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Classical Greek Online

Table of Contents
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Lessons
0. Introduction to Classical Greek
1. from Thucydides' History of the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians,
Book 1
2. from Homer's Iliad
3. from Homer's Odyssey
4. from Herodotus' History, Book 1
5. from Herodotus' History, Book 4
6. from Xenophon's Anabasis
7. from Hesiod's Works and Days, Part 1
8. from Plato's Republic, Book 6, Section 13
9. from Aristotle's The Poetics, Book 4: 22-26
10. from Pausanias' Description of Greece, Attica 22: 4-5
Grammar Points
1. The alphabet and sound system.
1.1. The alphabet.
1.2. The sound system.
2. Greek, a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) language.
3. Modifications of the basic sentence pattern.
4. Nominal inflection.
5. Verb inflection.
6. Conjunctions and Particles.
7. Participles.
8. Nouns in consonantal declension.
9. Personal pronouns.
10. The Present System of verbs.
11. Nouns: ι-stems.
12. Adjectives of the -ο- and -ᾱ- Declensions.
13. The Intensive Pronoun αὐτός and ἄλλος 'other'.
14. The Dual.
15. The Aorist System.
16. Nouns ending in -ηρ.
17. Irregular nouns.
18. Demonstrative pronouns.
19. The uses of infinitives.
20. The Present system of the Middle and the Passive.
21. Consonant stems ending in dentals.
22. Comparison of adjectives.
23. Interrogative and indefinite pronouns.
24. The middle and passive voices.
25. The subjunctive, optative, and imperative middle and passive forms, the infinitive and
participle.
26. Survey of noun declensions.
27. Suffixes applied to stems to indicate location.
28. Use of the augment.
29. Deponents.
30. The middle forms of the aorist.
31. Inflection of adjectives and participles.
32. Two frequently occurring adjectives.
33. Less frequent patterns of adjectival comparison.
34. Aorist of the passive.
35. Infinitives and participles of the aorist middle and passive.
36. Tense formation.
37. Tense formation of obstruent stems.
38. Tense formation of resonant stems.
39. The tense formations of some frequent but irregular verbs.
40. The Middle and Passive Perfect.
41. Verbs in -μι; the present and imperfect active system.
42. Forms of the aorist active.
43. Forms of the Present and Imperfect system of εἰμί 'am'.
44. Forms of οἶδα 'I know'.
45. Particles.
46. Texts.
47. Grammars.
48. Dictionaries.
49. Specialized handbooks.
50. The Legacy of the Greek World.

Classical Greek Online


Series Introduction
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Greek has been important in the intellectual life of western civilization, but not to the
extent of Latin except for ecclesiastical matters. In years past, Latin was introduced in the
first year of High School, followed by Greek in the third year. The prominence of Greek
for intellectual matters is evident in designations of subjects central to university study,
such as philosophy 'love of wisdom', philology 'love of words or more generally study',
theology 'study related to God', psychology 'study related to the soul or psyche', and so
on.
A difficulty with Greek that may put off learners is the maintenance of an older form of
the alphabet than that used for Latin, English, and many other languages. Moreover,
accentuation varies in Greek words, and in early Greek was musical. While today
accented syllables are pronounced with stress rather than tones, the older accents are still
written [with η added for illustration]: ή for the οκσεῖα 'acute' accent or high pitch, ῆ for
the περισπώμενον accent or high-low pitch, and ὴ for the βαρεῖα 'grave' or falling pitch.
Furthermore, the sentence structure and number of forms require a great deal of attention.
The words of sentences are placed for their emphasis, rather than in accordance with a
pattern like that of the English Subject-Verb-Object order; knowledge of the inflections is
therefore highly important. Interpretation is also assisted by the use of articles which, like
nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs, are inflected. It is essential, then, to learn the basic
inflections of these parts of speech.
1. The Greek alphabet and pronunciation.
The Greek alphabet was taken over from the Semitic as used in the Phoenician area,
which in turn was based on an Egyptian alphabet. These were also used for the numerals,
so that the order of the symbols was maintained, if changed at times in sound value. This
is true also of the Latin alphabet, which was based ultimately on the Greek alphabet; the
3rd symbol, which represented [g] as in its name gamma, had the sound of [k] in Latin, as
in words like car or the proper name Cato. The symbols themselves, especially the small
cursives, may also differ in form from those of Latin and English, but on the whole the
differences may readily be recognized. The alphabet is as follows:
α β γ δ ε ζ η θ ι κ λ μ ν ξ ο π ρ σς τ υ φ χ ψ ω
ΑΒ Γ Δ Ε Ζ ΗΘΙ ΚΛΜΝΞ ΟΠΡ Σ Τ ΥΦΧΨΩ
Note that there are two forms of the small letter sigma: the latter (ς) is used where the
letter appears last in the word; everywhere else, the former is used. The [h] sound before
a vowel is signalled by a rough breathing sign [with ο added for illustration]: ὁ; and when
there is no initial [h] sound before vowels, the smooth breathing sign is ὀ. The rough
breathing may also be used with initial rho: ῥ.
The names of the letters are as follows, in English and then in Greek:
alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon, zeta, eta, theta, iota, kappa, lambda, mu, nu, xi,
omicron, pi, rho, sigma, tau, upsilon, phi, chi, psi, omega
ἄλφα, βῆτα, γάμμα, δέλτα, ἔψιλόν, ζῆτα, ῆτα, θῆτα, ἰῶτα, κάππα, λάμβδα, μῦ, νῦ,
ξεῖ, ὄμικρόν, πεῖ, ῥῶ, σῖγμα, ταῦ, ὔψιλόν, φεῖ, χεῖ, ψεῖ, ὦμέγα
Latin and thereupon English has maintained this order with modifications that are
apparent from the different sounds of the letters and the different names. The letter ζ was
pronounced like the consonant in adze. The letter ξ was pronounced like the consonant in
ax. The letter ψ was pronounced like the final consonants in tops. The letters θ φ χ were
originally pronounced like the aspirated initial consonants in English tan, pan, can as
opposed to the unaspirated consonants in stan, span, scan; but they are usually
pronounced today like the initial consonants in than, fan and the consonant in German
ach.
The vowels are pronounced as follows: α like the vowel of bot, ε like that of bet, η like
that of bait, ι like that of beet, ο like that of boat, υ like that of bit, ω like that of bought.
The five vowels other than η ω may be long or short. Unlike English, there are few silent
letters. Sentences, then, are read with every letter pronounced, as in the following sayings
of Solon and of Menander:
γηράσκω δ' αἰεὶ πολλὰ διδασκόμενος
'I grow old-indeed-always-many things-learning'
'I grow old always learning many things.'
Τὴν τῶν κρατούντων μάθε φέρειν ἐξουσίαν
'the-of the-masters----learn-to bear-power'
'Learn to submit to the power of the masters.'
2. The vocabulary.
English and Greek belong to the Indo-European language family; their earlier versions
separated from each other some four thousand years ago. Words of the same origin are
often disguised because of changes that have taken place in both languages. For example,
an initial [s] sound before vowels in Greek evolved into [h], as in (cf. English six) Latin
sex, Greek heks, written ἕξ (cf. hexagon). The word corresponding to seven is written
ἑπτά (cf. heptagon). Moreover the Indo-European consonants represented as bh, dh, gh
evolved to ph, th, kh -- φ, θ, χ, as in φράτηρ 'brother'. New sounds have also been
introduced in Greek with their own letter in the alphabet, such as η for the vowel
corresponding to the [a] in hate, and ξ for the combination [ks] as in six.
The greatest difference, however, may have resulted from a massive change of
consonants in Germanic (hence English) well before our era. The change was formulated
by the great German scholar, Jakob Grimm, and is known as Grimm's law, which is listed
even in smaller dictionaries of English. At this time, p, t, k evolved into sounds that today
are represented by f, th, h. Among examples are: father, compare Greek πατήρ, three,
compare Greek τρεῖς, hundred, compare Greek ἑκατόν, literally 'one hundred'. And the
sounds represented by bh, dh, gh in Indo-European were changed to the sounds that today
are represented by b, d, g. These sounds were also changed in Greek, as noted above.
Among examples are English brother, compare Greek φράτηρ, door, compare Greek
θύρα, goose, compare Greek χήν. At the same time, b, d, g were changed to p, t, k.
Among English examples are ten, compare Greek δέκα, kin, compare Greek γένος. (Indo-
European had almost no words with b.)
It is interesting to compare such cognate words, but the changes that both languages have
undergone often conceal the relationships, as for the numerals for four and five. Some of
the others are transparently related, in spite of changes: one, Greek εἷς; two, Greek δύο;
three, Greek τρεῖς; four, Greek τέτταρες; five, Greek πέντε; six, Greek ἕξ; seven, Greek
ἑπτά; eight, Greek ὀκτώ; nine, Greek ἐννέα; ten, Greek δέκα. Since dictionaries may
provide the Greek cognates of English entries, control over the Greek vocabulary can be
gained by noting them. Etymological dictionaries are of greater assistance.
As noted above, by far the greatest number of similar words are found in academic and
ecclesiastical language, where English simply took over the Greek terms through long
influence on western culture from these spheres. Words were pronounced in accordance
with the English spellings, rather than with their pronunciation in Greek. Some examples
are cited here.
The academic terms are in accordance with the influence of Aristotle, who conducted his
teaching in the Athenian grove known as the Academy, which was named after the hero
Akademos. We have already noted terms ending in -logy, to which others might be added
like biology and neurology. The last part attained a status of its own, so that further words
like sociology, with its initial part from Latin, could be introduced. Moreover, the last
part has a somewhat different function in the word doxology, 'giving words of praise'.
Other ecclesiastical terms are clergy, clerical, Eucharist and liturgy. In the political
sphere the words democrat and democracy are based on the components for people and
power, as also in aristocrat and aristocracy for the best or superior people and power,
autocracy for self or absolute power, theocracy for ecclesiastical power. Examination of
the etymology or 'true meaning' of such words will assist in gaining control of the Greek
vocabulary.
3. The sentence structure of Greek.
As is clear from the earlier quotations, the sentence order of Greek may differ
considerably from that of English. In an earlier form of Greek, the verb was placed last in
the sentence. But in the sayings of Menander its position is quite different. The different
positions are possible because of Greek inflections. In English we generally have to place
together phrases like 'power of the masters'. Greek, on the other hand, can move elements
around for stylistic purposes -- as here, giving emphasis to special items like 'of the
masters'.
In examining a Greek text, one should first identify the verb. Its forms are identifiable
through their inflections, with the additional help that nouns are often marked by
preceding articles. In the saying of Solon, the ending -ω indicates that the subject is the
first person expressed in English with I. As often, no further subject is included.
Moreover, the ος ending on the final word indicates that the word must be taken as
modifying I. It is useful then to memorize the basic inflections of verbs, as well as those
of nouns.
As illustrated by these brief passages, the key to reading Greek is provided by knowledge
of its inflections. While these are numerous, memorization of the basic inflections of the
article, of nouns and of verbs is generally adequate.
4. The forms of Greek.
4.1 Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, the article.

Thee parts of speech are inflected for four cases, besides a case of address called the
vocative. The cases are as follows:
·0 Nominative, the case of the subject;
·1 Genitive, the case to indicate possession -- possessive, in grammars of English
·2 Dative, the case of the indirect object
·3 Accusative, the case of the direct object -- objective, in grammars of English
Case forms may also be determined by prepositions.
In English, only the nominative, genitive/possessive and accusative/objective have been
maintained, and that only in pronouns: I is nominative, my is genitive, me is accusative.
Nouns simply have a nominative and a possessive, as in dog, dog's. Adjectives are not
inflected.
Greek nouns are also inflected for --
·4 number, that is, singular and plural; Classical Greek also maintained a dual.
·5 three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.
·6 a large number of declensions.
Paradigms are given in the various lessons. For illustration here, forms of the article are
shown in all three genders, as well as the feminine noun for 'country' of the α-declension
and the masculine noun for 'word' and the neuter for 'gift' of the ο-declension:
Fem. Masc. Nt. Fem. Masc Nt
Sg. Nom. ἡ ὁ τό χώρα λόγος δῶρον
Sg. Gen. τῆς τοῦ τοῦ χώρας λόγου δώρου
Sg. Dat. τῇ τῷ τῷ χώρᾳ λόγῳ δώρῳ
Sg. Acc. τήν τόν τό χώραν λόγον δῶρον
Pl. Nom. αἱ οἱ τά χῶραι λόγοι δῶρα
Pl. Gen. τῶν τῶν τῶν χωρῶν λόγων δώρων
Pl. Dat. ταῖς τοῖς τοῖς χώραις λόγοις δώροις
Pl. Acc τάς τούς τά χώρας λόγους δῶρα
4.2 Verbs.

Like nouns, verbs have many inflections (though not all of the possible combinations
below are realized):
·7 Verbs are inflected for voice: active, middle, and passive. The middle indicates
action directed at the subject; this is often expressed in the lexical meaning itself.
Verbs with a basically middle voice are known as deponents; for example,
γίγνομαι means 'become, take place, be produced,' etc.
·8 Verbs are inflected for mood: indicative, subjunctive, and optative.
·9 Verbs are inflected for tense: present, past (or imperfect), and future. Of these,
there are three sets (again, not in all combinations): the basic (or simple), the
aorist, and the perfect. The past perfect is also called pluperfect.
In addition there are imperative forms, infinitives, participles, a gerund, and a supine. The
imperative forms are rare in written texts.
The present infinitive active may be illustrated by λέγειν 'to say, speak'; the aorist is
λέξαι. The present infinitive middle is λέγεσθαι; the aorist is λέξασθαι. The passive
infinitive is λέγεσθαι; the aorist is λεγθῆναι. The present participle active is λέγων,
λέγουσα, λέγον. The present participle middle and passive is λεγόμενος, λεγομένη,
λεγόμενον.
It should be obvious that the verb system of Greek is complex. The basic forms of
irregular verbs are generally listed in dictionaries.
4.3 The other parts of speech.

In addition to these parts of speech, Greek includes adverbs, conjunctions, interjections


and prepositions. Since their functions are comparable to those of their English
counterparts, they will not be discussed here.
5. Examples of texts.
Proverbs or passages from literary figures are often cited, also in English works. A few
will be given here to illustrate the use of forms and patterns of syntax.
Πάντων μέτρον ἄνθρωπός ἐστιν.
Plato:
'The human being is the measure of all things.'
ἄνθρωπος φύσει πολιτικκ̀ον ζῷον.
Aristotle:
'The human being is by nature a political animal.'
πολλὰ τὰ δεινὰ κοὐδὲν ἀνθρώπου δεινότερον πέλει.
Sophocles: 'There are many wonderful things and nothing is more wonderful than the human
being.'
Archimede δός μοι ποῦ στῶ καὶ κινῶ τὴν γεε̃ν.
s: 'Give me a place where I may stand and I will move the earth.'
ὁ σοφὸς ἐν αὐτῷ περιφέρει τὴν οὐσίαν.
Menander:
'The wise man carries his property within him.'
ὁ δὲ ἀνεξέταστον βίος οὐ βιωτὸς ἀνθρώπῳ.
Plato:
'The unexamined life is not worth living for a human being.'
Οὐδεὶς ποιῶν πονερὰ λανθάνει θέον.
Menander:
'No one can hide his wickedness from god.'
Τοὺς μὲν θεοὺς φοβοῦ, τοὺς δὲ γονέας τίμα, τοῖς δὲ νόμοις πείθου.
Isocrates:
'Fear the gods, honor the parents, keep the laws.'
Κάλλιστόν ἐστι κτῆμα παιδεία βροτοῖς.
Menander:
'Education is the most valuable treasure for mortals.'
Ἡ ψυχὴ ἀθάνατος ταίνεται οὖσα.
Plato:
'The soul is apparently immortal.'
Classical Greek Lessons
Note: there are great disparities in capability among personal computers in contemporary
use. Unfortunately, support for Unicode® and/or the repertoire of fonts installed on your
personal computer cannot be detected by a web server! Accordingly, we have prepared
multiple versions of each lesson; this set of lessons is for systems/browsers for
systems/browsers with Unicode support, including a complete "polytonic Greek" font.
(You may switch to other versions via links below.) Lessons:

1. from Thucydides' History of the war between the Peloponnesians and the
Athenians, Book 1
2. from Homer's Iliad
3. from Homer's Odyssey
4. from Herodotus' History, Book 1
5. from Herodotus' History, Book 4
6. from Xenophon's Anabasis
7. from Hesiod's Works and Days, Part 1
8. from Plato's Republic, Book 6, Section 13
9. from Aristotle's The Poetics, Book 4: 22-26
10. from Pausanias' Description of Greece, Attica 22: 4-5

