain.
• When we adjust the gain we are providing amplification to a
signal.
• gain = multiplier.
• Any gain setting changes will occur to the analog signal
prior to it being read by the DAQ device.
• As we have learned the A/D can only offer a set number of
divisions (8, 2048, or 65536) when it digitizes an analog
signal.
• If a signal comes in low, the A/D may only be able to use
some fraction of its divisions to form a representation of the
signal. If the signal is increased by a factor of 2 or more then
the number of divisions accessed by the A/D increases.
GAIN Example
• When the experimenter is collecting the analog signal she

notes that it is a waveform that tends to alternate from 0 volts
to 5 volts.
• The 3-bit device has a range of 0 to 10 volts and can provide 8
discrete divisions to represent any signal.
• With the gain setting equivalent to 1 the DAQ device will collect
the 0-5 volt signal and digitize it.
• However, of the 8-divisions that this 3-bit device may use to
digitize the signal, only four will be useable.
• The experimenter decides to multiply the gain by 2 and apply
this to the analog signal prior to its reaching the DAQ device.
• With a gain setting of 2 the analog signal being fed to the DAQ
device is now 0 to 10 volts. The A/D will now use all eight of its
divisions and the digital representation of the signal appears
much more closer to the original.
• Thus, adjusting the gain has improved our understanding of
the data.
GAIN Example Graphic
Volts
Volts Gain = 2
10.00 Gain = 2
10.00 111
110111
101110
100101
5.00
5.00 011100
010011
Gain = 1
Gain = 1 001010
1.25 000001
1.25 000
T, sec
T, sec
Gain = 1 Gain = 2
Digital Representation Digital Representation
(4 of 8 possible divisions) (8 of 8 possible divisions)
Gain Effect on Resolving
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM Power
• In any experiment we seek to get the most understanding

out of the response of the system under test.
• The smallest detectable change in a signal or the resolving
power of a DAQ device can be determined by the following
formula:
• RP = (Input Range) / (Gain x

2resolution).
Resolving Power Example 1
• Calculate the resolving power of a DAQ board if it has

a resolution of 8-bits, 0 – 10 volt input range, and a
gain of 1.
• RP = (Input Range) / (Gain x 2resolution)
• therefore (10V) / (1 x 28) = 39 mV

• Calculate the resolving power of a DAQ board if it has a

resolution of 8-bits, 0 – 10 volt input range, and a gain
of 2.
• therefore (10V) / (2 x 28) = 19 mV

• Calculate the resolving power of a DAQ board if it has a

resolution of 8-bits, 0 – 10 volt input range, and a gain
of 10.
• therefore (10V) / (10 x 28) = 4 mV

NOISE
• Noise is anything that might interfere with the proper

collection of a signal.
• Noise can sometimes be referred to EMI
• Anytime we run a wire we are effectively creating an
antenna.
• This “antenna” can pick up aberrant noise.
• There are various strategies for reducing noise,
including adding a resistor to a line to reduce bias on a
multiplexer, RF clamps, and shielding.
Multiplexed vs. Simultaneous Data Acquisition?

 DAQ Criteria:
 Resolution
 Number of Channels
 Speed
 Range
 In addition, the particular analog input architecture

chosen will affect the sampling and accuracy of your
results.
Architectures
Architectures
Multiplexed Simultaneous
 Multiplexed systems use one A/D converter

 Simultaneous systems use an individual A/D
converter for each channel
Channel to Channel Skew Eliminated
• Simultaneous Sampling
– Eliminates time skew
between channels
– Simplifies both time and
frequency based analysis
techniques
• Multiplexed Sampling
– Channels are sampled
sequentially
– May require software
correction for detecting
certain patterns
Increased Signal Bandwidth
• Multiplexed Architecture • Simultaneous Architecture
– One A/D Converter – A/D Converter per chan

– An Instrumentation Amp – A Track-Hold per chan
– A Multiplexer – No Multiplexer
• Performance: • Performance:
CH Rate per channel Signal Bandwidth CH Rate per channel Signal Bandwidth
1 150kHz 75kHz 1 150kHz 75kHz
2 75kHz 37.5kHz 2 150kHz 75kHz
4 37.5kHz 18.75kHz 4 150kHz 75kHz
6 25kHz 12.5kHz 6 150kHz 75kHz
Higher Signal Bandwidth

 Bandwidth is the area of all
frequencies up to the 70%
roll-off point
 Data Translation products

offer a front end bandwidth
that is ten times the Nyquist
Limit
 Minimizes roll-off and phase

errors
Built In Accuracy
• Simultaneous A/D Converters
– All inputs sampled at same time
– Single clock pulse to acquire all
channels
– 35nS max aperture delay
• Matched within 5nS across all
circuits
• 1nS jitter (aperture uncertainty)
– Higher Accuracy at High Speed

• Eliminate several sources of
error
1. Settling Time
2. Channel-to-channel crosstalk
Settling Time For Mux’d Systems
• Each Channel is tied to the same A/D

• Minimum settling time is required for the switched voltage to reach the actual
input signal level
• Some portion of signal from previous channel can “cross over” to next channel
– Makes source impedance an issue
– Can generate erroneous results
Source Impedance and Settling Time

• Source Impedance (R)
• Capacitance (C)
• R * C = 1 Time Constant
– 9 TC’s typical to settle within
0.01% accuracy
Assume: 10V on Channel 0

0V on Channel 1 (R = 10kOhm)
C = 100pF
1TC = (10kOhm * 100pF) = 1uS
0.01% accuracy requires 9 TC’s

9 * 1uS = 9uS (~110kHz)
Channel-to-Channel Crosstalk
• Signal on a channel couples with the signal on another channel
• Occurs because of parasitic capacitance across each open switch
Example:
• Assume an 8
channel MUX’d
system:
• Each 5pF
capacitor can
cause crosstalk
between channels
(5pF * 7ch) = 35pF

Adding OP Amps to Your Signal

Conditioning
• MUX’d System
– Slow-speed OP Amp
• Long Settling Times
• Errors in Measurement (described previously)
• Added Cost
– High-speed OP Amp
• Will Ring When Hit with the 100pF Switch Transients
From the MUX
• Added Cost
• Simultaneous System
– No MUX, No Settling
– No added cost
How Precise is Your Simultaneous

Acquisition Device?
• Measured in Aperture Jitter (Uncertainty)
• How to Measure Aperture Jitter:
1. Input a full scale sinusoidal signal on all channels

2. Find the voltage change near the zero-crossing
3. Compare voltage change to A/D resolution
Demonstration…
1) Input full scale sine wave defined by: V(t) = pSin(2πft)

1) A sinusoid is determined by the equation: V(t) = pSin(2πft)
where: p = peak voltage of sine wave

f = frequency of sine wave
V = voltage
t = time (in seconds)
2) In order to find the voltage change near the zero-crossing, take the derivative:
(6.283 * 10,000Hz * 10V) = 628,300 dV / dt (ΔV in 1 second)
(628,000 * .000000001) = 628uV (ΔV in 1 nanosecond)

3) Compare voltage change to A/D resolution:
ΔV = 628uV in 1nanosecond
Given a 16bit A/D the resolution is:
(20V / 65536) = 305uV
So, with an aperture uncertainty of 1nS, a 10kHz signal should yield a voltage
change near the origin of 628uV or ~2 bits of error for a 16-bit A/D converter.
Aperture Jitter Peak Voltage Frequency (Hz) 12-Bit A/D Error 16-Bit A/D Error
(nS) (Number of lsb’s) (Number of lsb’s)
1 10 100 .001 .021
1 10 1000 .013 .206
1 10 10000 .13 2.06

Cost vs. Value

 For many applications, a simultaneous acquisition device is certainly
the architecture of choice due to its inherent speed and accuracy
but, until recently, the cost of these devices was somewhat
prohibitive. Times have changed and simultaneous devices are now
as cost effective as multiplexed devices.
 The Simultaneous Series provide high speed, highly accurate
measurements, useful in many applications:
 Semiconductor device testing
 Nanotechnology testing
 Motion Control
 Industrial Applications
 Automotive testing
OUTLINE

 DAS Criteria
Functions of Software
 Process, analyze, store, and display the acquired data
with the help of software.
 Different alternatives:
 Programmable software.
 Data acquisition software packages.
Programmable Software
 Involves the use of a programming language, such as:
 C++, visual C++
 BASIC, Visual Basic + Add-on tools (such as
VisuaLab with VTX)
 Fortran
 Pascal
 Advantage: flexibility
 Disadvantages: complexity and steep learning curve
Data Acquisition Software