Classical Greek Online


Lesson 1
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Unlike Roman tradition, Greek accounts do not depict a heroic origin in the settlement of
their country. The opening sections of Thucydides' History of the war between the
Peloponnesians and the Athenians provide the best and probably most accurate account
of it. Among recent proposals about the entrance of the Greeks into the areas they settled,
that of E.J.W. Barber, Prehistoric Textiles (Princeton University Press, 1991) is most
convincing. She points out that, among the terms for textiles and weaving, those applying
to simple applications like band-weaving are native Indo-European, but those for
complex applications like use of the warp-weighted loom are imported. She concludes
further that the Greeks picked up the terms for some of the complex applications as they
came to the country through the Balkans from the northeast (1991: 260-82). Thucycides'
account, which includes the excerpt given here, fully supports the conclusion that the
newcomers had a simple civilization. Moreover, it also indicates that they were by no
means united like the early Romans. The lack of political unity was maintained until the
time of Alexander; one of its most difficult periods was the war from 431-404 B.C. that
Thucydides describes so brilliantly.
Reading and Textual Analysis
In the opening section of Book I, Thucydides complains that he was unable to get much
information about the early period. He goes on to state that in the area called Hellas there
were no fixed habitations. The settlers simply moved about, raising enough for their own
needs. Moreover, they had no mercantile traffic. He stresses the general weakness, as in
Section 3 of Book I given here. He also points out that this was the situation at the time of
Homer, which was much later than the time of the Trojan war. The rest of Book I
describes the gradual increase in prosperity, first of Athens, but also the discord among
the groups.
δηλοῖ δέ μοι καὶ τόδε τῶν παλαιῶν ἀσθένειαν οὐχ ἤκιστα.
·10 δηλοῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <δηλόω> be clear, reveal -- it is
clear
·11 δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·12 μοι -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- to me
·13 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- also
·14 τόδε -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ὅδε> this -- by this
·15 τῶν -- article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of the
·16 παλαιῶν -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <παλαιός> old, ancient --
ancient
·17 ἀσθένειαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀσθένεια> weakness --
weakness
·18 οὐχ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not
·19 ἤκιστα -- adverb; <ἥκιστα> least -- least
πρὸ γὰρ τῶν Τρωικῶν οὐδὲν φαίνεται πρότερον κοινῇ ἐργασαμένη ἡ Ἑλλάς.
·20 πρὸ -- preposition; <πρό> before -- before
·21 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
·22 τῶν -- article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of the
·23 Τρωικῶν -- adjective; genitive plural neuter of <Τρωικός> Trojan -- the times of
Troy
·24 οὐδὲν -- pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν> no one,
nothing -- nothing
·25 φαίνεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <φαίνω> seem -- appears
·26 πρότερον -- adverb; <πρότερον> earlier, before -- before
·27 κοινῇ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <κοινός> common -- in common
·28 ἐργασαμένη -- verb; nominative singular feminine of aorist participle of
<ἐργάζομαι> work, make -- to have been carried out
·29 ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·30 Ἑλλάς -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Ἑλλάς> Greece -- Greece
δοκεῖ δέ μοι, οὐδὲ τοὄνομα τοῦτο ξύμπασά πω εἶχεν, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν πρὸ Ἕλληνος τοῦ
Δευκαλίωνος καὶ πάνυ οὐδὲ εἶναι ἡ ἐπίκλησις αὕτη.
·31 δοκεῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <δοκέω> seem, think -- it seems
·32 δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- indeed
·33 μοι -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- to me
·34 οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not
·35 τοὄνομα -- noun; article <τό> the + noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὄνομα>
name -- this name
·36 τοῦτο -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this
·37 ξύμπασά -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <ξύμπας> all together -- in
general
·38 πω -- adverb; <πω> yet -- yet
·39 εἶχεν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <εἴχω> have, be -- did ... exist
·40 ἀλλὰ -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but
·41 τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the time
·42 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- ...
·43 πρὸ -- preposition; <πρό> before -- before
·44 Ἕλληνος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἕλληνος> Hellenos --
Hellenos
·45 τοῦ -- article; genitive singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·46 Δευκαλίωνος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Δευκαλίων> Deucalion --
(son) of Deucalion
·47 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- ...
·48 πάνυ -- adverb; <πάνυ> at all -- at all
·49 οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not
·50 εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- did ... exist
·51 ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·52 ἐπίκλησις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἐπίκλησις> name, title --
title
·53 αὕτη -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this --
this
κατὰ ἔθνη δὲ ἄλλα τε καὶ τὸ Πελασγικὸν ἐπὶ πλεῖστον ἀφ' ἑαυτῶν τὴν ἐπωνυμίαν
παρέχεσθαι.
·54 κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- from
·55 ἔθνη -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἔθνος> nation, people, tribe -- tribes
·56 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand
·57 ἄλλα -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <ἄλλος> other -- other
·58 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·59 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·60 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·61 Πελασγικὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Πελασγικός> Pelasgian --
Pelasgian = (Thessalian)
·62 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- by
·63 πλεῖστον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <πλεῖστος> most -- chiefly
·64 ἀφ' -- preposition; <ἀπό> from -- from
·65 ἑαυτῶν -- reflexive pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἑαυτός> himself --
their own
·66 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·67 ἐπωνυμίαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἐπωνυμία> name,
designation -- name
·68 παρέχεσθαι -- verb; passive infinitive of <παρέχω> provide -- had furnished
Ἕλληνος δὲ καὶ τῶν παίδων αὐτοῦ ἐν τῇ Φθιῶτιδι ἰσχυσάντων, καὶ ἐπαγομένων αὐτοὺς
ἐπ' ὠφελίᾳ ἐς τὰς ἄλλας πόλεις, καθ' ἑκάστους μὲν ἤδη τῇ ὁμιλίᾳ μᾶλλον καλεῖσθαι
Ἕλληνας.
·69 Ἕλληνος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἕλληνος> Hellenos --
Hellenos
·70 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·71 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·72 τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·73 παίδων -- noun, masculine/feminine; genitive plural of <παῖς> child -- sons
·74 αὐτοῦ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- his
·75 ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in
·76 τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·77 Φθιῶτιδι -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <Φθιῶτις> Phthiotis -- Phthiotis
·78 ἰσχυσάντων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of participle aorist of <ἰσχύω> be
strong -- had become strong
·79 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·80 ἐπαγομένων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of present participle passive of
<ἐπάγω> bring in, invite -- were brought in
·81 αὐτοὺς -- pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
themselves
·82 ἐπ' -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- for
·83 ὠφελίᾳ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ὠφελία> aid -- assistance
·84 ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- to
·85 τὰς -- article; accusative plural feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·86 ἄλλας -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <ἄλλος> other -- other
·87 πόλεις -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <πόλις> city -- cities
·88 καθ' -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- by
·89 ἑκάστους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ἕκαστος> each, every -- all
·90 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- indeed
·91 ἤδη -- adverb; <ἤδη> already -- then
·92 τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·93 ὁμιλίᾳ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ὁμιλία> being together --
association
·94 μᾶλλον -- adverb; <μᾶλλον> more and more -- more and more
·95 καλεῖσθαι -- verb; infinitive passive of <καλέω> call, summon -- were called
·96 Ἕλληνας -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- Greeks
οὐ μέντοι πολλοῦ γε χρόνου ἐδύνατο καὶ ἅπασιν ἐκνικῆσαι.
·97 οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- it was not
·98 μέντοι -- particle; <μέντοι> but, however -- however
·99 πολλοῦ -- adjective; genitive singular masculine of <πολύς> many -- long
·100 γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- indeed
·101 χρόνου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <χρόνος> time -- time
·102 ἐδύνατο -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <δύναμαι> be
able -- would
·103 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·104 ἅπασιν -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <ἅπας> all -- to all (clans)
·105 ἐκνικῆσαι -- verb; infinitive passive of <ἐκνικάω> prevail -- prevail
τεκμηριοῖ δὲ μάλιστα Ὅμερος
·106 τεκμηριοῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative of <τεκμηριόω>
prove positively -- demonstrated
·107 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- indeed
·108 μάλιστα -- adverb; superlative of <μάλα> very -- above all
·109 Ὅμερος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ὅμερος> Homer --
Homer
πολλῷ γὰρ ὕστερον ἔτι καὶ τῶν Τρωικῶν γενόμενος οὐδαμοῦ οὕτω τοὺς ξύμπαντας
ὠνόμασεν οὐδ' ἄλλους ἢ τοὺς μετὰ Ἀχιλλέως ἐκ τῆς Φθιώτιδος.
·110 πολλῷ -- adverb; dative singular neuter of <πολύς> many -- much
·111 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
·112 ὕστερον -- adverb; <ὕστερον> later -- later
·113 ἔτι -- adverb; <ἔτι> still -- still
·114 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·115 τῶν -- article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·116 Τρωικῶν -- adjective; genitive plural neuter of <Τρωικός> Trojan -- the
times of Troy
·117 γενόμενος -- deponent verb; nominative singular neuter of present
participle middle of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- being
·118 οὐδαμοῦ -- adverb; <οὐδαμοῦ> nowhere -- nowhere
·119 οὕτω -- adverb; <οὕτως> so, thus -- at all
·120 τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- them
·121 ξύμπαντας -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ξύμπας> all
together -- all together
·122 ὠνόμασεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ὀνομάζω> speak of by
name -- referred to
·123 οὐδ' -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- nor
·124 ἄλλους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- other
·125 ἢ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- than
·126 τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the ones
·127 μετὰ -- preposition; <μετά> after, with -- with
·128 Ἀχιλλέως -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles --
Achilles
·129 ἐκ -- preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of -- from
·130 τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·131 Φθιώτιδος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Φθιῶτις> Phthiotis --
Phthiotis
οἵπερ καὶ πρῶτοι Ἕλληνες ἧσαν, Δαναοὺς δὲ ἐν τοῖς ἔπεσι καὶ Ἀργείους καὶ Ἀχαιοὺς
ἀνακαλεῖ.
·132 οἵπερ -- article used as demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural
masculine of <ὁ> the + particle <περ> indeed -- these... indeed
·133 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·134 πρῶτοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <πρῶτος> first -- the
first
·135 Ἕλληνες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek --
Greeks
·136 ἧσαν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <εἰμί> I am -- were
·137 Δαναοὺς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Δαναοί> Danaans --
Danaans
·138 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·139 ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in
·140 τοῖς -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·141 ἔπεσι -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <ἔπος> words, saying -- poem
·142 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·143 Ἀργείους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἀργεῖος> Argive --
(as)Argives
·144 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·145 Ἀχαιοὺς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean --
Achaeans
·146 ἀνακαλεῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἀνακαλέω> designate --
he designates
οὐ μὴν οὐδὲ βαρβάρους εἴρηκε διὰ τὸ μηδὲ Ἕλληνάς πω, ὡς ἐμοὶ δοκεῖ.
·147 οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not
·148 μὴν -- particle; <μήν> verily -- even
·149 οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- but not
·150 βαρβάρους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <βάρβαρος> foreigner,
non-Greek -- barbarians
·151 εἴρηκε -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <εἴρω> speak, say -- he
did ...speak of
·152 διὰ -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- because of
·153 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- this
·154 μηδὲ -- particle; <μηδέ> and not -- not
·155 Ἕλληνάς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- the
Greeks
·156 πω -- adverb; <πω> yet -- yet
·157 ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- as
·158 ἐμοὶ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- to me
·159 δοκεῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <δοκέω> seem, think -- it
seems
ἀντίπαλον ἐς ἓν ὄνομα ἀποκεκρίσθαι.
·160 ἀντίπαλον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἀντίπαλος> contrast
-- (to provide) a contrast
·161 ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- with
·162 ἓν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <εἷς> one -- a common
·163 ὄνομα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὄνομα> name -- name
·164 ἀποκεκρίσθαι -- verb; perfect infinitive passive of <ἀποκρίνω> separate,
answer -- (they had not yet) been separated
οἱ δ' οὖν ὡς ἕκαστοι Ἕλληνες κατὰ πόλεις τε ὅσοι ἀλλήλων ξυνίεσαν καὶ ξύμπαντες
ὕστερον κληθέντες οὐδὲν πρὸ τῶν Τρωικῶν δι' ἀσθένειαν καὶ ἀμειξίαν ἀλλήλων ἁθρόοι
ἔπραξαν.
·165 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- those
·166 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·167 οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- actually
·168 ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- thus
·169 ἕκαστοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἕκαστος> each,
every -- themselves
·170 Ἕλληνες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek --
Greeks
·171 κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- by
·172 πόλεις -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <πόλις> city -- cities
·173 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·174 ὅσοι -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅσος> as many
-- as many
·175 ἀλλήλων -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another
-- one another's (speech)
·176 ξυνίεσαν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ξυνίημι> bring together,
understand -- they understood
·177 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·178 ξύμπαντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <ξύμπας> all together
-- together
·179 ὕστερον -- adverb; <ὕστερον> later -- later
·180 κληθέντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine aorist participle passive of
<καλέω> call, summon -- called together
·181 οὐδὲν -- pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν>
no one, nothing -- nothing
·182 πρὸ -- preposition; <πρό> before -- before
·183 τῶν -- article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of the
·184 Τρωικῶν -- adjective; genitive plural neuter of <Τρωικός> Trojan -- the
times of Troy
·185 δι' -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- because of
·186 ἀσθένειαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀσθένεια> weakness
-- weakness
·187 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·188 ἀμειξίαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀμειξία> lack of
intercourse -- lack of intercourse
·189 ἀλλήλων -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another
-- with one another
·190 ἁθρόοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἁθρόος> together --
together
·191 ἔπραξαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <πράσσω> achieve, manage --
carried out
ἀλλὰ καὶ ταύτην τὴν στρατείαν θαλάσσῃ ἤδη πλείω χρώμενοι ξυνῆλθον.
·192 ἀλλὰ -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but
·193 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- even
·194 ταύτην -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <οὗτος>
this -- for this
·195 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·196 στρατείαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <στρατεία> expedition
-- expedition
·197 θαλάσσῃ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <θάλασσα> sea -- sea
·198 ἤδη -- adverb; <ἤδη> already -- already
·199 πλείω -- adjective; accusative singular feminine comparative of <πολύς>
many -- considerable
·200 χρώμενοι -- deponent verb; nominative plural masculine middle participle
of <χράομαι> need, use -- (when) they made... use of
·201 ξυνῆλθον -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <συνέρχομαι>
unite, come together -- they united
Lesson Text
δηλοῖ δέ μοι καὶ τόδε τῶν παλαιῶν ἀσθένειαν οὐχ ἤκιστα. πρὸ γὰρ τῶν Τρωικῶν
οὐδὲν φαίνεται πρότερον κοινῇ ἐργασαμένη ἡ Ἑλλάς. δοκεῖ δέ μοι, οὐδὲ τοὄνομα
τοῦτο ξύμπασά πω εἶχεν, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν πρὸ Ἕλληνος τοῦ Δευκαλίωνος καὶ πάνυ
οὐδὲ εἶναι ἡ ἐπίκλησις αὕτη. κατὰ ἔθνη δὲ ἄλλα τε καὶ τὸ Πελασγικὸν ἐπὶ
πλεῖστον ἀφ' ἑαυτῶν τὴν ἐπωνυμίαν παρέχεσθαι. Ἕλληνος δὲ καὶ τῶν παίδων
αὐτοῦ ἐν τῇ Φθιῶτιδι ἰσχυσάντων, καὶ ἐπαγομένων αὐτοὺς ἐπ' ὠφελίᾳ ἐς τὰς
ἄλλας πόλεις, καθ' ἑκάστους μὲν ἤδη τῇ ὁμιλίᾳ μᾶλλον καλεῖσθαι Ἕλληνας. οὐ
μέντοι πολλοῦ γε χρόνου ἐδύνατο καὶ ἅπασιν ἐκνικῆσαι. τεκμηριοῖ δὲ μάλιστα
Ὅμερος πολλῷ γὰρ ὕστερον ἔτι καὶ τῶν Τρωικῶν γενόμενος οὐδαμοῦ οὕτω τοὺς
ξύμπαντας ὠνόμασεν οὐδ' ἄλλους ἢ τοὺς μετὰ Ἀχιλλέως ἐκ τῆς Φθιώτιδος. οἵπερ
καὶ πρῶτοι Ἕλληνες ἧσαν, Δαναοὺς δὲ ἐν τοῖς ἔπεσι καὶ Ἀργείους καὶ Ἀχαιοὺς
ἀνακαλεῖ. οὐ μὴν οὐδὲ βαρβάρους εἴρηκε διὰ τὸ μηδὲ Ἕλληνάς πω, ὡς ἐμοὶ
δοκεῖ. ἀντίπαλον ἐς ἓν ὄνομα ἀποκεκρίσθαι. οἱ δ' οὖν ὡς ἕκαστοι Ἕλληνες κατὰ
πόλεις τε ὅσοι ἀλλήλων ξυνίεσαν καὶ ξύμπαντες ὕστερον κληθέντες οὐδὲν πρὸ
τῶν Τρωικῶν δι' ἀσθένειαν καὶ ἀμειξίαν ἀλλήλων ἁθρόοι ἔπραξαν. ἀλλὰ καὶ
ταύτην τὴν στρατείαν θαλάσσῃ ἤδη πλείω χρώμενοι ξυνῆλθον.
Translation
The weakness of ancient times is also clear to me, not least from the following.
Before the times of Troy, Hellas appears to have carried out nothing in common.
Indeed, it seems to me that it did not yet have this name; before the time of
Hellen, son of Deucalion, this title did not even exist. Rather, other tribes had
furnished them by their own designations, and chiefly the Pelasgians. But when
Hellen and his sons had become strong in Phthiotis, and were brought in for
assistance to the other cities, then all were called Hellenes more and more because
of this association. It was not for a long time, however that the name would
prevail for all clans. Homer especially demonstrated this. Although being much
later than the times of Troy, he nowhere at all referred to them all together, nor to
others than the followers of Achilles from Phthiotis. They indeed were the first
Hellenes, but he designates them in the poems as Danaans and Argives and
Achaeans. He did not even speak of Barbarians because, as it seems to me, the
Hellenes did not yet exist. They had not yet been separated with a common name
to provide a contrast. Those who came together as Hellenes by cities and as they
understood one another's speech and were later classed together carried out
nothing together before the times of Troy because of weakness and lack of
intercourse. But even for this expedition they united only when they already made
considerable use of the sea.
Grammar

1. The alphabet and sound system.

1.1. The alphabet.

The Greek alphabet was taken over from the Phoenicians. It in turn was taken over by the
Romans, but from a version of the alphabet that differs somewhat from the standard. The
names are generally well known, such as the first two from our word alphabet, the third
from gamma rays, and so on.
The pronunciations are also straightforward. Those used in the classical period differ
somewhat from the pronunciations typically used in instruction today. When they differ,
the classical period pronunciations are indicated below using words in parentheses.
Alpha α, Α father
Beta β, Β bother
Gamma γ, Γ gather
Delta δ, Δ delta
Epsilon ε, Ε debt
Zeta ζ, Ζ zen
Eta η, Η rate (rat)
Theta θ, Θ thin (tin) i.e. with aspiration
Iota ι, Ι sin
Kappa κ, Κ cope (scope) i.e. no aspiration
Lamba λ, Λ lap
Mu μ, Μ map
Nu ν, Ν nap
Ksi ξ, Ξ tax
Omikron ο, Ο rope
Pi π, Π poke (spoke) i.e., no aspiration
Rho ρ, Ρ rope
Sigma σς, Σ soap (note: lower-case form has 2 variants)
Tau τ, Τ top (stop) i.e. no aspiration
Upsilon υ, Υ soon (German Suehne) i.e. front rounded
Phi φ, Φ four (pour) i.e. with aspiration
Chi χ, Χ core (German ich or ach) i.e. velar fricative
Psi ψ, Ψ tops
Omega ω, Ω boat (bought)
In addition, a word beginning with a vowel or diphthong may or may not have an initial
[h] sound. This is called a breathing. If the [h] sound is present, the breathing is called
rough, signalled by a rough breathing sign [with α added for illustration]: ἁ; and when
there is no initial [h] sound before a vowel, the smooth breathing sign is ἀ. The rough
breathing may also be used with initial rho: ῥ.
Moreover, vowels may have an iota subscript, that is, an [i] sound after the vowel, written
as a diacritic beneath the vowel (e.g., ᾳ); while indicated in texts, this is generally left
without pronunciation.

1.2. The sound system.

The system is as follows:


Labials Dentals Palato-velars
Voiceless: π τ κ
Voiced: β δ γ
Aspirated, voiceless: φ θ χ
Fricative: ς
Nasals: μ ν ν (spelled γ before γ or κ)

Vowels: ι υ
ε ο
α
ῑ ῡ
η ω

Diphthongs: ει αι οι υι ευ αυ ηυ ου
Classical Greek had a musical accent. There are three such accents. Vowels marked with
oxia (e.g., ά) had high pitch; those with varia (e.g., ὰ) had a low or falling pitch; those
marked with perispomeni (e.g., ᾶ) had rising and falling pitch.
The place of the accent is determined chiefly by the quality of the last syllable;
exceptions will be noted later. If the last syllable is short and the accent is an oxia, it can
fall on the third syllable from the end of a word. If it is short, and the second last vowel is
long, it may have perispomeni accent. If it is long, the second last syllable can only have
oxia accent. In monosyllables the final vowel has oxia accent if it is short, a perispomeni
if long. The varia accent replaces a final oxia accent before words beginning with a
consonant.

2. Greek, a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) language.


The basic word order of Classical Greek is verb-final, as in the following sentence.
ἀλλὰ καὶ ταύτην τὴν στρατείαν θαλάσσῃ ἤδη πλείω χρώμενοι ξυνῆλθον.
"But they united even for this expedition when they were already making
considerable use of the sea."
Thucydides, however, has a highly complex and personal style, so that he rearranges his
sentences to emphasize certain elements. For example, the first sentence here begins with
a verb, δηλοῖ, as does the third with δοκεῖ. The reason for the specific order in other
sentences may be obvious when they are interpreted; for example, the second clearly
emphasizes the final noun Ἑλλάς by placing it last. The texts of later lessons will be
simpler; this text was selected because of its importance for information on the state of
Greece in earlier times.

3. Modifications of the basic sentence pattern.


As noted in section 2, modifications of the basic sentence pattern are often carried out for
stylistic purposes. A further example is the sentence:
Τεκμηριοῖ δὲ μάλιστα Ὅμερος.
"Then Homer established this especially."
Both the position of the verb, and that of the subject, serve to indicate the place of
emphasis. Similarly, the following sentence, with the object identifying the earliest
identified sub-group of the Greeks, has been carefully constructed. Fortunately the ample
inflections provide great assistance in the analysis and interpretation of sentences.

4. Nominal inflection.
Nouns, adjectives and the article are inflected for three genders, three numbers, and four
cases. Among the numbers that of the dual is infrequent, and will not be presented here.
The four cases are the nominative, genitive, dative and accusative. The uses of the
ablative, such as for the target in comparative constructions, are largely assumed by the
genitive. The principal uses of the cases are readily defined. The nominative is the case of
the subject and of nouns after the copula in the predicative nominative. The genitive is
the case of possession. The dative is the case of the indirect object. The accusative is the
case of the direct object.
Because of the common use of the article, its forms might well be memorized.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom sg ὁ ἡ τό
Gen sg τοῦ τῆς τοῦ
Dat sg τῷ τῇ τῷ
Acc sg τόν τήν τό

Nom pl οἱ αἱ τά
Gen pl τῶν τῶν τῶν
Dat pl τοῖς ταῖς τοῖς
Acc pl τούς τάς τά
Examples of the ο-declension, masculine and neuter, and the α-declension, feminine, are
given here.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom sg ὁ λόγος 'word' ἡ στρατιά 'army' τὸ δῶρον 'gift'
Gen sg τοῦ λόγου τῆς στρατιᾶς τοῦ δώρου
Dat sg τῷ λόγῳ τῇ στρατιᾷ τῷ δώρῳ
Acc sg τὸν λόγον τὴν στρατιάν τὸ δῶρον

Nom pl οἱ λόγοι αἰ στρατιαί τὰ δῶρα


Gen pl τῶν λόγων τῶν στρατιῶν τῶν δώρων
Dat pl τοῖς λόγοις ταῖς στρατιαῖς τοῖς δώροις
Acc pl τοὺς λόγους τὰς στρατιάς τὰ δῶρα

5. Verb inflection.
Greek verbs are inflected for three voices, active, middle and passive, for four moods,
indicative, subjunctive, optative and imperative, three systems or tenses, present, aorist
and perfect, three numbers, singular, dual, plural. The augment 'ε' (epsilon) is used with
past tense forms, imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect, but only in the indicative. The perfect
stem is often reduplicated. In addition there are infinitives and participles.
In view of its regularity, the verb παιδεύω 'educate' may be used to illustrate the various
forms. Here the present and the imperfect indicative active are given. Before vowels, 'ν'
(nu) is added to some forms ending in a vowel.
Present Imperfect
1 sg παιδεύω ἐπαίδευον
2 sg παιδεύεις ἐπαίδευες
3 sg παιδεύει ἐπαίδευε(ν)

1 pl παιδεύομεν ἐπαιδεύομεν
2 pl παιδεύετε ἐπαιδεύετε
3 pl παιδεύουσι(ν) ἐπαίδευον

Classical Greek Online


Lesson 2
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
The Homeric poems are among the most read, admired and discussed works of literature.
They are credited to a poet about whom nothing certain is known, but who apparently
lived around 850 B.C. in one of the Asiatic Greek cities, probably Smyrna (Izmir) or
Chios. Every Greek schoolboy is said to have known them, as have many in the western
world until recent times. Their origin has been the subject of much discussion. By
investigating Yugoslav oral poets of his day Milman Parry (1902-35) established the view
that they were the results of a long tradition in which bards recited or sang shorter poems
or lays that were the basis of longer poems, such as the Homeric epics. Such epics were
recited by outstanding poets like Homer, and might later be fixed by written versions.
Parry's contributions are readily available in The Making of Homeric Verse The Collected
Papers of Milman Parry, ed. Adam Parry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
According to ancient tradition, the Homeric poems were first written down by Pisistratus
in the sixth century B.C. They were later studied, especially by the Alexandrian
grammarians, among whom the great critic, Aristarchus of the second century B.C.,
produced an edition that has been the basis of the poems ever since.
The lines of the Iliad and the Odyssey are composed in dactylic hexameter, with a caesura
typical after the fourth member, and a a dactyl [- v v] rather than a spondee [- -] in the
fifth. Among characteristics of epic verse are formulae, such as δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς of line 7
below and ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος of line 14, in a different case in line 21. Parry published
two long "Studies in the Epic Technique of Oral Verse-Making" (1987: 266-364).
Especially the second of these with the sub-title "The Homeric Language as the Language
of an Oral Poetry" may be consulted for further details.
Reading and Textual Analysis
The theme of the Iliad is given in the preamble of seven lines. It is the anger of Achilles.
This was first directed at Agamemnon as they were besieging the city of Troy. But after
the death of his friend, Patroclus, it was directed at his slayer, Hector, the prime warrior
of the city. The poem deals with other combat during the intervening three weeks, such as
that between Paris, son of Priam, head of Troy, and Menelaus, husband of Helen whom
Paris had abducted, thereby causing the attack by the Greeks. The poem concludes with
the death of Hector at the hands of Achilles, and his burial.
Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληιάδεω Ἀχιλλῆος

·202 μῆνιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <μῆνις> anger -- anger


·203 ἄειδε -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <ἀείδω> sing, chant --
sing
·204 θεά -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <θεά> goddess -- oh goddess
·205 Πηληιάδεω -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πηληιάδης> son of
Peleus -- son of Peleus
·206 Ἀχιλλῆος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles --
of Achilles
οὐλομένην, ἥ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε,
# Note that final vowels may be elided to provide regular meter (herein, μυρί' and ἄλγε'
have lost final α).
·207 οὐλομένην -- participle; accusative singular feminine of present participle
middle of <ὀλόω> to destroy -- baneful
·208 ἥ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <ὅς> who, which --
that
·209 μυρί' -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <μυρίος> countless --
countless
·210 Ἀχαιοῖς -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean -- on the
Achaeans
·211 ἄλγε' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄλγος> woe -- woes
·212 ἔθηκε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <τίθημι> put, place -- brought
πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Αἵδι προίαψεν

·213 πολλὰς -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <πολύς> many -- many


·214 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·215 ἰφθίμους -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <ἴφθιμος> valiant --
valiant
·216 ψυχὰς -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ψυχή> soul -- souls
·217 Αἵδι -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <Αἵδης> Hades -- to Hades
·218 προίαψεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <προιάπτω> send forth --
sent forth
ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν

·219 ἡρώων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἥρως> hero -- of warriors


·220 αὐτοὺς -- pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
those
·221 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·222 ἑλώρια -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἑλώριον> spoils, booty --
spoils
·223 τεῦχε -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <τεύχω> make ready, make
-- made
·224 κύνεσσιν -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <κύων> dog -- for dogs
οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή,
·225 οἰωνοῖσί -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <οἰωνός> large bird, bird of
prey -- for the birds of prey
·226 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·227 πᾶσι -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- for all the
·228 Διὸς -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- of Zeus
·229 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·230 ἐτελείετο -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect passive of <τελείω>
fulfill, complete -- was fulfilled
·231 βουλή -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <βουλή> will -- the will
ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε
·232 ἐξ -- preposition; <ἐξ> from, out of -- from
·233 οὗ -- relative pronoun; genitive singular neuter <ὅς> who, which -- that
(time)
·234 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
·235 τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·236 πρῶτα -- adverb; accusative plural neuter of <πρῶτος> first -- first
·237 διαστήτην -- verb; 2nd person dual aorist middle of <δι-ίστημι> separate,
strive -- they separated
·238 ἐρίσαντε -- verb; 2nd person dual aorist participle of <ἐρίζω> quarrel --
quarreling with one another
Ἀτρείδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς.
·239 Ἀτρείδης -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἀτρείδης> son of
Atreus -- the son of Atreus
·240 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·241 ἄναξ -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <ἄναξ> ruler -- ruler
·242 ἀνδρῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἀνήρ> man -- of men
·243 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·244 δῖος -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <δῖος> godlike, noble
-- noble
·245 Ἀχιλλεύς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles
-- Achilles
Τίς τ' ἆρ' σφωε θεῶν ἔριδι ξυνέηκε μάχεσθαι;
·246 τίς -- interrogative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τίς> who,
what -- who
·247 τ' -- conjunction; <τε> and -- ...
·248 ἆρ' -- interrogative particle; <ἆρα> then -- ...
·249 σφωε -- pronoun; accusative dual masculine of <σφωε> those two -- the
two of them
·250 θεῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <θεός> god -- of the gods
·251 ἔριδι -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ἔρις> strife -- in strife
·252 ξυνέηκε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <συνίημι> bring together --
brought together
·253 μάχεσθαι -- verb; infinitive middle of <μάχομαι> fight, quarrel -- to
quarrel
Λητοῦς καὶ Διὸς υἱός; ὁ γὰρ βασιλῆι χολωθεὶς

·254 Λητοῦς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Λητώ> Leto -- of Leto


·255 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·256 Διὸς -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- of Zeus
·257 υἱός -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <υἱός> son -- the son
·258 ὁ -- article used as pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the --
he
·259 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
·260 βασιλῆι -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <βασιλεύς> king -- the
king
·261 χολωθεὶς -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle
passive of <χολόω> anger -- angered at
νοῦσον ἀνὰ στρατὸν ὦρσε κακήν, ὀλέκοντο δὲ λαοί,
·262 νοῦσον -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <νούσος> sickness -- a
sickness
·263 ἀνὰ -- preposition; <ἀνά> on -- on
·264 στρατὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <στρατός> army -- the
army
·265 ὦρσε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ὄρνυμι> stir up -- brought
about
·266 κακήν -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <κακός> evil, poor --
evil
·267 ὀλέκοντο -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect passive of <ὀλέκω> kill --
were perishing
·268 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·269 λαοί -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <λαός> people -- people
οὕνεκα τὸν Χρύσην ἠτίμασεν ἀρητῆρα

·270 οὕνεκα -- conjunction; <οὕνεκα> because -- because


·271 τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·272 Χρύσην -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Χρύσης> Chryses --
Chryses
·273 ἠτίμασεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἀτιμάζω> dishonor -- he
had dishonored
·274 ἀρητῆρα -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἀρητήρ> priest --
priest
Ἀτρείδης· ὁ γὰρ ἤλθε θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας Ἀχαιῶν

·275 Ἀτρείδης -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἀτρείδης> son of


Atreus -- the son of Atreus
·276 ὁ -- article used as pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the --
he
·277 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
·278 ἤλθε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἔρχομαι> come, go -- came
·279 θοὰς -- adjective; accusative plural feminine; of <θοός> fast -- the fast
·280 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- to
·281 νῆας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ναῦς> ship -- ships
·282 Ἀχαιῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean -- of the
Achaeans
λυσόμενός τε θυγάτρα φέρων τ' ἀπερείσι' ἄποινα,
·283 λυσόμενός -- verb; nominative singular masculine of future participle
middle of <λύω> loosen, free -- to free
·284 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·285 θυγάτρα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <θυγάτηρ> daughter --
his daughter
·286 φέρων -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of
<φέρω> bear, bring, carry -- bearing
·287 τ' -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·288 ἀπερείσι' -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <ἀπερείσιος> countless
-- countless
·289 ἄποινα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄποινα> ransom -- ransom
στέμματ' ἔχων ἐν χερσὶν ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος

·290 στέμματ' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <σττ́εμμα> wreath, garland --


garlands
·291 ἔχων -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <ἔχω>
have -- having
·292 ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in
·293 χερσὶν -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <χείρ> hand -- his hands
·294 ἑκηβόλου -- adjective; genitive singular masculine of <ἑκηβόλος> far-
shooting -- of far-shooting
·295 Ἀπόλλωνος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἀπόλλων> Apollo --
Apollo
χρυσέῳ ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ, καὶ λίσσετο πάντας Ἀχαιούς

·296 χρυσέῳ -- adjective; dative singular neuter of <χρύσεος> golden -- golden


·297 ἀνὰ -- preposition; <ἀνά> on -- on
·298 σκήπτρῳ -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <σκήπτρον> sceptre -- sceptre
·299 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·300 λίσσετο -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <λίσσομαι> pray --
prayed
·301 πάντας -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- all
·302 Ἀχαιούς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean --
Achaeans
Ἀτρείδα δὲ μάλιστα δύω, κοσμήτορε λαῶν·

·303 Ἀτρείδα -- noun, masculine; accusative dual of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus


-- sons of Atreus
·304 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·305 μάλιστα -- adverb; superlative of <μάλα> very -- chiefly
·306 δύω -- number; dual of <δύο> two -- the two
·307 κοσμήτορε -- noun, masculine; accusative dual of <κοσμήτωρ>
commander -- commanders
·308 λαῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λαός> people -- of the
peoples
"Ἀτρείδαι τε καὶ ἄλλοι εὐκνήμιδες Ἀχαιοί,
·309 Ἀτρείδαι -- noun, masculine; vocative plural of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus
-- Sons of Atreus
·310 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·311 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·312 ἄλλοι -- adjective; vocative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- other
·313 εὐκνήμιδες -- adjective; vocative plural masculine of <εὐκνῆμις> well-
greaved -- well-greaved
·314 Ἀχαιοί -- noun, masculine; vocative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean --
Achaeans
ὑμῖν μὲν θεοὶ δοῖεν Ὀλύμπια δώματ' ἔχοντες

·315 ὑμῖν -- pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σύ> you -- to you


·316 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- indeed
·317 θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- the gods
·318 δοῖεν -- verb; 3rd person plural optative aorist of <δίδωμι> give --
may . . .grant
·319 Ὀλύμπια -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <Ὀλύμπιος> Olympian
-- Olympian
·320 δώματ' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <δῶμα> house, home --
homes
·321 ἔχοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of
<ἔχω> have -- who have
ἐκπέρσαι Πριάμοιο πόλιν, εὔ δ' οἴκαδ' ἱκέσθαι!
·322 ἐκπέρσαι -- verb; aorist infinitive of <ἐκπέρθω> destroy -- that you
destroy
·323 Πριάμοιο -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πρίαμος> Priam -- of
Priam
·324 πόλιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <πόλις> city -- the city
·325 εὔ -- adverb; <εὔ> well -- safely
·326 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·327 οἴκαδ' -- adverb; <οἴκαδε> home -- home
·328 ἱκέσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive aorist middle of <ἱκνέομαι> reach --
return
παῖδα δ' ἐμοὶ λύσαιτε φίλην, τὰ δ' ἄποινα δέχεσθαι,
·329 παῖδα -- noun, masculine/feminine; accusative singular of <παῖς> child --
child
·330 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·331 ἐμοὶ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- to me
·332 λύσαιτε -- verb; 2nd person plural optative aorist of <λύω> loosen, free --
free
·333 φίλην -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <φίλος> dear, friendly
-- dear
·334 τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·335 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·336 ἄποινα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄποινα> ransom -- ransom
·337 δέχεσθαι -- verb; infinitive of <δέχομαι> receive -- receive
ἁζόμενοι Διὸς υἱὸν ἑκηβόλον Ἀπόλλωνα."
·338 ἁζόμενοι -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle middle
of <ἅζομαι> stand in awe of -- respect with fear
·339 Διὸς -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- of Zeus
·340 υἱὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <υἱός> son -- the son
·341 ἑκηβόλον -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <ἑκηβόλος> far-
shooting -- far-shooting
·342 Ἀπόλλωνα -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Ἀπόλλων> Apollo
-- Apollo
Lesson Text
Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληιάδεω Ἀχιλλῆος
οὐλομένην, ἥ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε,
πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Αἵδι προίαψεν
ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν
οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή,
ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε
Ἀτρείδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς.
Τίς τ' ἆρ' σφωε θεῶν ἔριδι ξυνέηκε μάχεσθαι;
Λητοῦς καὶ Διὸς υἱός; ὁ γὰρ βασιλῆι χολωθεὶς
νοῦσον ἀνὰ στρατὸν ὦρσε κακήν, ὀλέκοντο δὲ λαοί,
οὕνεκα τὸν Χρύσην ἠτίμασεν ἀρητῆρα
Ἀτρείδης· ὁ γὰρ ἤλθε θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας Ἀχαιῶν
λυσόμενός τε θυγάτρα φέρων τ' ἀπερείσι' ἄποινα,
στέμματ' ἔχων ἐν χερσὶν ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος
χρυσέῳ ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ, καὶ λίσσετο πάντας Ἀχαιούς
Ἀτρείδα δὲ μάλιστα δύω, κοσμήτορε λαῶν·
"Ἀτρείδαι τε καὶ ἄλλοι εὐκνήμιδες Ἀχαιοί,
ὑμῖν μὲν θεοὶ δοῖεν Ὀλύμπια δώματ' ἔχοντες
ἐκπέρσαι Πριάμοιο πόλιν, εὔ δ' οἴκαδ' ἱκέσθαι!
παῖδα δ' ἐμοὶ λύσαιτε φίλην, τὰ δ' ἄποινα δέχεσθαι,
ἁζόμενοι Διὸς υἱὸν ἑκηβόλον Ἀπόλλωνα."
Translation
Sing, oh goddess, of the wrath of Achilles, son of Peleus, the baneful wrath,
which brought countless woes on the Achaeans and sent many valiant souls of
heroes to Hades; But it made them themselves spoils for dogs and all kinds of
birds, while the wish of the god was fulfilled. (Sing) from the time when,
quarreling with one another, they first separated, the son of Atreus, ruler of men,
and noble Achilles.
Who now of the gods brought those two to quarrel in strife? The son of Leto and
Zeus! For he, angered at the king, brought about an evil sickness on the army, and
the people were perishing, because the son of Atreus had dishonored Chryses, the
priest. For he had come to the swift ships of the Achaeans to free his daughter,
bearing countless ransom and having in his hands on a golden scepter garlands of
far-shooting Apollo. And he requested of all the Achaeans, but chiefly the two
sons of Atreus, commanders of the people: "Sons of Atreus and other well-
greaved Achaeans, may the gods, who have Olympian homes, grant to you that
you destroy the city of Priam and return safely home. But free my dear child to
me, and receive the ransom, in awe of far-shooting Apollo, son of Zeus."
Grammar

6. Conjunctions and Particles.


As these texts exemplify, Greek makes great use of conjunctions and particles. These may
have basic meanings, but many of them simply suggest relationships between syntactic
units, so that they vary in use and may even not need to be translated.
The most common conjunction is καί, with a basic meaning of 'and' but also 'even' and at
times 'but'. Another common conjunction is γάρ, with a basic meaning of 'for' but also
'now', or it may be added simply to strengthen questions.
Particles typically stand right after the first content word in sentences. Among the
particles, δέ is very common, as in our texts; it has a basic adversative meaning and may
often be translated 'but' or 'on the other hand', but is often redundant. In a different
meaning it is attached to names of places that are in the accusative, and then means 'to'. In
addition it may be added to pronouns to strengthen their meaning. The particle τε is also
very common, and has the meaning 'and'; it is often used after both nouns that are
conjoined. Moreover, in epic poetry it is added to other particles or to pronouns without
adding to their meaning. The particle μέν often stands in clauses that are followed by
other clauses including δέ, where it means something like 'one the one hand'; it may also
be combined with other particles, as in μὲν ἄρα, where it means 'and'. The particle δή
indicates emphasis, as on the word preceding it. In short, particles often supply meaning
much as intonation does in English. The meaning of the content words in sentences may
be a guide to interpretation of the particles included in them.

7. Participles.
Participles are often used to function as verbs of modifying clauses. These modifying
clauses may correspond to relative clauses, as does ἔχοντες in line 18 of the Iliad text.
The relationship to a principal clause may require a further interpretation, as does that of
the participle λυσόμενος in line 13 or that of ἀζόμενος in line 21. On the other hand, they
may be treated as participles in English, as for example φέρων in line 13. They may also
be adjectival; an example is οὐλομένην in line 2. The interpretations will generally be
clear from the contexts in which they are found.

8. Nouns in consonantal declension.


Nouns in the consonantal declension often have the final consonant elided before the
nominative ending, so that their stem form must be determined from the genitive or other
oblique cases. Examples are given here of nouns with stems ending in -δ- and -ρ-.
Masculine Feminine Feminine
Nom sg ὁ παῖς 'child' ἡ Ἕλλας 'Hellas' ἡ θυγάτηρ 'daughter'
Gen sg τοῦ παιδός τῆς Ἑλλάδος τῆς θυγατέρος
Dat sg τῷ παιδί τῇ Ἑλλάδι τῇ θυγατέρι
Acc sg τὸν παῖδα τῆν Ἑλλάδα τῆν θυγατέρα

Nom pl οἱ παῖδες αἱ θυγατέρες


Gen pl τῶν παίδων τῶν θυγατέρων
Dat pl τοῖς παῖσι ταῖς θυγατέρσι
Acc pl τοὺς παῖδας τὰς θυγατέρας

9. Personal pronouns.
The first and second personal pronouns have enclitic forms in the oblique cases of the
singular, which are given here after the regular forms; they have no accent. The third
person forms, for 'he, she, it', are supplied by the intensive pronoun meaning 'self'; the
genitive singular forms would have the meanings 'of him, of her, of it', the dative singular
forms would have the meanings 'to him, to her, to it', and so on.
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
Masc. Fem. Neut.
Nom sg ἐγώ σύ αὐτός αὐτή αὐτό
Gen sg ἐμοῦ, μου σοῦ, σου αὐτοῦ αὐτῆς αὐτοῦ
Dat sg ἐμοί, μοι σοί, σοι αὐτῷ αὐτῇ αὐτῷ
Acc sg ἐμέ, με σέ, σε αὐτόν αὐτήν αὐτό

Nom pl ἡμεῖς ὑμεῖς αὐτοῖ αὐταῖ αὐτά


Gen pl ἡμῶν ὑμῶν αὐτῶν αὐτῶν αὐτῶν
Dat pl ἡμῖν ὑμῖν αὐτοῖς αὐταῖς αὐτοῖς
Acc pl ἡμᾶς ὑμᾶς αὐτούς αὐτάς αὐτά

10. The Present System of verbs.


The present system includes five categories of forms: the present indicative, the
imperfect, the subjunctive, the optative, and the imperative. In addition there is an
infinitive and also a participle. The first two categories have been given in Lesson 1; the
others are given here using the verb [infinitive] παιδεύειν.
Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1 sg παιδεύω παιδεύοιμι
2 sg παιδεύῃς παιδεύοις παίδευε
3 sg παιδεύῃ παιδεύοι παιδευέτω
1 pl παιδεύωμεν παιδεύοιμεν
2 pl παιδεύητε παιδεύοιτε παιδεύετε
3 pl παιδεύωσι(ν) παιδεύοιεν παιδευόντων
The participial forms, nominative and genitive singular, are as follows.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom sg παιδεύων παιδεύουσα παιδεῦον
Gen sg παιδεύοντος παιδευούσης παιδεύοντος

Classical Greek Online


Lesson 3
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Odysseus' ordeals during the ten years on his way home after the sacking of Troy are
recited in some three thousand fewer lines than the Iliad. The Odyssey is a relatively
straightforward description of his adventures during his travels by sea, and of the peoples
he met before he reached his homeland in Ithaca. But the remarkable eleventh book
includes a descent into Hades, where Odysseus learns, among other references to heroes
of the past, what happened to Agamemnon and Achilles, his fellows at Troy. That is one
of the most striking sections of the epic, with a major effect on Dante's Divine Comedy.
As the epic ends, Odysseus resumes his position as the major figure in a small rural
society, with his chief retainers being the keepers of his swine and his cattle.
Reading and Textual Analysis
The outline of the Odyssey is given in the first ten lines, and the first word indicates its
chief theme, "a man."
Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε, Μοῦσα, πολύτροπον, ὅς μάλα πολλὰ

·343 ἄνδρα -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἀνήρ> man -- man


·344 μοι -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- me
·345 ἔννεπε -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <ἐνέπω> tell, tell of --
tell ... of
·346 Μοῦσα -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <Μοῦσα> Muse -- O Muse
·347 πολύτροπον -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <πολύτροπος>
much-turned, much-traveled -- much-traveled
·348 ὅς -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅς> who, which
-- who
·349 μάλα -- adverb; <μάλα> very -- very
·350 πολλὰ -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <πολύς> many -- in many
ways
πλάγχθη, ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον ἔπερσεν·

·351 πλάγχθη -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist passive of <πλάζω> wander,
toss -- was tossed about
·352 ἐπεὶ -- conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after -- after
·353 Τροίης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Τροίη> Troy -- Troy
·354 ἱερὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἱερός> sacred -- sacred
·355 πτολίεθρον -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <πτολίεθρον> city --
city
·356 ἔπερσεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <πέρθω> destroy, sack -- he
had sacked
πολλῶν δ' ἀνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα καὶ νόον ἔγνω,
·357 πολλῶν -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <πολύς> many -- of
many
·358 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·359 ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human
being -- men
·360 ἴδεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <εἴδω> see, know -- he saw
·361 ἄστεα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄστυ> city -- the cities
·362 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·363 νόον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <νόος> mind -- (their)
mind
·364 ἔγνω -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <γιγνώσκω> know, learn --
learned
πολλὰ δ' ὅ γ' ἐν πόντῳ πάθεν ἄλγεα ὃν κατὰ θυμόν,
·365 πολλὰ -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <πολύς> many -- many
·366 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·367 ὅ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- he
·368 γ' -- particle; <γε> indeed -- ...
·369 ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- on
·370 πόντῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <πόντος> sea -- the sea
·371 πάθεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <πάσχω> suffer -- suffered
·372 ἄλγεα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄλγος> woe -- woes
·373 ὃν -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ὅς> his -- his
·374 κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- in
·375 θυμόν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <θυμός> soul, heart --
heart
ἀρνύμενος ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον ἑταίρων.
·376 ἀρνύμενος -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle
middle of <ἄρνυμαι> win -- seeking to save
·377 ἥν -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ὅς> his -- his
·378 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- ...
·379 ψυχὴν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ψυχή> soul -- life
·380 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·381 νόστον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <νόστος> return -- the
return
·382 ἑταίρων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἕταιρος> comrade -- of his
comrades
ἀλλ' οὐδ' ὣς ἑτάρους ἐρρύσατο, ἱέμενός περ·

·383 ἀλλ' -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but


·384 οὐδ' -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not even
·385 ὣς -- adverb; <ὡς> so, thus -- thus
·386 ἑτάρους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural <ἕταρος> comrade --
comrades
·387 ἐρρύσατο -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <ῥύομαι> save --
did he save
·388 ἱέμενός -- deponent verb; nominative singular masculine of present
participle of <ἵεμαι> desire -- desiring
·389 περ -- adverb; <πέρ> although -- although
αὐτῶν γὰρ σφετέρῃσιν ἀτασθαλίῃσιν ὄλοντο,
·390 αὐτῶν -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
their
·391 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
·392 σφετέρῃσιν -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <σφέτερος> own -- own
·393 ἀτασθαλίῃσιν -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <ἀτασθαλία> folly --
folly
·394 ὄλοντο -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ὄλλυμαι> perish -- they
perished
νήπιοι, οἳ κατὰ βοῦς Ὑπερίονος Ἠελίοιο
·395 νήπιοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <νήπιος> childish,
foolish -- fools
·396 οἳ -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅς> who, which --
who
·397 κατὰ -- adverb; <κατά> completely, down, under -- ...
·398 βοῦς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <βοῦς> cow, ox -- cattle
·399 Ὑπερίονος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ὑπερίων> Hyperion
-- of Hyperion
·400 Ἠελίοιο -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἠέλιος> Helios --
Helios
ἤσθιον· αὐτὰρ ὁ τοῖσιν ἀφείλετο νόστιμον ἧμαρ.
·401 ἤσθιον -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ἐσθίω> eat -- devoured
·402 αὐτὰρ -- conjunction; <αὐτάρ> but -- but
·403 ὁ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- he
·404 τοῖσιν -- article used as pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὁ> the --
them
·405 ἀφείλετο -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <ἀφαιρέω> take
away -- took away from
·406 νόστιμον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <νόστιμος> returning
-- of return
·407 ἧμαρ -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἧμαρ> day -- day
τῶν ἁμόθεν γε, θεά, θύγατερ Διός, εἰπὲ καὶ ἡμῖν.
·408 τῶν -- article used as pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of these
things
·409 ἁμόθεν -- adverb; <ἁμόθεν> from any point -- beginning at any stage
·410 γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- indeed
·411 θεά -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <θεά> goddess -- O goddess
·412 θύγατερ -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <θυγάτηρ> daughter --
daughter
·413 Διός -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- of Zeus
·414 εἰπὲ -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <λέγω> say -- tell
·415 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·416 ἡμῖν -- pronoun; dative plural of <ἐγώ> I -- us
Ἔνθ' ἄλλοι μὲν πάντες, ὅσοι φύγον αἰπὺν ὄλεθρον,
·417 ἔνθ' -- adverb; <ἔνθα> then, there -- then
·418 ἄλλοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- the
others
·419 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- indeed
·420 πάντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- all
·421 ὅσοι -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅσος> as many
-- whoever
·422 φύγον -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <φεύγω> escape, flee -- had
escaped
·423 αἰπὺν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <αἰπύς> deep -- sheer
·424 ὄλεθρον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ὄλεθρος> destruction
-- destruction
οἴκοι ἔσαν, πόλεμόν τε πεφευγότες ἠδὲ θάλασσαν·