 Does not require programming.
 Enables developers to design the custom instrument
best suited to their application.
 Examples:
 TestPoint,
 SnapMaster,
 LabView,
 DADISP,
 DASYLAB, etc.
Select a Data Acquisition Card

• Functions: A/D, D/A, Digital I/O, signal conditioning
(amplification, prefiltering), timer, trigger, buffer
• Features:
– A/D resolution (# of bits used)
– Maximum sampling rate
– # of channels
– Total throughput
– Aperture time
Example of Data Acquisition Card

Data Logger
 Combines sensors, transducers, signal conditioning, A/D
conversion, storage, and readout into a compact, battery
powered unit.
Future Implementation
 Android-based Platform for Data Acquisition and Control:
Develop a platform that connects Android applications to
hardware devices.
OUTLINE
 Introduction
Signal Conditioning High
MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM Impedance Sensors
What does high impedance mean?
 In electronics, high impedance means that a point in a circuit (a node)

allows a relatively small amount of current through, per unit of applied
voltage at that point. High impedance circuits are low current and
potentially high voltage, whereas low impedance circuits are the opposite
(low voltage and potentially high current). Numerical definitions of "high
impedance" vary by application.
 High impedance inputs are preferred on measuring instruments such as
voltmeters or oscilloscopes. In audio systems, a high-impedance input
may be required for use with devices such as crystal microphones or
other devices with high internal impedance.
What does high impedance mean?
 In electronics, high impedance means that a point in a circuit (a node)

allows a relatively small amount of current through, per unit of applied
voltage at that point. High impedance circuits are low current and
potentially high voltage, whereas low impedance circuits are the opposite
(low voltage and potentially high current). Numerical definitions of "high
impedance" vary by application.
 High impedance inputs are preferred on measuring instruments such as
voltmeters or oscilloscopes. In audio systems, a high-impedance input
may be required for use with devices such as crystal microphones or
other devices with high internal impedance.
Signal Conditioning High Impedance Sensors

 Many popular sensors have output impedances greater than several MΩ, and the
associated signal conditioning circuitry must be carefully designed to meet the challenges of
low bias current, low noise, and high gain. A large portion of this section is devoted to the
analysis of a photodiode preamplifier. This application points out many of the problems
associated with high impedance sensor signal conditioning circuits and offers practical
solutions which can be applied to practically all such sensors.
 High impedance sensors:
 Photodiodie Preamplifiers
 Piezoelectric Sensors: Accelerometers and Hydrophones
 Humidity Monitors
 pH Monitors
 Chemical Sensors
 Smoke Detectors
 Charge Coupled Devices (CCD) & Contact Image Sensors for Imaging.
Photodiode Preamplifier Design

 Photodiodes generate a small current which is proportional to the level of illumination. They
have many applications ranging from precision light meters to high-speed fiber optic
receivers.
 Photodiode applications:
 Optical: light Meters, Auto-Focus, Flash Controls
 Medical: CAT Scanners (X-Ray Detgection), Blood Particle Analyzers
 Automotive: Hedlight Dimmers, Twilight Detectors
 Communiations: Fiber Optic Receivers.
 Industrial: Bar Code Scanners, Positiosn Sensors, Laser printers.
 The equivalent circuit for a photodiode is shown in Figure.
One of the standard methods for specifying the sensitivity
of a photodiode is to state its short circuit photocurrent
(Isc) at a given light level from a well defined light source.
The most commonly used source is an incandescent
tungsten lamp running at a color temperature of 2850K. At
100 fc (footcandles) illumination (approximately the light
level on an overcast day), the short circuit current is
usually in the picoamps to hundreds of microamps range Photodiode equivalent circuit.
for small area (less than 1mm2) diodes.
Signal Conditioning High Impedance Sensors

 Many popular sensors have output impedances greater than several MΩ, and the
associated signal conditioning circuitry must be carefully designed to meet the challenges of
low bias current, low noise, and high gain. A large portion of this section is devoted to the
analysis of a photodiode preamplifier. This application points out many of the problems
associated with high impedance sensor signal conditioning circuits and offers practical
solutions which can be applied to practically all such sensors.
 High impedance sensors:
 Photodiodie Preamplifiers
 Piezoelectric Sensors: Accelerometers and Hydrophones
 Humidity Monitors
 pH Monitors
 Chemical Sensors
 Smoke Detectors
 Charge Coupled Devices (CCD) & Contact Image Sensors for Imaging.