·425 οἴκοι -- adverb; <οἴκοι> at home -- at home


·426 ἔσαν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <εἰμί> I am -- were
·427 πόλεμόν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ποε̃λεμος> war -- the
war
·428 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·429 πεφευγότες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of perfect participle of
<φεύγω> escape, flee -- having escaped
·430 ἠδὲ -- conjunction; <ἠδέ> and, also -- also
·431 θάλασσαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <θάλασσα> sea -- the
sea
τὸν δ' οἶον νόστου κεχρημένον ἠδὲ γυναικὸς,
·432 τὸν -- article used as pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the --
him
·433 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·434 οἶον -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <οἶος> alone -- alone
·435 νόστου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <νόστος> return -- return
·436 κεχρημένον -- verb; accusative singular masculine of perfect participle
middle of <χράομαι> need, use -- longing for
·437 ἠδὲ -- conjunction; <ἠδέ> and, also -- also
·438 γυναικὸς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <γυνή> woman -- wife
νύμφη πότνι' ἔρυκε Καλυψὼ δῖα θεάων

·439 νύμφη -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <νύμφη> nymph --


nymph
·440 πότνι' -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πότνια> revered,
queenly -- the queenly
·441 ἔρυκε -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <ἐρύκω> hold back -- held
back
·442 Καλυψὼ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Καλυψώ> Calypso --
Calypso
·443 δῖα -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <δῖος> godlike, noble --
splendid
·444 θεάων -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <θεά> goddess -- among the
goddesses
ἐν σπέσσι γλαφυροῖσι, λιλαιομένη πόσιν εἶναι.
·445 ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in
·446 σπέσσι -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <σπέος> cave, grotto -- grotto
·447 γλαφυροῖσι -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <γλαφυρός> hollow --
hollow
·448 λιλαιομένη -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle
middle of <λιλαίομαι> desire -- desiring
·449 πόσιν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <πόσις> husband --
husband
·450 εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- to be
ἀλλ' ὅτε δὴ ἔτος ἦλθε περιπλομένων ἐνιαυτῶν,
·451 ἀλλ' -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but
·452 ὅτε -- conjunction; <ὅτε> when -- when
·453 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- ...
·454 ἔτος -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ἔτος> year -- the year
·455 ἦλθε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἔρχομαι> come, go -- came
·456 περιπλομένων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of present middle
participle of <περιπέλομαι> revolve -- revolved
·457 ἐνιαυτῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἐνιαυτός> year -- years
τῷ οἱ ἐπεκλώσαντο θεοὶ οἶκόνδε νέεσθαι

·458 τῷ -- article used as pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- for
him
·459 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·460 ἐπεκλώσαντο -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist middle of <ἐπικλώθω> spin;
decide -- had decided
·461 θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- gods
·462 οἶκόνδε -- adverb; <οἶκόνδε> to his home -- home
·463 νέεσθαι -- verb; infinitive middle of <νέομαι> return -- (he should) return
εἰς Ἰθάκην, οὐδ' ἔνθα πεφυγμένος ἦεν ἀέθλων

·464 εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- to


·465 Ἰθάκην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἰθάκη> Ithaca -- Ithaca
·466 οὐδ' -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not even
·467 ἔνθα -- adverb; <ἔνθα> then, there -- there
·468 πεφυγμένος -- verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle
middle of <φεύγω> escape, flee -- be away from
·469 ἦεν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <εἶμι> go -- had he
·470 ἀέθλων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἀέθλος> battle, woe --
woes
καὶ μετὰ οἷσι φίλοισι. θεοὶ δ' ἐλέαιρον ἅπαντες

·471 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- even


·472 μετὰ -- preposition; <μετά> after, with -- with
·473 οἷσι -- possessive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὅς> his -- his
·474 φίλοισι -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <φίλος> dear one, friend --
friends
·475 θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- gods
·476 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·477 ἐλέαιρον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἐλεαίρω> pity -- pitied
·478 ἅπαντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἅπας> all -- all
νόσφι Ποσειδάωνος· ὁ δ' ἀσπερχὲς μενέαινεν

·479 νόσφι -- preposition; <νόσφι> apart, afar, except -- except


·480 Ποσειδάωνος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ποσειδάων>
Poseidon -- Poseidon
·481 ὁ -- article used as pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the --
he
·482 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·483 ἀσπερχὲς -- adverb; <ἀσπερχές> unceasingly -- unceasingly
·484 μενέαινεν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <μεναίνω> rage --
raged
ἀντιθέῳ Ὀδυσῆι πάρος ἣν γαῖαν ἱκέσθαι.
·485 ἀντιθέῳ -- adjective; dative singular masculine of <ἀντίθεος> godlike --
godlike
·486 Ὀδυσῆι -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <Ὀδυσεύς> Odysseus --
Odysseus
·487 πάρος -- conjunction; <πάρος> until -- until
·488 ἣν -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ὅς> his -- his
·489 γαῖαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <γαῖα> land -- homeland
·490 ἱκέσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive aorist middle of <ἱκνέομαι> reach --
(he) reached
Lesson Text
Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε, Μοῦσα, πολύτροπον, ὅς μάλα πολλὰ
πλάγχθη, ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον ἔπερσεν·
πολλῶν δ' ἀνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα καὶ νόον ἔγνω,
πολλὰ δ' ὅ γ' ἐν πόντῳ πάθεν ἄλγεα ὃν κατὰ θυμόν,
ἀρνύμενος ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον ἑταίρων.
ἀλλ' οὐδ' ὣς ἑτάρους ἐρρύσατο, ἱέμενός περ·
αὐτῶν γὰρ σφετέρῃσιν ἀτασθαλίῃσιν ὄλοντο,
νήπιοι, οἳ κατὰ βοῦς Ὑπερίονος Ἠελίοιο
ἤσθιον· αὐτὰρ ὁ τοῖσιν ἀφείλετο νόστιμον ἧμαρ.
τῶν ἁμόθεν γε, θεά, θύγατερ Διός, εἰπὲ καὶ ἡμῖν.
Ἔνθ' ἄλλοι μὲν πάντες, ὅσοι φύγον αἰπὺν ὄλεθρον,
οἴκοι ἔσαν, πόλεμόν τε πεφευγότες ἠδὲ θάλασσαν·
τὸν δ' οἶον νόστου κεχρημένον ἠδὲ γυναικὸς,
νύμφη πότνι' ἔρυκε Καλυψὼ δῖα θεάων
ἐν σπέσσι γλαφυροῖσι, λιλαιομένη πόσιν εἶναι.
ἀλλ' ὅτε δὴ ἔτος ἦλθε περιπλομένων ἐνιαυτῶν,
τῷ οἱ ἐπεκλώσαντο θεοὶ οἶκόνδε νέεσθαι
εἰς Ἰθάκην, οὐδ' ἔνθα πεφυγμένος ἦεν ἀέθλων
καὶ μετὰ οἷσι φίλοισι. θεοὶ δ' ἐλέαιρον ἅπαντες
νόσφι Ποσειδάωνος· ὁ δ' ἀσπερχὲς μενέαινεν
ἀντιθέῳ Ὀδυσῆι πάρος ἣν γαῖαν ἱκέσθαι.
Translation
Tell me, O Muse, of the much-traveled man, who wandered many ways after he
had sacked the sacred city of Troy. He saw the cities of many men and learned
their mind. Then he suffered woes in his heart on the sea, seeking to save his life
and the return of his comrades. But not even so did he save his comrades,
although desiring it greatly. They perished through their own folly, fools, who
devoured the cattle of Hyperion Helios. But he took away from them the day of
return. Of these things tell also to us, o goddess, daughter of Zeus, beginning at
any stage.
Then all the others indeed, whoever had escaped sheer destruction, were at home
having escaped the war and also the sea. But him alone, longing for his return and
also his wife, the queenly nymph, Calypso, splendid among the goddesses, held
back in her hollow grotto, desiring him to be her husband. But when the year
came as the years revolved, in which the gods had decided he should return home
to Ithaca, not even then did he escape woes, even with his friends. And all the
gods pitied him except Poseidon. But he raged unceasingly against godlike
Odysseus until he reached his homeland.
Grammar

11. Nouns: ι-stems.


Nouns with stems in -ι have endings differing from those of the -ο- and -ᾱ- declensions,
except in the accusative singular and genitive plural. Their endings also vary in the epic
texts, but the basic inflection is given here with the noun πόλις 'city'.
Nom sg ἡ πόλις Nom pl αἱ πόλεις
Gen sg τῆς πόλεος Gen pl τῶν πολίων
Dat sg τῇ πόλει Dat pl ταῖς πόλισι
Acc sg τῆν πόλιν Acc pl τὰς πόλεις

12. Adjectives of the -ο- and -ᾱ- Declensions.


Many of the most common adjectives fall in these declensions, e.g. κακός 'bad', νέος
'new', φίλος 'dear'. Their endings are those of the nouns in the declensions. It must be
noted, however, that feminine singular forms have -η rather than -α unless their stems
ending in -ε, -ι, -ρ, as in δικαία 'just'. Some, especially compound adjectives, have only
two endings, e.g. βάρβαρος, -ον 'foreign', παράνομος, -ον 'unlawful.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom sg κακός κακή κακόν
Gen sg κακοῦ κακῆς κακοῦ
Dat sg κακῷ κακῇ κακῷ
Acc sg κακόν κακήν κακόν

Nom pl κακοί κακαί κακά


Gen pl κακῶν κακῶν κακῶν
Dat pl κακοῖς κακᾶις κακοῖς
Acc pl κακούς κακάς κακά
13. The Intensive Pronoun αὐτός and ἄλλος 'other'.
The intensive pronoun, meaning 'self, same', is inflected like adjectives except that the
neuter nominative/accusative singular lacks final -ν, e.g. αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό. The forms of
ἄλλος are also inflected in the same way. The forms of the third person reflexive
pronouns 'his, her, their' are based on these:
Gen sg ἑαυτοῦ 'his' ἑαυτῆς 'her' Gen pl ἑαυτῶν 'their'
Dat sg ἑαυτῷ ἑαυτῇ Dat pl ἑαυτοῖς
Acc sg ἑαυτόν ἑαυτήν Acc pl ἑαυτούς

14. The Dual.


The dual, a plural-like form signifying "two," is relatively rare, but is found in older
verse, as in Homer. It has only two endings, one for the nominative, accusative and
vocative, and the other for the genitive and dative. These are illustrated with forms from
the -ᾱ-declension, the -ο-declension, and the consonantal declension.
Nom/Acc/Voc Gen/Dat
τὼ χώρα τοῖν χώραιν 'two countries'
τὼ θεώ τοῖν θεοῖν 'two gods'
τὼ ἄνδρε τοῖν ἀνδροῖν 'two men'
The forms for the first and third person pronouns are:
Nom/Acc/Voc Gen/Dat
νώ νῷν 'we two'
σφώ σφῴν 'the two of them'

15. The Aorist System.


The aorist system is comparable to the present system, except that it lacks a form
corresponding to the present indicative. Its basic meaning was punctual, but its basic set
of forms generally may be translated with past tense forms. The subjunctive, optative and
imperative are comparable to those of the present system.
Indicative Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1 sg ἐπαίδευσα παιδεύσω παιδεύσαι
2 sg ἐπαίδευσας παιδεύσῃς παιδεύσειας παίδευσον
3 sg ἐπαίδευσε(ν) παιδεύσῃ παιδεύσειε(ν) παιδευσάτω
1 pl ἐπαιδεύσαμεν παιδεύσωμεν παιδεύσαιμεν
2 pl ἐπαιδεύσατε παιδεύσητε παιδεύσαιτε παιδεύσατε
3 pl ἐπαίδευσαν παιδεύσωσι(ν) παιδεύσειαν παιδευσάντων

Infinitive παιδεῦσαι
Participle παιδεύσας παιδεύσασα παιδεύε̃ύ̃ͅσαν 'one who
Gen sg παιδεύσαντος παιδεύσης παιδεύσαντος educated'

Classical Greek Online


Lesson 4
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Herodotus, often referred to as the father of history, provided no information about
himself. He is said to have been born about 484 B.C. in Caria, Asia Minor, and died about
430 B.C. in southern Italy. The aim of his history is stated in the first sentence, which is
considered one of the greatest ever written; it is broken up here for ease of treatment. In
my view, this sentence provided the pattern of the first sentence of Luke's Gospel. In the
course of setting out to provide a history of the conflict between the Greeks and the
Persians he not only describes the rise of the Persian Empire but also that of Egypt and
Greece. His description is based on wide travels that took him throughout the countries
on the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea and also into Scythia, the area north of the
Black Sea. That area he visited before his travels in Egypt, where he went as far south as
Assuan. The nine books of his History include highly interesting accounts such as that of
Solon with the Lydian ruler, Croesus, which was formerly included in elementary grade
school readers. Recalling Solon's accounts of fortunate men, Croesus repeated Solon's
name when he was to be burned at the stake by his Persian conqueror, Cyrus; on his
explanation for recalling Solon he was freed. While some of these are considered
mythical, his unparalleled accounts provide information about Greece, Asia Minor, and
Persia that is not recorded elsewhere.
Reading and Textual Analysis
Section 3 of Book I ascribes the initial enmity between the Greeks and the Persians to the
rape of Helen by Paris. The previous section tells of other rapes, including that of Medea
by the Greeks, which by his account led Paris to abduct Helen. In a sense then, Herodotus
begins his history from the epics of Homer.
Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, # History I.1
·491 Ἡροδότου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἡερόδοτος>
Herodotus -- of Herodotus
·492 Ἁλικαρνησσέος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἁλικαρνησεύς>
Halicarnassian -- the Halicarnassian
·493 ἱστορίης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἱστορία> inquiry, history
-- of the history
·494 ἀπόδεξις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἀπόδεξις> exposition,
publication -- exposition
·495 ἥδε -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <ὅδε> this
-- this
ὡς μήτε τὰ γενόμενα ἐξ ἀνθρώπων τῷ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται,
·496 ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- so that
·497 μήτε -- adverb; <μήτε> and not, neither -- neither
·498 τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·499 γενόμενα -- participle used as substantive; nominative plural neuter of
present participle middle of <γίγνομαι> happen, become -- events
·500 ἐξ -- preposition; <ἐξ> from, out of -- by
·501 ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human
being -- by humans
·502 τῷ -- article; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·503 χρόνῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <χρόνος> time -- in time
·504 ἐξίτηλα -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <ἐξίτηλος> fading,
forgotten -- forgotten
·505 γένηται -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <γίγνομαι>
happen, become -- become
μήτε ἔργα μεγάλα τε καὶ θωμαστά, τὰ μὲν Ἕλλησι τὰ δὲ βαρβάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα, ἀκλεᾶ
γένηται,
·506 μήτε -- adverb; <μήτε> and not, neither -- nor
·507 ἔργα -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ἔργον> work, deed -- deeds
·508 μεγάλα -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <μεγάλος> great -- great
·509 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·510 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·511 θωμαστά -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <θωμαστός> wonderful
-- wonderful
·512 τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- those
·513 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand
·514 Ἕλλησι -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- by Greeks
·515 τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- those
·516 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand
·517 βαρβάροισι -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <βάρβαρος> foreigner,
non-Greek -- others than Greeks
·518 ἀποδεχθέντα -- verb; nominative plural neuter of aorist participle passive
of <ἀποδείκνυμι> propose -- performed
·519 ἀκλεᾶ -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <ἀκλεός> without fame --
without fame
·520 γένηται -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <γίγνομαι>
happen, become -- may be
τά τε ἄλλα καὶ δι' ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέμησαν ἀλλήλοισι.
·521 τά -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- and
·522 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·523 ἄλλα -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <ἄλλος> other -- other
·524 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·525 δι' -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- because
·526 ἣν -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ὅς> his -- the
·527 αἰτίην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <αἰτία> cause, reason --
reason
·528 ἐπολέμησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <πολεμέω> fight, be at war
-- they fought
·529 ἀλλήλοισι -- pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another
-- with one another
Δευτέρῃ δὲ λέγουσι γενεῇ μετὰ ταῦτα Ἀλέξανδρον τὸν Πριάμου, ἀκηκοότα ταῦτα,
ἐθελῆσαί οἱ ἐκ τῆς Ἑλλάδος δι' ἁρπαγῆς γενέσθαι γυναῖκα, # History I.3
·530 δευτέρῃ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <δεύτερος> second -- in
the second
·531 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- then
·532 λέγουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <λέγω> say -- they say
·533 γενεῇ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <γενεή> family, generation,
race -- generation
·534 μετὰ -- preposition; <μετά> after, with -- after
·535 ταῦτα -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this
-- these things
·536 Ἀλέξανδρον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Ἀλέξανδρος>
Alexandros -- Alexandros = Paris
·537 τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the (son)
·538 Πριάμου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πρίαμος> Priam -- of
Priam
·539 ἀκηκοότα -- verb; nominative plural neuter of perfect participle of
<ἀκούω> hear, listen -- having been heard
·540 ταῦτα -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this
-- these things
·541 ἐθελῆσαί -- verb; infinitive aorist of <ἐθέλω> wish, want -- wanted
·542 οἱ -- reflexive pronoun; dative singular masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- for
himself
·543 ἐκ -- preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of -- out of
·544 τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·545 Ἑλλάδος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Ἑλλάς> Greece --
Greece
·546 δι' -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- through
·547 ἁρπαγῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἁρπαγή> abduction --
abduction
·548 γενέσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive aorist of <γίγνομαι> happen, become
-- become
·549 γυναῖκα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <γυνή> woman -- wife
ἐπιστάμενον πάντως ὅτι οὐ δώσει δίκας.
·550 ἐπιστάμενον -- deponent verb; accusative singular masculine of present
participle of <ἐπίσταμαι> know -- knowing
·551 πάντως -- adverb; <πάντως> altogether -- fully well
·552 ὅτι -- conjunction; <ὅτι> because, that -- that
·553 οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not
·554 δώσει -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive of <δίδωμι> give --
he would...make
·555 δίκας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right --
amends
οὔτω δὴ ἁρπάσαντος αὐτοῦ Ἑλένην.
·556 οὔτω -- adverb; <οὔτω> thus -- and so
·557 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
·558 ἁρπάσαντος -- verb; genitive singular masculine of <ἁρπάζω> carry off --
carried off
·559 αὐτοῦ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- he
·560 Ἑλένην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἑλένη> Helen -- Helen
τοῖσι Ἕλλησι δόξαι πρῶτὸν πέμψαντας ἀγγέλους ἀπαιτέειν τε Ἑλένην καὶ δίκας τῆς
ἁρπαγῆς αἰτέειν.
·561 τοῖσι -- article; dative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·562 Ἕλλησι -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- Greeks
·563 δόξαι -- verb; aorist infinitive of <δοκέω> seem, think -- it was resolved
·564 πρῶτὸν -- adverb; <πρῶτον> first -- first
·565 πέμψαντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of aorist participle of
<πέμπω> send -- sent
·566 ἀγγέλους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <ἄγγελος> messenger --
messengers
·567 ἀπαιτέειν -- verb; infinitive of <ἀπαιτέω> request -- to demand back
·568 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·569 Ἑλένην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἑλένη> Helen -- Helen
·570 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·571 δίκας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right --
reparations
·572 τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·573 ἁρπαγῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἁρπαγή> abduction --
abduction
·574 αἰτέειν -- verb; infinitive present, of <αἰτέω> request -- to request
τοὺς δέ, προισομένων ταῦτα, προφέρειν σφι Μηδείης τὴν ἁρπαγήν.
·575 τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- these
·576 δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·577 προισομένων -- verb; genitive plural neuter of aorist participle of
<προφέρω> bring forth -- when they proposed
·578 ταῦτα -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this
-- these things
·579 προφέρειν -- verb; infinitive of <προφέρω> bring forth -- (the Trojans)
brought up
·580 σφι -- reflexive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- they
·581 Μηδείης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Μηδεία> Medea -- of
Medea
·582 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·583 ἁρπαγήν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἁρπαγή> abduction --
abduction
ὡς οὐ δόντες αὐτοὶ δίκας οὐδὲ ἐκδόντες ἀπαιτεόντων βουλοίατό σφι παρ' ἄλλων δίκας
γίνεσθαι.
·584 ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- so that
·585 οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not
·586 δόντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of aorist participle of
<δίδωμι> give -- (they had...) given
·587 αὐτοὶ -- pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
themselves
·588 δίκας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right --
satisfaction
·589 οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- and...not
·590 ἐκδόντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of aorist participle of
<ἐκδιδώμι> give up -- having given up
·591 ἀπαιτεόντων -- verb; genitive plural neuter of present participle of
<ἀπαιτέω> request -- (what was) requested
·592 βουλοίατό -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative of <βούλομαι> wish,
request -- they wished (that)
·593 σφι -- reflexive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- for
themselves
·594 παρ' -- preposition; <παρά> from, of -- by
·595 ἄλλων -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- others
·596 δίκας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right --
reparations
·597 γίνεσθαι -- deponent verb; aorist infinitive of <γίγνομαι> happen, become
-- be provided
Μέχρι μὲν ὦν τούτου ἁρπαγὰς μούνας εἶναι παρ' ἀλλήλων. # History I.4
·598 μέχρι -- preposition; <μέχρι> until -- up to
·599 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- indeed
·600 ὦν -- verb; present participle nominative singular masculine of <εἰμί> I
am -- being
·601 τούτου -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this
-- this point
·602 ἁρπαγὰς -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ἁρπαγή> abduction --
abductions
·603 μούνας -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <μοῦνος> alone -- only
·604 εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- (there) were
·605 παρ' -- preposition; <παρά> from, of -- by
·606 ἀλλήλων -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another
-- one another
τὸ δὲ ἀπὸ τούτου Ἕλληνας δὴ μεγάλως αἰτίους γενέσθαι.
·607 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- in regard to this
·608 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·609 ἀπὸ -- preposition; <ἀπό> from -- from
·610 τούτου -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this
-- this point
·611 Ἕλληνας -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- the
Greeks
·612 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
·613 μεγάλως -- adverb; <μεγάλως> greatly -- greatly
·614 αἰτίους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <αἴτιος> blameworthy
-- blameworthy
·615 γενέσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive aorist of <γίγνομαι> happen, become
-- became
προτέρους γὰρ ἄρξαι στρατεύεσθαι ἐς τὴν Ἀσίην ἤ σφέας ἐς τὴν Εὐρώπην.
·616 προτέρους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <πρότερος> first,
before -- before
·617 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
·618 ἄρξαι -- verb; infinitive aorist of <ἄρχω> begin -- (they) began
·619 στρατεύεσθαι -- verb; infinitive middle of <στρατεύω> take the field,
attack -- make war
·620 ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- against
·621 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·622 Ἀσίην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἀσία> Asia -- Asia
·623 ἤ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- than
·624 σφέας -- reflexive pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they --
they
·625 ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- against
·626 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·627 Εὐρώπην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Εὐρώπη> Europe --
Europe
Ἕλληνας δὲ Λακεδαιμονίης εἵνεκεν γυναικὸς στόλον μέγαν συναγεῖραι καὶ ἔπειτα
ἐλθόντας ἐς τὴν Ἀσίην τὴν Πριάμου δύναμιν κατελεῖν.
·628 Ἕλληνας -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- the
Greeks
·629 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·630 Λακεδαιμονίης -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of
<Λακεδαιμόνιος> Lacedemonian, Spartan -- Lacedemonian
·631 εἵνεκεν -- preposition; <εἵνεκεν> because of -- because of
·632 γυναικὸς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <γυνή> woman -- woman
·633 στόλον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <στόλος> army -- army
·634 μέγαν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <μέγας> great --
great
·635 συναγεῖραι -- verb; infinitive aorist of <συναγείρω> assemble --
assembled
·636 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·637 ἔπειτα -- adverb; <ἔπειτα> thereupon -- thereupon
·638 ἐλθόντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of aorist participle of
<ἔρχομαι> come, go -- went
·639 ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- to
·640 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·641 Ἀσίην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἀσία> Asia -- Asia
·642 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·643 Πριάμου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πρίαμος> Priam -- of
Priam
·644 δύναμιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <δύναμις> power --
power
·645 κατελεῖν -- verb; infinitive aorist of <καθαιρέω> take down, destroy --
destroyed
ἀπὸ τούτου αἰεὶ ἡγήσασθαι τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν σφίσι εἶναι πολέμιον,
·646 ἀπὸ -- preposition; <ἀπό> from -- from
·647 τούτου -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this
-- this (time)
·648 αἰεὶ -- adverb; <αἰεί> always -- always
·649 ἡγήσασθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive aorist of <ἡγέομαι> lead, regard,
rule -- (we have) regarded
·650 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·651 Ἑλληνικὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Ἑλληνικός> Greek
-- Greeks
·652 σφίσι -- reflexive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- to
us
·653 εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- to be
·654 πολέμιον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <πολέμιος> hostile,
inimical -- hostile
τὴν γὰρ Ἀσίην καὶ τὰ ἐνοικέοντα ἔθνεα βάρβαρα οἰκηιεῦνται οἱ Πέρσαι, τὴν δὲ Εὐρώπην
καὶ τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν ἥγηνται κεχωρίσθαι.
·655 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·656 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
·657 Ἀσίην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἀσία> Asia -- Asia
·658 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·659 τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·660 ἐνοικέοντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of present participle of
<ἐνοικέω> dwelling in -- inhabiting
·661 ἔθνεα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἔθνος> nation, people, tribe --
nations
·662 βάρβαρα -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <βάρβαρος> foreign, not
Greek -- foreign
·663 οἰκηιεῦνται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <οἰκηιεύω>
claim -- claim (for themselves)
·664 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·665 Πέρσαι -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Πέρσης> Persian --
Persians
·666 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·667 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·668 Εὐρώπην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Εὐρώπη> Europe --
Europe
·669 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·670 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·671 Ἑλληνικὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Ἑλληνικός> Greek
-- Greeks
·672 ἥγηνται -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἡγέομαι> lead,
regard, rule -- they consider
·673 κεχωρίσθαι -- verb; infinitive perfect passive of <χωρίζω> separate -- to
be separate
Lesson Text
Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, ὡς μήτε τὰ γενόμενα ἐξ
ἀνθρώπων τῷ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται, μήτε ἔργα μεγάλα τε καὶ θωμαστά, τὰ μὲν
Ἕλλησι τὰ δὲ βαρβάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα, ἀκλεᾶ γένηται, τά τε ἄλλα καὶ δι' ἣν
αἰτίην ἐπολέμησαν ἀλλήλοισι. Δευτέρῃ δὲ λέγουσι γενεῇ μετὰ ταῦτα Ἀλέξανδρον
τὸν Πριάμου, ἀκηκοότα ταῦτα, ἐθελῆσαί οἱ ἐκ τῆς Ἑλλάδος δι' ἁρπαγῆς γενέσθαι
γυναῖκα, ἐπιστάμενον πάντως ὅτι οὐ δώσει δίκας. οὔτω δὴ ἁρπάσαντος αὐτοῦ
Ἑλένην. τοῖσι Ἕλλησι δόξαι πρῶτὸν πέμψαντας ἀγγέλους ἀπαιτέειν τε Ἑλένην
καὶ δίκας τῆς ἁρπαγῆς αἰτέειν. τοὺς δέ, προισομένων ταῦτα, προφέρειν σφι
Μηδείης τὴν ἁρπαγήν. ὡς οὐ δόντες αὐτοὶ δίκας οὐδὲ ἐκδόντες ἀπαιτεόντων
βουλοίατό σφι παρ' ἄλλων δίκας γίνεσθαι. Μέχρι μὲν ὦν τούτου ἁρπαγὰς μούνας
εἶναι παρ' ἀλλήλων. τὸ δὲ ἀπὸ τούτου Ἕλληνας δὴ μεγάλως αἰτίους γενέσθαι.
προτέρους γὰρ ἄρξαι στρατεύεσθαι ἐς τὴν Ἀσίην ἤ σφέας ἐς τὴν Εὐρώπην.
Ἕλληνας δὲ Λακεδαιμονίης εἵνεκεν γυναικὸς στόλον μέγαν συναγεῖραι καὶ ἔπειτα
ἐλθόντας ἐς τὴν Ἀσίην τὴν Πριάμου δύναμιν κατελεῖν. ἀπὸ τούτου αἰεὶ
ἡγήσασθαι τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν σφίσι εἶναι πολέμιον, τὴν γὰρ Ἀσίην καὶ τὰ ἐνοικέοντα
ἔθνεα βάρβαρα οἰκηιεῦνται οἱ Πέρσαι, τὴν δὲ Εὐρώπην καὶ τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν ἥγηνται
κεχωρίσθαι.
Translation
This is the exposition of the history of Herodotus, the Halicarnassian, (produced)
so that neither the events be forgotten by humans in time, nor the great and
wonderful deeds done by Greeks and foreigners may be without fame, and
especially the reason why they fought with one another.
Then in the second generation after these things, they say that Paris, the son of
Priam, having heard these things, wanted to get for himself a wife out of Greece
through rapine, believing full well that he would not make amends. And so indeed
he carried off Helen. It was resolved first by the Greeks that messengers that were
sent should demand back Helen and request reparations. When they proposed
these things, the Trojans brought up the rape of Medea, and they reminded the
Greeks that they had not given satisfaction nor given what was requested but
asked that reparations be given to them by others. Up to this point there were only
robberies from one another. But after this (the Persians say) the Greeks became
greatly blameworthy. For they began to make war against Asia before they
themselves did against Europe. --- The Greeks for the sake of a Lacedaemonian
woman brought together a great army and then coming to Asia destroyed the
power of Priam. From this time on we have always regarded the Greeks as hostile
us. The Persians claim Asia and the foreign nations living there for themselves
and consider Europe and the Greeks to be separate.
Grammar

16. Nouns ending in -ηρ.


The basic relationship terms, among other nouns, end in -ηρ, and have no -ε- in the
genitive and dative singular, and the dative plural. The following are examples.
father daughter man
Nom. sg. ὁ πατήρ ἡ θυγάτηρ ὀ ἀνήρ
Gen. sg. τοῦ πατρός τῆς θυγατρός τοῦ ἀνδρός
Dat. sg. τῷ πατρί τῇ θυγατρί τῷ ανδρί
Acc. sg. τὸν πατέρα τῆν θυγατέρα τὸν ἄνδρα

Nom. pl. οἱ πατέρες αἱ θυγατέρες οἱ ἄνδρες


Gen. pl. τῶν πατέρων τῶν θυγατέρων τῶν ἀνδρῶν
Dat. pl. τοῖς πατράσι ταῖς θυγατράσι τοῖς ἀνδράσι
Acc. pl. τοὺς πατέρας τὰς θυγατέρας τοὺς ἄνδρας

17. Irregular nouns.


Some of the more frequent nouns are irregular in inflection; four of them are given here.
woman ship fire Zeus
Nom. sg. ἡ γυνή ἡ ναῦς τὸ πῦρ Ζεύς
Gen. sg. τῆς γυναικός τῆς νεώς τοῦ πυρός Διός
Dat. sg. τῇ γυναικί τῇ νηί τῷ πυρί Διί
Acc. sg. τῆν γυναῖκα τῆν ναῦν τὸ πῦρ Δία

Nom. pl. αἱ γυναῖκες αἱ νῆες τὰ πυρά


Gen. pl. τῶν γυναικῶν τῶν νεῶν τῶν πυρῶν
Dat. pl. ταῖς γυναιξί(ν) ταῖς ναυσί(ν) τοῖς πυροῖς
Acc. pl. τὰς γυναῖκας τὰς ναῦς τὰ πυρά

18. Demonstrative pronouns.


There are three demonstrative pronouns. ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε points to the present or future,
and corresponds to 'this,' 'this one here.' οὕτος, αὔτη, τοῦτο points to the former, and
corresponds to 'that.' ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο points to things remote or absent, and
corresponds to 'that there.' ὅδε is based on the definite article. The forms of ἐκεῖνος are
like those of αὐτός. The forms of ὁε̃υτος are given here.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom. sg. οὗτος αὕτη τοῦτο
Gen. sg. τούτου ταύτης τούτου
Dat. sg. τούτῳ ταύτῃ τούτῳ
Acc. sg. τοῦτον ταύτην τοῦτο

Nom. pl. οὗτοι αὗται ταῦτα


Gen. pl. τούτων τούτων τούτων
Dat. pl. τούτοις ταύταις τούτοις
Acc. pl. τούτους ταύτας ταῦτα

19. The uses of infinitives.


Infinitives are often used after verbs to complement their meaning, as in Iliad 18-19:
δοῖεν ... ἐκπέερσαι 'may they grant (you) to destroy...' But in this passage of Herodotus,
they also correspond to finite verbs. In the first sentence of section 3, the infinitive
ἐθελήσαι functions in this way to provide the verb for the noun Ἀλέξανδρον 'Alexander
wished ...' This clause corresponds to a subordinate clause after the verb λέγουσι 'they
say'; relatively frequent, it is known as the Accusative with Infinitive Construction, often
labeled AcI.
A further sentence simply has the infinitive with a dative indicating the subject, and in
turn is followed by two two AcI constructions: τοῖσι Ἕλλεησι δόξαι 'it was resolved by
the Greeks = the Greeks resolved.' Grammars simply label such constructions. Readers of
the texts must accept their presence, and interpret them appropriately.

20. The Present system of the Middle and the Passive.


The Greek verb has a full set of Middle and Passive forms corresponding to those of the
Active. In the Present System, the forms of the two Voices are the same.
When used as Middle, the forms indicate an action or situation reflecting on the subject;
thus the first singular indicative παιδεύομαι means 'I educate (for my sake)'. When used
as Passive, the meaning corresponds to that of passives in English, so that the Passive
παιδεύομαι means 'I am (being) educated.' The forms must be interpreted from the
context.
The forms of the Present System (first, second, and third person, singular and plural) are
as follows:
Indicative Imperfect Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1s παιδεύομαι ἐπαιδευόμην παιδεύωμαι παιδευοίμην
2s παιδεύῃ ἐπαιδεύου παιδεύῃ παιδεύοιο παιδεύου
3s παιδεύεται ἐπαιδεύετο παιδεύηται παιδευοίτο παιδευέσθω
1p παιδευόμεθα ἐπαιδευόμεθα παιδευώμεθα παιδευοίμεθα
2p παιδεύεσθε ἐπαιδεύεσθε παιδεύησθε παιδεύοισθε παιδεύεσθε
3p παιδεύονται ἐπαιδεύοντο παιδεύωνται παιδεύοιντο παιδευέσθων
Infinitive: παιδεύεσθαι
Participle: παιδευόμενος, παιδευομένη, παιδευόμενον
Classical Greek Online
Lesson 5
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
In Book 4 of his History, Herodotus relates the expedition of Darius against the
Scythians, who were located in the western highlands of the Persian Empire. Darius set
out to avenge their earlier invasion of Media. While Herodotus tells of his attempt to
punish the Scythians, most of the sections of the book dealing with the Scythians describe
their customs. Among these the two sections on their use of cannabis are of great interest,
both for their linguistic importance and for their information about the knowledge among
the Greeks of this drug. The name for the plant, probably of Scythian origin, is found not
only in Greek and Latin, but also in Armenian as kanap', in Albanian as kanep, and in
Church Slavonic as konoplja. Found in so many dialects, the word might be reconstructed
for Indo-European but for the information given by Herodotus, especially in view of its
forms in Germanic.
The forms in the Germanic languages, such as our word hemp, Old Icelandic hampr, and
German Hanf include changes in consonants, k > h, b > p, that indicate the word was
imported into Germanic before the first consonant shift. The time of its importation is
unclear, but on the basis of the changes we may assume that the time was somewhat
before our era. There are, however, problems with the assignment, since words may be
modified when imported, though scarcely as completely as in the changed Germanic
forms. Both for their linguistic and their cultural information, these two sections have
been included from among the many of great interest in Herodotus's description of the
customs of the Scythians.
Reading and Textual Analysis
Sections 74 and 75 of Book 4 are straightforward. Herodotus describes the appearance of
the plant and its uses for clothing. While he mentions that he traveled by ship in the Black
Sea, it is unclear whether he went north of it to the homes of the Scythians, or whether he
has his information from reports by other travelers or from Scythians themselves.
Whatever the basis of his information, his description of the use of the plant for achieving
ecstasy and substituting for bathing, as well as the beauty preparations of the women, are
clear and credible.
Ἔστι δέ σφι κάνναβις φυομένη ἐν τῇ χώρῃ πλὴν παχύτητος καὶ μεγάθεος τῷ λίνῳ
ἐμφερεστάτη. # Book 4, section 74
·674 ἔστι -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- there is (they
have)
·675 δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·676 σφι -- reflexive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- (for
them)
·677 κάνναβις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <κάνναβις> hemp --
hemp
·678 φυομένη -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle
middle of <φύω> grow -- growing
·679 ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in
·680 τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·681 χώρῃ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <χώρα> land, country --
country
·682 πλὴν -- preposition; <πλήν> except -- except for
·683 παχύτητος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <παχύτης> thickness --
thickness
·684 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·685 μεγάθεος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <μεγάθης> height --
height
·686 τῷ -- article; dative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·687 λίνῳ -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <λίνον> linen -- linen
·688 ἐμφερεστάτη -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of superlative of
<ἐμφέρης> resembling -- very much like
ταύτῃ δὲ πολλῷ ὑπερφέρει ἡ κάνναβις
·689 ταύτῃ -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this
-- in this (respect)
·690 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- indeed
·691 πολλῷ -- adverb; dative singular neuter of <πολύς> many -- by far
·692 ὑπερφέρει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ὑπερφέρω> surpass --
surpasses
·693 ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·694 κάνναβις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <κάνναβις> hemp --
hemp
αὕτη καὶ αὐτομάτη καὶ σπειρομένη φύεται, καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς Θρήικες μὲν καὶ εἵματα
ποιεῦνται τοίσι λινέοισι ὁμοιότατα·
·695 αὕτη -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <οὗτος>
this -- this
·696 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- both
·697 αὐτομάτη -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <αὐτόματος> by
itself -- by itself
·698 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·699 σπειρομένη -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle
passive of <σπείρω> sow -- sown
·700 φύεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <φύω> grow --
grows
·701 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·702 ἐξ -- preposition; <ἐξ> from, out of -- out of
·703 αὐτῆς -- pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- it
·704 Θρήικες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Θρῆτ́ιξ> Thracian --
(the) Thracians
·705 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- and
·706 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- even
·707 εἵματα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <εἷμα> clothing -- clothing
·708 ποιεῦνται -- verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <ποιέω> make, do --
make
·709 τοίσι -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·710 λινέοισι -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <λίνεος> of linen -- linen
·711 ὁμοιότατα -- adjective; accusative plural neuter superlative of <ὅμοιος>
like, similar -- very much like
οὐδ' ἄν ὅστις μὴ κάρτα τρίβων εἴη αὐτῆς, διαγνοίη λίνου ἢ καννάβιος ἐστί·
·712 οὐδ' -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- and...not
·713 ἄν -- particle; <ἄν> if -- unless
·714 ὅστις -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅστις>
whoever, whatever -- one
·715 μὴ -- particle; <μή> not -- ...
·716 κάρτα -- adverb; <κάρτα> very much, extremely -- very
·717 τρίβων -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of present participle of
<τρίβω> skilled, experienced -- experienced
·718 εἴη -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative of <εἰμί> I am -- were
·719 αὐτῆς -- pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- in
it
·720 διαγνοίη -- verb; 3rd person singular optative aorist of <διαγιγνώσκω>
discern, distinguish -- he would discern
·721 λίνου -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <λίνον> linen -- linen
·722 ἢ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or
·723 καννάβιος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <κάνναβις> hemp --
hemp
·724 ἐστί -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- (whether) it is
ὅς δὲ μὴ εἶδέ κώ τὴν κανναβίδα, λίνεον δοκήσει εἶναι τὸ εἷμα.
·725 ὅς -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅς> who, which
-- he who
·726 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·727 μὴ -- particle; <μή> not -- not
·728 εἶδέ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <εἶδον> saw -- has seen
·729 κώ -- adverb; <κώ> yet -- yet
·730 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·731 κανναβίδα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <κάνναβις> hemp --
hemp clothing
·732 λίνεον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <λίνεος> of linen -- of
linen
·733 δοκήσει -- verb; 3rd person singular future of <δοκέω> seem, think -- will
think
·734 εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- (it) is
·735 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·736 εἷμα -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <εἷμα> clothing -- clothing
Ταύτης ὦν οἱ Σκύθαι τῆς καννάβιος τὸ σπέρμα ἐπεὰν λάβωσι, ὑποδύνουσι ὑπὸ τοὺς
πῖλους, καὶ ἔπειτα ἐπιβάλλουσι τὸ σπέρμα ἐπὶ τοὺς διαφανέας λίθους τῷ πυρί· # Book 4,
section 75
·737 ταύτης -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <οὗτος>
this -- of this
·738 ὦν -- adverb; <ὦν> indeed -- indeed
·739 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·740 Σκύθαι -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Σκύθης> Scythian --
Scythians
·741 τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·742 καννάβιος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <κάνναβις> hemp --
hemp
·743 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·744 σπέρμα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σπέρμα> seed -- seed
·745 ἐπεὰν -- conjunction; <ἐπεάν> when, after -- after
·746 λάβωσι -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist subjunctive of <λαμβάνω>
receive, capture -- take
·747 ὑποδύνουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ὑποδύω> go under --
(and) they go (under)
·748 ὑπὸ -- preposition; <ὑπό> under, by -- under
·749 τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·750 πῖλους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <πῖλος> mat -- mats
·751 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·752 ἔπειτα -- adverb; <ἔπειτα> thereupon -- then
·753 ἐπιβάλλουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἐπιβάλλω> throw on --
they throw
·754 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·755 σπέρμα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σπέρμα> seed -- seed
·756 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- on
·757 τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·758 διαφανέας -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <διαφανής>
transparent, red-hot -- red-hot
·759 λίθους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <λίθος> stone -- stones
·760 τῷ -- article; dative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- with the
·761 πυρί -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <πῦρ> fire -- fire
τὸ δὲ θυμιᾶται ἐπιβαλλόμενον καὶ ἀτμίδα παρέχεται τοσαύτην ὥστε Ἑλληνικὴ οὐδεμία
ἄν μιν πυρίη ἀποκρατήσειε.
·762 τὸ -- article; nominative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- it
·763 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·764 θυμιᾶται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <θυμιάω> burn
with smoke -- burn with smoke
·765 ἐπιβαλλόμενον -- verb; accusative singular neuter of present participle
passive of <ἐπιβάλλω> throw on -- (so) thrown
·766 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·767 ἀτμίδα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀτμίς> steam, vapor --
vapor
·768 παρέχεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <παρέχω>
provide -- it produces
·769 τοσαύτην -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <τοσοῦτος> such --
such
·770 ὥστε -- adverbial conjunction; <ὥστε> like, so that -- that
·771 Ἑλληνικὴ -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <Ἑλληνικός>
Greek -- Greek
·772 οὐδεμία -- pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <οὐδείς, οὐδεμία,
οὐδέν> no one, nothing -- no
·773 ἄν -- particle; <ἄν> if -- ...
·774 μιν -- pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <μιν> it -- it
·775 πυρίη -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <πυρίη> vapor bath --
vapor bath
·776 ἀποκρατήσειε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative of <ἀποκρατέω>
exceed -- might exceed
οἱ δὲ Σκύθαι ἀγάμενοι τῇ πυρίῃ ὠρύονται.
·777 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·778 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·779 Σκύθαι -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Σκύθης> Scythian --
Scythians
·780 ἀγάμενοι -- deponent verb; nominative plural masculine of present
participle middle of <ἄγαμαι> to wonder, admire -- delighted
·781 τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- by the
·782 πυρίῃ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <πυρίη> vapor bath -- vapor
bath
·783 ὠρύονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <ὠρύομαι> howl --
howl
τοῦτό σφι ἀντὶ λουτροῦ ἐστι.
·784 τοῦτό -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <οὗτος>
this -- this
·785 σφι -- reflexive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- for
them
·786 ἀντὶ -- preposition; <ἀντί> instead of -- instead of
·787 λουτροῦ -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <λουτρόν> bathing --
bathing
·788 ἐστι -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is (done)
οὐ γὰρ δὴ λούονται ὕδατι τὸ παράπαν τὸ σῶμα.
·789 οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not
·790 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
·791 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
·792 λούονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <λούομαι> wash
oneself -- they wash
·793 ὕδατι -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <ὕδωρ> water -- in water
·794 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·795 παράπαν -- adverb; <παράπαν> absolutely -- at all
·796 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- their
·797 σῶμα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σῶμα> body -- body
αἱ δὲ γυναῖκες αὐτῶν ὕδωρ παραχέουσαι κατασώχουσι περὶ λίθον τρηχὺν τῆς
κυπαρίσσου καὶ κέδρου καὶ λιβάνου ξύλου, καὶ ἔπειτα τὸ κατασωχόμενον τοῦτο παχὺ
ἐὸν καταπλάσσονται πᾶν τὸ σῶμα καὶ τὸ πρόσωπον·
·798 αἱ -- article; nominative plural feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·799 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand
·800 γυναῖκες -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <γυνή> woman --
women
·801 αὐτῶν -- pronoun; genitive plural feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- their
·802 ὕδωρ -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὕδωρ> water -- water
·803 παραχέουσαι -- verb; nominative plural feminine of present participle of
<παραχέω> pour in -- pouring in
·804 κατασώχουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <κατασώχω> rub in
pieces -- rub
·805 περὶ -- preposition; <περί> around -- around
·806 λίθον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <λίθος> stone -- stone
·807 τρηχὺν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <τρηχύς> rough -- a
rough
·808 τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- of the
·809 κυπαρίσσου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <κυπαρίσσος>
cypress -- cypress
·810 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·811 κέδρου -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <κέδρος> cedar -- cedar
·812 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·813 λιβάνου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <λίβανος> frankincense,
frankincense tree -- frankincense tree
·814 ξύλου -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <ξύλον> wood -- wood
·815 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·816 ἔπειτα -- adverb; <ἔπειτα> thereupon -- then
·817 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·818 κατασωχόμενον -- verb; accusative singular neuter of present participle
middle of <κατασώχω> rub in pieces -- rubbed (matter)
·819 τοῦτο -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <οὗτος>
this -- this
·820 παχὺ -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <παχύς> thick -- thick
·821 ἐὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἐός> his, her -- their
·822 καταπλάσσονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <καταπλάσσω>
plaster over -- they plaster over
·823 πᾶν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <πᾶς> all, every -- entire
·824 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- ...
·825 σῶμα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σῶμα> body -- body
·826 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·827 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- ...
·828 πρόσωπον -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <πρόσωπον> face -- face
καὶ ἅμα μὲν εὐωδίη σφέας ἀπὸ τούτου ἴσχει, ἅμα δὲ ἀπαιρέουσαι τῇ δευτέρῃ ἡμέρῃ τὴν
καταπλαστὺν γίνονται καθαραὶ καὶ λαμπραί.
·829 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·830 ἅμα -- adverb; <ἅμα> at the same time -- at the same time
·831 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand
·832 εὐωδίη -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <εὐωδίη> fragrant scent
-- a fragrant scent
·833 σφέας -- reflexive pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they --
them
·834 ἀπὸ -- preposition; <ἀπό> from -- from
·835 τούτου -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this
-- this
·836 ἴσχει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἴσχω> stay -- remains
·837 ἅμα -- adverb; <ἅμα> at the same time -- and at the same time
·838 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand
·839 ἀπαιρέουσαι -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of
<ἀπαιρέω> take off -- (when they) remove
·840 τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- their
·841 δευτέρῃ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <δεύτερος> second -- on
the second
·842 ἡμέρῃ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ἡμέρα> day -- day
·843 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·844 καταπλαστὺν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <καταπλαστύς>
plaster -- ointment
·845 γίνονται -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <γίγνομαι> happen,
become -- they become
·846 καθαραὶ -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <καθαρός> clean,
pure -- clean
·847 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·848 λαμπραί -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <λαμπρός> shiny --
shining (in appearance)
Lesson Text
Ἔστι δέ σφι κάνναβις φυομένη ἐν τῇ χώρῃ πλὴν παχύτητος καὶ μεγάθεος τῷ λίνῳ
ἐμφερεστάτη. ταύτῃ δὲ πολλῷ ὑπερφέρει ἡ κάνναβις αὕτη καὶ αὐτομάτη καὶ
σπειρομένη φύεται, καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς Θρήικες μὲν καὶ εἵματα ποιεῦνται τοίσι λινέοισι
ὁμοιότατα· οὐδ' ἄν ὅστις μὴ κάρτα τρίβων εἴη αὐτῆς, διαγνοίη λίνου ἢ καννάβιος
ἐστί· ὅς δὲ μὴ εἶδέ κώ τὴν κανναβίδα, λίνεον δοκήσει εἶναι τὸ εἷμα. Ταύτης ὦν οἱ
Σκύθαι τῆς καννάβιος τὸ σπέρμα ἐπεὰν λάβωσι, ὑποδύνουσι ὑπὸ τοὺς πῖλους, καὶ
ἔπειτα ἐπιβάλλουσι τὸ σπέρμα ἐπὶ τοὺς διαφανέας λίθους τῷ πυρί· τὸ δὲ θυμιᾶται
ἐπιβαλλόμενον καὶ ἀτμίδα παρέχεται τοσαύτην ὥστε Ἑλληνικὴ οὐδεμία ἄν μιν
πυρίη ἀποκρατήσειε. οἱ δὲ Σκύθαι ἀγάμενοι τῇ πυρίῃ ὠρύονται. τοῦτό σφι ἀντὶ
λουτροῦ ἐστι. οὐ γὰρ δὴ λούονται ὕδατι τὸ παράπαν τὸ σῶμα. αἱ δὲ γυναῖκες
αὐτῶν ὕδωρ παραχέουσαι κατασώχουσι περὶ λίθον τρηχὺν τῆς κυπαρίσσου καὶ
κέδρου καὶ λιβάνου ξύλου, καὶ ἔπειτα τὸ κατασωχόμενον τοῦτο παχὺ ἐὸν
καταπλάσσονται πᾶν τὸ σῶμα καὶ τὸ πρόσωπον· καὶ ἅμα μὲν εὐωδίη σφέας ἀπὸ
τούτου ἴσχει, ἅμα δὲ ἀπαιρέουσαι τῇ δευτέρῃ ἡμέρῃ τὴν καταπλαστὺν γίνονται
καθαραὶ καὶ λαμπραί.
Translation
They have hemp growing in their country, very much like flax except for
thickness and height. In this respect the hemp surpasses flax by far. This grows by
itself and sown, and out of it the Thracians even make clothing very much like
linen. And unless anyone were very experienced in it, he would not discern
whether it is linen or hemp. But he who has not yet seen hemp clothing will think
the clothing is linen.
Now the Scythians take the seed of the hemp and they go under their mats and
then they throw the seed on the red-hot stones in the fire. So thrown it smoulders,
and it produces such vapor that no Greek vapor bath might exceed it. And
delighted by the vapor bath, the Scythians howl. This is done by them instead of
bathing. But their women pound around a rough stone cypress and cedar and
frankincense wood, pouring in water, and then they plaster this thick rubbed
matter over their entire body and face. A fragrant scent remains on them from this,
and at the same time when they remove the ointment on the second day they
become clean and shining in appearance.
Grammar