 Photodiodes generate a small current which is proportional to the level of illumination. They
have many applications ranging from precision light meters to high-speed fiber optic
receivers.
 Photodiode applications:
 Optical: light Meters, Auto-Focus, Flash Controls
 Medical: CAT Scanners (X-Ray Detgection), Blood Particle Analyzers
 Automotive: Hedlight Dimmers, Twilight Detectors
 Communiations: Fiber Optic Receivers.
 Industrial: Bar Code Scanners, Positiosn Sensors, Laser printers.
 The equivalent circuit for a photodiode is shown in Figure.
One of the standard methods for specifying the sensitivity
of a photodiode is to state its short circuit photocurrent
(Isc) at a given light level from a well defined light source.
The most commonly used source is an incandescent
tungsten lamp running at a color temperature of 2850K. At
100 fc (footcandles) illumination (approximately the light
level on an overcast day), the short circuit current is
usually in the picoamps to hundreds of microamps range Photodiode equivalent circuit.
for small area (less than 1mm2) diodes.

 The short circuit current is very linear over 6 to 9 decades of light intensity, and is therefore
often used as a measure of absolute light levels. The open circuit forward voltage drop
across the photodiode varies logarithmically with light level, but, because of its large
temperature coefficient, the diode voltage is seldom used as an accurate measure of light
intensity.
 The shunt resistance RSH is usually in the order of 1000 MΩ at room temperature, and
decreases by a factor of two for every 10ºC rise in temperature. Diode capacitance CJ is a
function of junction area and the diode bias voltage. A value of 50 pF at zero bias is typical
for small area diodes.
 Photodiodes may either be operated with zero bias (photovoltaic mode, left) or reverse bias
(photoconductive mode, right) as shown in the figure (next slide). The most precise linear
operation is obtained in the photovoltaic mode, while higher switching speeds are realizable
when the diode is operated in the photoconductive mode at the expense of linearity. Under
these reverse bias conditions, a small amount of current called dark current will flow even
when there is no illumination. There is no dark current in the photovoltaic mode.
 In the photovoltaic mode, the diode noise is basically the thermal noise generated by the
shunt resistance. In the photoconductive mode, shot noise due to conduction is an
additional source of noise. Photodiodes are usually optimized during the design process for
use in either the photovoltaic mode or the photoconductive mode, but not both.
Photodiode Preamplifier Design.
Photodiode modes operations.
(a) PHOTOVOLTAIC MODE (b) PHOTOVOLTAIC MODE

 Zero Bias  Reverse Bias
 No “Dark” Current  Has “Dark” Current
 Linear  Nonlinear
 Low Noise (Johnson)  Hogher Noise (Johnson+Shot)
 Precision Application  High Speed Application

 Below the photosensitivity for a small photodiode (Silicon Detector Part Number SD-020-12-
001), and specifications for the diode are summarized in Figure. This diode was chosen for
the design example to follow.
PHOTODIODE SPECIFICATIONS silicon detector part number SD-020-12-001
 Area: 0.2 mm2
 Capacitance: 50 pF
 Shunt Resistance @ 25oC: 1000 MΩ
 Maximum Linear Output: 40 µA
 Response Time: 12 ns
 Photosensitivity: 0.03 µA/foot candle (fc)
Short circuit current versus light intensity for photodiode (photovoltaic mode).

 A convenient way to convert the photodiode current into a usable voltage is to use an op
amp as a current-to-voltage converter as shown in Figure.
 The diode bias is maintained at zero volts by the virtual ground of the op amp, and the short
circuit current is converted into a voltage. At maximum sensitivity, the amplifier must be able
to detect a diode current of 30 pA. This implies that the feedback resistor must be very
large, and the amplifier bias current very small. For example, 1000 MΩ will yield a
corresponding voltage of 30 mV for this amount of current. Larger resistor values are
impractical, so we will use 1000 MΩ for the most sensitive range. This will give an output
voltage range of 10 mV for 10pA of diode current and 10 V for 10 nA of diode current.
 For higher values of light intensity, the gain of the circuit
must be reduced by using a smaller feedback resistor.
For this range of maximum sensitivity, we should be
able to easily distinguish between the light intensity on a
clear moonless night (0.001fc) and that of a full moon
(0.1fc)!.
Current-to-voltage converter (simplified).