21. Consonant stems ending in dentals.


In these stems the consonant is dropped in the nominative singular, as well as in the
accusative singular of neuters, and in the dative plural.
'foot' 'body'
Nom. sg. ὁ πούς τὸ σῶμα
Gen. sg. τοῦ ποδός τοῦ σώματος
Dat. sg. τῷ ποδί τῷ σώματι
Acc. sg. τὸν ποδά τὸ σῶμα

Nom. pl. οἱ ποδές τὰ σώματα


Gen. pl. τῶν ποδῶν τῶν σωμάτων
Dat. pl. τοῖς ποσί τοῖς σώμασι
Acc. pl. τοὺς ποδάς τὰ σώματα

22. Comparison of adjectives.


In most adjectives comparison is expressed by -τερος in the comparative degree, by
-τατος in the superlative degree. The forms then are inflected in accordance with the ο-
and α-declensions. Examples in this text are ἐμφερεστάτη and ὁμοιότατα. Some of the
common adjectives on the other hand are irregular, for example, κακός 'bad'; κακίων,
κάκιστος. Their forms will be listed in dictionaries.

23. Interrogative and indefinite pronouns.


These are declined as follows:
Interrogative Indefinite
Masc/Fem Neut | Masc/Fem Neut
'who' 'what' | 'someone' 'something'
Nom. sg. τίς τί | τις τι
Gen. sg. τίνος τίνος | τινός τινός
Dat. sg. τίνι τίνι | τινί τινί
Acc. sg. τίνα τί | τινα τι

Nom. pl. τίνες τίνα | τινες τινα


Gen. pl. τίνων τίνων | τινῶν τινῶν
Dat. pl. τίσι(ν) τίσι(ν) | τισί(ν) τισί(ν)
Acc. pl. τίνας τίνα | τινας τινα

Indefinite
Masc Fem Neut
'who(ever)' 'who(ever)' 'what(ever)'
Nom. sg. ὄστις ἥτις ὅτι
Gen. sg. ὅτου ἧστινος ὅτου
Dat. sg. ᾧτινι ᾗτινι ᾧτινι
Acc. sg. ὅντινα ἥντινα ὅτι

Nom. pl. οἵτινες αἵτινες ἅτινα


Gen. pl. ὥντινων ὥντινων ὥντινων
Dat. pl. οἵστισι αἷστισι οἷστισι
Acc. pl. οὕστινας ἅστινας ἅτινα

24. The middle and passive voices.


In the present system the forms of the middle (expressing action for one's own sake) and
the passive (expressing action directed at the subject) are the same. The forms for the
indicative and the imperfect are as follows.
Present Imperfect
1 sg παιδεύομαι ἐπαιδευόμην
2 sg παιδεύῃ ἐπαιδεύου
3 sg παιδεύεται ἐπαιδεύετο

1 pl παιδεύομεθα ἐπαιδευόμεθα
2 pl παιδεύεσθε ἐπαιδεύεσθε
3 pl παιδεύονται ἐπαιδεύονται

25. The subjunctive, optative, and imperative middle and passive forms, the infinitive and participle.
While these forms are not frequent, they are given here so that, if found, they may be
recognized. The participial forms, on the other hand, are relatively frequent, as in this
text, where a number of them occur, such as φυομένη, ἐπιβαλλόμενον, ἀγάμενοι.
Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1s παιδεύωμαι παιαδευοίμην
2s παιδεύῃ παιδεύοιο παιδευέσθω
3s παιδεύηται παιδεύοιτο παιδεύεσθω

1p παιδευοώμεθα παιδευοίμεθα
2p παιδεύησθε παιδεύοισθε παιδεύεσθε
3p παιδεύωνται παιδεύοιντο παιδευέσθων
Infinitive: παιδεύεσθαι
Participle: παιδευόμενος, παιδευομένη, παιδευόμενον

Classical Greek Online


Lesson 6
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Xenophon was born about 444 BC, and is said to have lived 90 years. He was a student of
Socrates, and wrote the Memorabilia of Socrates to clear him from the charge of
irreligion and corruption of the young men of Athens. Banished about the time of
Socrates' death in 399, he served variously in military activities, and in 394 BC settled
near Olympus, where he remained for twenty years. He then is said to have lived in
Corinth, but there is no definite information about that part of his life until his death. In
addition to the Anabasis, he wrote the Cyropaedia, a fanciful account of Cyrus the Elder.
He is acclaimed for his simple and straightforward style. When Greek was taught for six
years in High School and College, the Anabasis was the first long work read by students.
Reading and Textual Analysis
Xenophon's Anabasis is the account of the Greek army's retreat along the Tigris and
through the high country of Armenia to Trapezus, and from there to Byzantium. The army
had been assisting Cyrus in his attempt to gain the Persian throne after the death of his
father Darius, king of Persia from 424-405 BC. His older brother, Artaxerxes, then
assumed the throne. Cyrus, known as the Younger to distinguish him from the Elder (d.
529 BC), had been appointed by his father, Darius, to be commander of the maritime
parts of Asia Minor. When his brother became king in 404 BC, Cyrus decided to
overthrow him. He set out from Sardis in 401 BC with an army that included 13,000
Greek mercenaries. In the plain of Cunaxa, about 60 miles from Babylon, he met the
king's army. His troops were victorious, but he himself was killed. The Greek army then
set out to escape to the north, after most of their generals were treacherously murdered.
Xenophon had been with the army as an observer, but now was elected as one of the
generals and became effectively leader of the army. Approximately half of the Anabasis
consists of the report of the retreat to the sea; the rest of it deals with the continued effort
to go by sea to Byzantium. This episode was selected because of its account of the joy of
the Greeks on their escape from their enemies.
ἀφικνοῦνται ἐπὶ τὸ ὄρος τῇ πέμπτῇ ἡμέρᾳ.
·849 ἀφικνοῦνται -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἀφικνέομαι>
come to, reach -- they reach
·850 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- to
·851 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·852 ὄρος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὄρος> mountain -- mountain
·853 τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- on the
·854 πέμπτῇ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <πέμπτος> fifth -- fifth
·855 ἡμέρᾳ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ἡμέρα> day -- day
ὄνομα δὲ τῷ ὄρει ἦν Θήχης.
·856 ὄνομα -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ὄνομα> name -- (the)
name
·857 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·858 τῷ -- article; dative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- for the
·859 ὄρει -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <ὄρος> mountain -- mountain
·860 ἦν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <εἰμί> I am -- was
·861 Θήχης -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Θήχης> Theches --
Theches
ἐπεὶ δὲ οἱ πρῶτοι ἐγένοντο ἐπὶ τοῦ ὄρους, κραυγὴ πολλὴ ἐγένετο.
·862 ἐπεὶ -- conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after -- when
·863 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·864 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·865 πρῶτοι -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural masculine of
<πρῶτος> first -- first
·866 ἐγένοντο -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <γίγνομαι> happen,
become -- arrived
·867 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- on
·868 τοῦ -- article; genitive singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·869 ὄρους -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <ὄρος> mountain -- mountain
·870 κραυγὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <κραυγή> shout --
shout
·871 πολλὴ -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πολύς> many --
great
·872 ἐγένετο -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <γίγνομαι> happen,
become -- went up
ἀκούσας δὲ ὁ Ξενοφῶν καὶ οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες ᾠήθησαν ἔμπροσθεν ἄλλους ἐπιτίθεσθαι
πολεμίους.
·873 ἀκούσας -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of
<ἀκούω> hear, listen -- having heard
·874 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·875 ὁ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- ...
·876 Ξενοφῶν -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ξενοφῶν>
Xenophon -- Xenophon
·877 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·878 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·879 ὀπισθοφύλακες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <ὀπισθοφύλαξ>
rear-guard -- rear-guard
·880 ᾠήθησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist passive of <οἴομαι> think,
imagine -- thought
·881 ἔμπροσθεν -- adverb; <ἔμπροσθεν> before, in front -- in front
·882 ἄλλους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- other
·883 ἐπιτίθεσθαι -- verb; infinitive aorist middle of <ἐπιτίθημι> attack -- were
attacking
·884 πολεμίους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <πολέμιος> enemy --
enemies
εἵποντο γὰρ ὄπισθεν ἐκ τῆς καιομένης χώρας, καὶ αὐτῶν οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες ἀπέκτεινάν τέ
τινας καὶ ἐζώγρησαν ἐνέδραν ποιησάμενοι, καὶ γέρρα ἔλαβον δασειῶν βοῶν ὠμοβόεια
ἀμφὶ τὰ εἴκοσιν.
·885 εἵποντο -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἕπομαι> follow -- were
following
·886 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
·887 ὄπισθεν -- adverb; <ὄπισθεν> behind -- behind
·888 ἐκ -- preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of -- from
·889 τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·890 καιομένης -- verb; genitive singular feminine of participle middle of
<καίω> burn -- burning
·891 χώρας -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <χώρα> land, country --
area
·892 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·893 αὐτῶν -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- of
them
·894 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·895 ὀπισθοφύλακες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <ὀπισθοφύλαξ>
rear-guard -- rear-guard
·896 ἀπέκτεινάν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἀποκτείνω> kill --
killed
·897 τέ -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·898 τινας -- indefinite pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <τις> someone,
something -- some
·899 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·900 ἐζώγρησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ζωγρέω> capture alive --
captured alive
·901 ἐνέδραν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἐνέδρα> ambush -- an
ambush
·902 ποιησάμενοι -- verb; nominative plural masculine of aorist middle
participle of <ποιέω> make, do -- by arranging
·903 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·904 γέρρα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <γέρρον> ox-hide wicker
shield -- ox-hide wicker shields
·905 ἔλαβον -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <λαμβάνω> receive, capture --
had captured
·906 δασειῶν -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <δασύς> hairy, shaggy
-- shaggy
·907 βοῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <βοῦς> cow, ox -- of oxen
·908 ὠμοβόεια -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <ὠμοβόειος> of raw,
untanned oxhide -- raw oxhide
·909 ἀμφὶ -- preposition; <ἀμφί> around, between -- about
·910 τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·911 εἴκοσιν -- number; accusative plural neuter of <εἴκοσι> twenty -- twenty
ἐπειδὴ δὲ βοὴ πλείων τε ἐγίγνετο καὶ ἐγγύτερον καὶ οἱ ἀεὶ ἐπιόντες ἔθεον δρόμῳ ἐπὶ τοὺς
ἀεὶ βοῶντας καὶ πολλῷ μείζων ἐγίγνετο ἡ βοὴ ὅσῳ δὴ πλείους ἐγίγνοντο,--
·912 ἐπειδὴ -- conjunction; <ἐπειδή> after -- after
·913 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·914 βοὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <βοή> shout -- the shout
·915 πλείων -- adjective; nominative singular feminine comparative of <πολύς>
many -- greater
·916 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·917 ἐγίγνετο -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect middle of
<γίγνομαι> happen, become -- became
·918 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·919 ἐγγύτερον -- adjective; nominative singular feminine comparative of
<ἐγγύς> near -- nearer
·920 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·921 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- those
·922 ἀεὶ -- adverb; <ἀεί> always -- always
·923 ἐπιόντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of
<ἐπίειμι> come near -- coming up
·924 ἔθεον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <θέω> run -- ran
·925 δρόμῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <δρόμος> run -- at a run, at
full speed
·926 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- towards
·927 τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·928 ἀεὶ -- adverb; <ἀεί> always -- always
·929 βοῶντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of present participle of
<βοάω> shout -- shouting
·930 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·931 πολλῷ -- adverb; dative singular neuter of <πολύς> many -- much
·932 μείζων -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of comparative of
<μέγας> great -- greater
·933 ἐγίγνετο -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect middle of
<γίγνομαι> happen, become -- became
·934 ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·935 βοὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <βοή> shout -- shouting
·936 ὅσῳ -- relative pronoun; dative singular neuter of <ὅσος> as many -- as
·937 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
·938 πλείους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of comparative of
<πολύς> many -- greater
·939 ἐγίγνοντο -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <γίγνομαι>
happen, become -- became
ἐδόκει δὴ μεῖζόν τι εἶναι τῷ Ξενοφῶντι, καὶ ἀναβὰς ἐφ' ἵππον καὶ Λύκιον καὶ τούς ἱππέας
ἀναλαβὼν παρεβοήθει.
·940 ἐδόκει -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <δοκέω> seem, think -- it
seemed
·941 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
·942 μεῖζόν -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of comparative of <μέγας>
great -- very important
·943 τι -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <τις> someone,
something -- something
·944 εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- to be
·945 τῷ -- article; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- ...
·946 Ξενοφῶντι -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <Ξενοφῶν> Xenophon
-- to Xenophon
·947 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·948 ἀναβὰς -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of
<ἀναβαίνω> mount, go up -- mounting
·949 ἐφ' -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- on
·950 ἵππον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἵππος> horse -- his
horse
·951 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·952 Λύκιον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Λύκιος> Lycius --
Lycius
·953 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·954 τούς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·955 ἱππέας -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <ἱππεύς> horseman --
cavalry
·956 ἀναλαβὼν -- verb; nominative singular masculine of participle of
<ἀναλαμβάνω> take along -- taking along
·957 παρεβοήθει -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <παραβοηθέω> come
up to help -- went up to help
καὶ τάχα δὴ ἀκούουσι βοώντων τῶν στρατιωτῶν Θάλαττα θάλαττα καὶ παρεγγυώντων.
·958 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·959 τάχα -- adverb; <τάχα> presently, soon -- soon
·960 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- ...
·961 ἀκούουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἀκούω> hear, listen -- they
heard
·962 βοώντων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of participle of <βοάω> shout
-- shouting
·963 τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·964 στρατιωτῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <στρατιώτης> soldier --
soldiers
·965 θάλαττα -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <θάλαττα> sea -- the
sea
·966 θάλαττα -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <θάλαττα> sea -- the
sea
·967 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·968 παρεγγυώντων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of participle of
<παρεγγυάω> pass along -- passing it along
ἔνθα δὴ ἔθεον πάντες καὶ οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες, καὶ τὰ ὑποζύγια ἠλαύνετο καὶ οἱ ἵπποι.
·969 ἔνθα -- adverb; <ἔνθα> then, there -- then
·970 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
·971 ἔθεον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <θέω> run -- ran
·972 πάντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- all
·973 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·974 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·975 ὀπισθοφύλακες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <ὀπισθοφύλαξ>
rear-guard -- rear-guard
·976 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·977 τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·978 ὑποζύγια -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ὑποζύγιον> pack animal --
pack animals
·979 ἠλαύνετο -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect middle of <ἐλαύνω> set in
motion -- broke into a run
·980 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·981 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·982 ἵπποι -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <ἵππος> horse -- horses
ἐπεὶ δὲ ἀφίκοντο πάντες ἐπὶ τὸ ἄκρον, ἐνταῦθα δὴ περιέβαλλον ἀλλήλους καὶ στρατηγοὺς
καὶ λοχαγοὺς δακρύοντες.
·983 ἐπεὶ -- conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after -- when
·984 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·985 ἀφίκοντο -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ἀφικνέομαι> come
to, reach -- came to
·986 πάντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- all
·987 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- to
·988 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·989 ἄκρον -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἄκρον> mountain-top, peak
-- peak
·990 ἐνταῦθα -- adverb; <ἐνταῦθα> then, there -- there
·991 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
·992 περιέβαλλον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <περιβάλλω> throw
around -- they embraced
·993 ἀλλήλους -- pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one
another -- one another
·994 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- both
·995 στρατηγοὺς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <στρατηγός> general
-- generals
·996 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·997 λοχαγοὺς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <λοχαγός> captain --
captains
·998 δακρύοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of
<δακρύω> weep -- weeping
καὶ ἐξαπίνης ὅτου δὴ παρεγγυήσαντος οἱ στρατιώται φέρουσι λίθους καὶ ποιοῦσι
κολωνὸν μέγαν.
·999 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1000 ἐξαπίνης -- adverb; <ἐξαπίνης> on a sudden -- all of a sudden
·1001 ὅτου -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <ὅτος> someone --
someone
·1002 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
·1003 παρεγγυήσαντος -- verb; genitive singular masculine of aorist participle of
<παρεγγυάω> pass along -- when ... suggested it
·1004 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1005 στρατιώται -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <στρατιώτης> soldier
-- soldiers
·1006 φέρουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <φέρω> bear, bring, carry --
bring
·1007 λίθους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <λίθος> stone -- stones
·1008 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1009 ποιοῦσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ποιέω> make, do -- make
·1010 κολωνὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <κολωνός> heap --
heap
·1011 μέγαν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <μέγας> great -- large
Lesson Text
ἀφικνοῦνται ἐπὶ τὸ ὄρος τῇ πέμπτῇ ἡμέρᾳ. ὄνομα δὲ τῷ ὄρει ἦν Θήχης. ἐπεὶ δὲ οἱ
πρῶτοι ἐγένοντο ἐπὶ τοῦ ὄρους, κραυγὴ πολλὴ ἐγένετο. ἀκούσας δὲ ὁ Ξενοφῶν
καὶ οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες ᾠήθησαν ἔμπροσθεν ἄλλους ἐπιτίθεσθαι πολεμίους.
εἵποντο γὰρ ὄπισθεν ἐκ τῆς καιομένης χώρας, καὶ αὐτῶν οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες
ἀπέκτεινάν τέ τινας καὶ ἐζώγρησαν ἐνέδραν ποιησάμενοι, καὶ γέρρα ἔλαβον
δασειῶν βοῶν ὠμοβόεια ἀμφὶ τὰ εἴκοσιν. ἐπειδὴ δὲ βοὴ πλείων τε ἐγίγνετο καὶ
ἐγγύτερον καὶ οἱ ἀεὶ ἐπιόντες ἔθεον δρόμῳ ἐπὶ τοὺς ἀεὶ βοῶντας καὶ πολλῷ
μείζων ἐγίγνετο ἡ βοὴ ὅσῳ δὴ πλείους ἐγίγνοντο,-- ἐδόκει δὴ μεῖζόν τι εἶναι τῷ
Ξενοφῶντι, καὶ ἀναβὰς ἐφ' ἵππον καὶ Λύκιον καὶ τούς ἱππέας ἀναλαβὼν
παρεβοήθει. καὶ τάχα δὴ ἀκούουσι βοώντων τῶν στρατιωτῶν Θάλαττα θάλαττα
καὶ παρεγγυώντων. ἔνθα δὴ ἔθεον πάντες καὶ οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες, καὶ τὰ ὑποζύγια
ἠλαύνετο καὶ οἱ ἵπποι. ἐπεὶ δὲ ἀφίκοντο πάντες ἐπὶ τὸ ἄκρον, ἐνταῦθα δὴ
περιέβαλλον ἀλλήλους καὶ στρατηγοὺς καὶ λοχαγοὺς δακρύοντες. καὶ ἐξαπίνης
ὅτου δὴ παρεγγυήσαντος οἱ στρατιώται φέρουσι λίθους καὶ ποιοῦσι κολωνὸν
μέγαν.
Translation
On the fifth day they reached the mountain; and the name of the mountain was
Theches. When the first group arrived on the mountain, a great shout went up.
Now when Xenophon and the rear-guard heard it, they thought that other enemies
were attacking from the burning area; the rear-guard had killed some of them and
captured others alive by setting an ambush, and had also captured about twenty
shaggy, raw wicker ox-hide shields. But as the shout became louder and nearer,
and those coming up began to run at full speed toward those ahead that were
shouting, and as the shout became much greater as they became greater, it seemed
to Xenophon that there was something very important. So he mounted his horse,
taking also Lycius and the cavalry, and went ahead to help. Soon they heard the
soldiers shouting: "The Sea! The Sea!" and passing it along. Then all the rear-
guard ran and the pack animals broke into a run and also the horses. And when
they came to the peak, then they embraced one another, both the generals and the
captains, weeping. And all of a sudden, when someone suggested it, the soldiers
bring stones and make a great heap.
Grammar