 The critical leakage paths for the photodiode circuit are enclosed by the dotted lines in
Figure below. The feedback resistor should be thin film on ceramic or glass with glass
insulation. The compensation capacitor across the feedback resistor should have a
polypropylene or polystyrene dielectric. All connections to the summing junction should be
kept short. If a cable is used to connect the photodiode to the preamp, it should be kept as
short as possible and have Teflon insulation.
 Guarding techniques can be used to reduce parasitic leakage currents by isolating the
amplifier’s input from large voltage gradients across the PC board. Physically, a guard is a
low impedance conductor that surrounds an input line and is raised to the line’s voltage. It
serves to buffer leakage by diverting it away from the sensitive nodes.
 In addition to minimizing leakage currents, the entire
circuit should be well shielded with a grounded metal
shield to prevent stray signal pickup.
Leakage current paths.

Preamplifier Offset Voltage.

 An offset voltage and bias current model for the photodiode preamp is shown in Figure
below. There are two important considerations in this circuit. First, the diode shunt
resistance (R1) is a function of temperature—it halves every time the temperature increases
by 10ºC. At room temperature (+25ºC) , R1 = 1000 MΩ, but at +70ºC it decreases to 43
MΩ. This has a drastic impact on the circuit DC noise gain and hence the output offset
voltage. In the example, at +25ºC the DC noise gain is 2, but at +70ºC it increases to 24.
 The second difficulty with the circuit is that the input bias current doubles every 10ºC rise in
temperature. The bias current produces an output offset error equal to IBR2. At +70ºC the
bias current increases to 24 pA compared to its room temperature value of 1 pA.
 Normally, the addition of a resistor (R3) between the
non-inverting input of the op amp and ground having a
value of R1||R2 would yield a first-order cancellation of
this effect. However, because R1 changes with
temperature, this method is not effective. In addition,
the bias current develops a voltage across the R3
cancellation resistor, which in turn is applied to the
photodiode, thereby causing the diode response to
become nonlinear.
AD795 preamplifier DC offset errors.

Preamplifier Offset Voltage.

 The total referred to output (RTO) offset voltage errors are summarized in Figure 4.4.16.
Notice that at +70ºC the total error is 33.24 mV. This error is acceptable for the design
under consideration. The primary contributor to the error at high temperature is of course
the bias current. Operating the amplifier at reduced supply voltages, minimizing output drive
requirements, and heat sinking are some ways to reduce this error source. The addition of
an external offset nulling circuit would minimize the error due to the initial input offset
voltage.
AD795K preamplifier total

output offset error.
Thermoelectric Voltages as Sources of Input Offset Voltage.

 Thermoelectric potentials are generated by electrical connections which are made between
different metals at different temperatures. For example, the copper PC board electrical
contacts to the kovar input pins of a TO-99 IC package can create an offset voltage of 40
μV/ºC when the two metals are at different temperatures. Common lead-tin solder, when
used with copper, creates a thermoelectric voltage of 1 to 3 μV/ºC. Special cadmium-tin
solders are available that reduce this to 0.3 μV/ºC.
 The solution to this problem is to ensure that the connections to the inverting and non-
inverting input pins of the IC are made with the same material and that the PC board
thermal layout is such that these two pins remain at the same temperature. In the case
where a Teflon standoff is used as an insulated connection point for the inverting input (as
in the case of the photodiode preamp), prudence dictates that connections to the non-
inverting inputs be made in a similar manner to minimize possible thermoelectric effects.
Preamplifier AC Design, Bandwidth, and Stability.

 The key to the preamplifier AC design is an understanding of the circuit noise gain as a
function of frequency. Plotting gain versus frequency on a log-log scale makes the analysis
relatively simple (see Figure below). This type of plot is also referred to as a Bode plot. The
noise gain is the gain seen by a small voltage source in series with the op amp input
terminals. It is also the same as the non-inverting signal gain (the gain from “A” to the
output). In the photodiode preamplifier, the signal current from the photodiode passes
through the C2/R2 network. It is important to distinguish between the signal gain and the
noise gain, because it is the noise gain characteristic which determines stability regardless
of where the actual signal is applied.
Generalized noise
gain (NG) Bode plot.