26. Survey of noun declensions.


The ο- and α- declensions have been given in section 4, and subsequent sections of the
grammar, 11 and 16, have provided examples of consonantal declension and that of some
irregular nouns. Here additional sub-classes of the consonantal declension are listed.
Grammars provide the sub-classes according to the consonants of the stem. There may be
modifications from sub-group to sub-group, but if the inflection of the word for salt is
memorized, such forms may be identified. Examples are given here also for stems ending
in velars, dentals, and other elements; as the selection indicates, nouns in the consonantal
declension vary in gender: ἡ αἴξ 'goat', τὸ σῶμα 'body', ὁ ἁλτ́ς 'salt', ὁ Ἕλλην 'Greek', ὁ
σῦς 'pig'.
velars dentals
Nom. sg. ἡ αἴξ τό σῶμα
Gen. sg. τῆς αἰγός τοῦ σώματος
Dat. sg. τῇ αἰγί τῷ σώματι
Acc. sg. τῆν αἶγα τό σῶμα

Nom. pl. αἱ αἷγες τά σώματα


Gen. pl. τῶν αἰγῶν τῶν σωμάτων
Dat. pl. τοῖς αἰξί τοῖς σώμασι
Acc. pl. τάς αἷγας τά σώματα

-λ, -ρ -ν -υ
Nom. sg. ὁ ἅλς ὁ Ἕλλην ὁ σῦς
Gen. sg. τοῦ ἁλός τοῦ Ἕλληνος τοῦ συός
Dat. sg. τῷ ἁλί τῷ Ἕλλενι τῷ συί
Acc. sg. τόν ἅλα τόν Ἕλληνα τόν σῦν

Nom. pl. οἱ ἅλες οἱ Ἕλληνες οἱ σύες


Gen. pl. τῶν ἁλῶν τῶν Ἕλλήνων τῶν συῶν
Dat. pl. τοῖς ἁλσί τοῖς Ἕλλήσι τοῖς συσί
Acc. pl. τούς ἅλας τούς Ἕλληνας τούς σῦς

27. Suffixes applied to stems to indicate location.


The following suffixes are used to produce adverbs on noun stems with specific
meanings:
·1012 -θεν 'whence', as in οἴκοθεν 'from home', χαμᾶθεν 'from the ground'
·1013 -ι, -θι 'where', as in οἴκοι 'at home', χαμαί 'on the ground'; but -σι(ν) if the
noun in question is a plural, as in Ἀθήνησι 'at Athens'
·1014 -δε, -σε, ζε 'whither', as in Ἀθήναζε 'to Athens', χαμᾶζε 'to the ground'

28. Use of the augment.


The augment is used on past tenses in the indicative, that is, the imperfect, aorist, and
pluperfect. Verbs beginning with a consonant prefix ἐ-, as in the imperfect ἐπαίδευον 'I
educated', the aorist ἐπαίδευσα 'I have educated', the pluperfect ἐπεπαιδεύκειν 'I had
educated'. Verbs beginning with a vowel or diphthong combine the augment with that
vowel or diphthong, usually resulting in its lengthening, as in the imperfect ἦγον 'I led'
from ἄγω, ηὔξανον 'I increased' from αὐξάνω.
Compound verbs place the augment on the verb, after the initial prefix, for example ἐν-
έβαλλον from ἐμβάλλω 'throw into', ἐπ-έβαλλον from ἐπι-βάλλω 'throw on'. In the early
texts, the augment may be omitted, as in the aorist form ποίησαν 'they made' from ποιέω.
29. Deponents.
As in Latin, a number of verbs have their forms in the middle while corresponding to
active verbs in English. Many of them indicate state, and do not take objects. They can be
recognized from dictionary entries. Examples are:
·1015 γίγνομαι 'become'
·1016 δέχομαι 'receive'
·1017 ἐργάζομαι 'work'
·1018 ἀπο-κρίνομαι 'reply'
·1019 λογίζομαι 'reason'
·1020 μιμέομαι 'imitate'
These have a active meaning in the aorist middle form, but passive meaning in the
passive form of the aorist.
Others have the passive form of the aorist. Many of them denote motion, feeling or
mental action. Examples are:
·1021 ἔραμαι 'love'
·1022 ἥδομαι 'rejoice'
·1023 έν-θυμέομαι 'consider'
·1024 δια-νοέομαι 'intend'

30. The middle forms of the aorist.


In the aorist the passive has different forms from those of the middle. Here the middle
forms will be given.
Indicative Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1 sg ἐπαιδευσάμην παιδεύσωμαι παιδευσαίμην
2 sg ἐπαιδεύσω παιδεύσῃ παιδεύσαιο παίδευσαι
3 sg ἐπαιδεύσατο παιδεύσηται παιδεύσαιτο παιδευσάσθω

1 pl ἐπαιδευσάμεθα παιδευσώμεθα παιδευσαίμεθα


2 pl ἐπαιδεύσασθε παιδεύσησθε παιδεύσαισθε παιδεύσασθε
3 pl ἐπαιδεύσαντο παιδεύσωνται παιδεύσαιντο παιδευσάσθων
Classical Greek Online
Lesson 7
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Hesiod, the author of Works and Days, lived in the second section of the eighth century
B.C. Reports of his life are sketchy, but he clearly was a poet in the Homeric tradition. In
addition to fragments that have been preserved, his other major poem is the Theogony of
1020 lines. It sketches the 'births of the gods', beginning with those of the nine Muses
from the union of Zeus and Mnemosyne or Memory, and ending with the union of
Kalypso and Odysseus that resulted in two children. His language and subject matter is
clearly less elegant than that of Homer, but it has maintained its interest for providing
information on everyday life and for information on the views of the Greek peoples of his
time.
Reading and Textual Analysis
Hesiod's Works and Days is a poem in the eastern tradition of wisdom literature.
Addressed to his brother, Perses, who is pictured as a ne'er-do-well, it consists of four
parts in its 828 lines, each of approximately 200 lines. The first part tells Perses that work
is essential. It contains the lines excerpted here, which are of especial interest in
sketching the ages of man that correspond in part to the periods determined by
archeologists of our day, with the bronze age leading to the iron age, and so on. The
second part provides instructions on how to achieve prosperity through righteous actions
and proper dealings with others. The third part outlines the work that is necessary for
success in farming, such as the type of work that is essential in the four seasons. The last
part indicates the proper time for activities, such as sailing to market one's produce,
marriage, and also for everyday activities, such as urinating and copulating. And last of
all it is essential to be aware of the good and bad days of the month for all of one's
activities.
There is considerable agreement on the text of Works and Days; the lines here correspond
to those of Hesiod: Works and Days, ed. M. L. West (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978),
which differ in a few respects from the text of the Loeb Classical Library prepared by
Hugh G. Evelyn-White with credit to W. H. D. Rouse (1914, frequently reprinted). The
differences are noted in the commentary.
χρύσεον μὲν πρώτιστα γένος μερόπων ἀνθρώπων
# (line 109)
·1025 χρύσεον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <χρύσεος> golden --
golden
·1026 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- indeed
·1027 πρώτιστα -- adverb; <πρώτιστα> first of all -- first of all
·1028 γένος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <γένος> race -- race
·1029 μερόπων -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <μέροψ> endowed with
speech -- of speaking
·1030 ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human
being -- humans
ἀθάνατοι ποίησαν Ὀλύμπια δώματ' ἔχοντες.
·1031 ἀθάνατοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἀθάνατος>
immortal -- (the) immortals
·1032 ποίησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ποιέω> make, do -- made
·1033 Ὀλύμπια -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <Ὀλύμπιος> Olympian
-- Olympian
·1034 δώματ' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <δῶμα> house, home --
homes
·1035 ἔχοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of
<ἔχω> have -- having
οἳ μὲν ἐπὶ Κρόνου ἦσαν, ὅτ' οὐρανῷ ἐμβασίλευεν.
·1036 οἳ -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅς> this,
that, he, she, it -- who
·1037 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- ...
·1038 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- at the time
·1039 Κρόνου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Κρόνος> Cronos -- of
Cronos
·1040 ἦσαν -- verb; 3rd person singular plural imperfect of <εἰμί> I am --
existed
·1041 ὅτ' -- conjunction; <ὅτε> when -- when
·1042 οὐρανῷ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <οὐρανός> heaven -- in
heaven
·1043 ἐμβασίλευεν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <ἐμβασιλεύω> be
king in -- was king (in)
ὥστε θεοὶ δ' ἔζωον ἀκηδέα θυμὸν ἔχοντες

·1044 ὥστε -- adverbial conjunction; <ὥστε> like, so that -- like


·1045 θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- gods
·1046 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·1047 ἔζωον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ζώω> live -- they lived
·1048 ἀκηδέα -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <ἀκήδης> without
sorrow -- without sorrow
·1049 θυμὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <θυμός> soul, heart --
heart
·1050 ἔχοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of
<ἔχω> have -- having
νόσφιν ἄτερ τε πόνων καὶ οἰζύος·

·1051 νόσφιν -- adverb; <νόσφι> apart, afar, except -- apart


·1052 ἄτερ -- preposition; <ἄτερ> without -- without
·1053 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·1054 πόνων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <πόνος> grief -- grief
·1055 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1056 οἰζύος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <οἰζύς> misery, suffering --
suffering
αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ δὴ τοῦτο γένος κατὰ γαῖα κάλυψεν
# (line 121; for κάλυψεν West omits the augment, as was done in ἐμ-βασίλευεν above,
and maintains the full form of γαῖα; others elide the final vowel of γαῖα and include the
augment, e.g. γαῖ' ἐκάλυψε, where the -ν is also omitted. The line is repeated before the
paragraphs on the third and fourth races.)
·1057 αὐτὰρ -- conjunction; <αὐτάρ> but -- but
·1058 ἐπεὶ -- conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after -- after
·1059 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
·1060 τοῦτο -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <οὗτος>
this -- this
·1061 γένος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <γένος> race -- race
·1062 κατὰ -- adverb; <κατά> completely, down, under -- under
·1063 γαῖα -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <γαῖα> land -- the earth
·1064 κάλυψεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <καλύπτω> cover --
covered
δεύτερον αὖτε γένος πολὺ χειρότερον μετόπισθεν
# (line 127)
·1065 δεύτερον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <δεύτερος> second --
second
·1066 αὖτε -- adverb; <αὖτε> then, again -- then
·1067 γένος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <γένος> race -- race
·1068 πολὺ -- adverb; <πολύς> many -- much
·1069 χειρότερον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter comparative of
<κακός> evil, poor -- inferior
·1070 μετόπισθεν -- adverb; <μετόπισθε> afterwards -- somewhat later
ἀργύρεον ποίησαν Ὀλύμπια δώματ' ἔχοντες,
# (For δώματ' West elides the -α before a form whose root begins with a vowel.)
·1071 ἀργύρεον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἀργύρεος> silver --
of silver
·1072 ποίησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ποιέω> make, do -- made
·1073 Ὀλύμπια -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <Ὀλύμπιος> Olympian
-- Olympian
·1074 δώματ' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <δῶμα> house, home --
homes
·1075 ἔχοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of
<ἔχω> have -- having
χρυσέῳ οὔτε φυὴν ἐναλίγκιον οὔτε νόημα.
·1076 χρυσέῳ -- adjective; dative singular neuter of <χρύσεος> golden -- the
golden
·1077 οὔτε -- adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor -- neither
·1078 φυὴν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <φύη> stature -- in stature
·1079 ἐναλίγκιον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἐναλίγκιος>
resembling, like -- like
·1080 οὔτε -- adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor -- nor
·1081 νόημα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <νόημα> thought,
understanding -- in understanding
Ζεὺς δὲ πατὴρ τρίτον ἄλλο γένος μερόπων ἀνθρώπων
# (line 143)
·1082 Ζεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- Zeus
·1083 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·1084 πατὴρ -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <πατήρ> father -- father
·1085 τρίτον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <τρίτος> third -- third
·1086 ἄλλο -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἄλλος> other -- other
·1087 γένος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <γένος> race -- race
·1088 μερόπων -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <μέροψ> endowed with
speech -- endowed with speech
·1089 ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human
being -- of humans
χάλκειον ποίησ' οὐκ ἀργυρέῳ οὐδὲν ὁμοῖον,
·1090 χάλκειον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <χάλκειος> of bronze
-- bronze
·1091 ποίησ' -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ποιέω> make, do -- made
·1092 οὐκ -- particle; <οὐκ> not -- not
·1093 ἀργυρέῳ -- adjective; dative singular neuter of <ἀργύρεος> silver -- to the
silver (race)
·1094 οὐδὲν -- adverb; <οὐδέν> in no way -- in no way
·1095 ὁμοῖον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ὅμοιος> like, similar --
like
ἐκ μελιᾶν, δεινόν τε καὶ ὄβριμον· οἷσιν Ἄρηος

·1096 ἐκ -- preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of -- out of


·1097 μελιᾶν -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <μελία> the ash tree -- ash
wood
·1098 δεινόν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <δεινός> terrible --
terrible
·1099 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·1100 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1101 ὄβριμον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ὄβριμος> strong --
strong
·1102 οἷσιν -- demonstrative pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὅς> this, that,
he, she, it -- to them
·1103 Ἄρηος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἄρης> Ares -- of Ares
ἔργ' ἔμελε στονόεντα καὶ ὕβριες· οὐδέ τι σῖτον

·1104 ἔργ' -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ἔργον> work, deed -- works
·1105 ἔμελε -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <μέλω> to care, to be an
object of care -- were loved
·1106 στονόεντα -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <στονόεις> sad,
wretched -- wretched
·1107 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1108 ὕβριες -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ὕβρις> violence -- violent
acts
·1109 οὐδέ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not
·1110 τι -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone,
something -- any
·1111 σῖτον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <σῖτος> corn, bread --
bread
ἤσθιον, ἀλλ' ἀδάμαντος ἔχον κρατερόφρονα θυμόν

·1112 ἤσθιον -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ἐσθίω> eat -- they did ...eat
·1113 ἀλλ' -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but
·1114 ἀδάμαντος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ἀδάμας> steel -- of
steel
·1115 ἔχον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἔχω> have -- they had
·1116 κρατερόφρονα -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of
<κρατερόφρων> stout-hearted, dauntless -- a dauntless
·1117 θυμόν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <θυμός> soul, heart --
heart
αὔτις ἔτ' ἄλλο τέταρτον ἐπὶ χθονὶ πουλυβοτείρῃ
# (line 158)
·1118 αὔτις -- adverb; <αὔτις> again -- again
·1119 ἔτ' -- adverb; <ἔτι> still -- yet
·1120 ἄλλο -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἄλλος> other -- another
·1121 τέταρτον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <τέταρτος> fourth -- a
fourth
·1122 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- on
·1123 χθονὶ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <χθών> earth -- the earth
·1124 πουλυβοτείρῃ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <πουλυβότειρα> all
nourishing, fruitful -- fruitful
Ζεὺς Κρονίδης ποίησε, δικαιότερον καὶ ἄρειον,
·1125 Ζεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- Zeus
·1126 Κρονίδης -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <Κρονίδης> son
of Kronos -- the son of Kronos
·1127 ποίησε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ποιέω> make, do -- made
·1128 δικαιότερον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of comparative of
<δίκαιος> just, righteous -- more righteous
·1129 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1130 ἄρειον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of comparative of <ἄγαθος>
good -- better
ἀνδρῶν ἡρώων θεῖον γένος, οἵ καλέονται

·1131 ἀνδρῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἀνήρ> man -- of men


·1132 ἡρώων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἥρως> hero -- (of) heroes
·1133 θεῖον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <θεῖος> divine, godlike --
godlike
·1134 γένος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <γένος> race -- race
·1135 οἵ -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅς> who, which --
who
·1136 καλέονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <καλέω> call,
summon -- are called
ἡμίθεοι, προτέρη γενεὴ κατ' ἀπείρονα γαῖαν.
·1137 ἡμίθεοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἡμίθεος> demi-god
-- demi-gods
·1138 προτέρη -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πρότερος> first,
before -- prior (to ours)
·1139 γενεὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <γενεή> family,
generation, race -- a race
·1140 κατ' -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- on
·1141 ἀπείρονα -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <ἀπείρων>
boundless -- the boundless
·1142 γαῖαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <γαῖα> land -- earth
νῦν γὰρ δὴ γένος ἐστὶ σιδήρεον· οὐδέ ποτ' ἧμαρ
# (line 176)
·1143 νῦν -- adverb; <νῦν> now -- now
·1144 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- and
·1145 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
·1146 γένος -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <γένος> race -- the race
·1147 ἐστὶ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is
·1148 σιδήρεον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <σιδήρεος> of iron --
of iron
·1149 οὐδέ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- and ... not
·1150 ποτ' -- adverb; <ποτέ> at some time, ever -- ever
·1151 ἧμαρ -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἧμαρ> day -- by day
παύονται καμάτου καὶ οἰζύος, οὐδέ τι νύκτωρ

·1152 παύονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <παύω> stop, cease
-- they do ...stop
·1153 καμάτου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <κάματος> toil, labor --
laboring
·1154 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1155 οἰζύος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <οἰζύς> misery, suffering --
suffering
·1156 οὐδέ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- and . . . not
·1157 τι -- adverb; <τι> in any way -- at all
·1158 νύκτωρ -- adverb; <νύκτωρ> by night -- by night
φθειρόμενοι χαλεπὰς δὲ θεοὶ δώσουσι μερίμνας

·1159 φθειρόμενοι -- verb; nominative plural masculine of participle middle of


<φθείρω> perish -- perishing
·1160 χαλεπὰς -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <χαλεπός> difficult --
difficult
·1161 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- indeed
·1162 θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- the gods
·1163 δώσουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural future of <δίδωμι> give -- will give
·1164 μερίμνας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <μέριμνα> care, anxious
thought -- anxieties
ἀλλ' ἔμπης καὶ τοῖσι μεμείχεται ἐσθλὰ κακοῖσιν