 Stability of the system is determined by the net slope of the noise gain and the open loop
gain where they intersect. For unconditional stability, the noise gain curve must intersect the
open loop response with a net slope of less than 12 dB/octave (20 dB per decade). The
dotted line shows a noise gain which intersects the open loop gain at a net slope of
12dB/octave, indicating an unstable condition. This is what would occur in our photodiode
circuit if there were no feedback capacitor (i.e., C2 = 0).
 The general equations for determining the break points and gain values in the Bode plot are
also given in Figure above. A zero in the noise gain transfer function occurs at a frequency
of 1/2πτ1, where τ1 = R1||R2(C1 + C2). The pole of the transfer function occurs at a corner
frequency of 1/2πτ2, where τ2 = R2C2 which is also equal to the signal bandwidth if the
signal is applied at point “B”. At low frequencies, the noise gain is 1 + R2/R1. At high
frequencies, it is 1 + C1/C2. Plotting the curve on the log- log graph is a simple matter of
connecting the breakpoints with a line having a slope of 45º. The point at which the noise
gain intersects the op amp open loop gain is called the closed loop bandwidth. Notice that
the signal bandwidth for a signal applied at point “B” is much less, and is 1/2πR2C2.

 Figure below shows the noise gain plot for the photodiode preamplifier using the actual
circuit values. The choice of C2 determines the actual signal bandwidth and also the phase
margin. In the example, a signal bandwidth of 16 Hz was chosen. Notice that a smaller
value of C2 would result in a higher signal bandwidth and a corresponding reduction in
phase margin. It is also interesting to note that although the signal bandwidth is only 16 Hz,
the closed loop bandwidth is 167 kHz. This will have important implications with respect to
the output noise voltage analysis to follow.
 It is important to note that temperature

changes do not significantly affect the
stability of the circuit. Changes in R1 (the
photodiode shunt resistance) only affect
the low frequency noise gain and the
frequency at which the zero in the noise
gain response occurs. The high frequency
noise gain is determined by the C1/C2
ratio.
Noise gain of AD795

preamplifier at 25°C.
Photodiode Preamplifier Noise Analysis.

 To begin the analysis, we consider the AD795 input voltage and current noise spectral
densities shown in Figure (a) below. The AD795 performance is truly impressive for a JFET
input op amp: 2.5 μV p-p 0.1 Hz to 10 Hz noise, and a 1/f corner frequency of 12 Hz,
comparing favorably with all but the best bipolar op amps. As shown in the figure, the
current noise is much lower than bipolar op amps, making it an ideal choice for high
impedance applications.
• The complete noise model for an op amp is shown in Figure b. This model includes the
reactive elements C1 and C2. Each individual output noise contributor is calculated by
integrating the square of its spectral density over the appropriate frequency bandwidth and
then taking the square root:
Amplifier noise model Voltage and current noise of AD795


 In most cases, this integration can be done by inspection of the graph of the individual
spectral densities superimposed on a graph of the noise gain. The total output noise is then
obtained by combining the individual components in a root sum-squares manner. The table
below the diagram in Figure b shows how each individual source is reflected to the output
and the corresponding bandwidth for integration. The factor of 1.57 (π/2) is required to
convert the single pole bandwidth into its equivalent noise bandwidth. The resistor Johnson
noise spectral density is given by:
 where k is Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 × 10−23 J/K) and T is the absolute temperature in K.
A simple way to compute this is to remember that the noise spectral density of a 1 kΩ
resistor is 4 nV/√Hz at +25ºC. The Johnson noise of another resistor value can be found by
multiplying by the square root of the ratio of the resistor value to 1000 Ω. Johnson noise is
broadband, and its spectral density is constant with frequency.

 Input Voltage Noise:
 In order to obtain the output voltage noise spectral density plot due to the input voltage noise,
the input voltage noise spectral density plot is multiplied by the noise gain plot. This is easily
accomplished using the Bode plot on a log-log scale. The total RMS output voltage noise due
to the input voltage noise is then obtained by integrating the square of the output voltage
noise spectral density plot and then taking the square root. In most cases, this integration
may be approximated. A lower frequency limit of 0.01 Hz in the 1/f region is normally used. If
the bandwidth of integration for the input voltage noise is greater than a few hundred Hz, the
input voltage noise spectral density may be assumed to be constant. Usually, the value of the
input voltage noise spectral density at 1 kHz will provide sufficient accuracy.
 It is important to note that the input voltage noise contribution must be integrated over the
entire closed loop bandwidth of the circuit (the closed loop bandwidth, fcl, is the frequency at
which the noise gain intersects the op amp open loop response). This is also true of the other
noise contributors which are reflected to the output by the noise gain (namely, the non-
inverting input current noise and the non-inverting input resistor noise).
 The inverting input noise current flows through the feedback network to produce a noise
voltage contribution at the output The input noise current is approximately constant with
frequency, therefore, the integration is accomplished by multiplying the noise current spectral
density (measured at 1 kHz) by the noise bandwidth which is 1.57 times the signal bandwidth
(1/2πR2C2). The factor of 1.57 (π/2) arises when single-pole 3 dB bandwidth is converted to
equivalent noise bandwidth.
High Impedance Sensors.

 Johnson Noise Due to Feedforward Resistor R1:
The noise current produced by the feedforward resistor R1 also flows through the feedback
network to produce a contribution at the output. The noise bandwidth for integration is also 1.57
times the signal bandwidth.
 Non-Inverting Input Current Noise:
The non-inverting input current noise, IN+, develops a voltage noise across R3 which is reflected
to the output by the noise gain of the circuit. The bandwidth for integration is therefore the closed
loop bandwidth of the circuit. However, there is no contribution at the output if R3 = 0 or if R3 is
bypassed with a large capacitor which is usually desirable when operating the op amp in the
inverting mode.
 Johnson Noise Due to Resistor in Non-Inverting Input:
The Johnson voltage noise due to R3 is also reflected to the output by the noise gain of the
circuit. If R3 is bypassed sufficiently, it makes no significant contribution to the output noise.
 Summary of Photodiode Circuit Noise Performance:

Figure below shows the output noise spectral densities for each of the contributors at +25ºC.
Note that there is no contribution due to IN+ or R3 since the noninverting input of the op amp is
grounded.
 Noise Reduction Using Output Filtering:
From the above analysis, the largest contributor to the output noise voltage at +25ºC is the input voltage
noise of the op amp reflected to the output by the noise gain. This contributor is large primarily because
the noise gain over which the integration is performed extends to a bandwidth
of 167 kHz (the intersection of the noise gain curve with the open-loop response of the op amp). If the
op amp output is filtered by a single pole filter (as shown in Figure b) with a 20 Hz cutoff frequency (R =
80 MΩ, C = 0.1 μF), this contribution is reduced to less than 1 μV rms. Notice that the same results
would not be achieved simply by increasing the feedback capacitor, C2. Increasing C2 lowers the high
frequency noise gain, but the integration bandwidth becomes proportionally higher. Larger values of C2
may also decrease the signal bandwidth to unacceptable levels. The addition of the simple filter reduces
the output noise to 28.5 μV rms; approximately 75% of its former value. After inserting the filter, the
resistor noise and current noise are now the largest contributors to the output noise.
(a) Output voltage noise components spectral densities (nV/√Hz) at

(b) AD795 photodiode preamp with offset null adjustment
+25°C.
 Summary of Circuit Performance:
The diagram for the final optimized design of the photodiode circuit is shown in Figure b above.
Performance characteristics are summarized in Figure c. The total output voltage drift over 0 to +70ºC is
33 mV. This corresponds to 33 pA of diode current, or approximately 0.001 foot-candles. (The level of
illumination on a clear moonless night). The offset nulling circuit shown on the non-inverting input can be
used to null out the room temperature offset. Note that this method is better than using the offset null
pins because using the offset null pins will increase the offset voltage TC by about 3 μV/ºC for each
millivolt nulled. In addition, the AD795 SOIC package does not have offset nulling pins.
The input sensitivity based on a total output voltage noise of 44 μV is obtained by dividing the output
voltage noise by the value of the feedback resistor R2. This yields a minimum detectable diode current
of 44 fA. If a 12-bit ADC is used to digitize the 10 V full scale output, the weight of the least significant bit
(LSB) is 2.5 mV. The output noise level is much less than this.
(c) AD795 photodiode circuit performance summary.

 Photodiode Circuit Tradeoffs:
There are many tradeoffs which could be made in the basic photodiode circuit design we have
described. More signal bandwidth can be achieved in exchange for a larger output noise level. Reducing
the feedback capacitor C2 to 1 pF increases the signal bandwidth to approximately 160 Hz. Further
reductions in C2 are not practical because the parasitic capacitance is probably in the order of 1 to 2 pF.
A small amount of feedback capacitance is also required to maintain stability.
If the circuit is to be operated at higher levels of illumination (greater than approximately 0.3 fc), the
value of the feedback resistor can be reduced thereby resulting in further increases in circuit bandwidth
and less resistor noise. If gain-ranging is to be used to measure the higher light levels, extreme care
must be taken in the design and layout of the additional switching networks to minimize leakage paths.
Compensation of a High Speed Photodiode I/V Converter.
 A classical I/V converter is shown in Figure below. Note that it is the same as the
photodiode preamplifier if we assume that R1 >> R2. The total input capacitance, C1, is the
sum of the diode capacitance and the op amp input capacitance. This is a classical second-
order system, and the following guidelines can be applied in order to determine the proper
compensation..
Compensating for input capacitance in a current-to-voltage converter.

Compensation of a High Speed Photodiode I/V Converter.
 The net input capacitance, C1, forms a zero at a frequency f1 in the noise gain transfer
function as shown in the Bode plot.
 Note that we are neglecting the effects of the compensation capacitor C2 and are assuming
that it is small relative to C1 and will not significantly affect the zero frequency f1 when it is
added to the circuit. In most cases, this approximation yields results which are close
enough, considering the other variables in the circuit.
 If left uncompensated, the phase shift at the frequency of intersection, f2, will cause
instability and oscillation. Introducing a pole at f2 by adding the feedback capacitor C2
stabilizes the circuit and yields a phase margin of about 45 degrees.
 Since f2 is the geometric mean of f1 and the unity-gain bandwidth frequency of the op amp,
fu,
 These equations can be combined and solved for C2:

Dr. Ir. Hanny J. Berchmans, M.T. M.Sc.

+62811831965
hannyjberchmans2018@gmail.com

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MECHATRONICS STUDY PROGRAM

SENSORS AND ACTUATOR

Dr. Ir. Hanny J. Berchmans, M.T., M.Sc.

 Typically a sensor cannot be directly connected to the

 Applications of Signal Conditioning

Analoge to Digital Conversion Digital to Analoge Conversion

 Signal inputs accepted by signal conditioners include DC voltage and current, AC

A low-pass electronic filter realized by A digital filter Acoustic filter

Mechanical filter from a telephone

 Signal conditioning processes:

 Signal conditioning processes:

Measuring resistance indirectly

Output voltage and linearity error for constant voltage

a. Using a single op amp

Amplifying and Linearizing Bridge Outputs

Errors produced by wiring resistance

(b) Driving remote bridge using Kelvin (4-wire) sensing and

Typical sources of offset voltage.

AC excitation minimizes offset

Simplified AC bridge drive circuit..

Non-inverting unity gain amplifier.

a. Using a single op b. Using an

(b) Linearizing a two-element

 ADCs for signal conditioning OR TYPE of ADCs:

Successive Approximation ADCs

LEAT SIGNIFICANT BIT (LSB) AND MOST SIGNIFICANT BIT (MSB)

 Introduction of Data Acquisition System (DAS)

What is Data Acquisition?

Reading Out Automatically Computer

• Buy 4 x 4-port USB

Read-out 160 Sensors

Data Acquisition System Block Diagram

TYPICAL DAQ SYSTEM

 Introduction of Data Acquisition System (DAS)

Analog vs. Digital Signal

• Digital signals: binary number system

• ADC - analogue to digital converter, which converts the analogue signal

Steps of Signal Conditioning

Span and Base

Transducer output: 4 mA to 20 mA of electric current

So 11.6 mA corresponds to 60.8 degrees

Conversion & Filtering

 Types of converters: 2 types

 A/D ( Analog to Digital) converter

Function: convert analog signals into digital signals

The Nyquist Rate

Example – Hi-Fi sound (20-

An anti-aliasing filter (AAF) is a filter used

Definition: transformation of a continuous

Quantizing & Encoding

 The difference between actual and coded value

 The more zones, the smaller Δ which results in smaller

 Introduction of Data Acquisition System (DAS)

RTD Resistance vs. Temperature

R RTD RTD (Temp)

How does an RTD work?

• The product n*u decreases over temperature, therefore

What is an RTD made of?

How Accurate is an RTD?

• Repeatability usually very good, allows for individual sensor calibration

Why use an RTD?

How to Measure an RTD Resistance?

Vmeas Isource  RRTD