·1165 ἀλλ' -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but


·1166 ἔμπης -- adverb; <ἔμπης> nevertheless -- nevertheless
·1167 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- also
·1168 τοῖσι -- article; dative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- for them
·1169 μεμείχεται -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive of <μίγνυμι> mix --
will be mixed
·1170 ἐσθλὰ -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural neuter of
<ἐσθλόν> good -- good things
·1171 κακοῖσιν -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <κακός> evil, poor -- with
evils
Lesson Text
χρύσεον μὲν πρώτιστα γένος μερόπων ἀνθρώπων
ἀθάνατοι ποίησαν Ὀλύμπια δώματ' ἔχοντες.
οἳ μὲν ἐπὶ Κρόνου ἦσαν, ὅτ' οὐρανῷ ἐμβασίλευεν.
ὥστε θεοὶ δ' ἔζωον ἀκηδέα θυμὸν ἔχοντες
νόσφιν ἄτερ τε πόνων καὶ οἰζύος·
αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ δὴ τοῦτο γένος κατὰ γαῖα κάλυψεν
δεύτερον αὖτε γένος πολὺ χειρότερον μετόπισθεν
ἀργύρεον ποίησαν Ὀλύμπια δώματ' ἔχοντες,
χρυσέῳ οὔτε φυὴν ἐναλίγκιον οὔτε νόημα.
Ζεὺς δὲ πατὴρ τρίτον ἄλλο γένος μερόπων ἀνθρώπων
χάλκειον ποίησ' οὐκ ἀργυρέῳ οὐδὲν ὁμοῖον,
ἐκ μελιᾶν, δεινόν τε καὶ ὄβριμον· οἷσιν Ἄρηος
ἔργ' ἔμελε στονόεντα καὶ ὕβριες· οὐδέ τι σῖτον
ἤσθιον, ἀλλ' ἀδάμαντος ἔχον κρατερόφρονα θυμόν
αὔτις ἔτ' ἄλλο τέταρτον ἐπὶ χθονὶ πουλυβοτείρῃ
Ζεὺς Κρονίδης ποίησε, δικαιότερον καὶ ἄρειον,
ἀνδρῶν ἡρώων θεῖον γένος, οἵ καλέονται
ἡμίθεοι, προτέρη γενεὴ κατ' ἀπείρονα γαῖαν.
νῦν γὰρ δὴ γένος ἐστὶ σιδήρεον· οὐδέ ποτ' ἧμαρ
παύονται καμάτου καὶ οἰζύος, οὐδέ τι νύκτωρ
φθειρόμενοι χαλεπὰς δὲ θεοὶ δώσουσι μερίμνας
ἀλλ' ἔμπης καὶ τοῖσι μεμείχεται ἐσθλὰ κακοῖσιν

Translation
First of all the immortal gods, who live on Olympus, made a golden race of
mortal men who lived in the time of Cronos when he was king in heaven. And
they lived like gods having a life without sorrow, remote and without grief and
suffering. ... But somewhat later after the earth covered this generation, those
having Olympian homes made a second generation, silver, inferior, like the
golden neither in stature nor in understanding. ... Father Zeus made a third,
different race of humans endowed with speech, bronze out of the ash tree, in no
way like the silver race, terrible and strong. The wretched works and violent acts
of Ares were loved by them, and did not eat any bread, but they inflexibly
maintained a dauntless spirit. ... Yet again Zeus, the son of Cronos, made another,
the fourth, on the fruitful earth, that was more righteons and better, a godlike race
of men, heroes, who are called demigods, the race prior to ours, on the boundless
earth. ... And now indeed the race is of iron, and they do not stop laboring and
suffering by day, and not at all from perishing by night. Indeed the gods give them
difficult anxieties. But nevertheless, also for them, good will be mixed with evils.
Grammar

31. Inflection of adjectives and participles.


Section 12 provided the inflection of the most common adjectives, Here that of adjectives
with consonantal stems is given for the adjective ἄκων 'unwilling'; it applies also to
present participles.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom. sg. ἄκων ἄκουσα ἄκον
Gen. sg. ἄκοντος ἀκούσης ἀκοντος
Dat. sg. ἄκοντι ἀκούσῃ ἄκοντι
Acc. sg. ἄκοντα ἄκουσαν ἄκον

Nom. pl. ἄκοντες ἄκουσαι ἄκοντα


Gen. pl. ἀκόντων ἀκουσῶν ἀκόντων
Dat. pl. ἄκουσι(ν) ἀκούσαις ἄκουσι(ν)
Acc. pl. ἄκοντας ἀκούσας ἄκοντα
The frequent adjective, πᾶς 'all, whole' is also inflected in this way; the nominative and
genitive singular are given as an illustration.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom. sg. πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν
Gen. sg. παντός πάσης παντός
The nominative forms of other consonantal adjectives are given in dictionaries; the other
cases may be identified with the help of the forms given above.

32. Two frequently occurring adjectives.


The forms of two frequently ocurring adjectives are given here in view of their common
occurrence, μέγας 'great' and πολύς 'much'.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom. sg. μέγας μεγάλη μέγα
Gen. sg. μεγάλου μεγάλης μεγάλου
Dat. sg. μεγάλῳ μεγάλῃ μεγάλῳ
Acc. sg. μέγαν μεγάλην μέγα

Nom. pl. μεγάλοι μεγάλαι μεγάλα


Gen. pl. μεγάλων μεγάλων μεγάλων
Dat. pl. μεγάλοις μεγάλαις μεγάλοις
Acc. pl. μεγάλους μεγάλας μεγάλα

Masculine Feminine Neuter


Nom. sg. πολύς πολλή πόλυ
Gen. sg. πολλοῦ πολλῆς πολλοῦ
Dat. sg. πολλῷ πολλῇ πολλῴ
Acc. sg. πολύν πολλήν πολύ

Nom. pl. πολλοί πολλαί πολλά


Gen. pl. πολλῶν πολλῶν πολλῶν
Dat. pl. πολλοῖς πολλαῖς πολλοῖς
Acc. pl. πολλούς πολλάς πολλά

33. Less frequent patterns of adjectival comparison.


The most frequent type of comparison with the suffixes -τερος, -τατος was given in
section 22. Some common adjectives have different suffixes, as noted there for κακός,
with its comparative in κακίων 'worse'and superlative κάκιστος. Similarly, καλός
'beautiful' has the forms καλλίων and κάλλιστος, ἐχθρός 'hostile' has the forms έχθίων,
ἔχθιστος.
Other adjectives have different roots in the comparative and superlative forms. Some
have several types of comparison, with differing connotations for the various types.
άγαθτ́ος 'good' ἀμείνων ἄριστος 'clever, brave'
βελτίων βέλτιστος 'virtuous'
κρείττων κράτιστος 'strong, superior'
κακός 'bad' χείρων χείριστος 'less good'
ἥττων ἥκιστος 'weaker'
μέγας 'great' μείζων μέγιστος
μικρός 'small' μικρότερος μικρότατος
ἐλάττων ἐλαχτ́ιστος (also applies to ὀλίγος)
ὀλίγος 'little' μείων ---
πολύς 'much' πλείων πλεῖστος

34. Aorist of the passive.


As noted in section 30, the aorist in the passive differs from that in the middle.
Indicative Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1 sg ἐπαιδεύθην παιδευθῶ παιδευθείην
2 sg ἐπαιδεύθης παιδευθῇς παιδευθείης παιδεύθητι
3 sg ἐπαιδεύθη παιδευθῇ παιδευθείη παιδευθήτω

1 pl ἐπαιδεύθημεν παιδευθῶμενύ̃ͅ παιδευθείημεν


2 pl ἐπαιδεύθητε παιδευθῆτε παιδευθείητε παιδεύθητε
3 pl ἐπαιδεύθησαν παιδευθῶσι παιδευθείησαν παιδευθέντων

35. Infinitives and participles of the aorist middle and passive.

Middle Passive
παιδεύσασθαι παιδευθήσεσθαι
Infinitive
'to educate' 'to be educated'
παιδευσάμενος, -η, -ον παιδευθείς, -θεῖσα, -θέν
Participle
'one who educated' 'be educated'

Classical Greek Online


Lesson 8
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Plato is probably the most influential Greek philosopher, as well as one of the greatest in
the western world. Born in 429 or 428 B.C., he died in 347 B.C. At the age of twenty he
became a follower of Socrates, and remained with him until his death in 399 B.C. After
that time he traveled in Egypt, Sicily and lower Italy. He then founded a philosophical
school in the Academus grove, from which it is known as the Academy. He produced
many dialogues, of which The Laws and the Republic are the most extensive. Socrates
conducts the dialogues in which the ideas are discussed. Western philosophers and editors
have achieved distinction through their attention to his works, among them Jowett for his
translation of the Republic.
Reading and Textual Analysis
The Republic is Plato's major work. In it he discusses, through the mouth of Socrates, the
bases of an ideal state. The major ideas deal with human improvement and with the love
of truth, as well as the supremacy of mind. The state or city is essential because, without
it, individuals cannot be provided with the necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and
clothing. Moreover, education is highly important for achieving an ideal state. The four
cardinal virtues must be observed, and the three classes must have the desired virtues.
The rulers must be wise; the soldiers must be brave and aware of what is to be feared; all
others as well must apply moderation and temperance. The health of the state is based on
justice, which requires that each class carry out its proper functions. These ideas are
presented in the first five books. In the sixth book the prerequisites of higher education
are discussed; in the seventh, specialization in the mathematical sciences and dialectic.
The eighth book deals with the four types of states that differ from the ideal:
11. Timocracy, where honor is the basic principle;
12. Oligarchy, where emphasis is on wealth;
13. Democracy, where emphasis is on liberty, often on doing what one likes;
14. Tyranny, where there is slavery to appetite.
The ninth book deals with the difference between the just and the unjust life. The tenth
book is a kind of conclusion that emphasizes the importance of righteousness and
sobriety.
Choice among the many excellent sections of the Republic is difficult; this passage from
Book VI, section XIII, provides insight into the ideal man; it has affected authors from
Boethius through Dante to Matthew Arnold.
Οὐδὲ γάρ που, ὦ Ἀδείμαντε, σχολὴ τῷ γε ὡς ἀληθῶς πρὸς τοῖς οἶσι τὴν διάνοιαν ἔχοντι
κάτω βλέπειν εἰς ἀνθρώπων πραγματείας.
·1172 οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not
·1173 γάρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
·1174 που -- adverb; <που> anywhere, perhaps -- anywhere
·1175 ὦ -- exclamation; <ῶ> Oh -- Oh
·1176 Ἀδείμαντε -- noun, masculine; vocative singular of <Αδείμαντος>
Adeimontus -- Adeimontus
·1177 σχολὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <σχολή> leisure -- there
is ... leisure
·1178 τῷ -- article; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- for the one
·1179 γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- at all
·1180 ὡς -- adverb; <ὡς> so, thus -- thus
·1181 ἀληθῶς -- adverb; <ἀληθῶς> really, truly -- truly
·1182 πρὸς -- preposition; <πρός> to -- on
·1183 τοῖς -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·1184 οἶσι -- participle used as substantive; dative plural neuter of present
participle of <εἰμί> I am -- (beings) eternal verities
·1185 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- (the) his
·1186 διάνοιαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular <διάνοια> thought, mind
-- mind
·1187 ἔχοντι -- verb; dative singular masculine present participle of <ἔχω> have
-- (who) has
·1188 κάτω -- adverb; <κάτω> downward -- downward
·1189 βλέπειν -- verb; infinitive of <βλέπω> see -- to look
·1190 εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- at
·1191 ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human
being -- of human beings
·1192 πραγματείας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <πραγματεία> hard
work, affairs -- the affairs
καὶ μαχόμενον αὐτοῖς φθόνου τε καὶ δυσμενείας ἐμπίπλασθαι,
·1193 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1194 μαχόμενον -- deponent verb; accusative singular masculine of present
participle of <μάχομαι> fight, quarrel -- quarreling
·1195 αὐτοῖς -- pronoun; dative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- with
them
·1196 φθόνου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <φθόνος> envy, ill-will --
with ill-will
·1197 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·1198 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1199 δυσμενείας -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <δυσμένεια> enmity,
hate -- hate
·1200 ἐμπίπλασθαι -- verb; infinitive passive of <ἐμπίπλημι> fill -- to be filled
ἀλλ' εἰς τεταγμένα ἅττα καὶ κατὰ ταῦτὰ ἀεὶ ἔχοντα ὁρῶντας καὶ θεωμένους οὔτ'
ἀδικοῦντα οὔτ' ἀδικούμενα ὑπ' ἀλλήλων, κόσμῳ δὲ πάντα καὶ κατὰ λόγον ἔχοντα, ταῦτα
μιμεῖσθαί τε καὶ ὅ τι μάλιστα ἀφομοιοῦσθαι.
·1201 ἀλλ' -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but
·1202 εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- towards
·1203 τεταγμένα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of passive participle of
<τάσσω> arrange, put in order -- has been arranged, i.e. is eternal
·1204 ἅττα -- pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ὅστις> whoever, whatever --
what
·1205 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1206 κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- in accordance
with
·1207 ταῦτὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the + pronoun <αὐτός>
oneself, he -- the things
·1208 ἀεὶ -- adverb; <ἀεί> always -- constant
·1209 ἔχοντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἔχω> have --
(being) that are
·1210 ὁρῶντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of participle of <ὁράω> see
-- he keeps his eyes fixed
·1211 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1212 θεωμένους -- deponent verb; accusative plural masculine of middle
participle of <θεάομαι> see -- sees
·1213 οὔτ' -- adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor -- neither
·1214 ἀδικοῦντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἀδικέω>
wrong -- wrong
·1215 οὔτ' -- adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor -- nor
·1216 ἀδικούμενα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of passive participle of
<ἀδικέω> wrong -- wronged
·1217 ὑπ' -- preposition; <ὑπό> under, by -- by
·1218 ἀλλήλων -- pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <ἀλλήλων> one another --
by one another
·1219 κόσμῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <κόσμος> beauty, order,
world -- order
·1220 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·1221 πάντα -- adjective used as substantive; accusative plural neuter of <πᾶς>
all, every -- everything
·1222 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1223 κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- in accordance
with
·1224 λόγον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <λόγος> word, reason --
reason
·1225 ἔχοντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἔχω> have -- that
is
·1226 ταῦτα -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this
-- things
·1227 μιμεῖσθαί -- deponent verb; infinitive middle of <μιμέομαι> imitate -- he
will imitate
·1228 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·1229 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1230 ὅ -- relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which --
what
·1231 τι -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone,
something -- that
·1232 μάλιστα -- adverb; superlative of <μάλα> very -- as much as possible
·1233 ἀφομοιοῦσθαι -- verb; passive infinitive of <ἀφομοιοε̃ω> to make like --
become like
ἤ οἴει τινὰ μηχανὴν εἶναι, ὅτῳ τις ὁμιλεῖ ἀγάμενος, μὴ μιμεῖσθαι ἐκεῖνο;
·1234 ἤ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or
·1235 οἴει -- deponent verb; 2nd person singular present middle of <οἶμαι> think
-- do you think
·1236 τινὰ -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone,
something -- it
·1237 μηχανὴν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <μηχανή> instrument --
possible
·1238 εἶναι -- verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am -- to be
·1239 ὅτῳ -- relative pronoun; dative singular neuter of <ὅστις> whoever,
whatever -- with something
·1240 τις -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τις>
someone, something -- (if) someone
·1241 ὁμιλεῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ὁμιλέω> consort with, busy
oneself with -- busies himself
·1242 ἀγάμενος -- deponent verb; nominative singular masculine of middle
participle of <ἄγαμαι> to wonder, admire -- admiringly
·1243 μὴ -- particle; <μή> not -- not
·1244 μιμεῖσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive middle of <μιμέομαι> imitate --
(would) ...imitate
·1245 ἐκεῖνο -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ἐκεῖνος>
that -- that
Ἀδύνατον, ἔφη.
·1246 ἀδύνατον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἀδύνατος>
impossible -- (it is) impossible
·1247 ἔφη -- verb; 2nd person singular imperfect of <φημί> say -- he said
Θείῳ δὴ καὶ κοσμίῳ ὅ γε φιλόσοφος ὁμιλῶν κόσμιός τε καὶ θεῖος εἰς δυνατὸν ἀνθρώπῳ
γίγνεται.
·1248 θείῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <θεῖος> deity, divinity -- the
divine
·1249 δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
·1250 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1251 κοσμίῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <κόσμιος> decorum, order
-- order
·1252 ὅ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1253 γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- ...
·1254 φιλόσοφος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <φιλόσοφος> wise
man -- wise man
·1255 ὁμιλῶν -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of
<ὁμιλέω> consort with, busy oneself with -- who busies himself with
·1256 κόσμιός -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <κόσμιος> orderly
-- orderly
·1257 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·1258 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1259 θεῖος -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <θεῖος> divine,
godlike -- divine
·1260 εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- to
·1261 δυνατὸν -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <δυνατός> possible -- the
extent possible
·1262 ἀνθρώπῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <ἄνθρωπος> human being
-- for a human
·1263 γίγνεται -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular present of <γίγνομαι>
happen, become -- will become
διαβολὴ δ' ἐν πᾶσι πολλή.
·1264 διαβολὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <διαβολή> false
accusation, calumny -- calumny
·1265 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·1266 ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in
·1267 πᾶσι -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <πᾶς> all, every -- everything
·1268 πολλή -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πολύς> many -- (is)
plentiful
Παντάπασι μὲν οὖν.
·1269 παντάπασι -- adverb; <παντάπασι> absolutely -- absolutely
·1270 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- indeed
·1271 οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- to be sure
Ἄν οὖν τις, εἶπον, αὐτῳ ἀνάγκη γένεται ἅ ἐκεῖ ὁρᾷ μελετῆσαι εἰς ἀνθρώπων ἤθη καὶ ἰδίᾳ
καὶ δημοσίᾳ τίθεναι, καὶ μὴ μόνον ἑαυτὸν πλάττειν,
·1272 ἄν -- particle; <ἄν> if -- supposing
·1273 οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- then
·1274 τις -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <τις> someone,
something -- someone
·1275 εἶπον -- verb; 1st person singular aorist of <λέγω> say -- I said
·1276 αὐτῳ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- for
him
·1277 ἀνάγκη -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἀνάγκη> force,
compulsion -- force
·1278 γένεται -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of
<γίγνομαι> happen, become -- is applied
·1279 ἅ -- relative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ὅς> who, which --
which
·1280 ἐκεῖ -- adverb; <ἐκεῖ> there -- there
·1281 ὁρᾷ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ὁράω> see -- he sees
·1282 μελετῆσαι -- verb; aorist infinitive of <μελετάω> care for, practice -- to
practice
·1283 εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- ...
·1284 ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human
being -- of humans
·1285 ἤθη -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἦθος> custom, character -- the
manners
·1286 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- both
·1287 ἰδίᾳ -- adverb; <ἰδίᾳ> privately -- privately
·1288 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1289 δημοσίᾳ -- adverb; <δημοσίᾳ> in public -- in public
·1290 τίθεναι -- verb; infinitive of <τίθημι> put, place -- arranging
·1291 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1292 μὴ -- particle; <μή> not -- not
·1293 μόνον -- adverb; <μόνον> alone -- alone
·1294 ἑαυτὸν -- reflexive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ἑαυτός>
himself -- himself
·1295 πλάττειν -- verb; infinitive of <πλάττω> mould, shape -- moulding
ἆρα κακὸν δημιουργὸν αὐτὸν οἴει γενήσεσθαι σωφροσύνης τε καὶ δικαιοσύνης καὶ
ξυμπάσης τῆς δημοτικῆς ἀρετῆς;
·1296 ἆρα -- interrogative particle; <ἆρα> then -- then
·1297 κακὸν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <κακός> evil, poor --
a poor
·1298 δημιουργὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <δημιουργός>
craftsman -- craftsman
·1299 αὐτὸν -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
he
·1300 οἴει -- deponent verb; 2nd person singular present middle of <οἶμαι> think
-- do you consider
·1301 γενήσεσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive future middle of <γίγνομαι>
happen, become -- will become
·1302 σωφροσύνης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <σωφροσύνη>
moderation, discretion -- of discretion
·1303 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·1304 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1305 δικαιοσύνης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <δικαιοσύνη> justice,
righteousness -- of justice
·1306 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1307 ξυμπάσης -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <ξύμπας> all together
-- of all kinds
·1308 τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1309 δημοτικῆς -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <δημοτικός> of the
people, in common use -- common
·1310 ἀρετῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἀρετῆ> virtue -- virtue
Ἥκιστά γε, ἧ δ' ὅς.
·1311 ἥκιστά -- adverb; <ἥκιστα> least -- not at all
·1312 γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- indeed
·1313 ἧ -- adverb; <ἧ> verily -- in truth
·1314 δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- ...
·1315 ὅς -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅς> this,
that, he, she, it -- he (said)
Lesson Text
Οὐδὲ γάρ που, ὦ Ἀδείμαντε, σχολὴ τῷ γε ὡς ἀληθῶς πρὸς τοῖς οἶσι τὴν διάνοιαν
ἔχοντι κάτω βλέπειν εἰς ἀνθρώπων πραγματείας. καὶ μαχόμενον αὐτοῖς φθόνου τε
καὶ δυσμενείας ἐμπίπλασθαι, ἀλλ' εἰς τεταγμένα ἅττα καὶ κατὰ ταῦτὰ ἀεὶ ἔχοντα
ὁρῶντας καὶ θεωμένους οὔτ' ἀδικοῦντα οὔτ' ἀδικούμενα ὑπ' ἀλλήλων, κόσμῳ δὲ
πάντα καὶ κατὰ λόγον ἔχοντα, ταῦτα μιμεῖσθαί τε καὶ ὅ τι μάλιστα ἀφομοιοῦσθαι.
ἤ οἴει τινὰ μηχανὴν εἶναι, ὅτῳ τις ὁμιλεῖ ἀγάμενος, μὴ μιμεῖσθαι ἐκεῖνο;
Ἀδύνατον, ἔφη. Θείῳ δὴ καὶ κοσμίῳ ὅ γε φιλόσοφος ὁμιλῶν κόσμιός τε καὶ θεῖος
εἰς δυνατὸν ἀνθρώπῳ γίγνεται. διαβολὴ δ' ἐν πᾶσι πολλή. Παντάπασι μὲν οὖν. Ἄν
οὖν τις, εἶπον, αὐτῳ ἀνάγκη γένεται ἅ ἐκεῖ ὁρᾷ μελετῆσαι εἰς ἀνθρώπων ἤθη καὶ
ἰδίᾳ καὶ δημοσίᾳ τίθεναι, καὶ μὴ μόνον ἑαυτὸν πλάττειν, ἆρα κακὸν δημιουργὸν
αὐτὸν οἴει γενήσεσθαι σωφροσύνης τε καὶ δικαιοσύνης καὶ ξυμπάσης τῆς
δημοτικῆς ἀρετῆς; Ἥκιστά γε, ἧ δ' ὅς.
Translation
"For there is no leisure at all anywhere, Oh Adeimontus, for the one who truly has
his mind on the eternal verities to look downward at the affairs of human beings,
and quarreling with them to be filled with ill-will and hate. But he keeps his eyes
fixed on what is eternal and on the things that are constant, and sees neither what
is wrong nor wronged by one another; and he will imitate everything that is in
accordance with reason, and become like that as much as possible. Or do you
think it to be possible if someone busies himself with something admiringly not to
imitate that?" He said it is impossible. "Then the wise man who busies himself
with the divine and with order will become orderly and divine to the extent
possible for a human. But calumny is plentiful in everything." "Absolutely, to be
sure." "Suppose then, I said, some force is applied to him to practice arranging
both privately and in public the manners of humans which he sees there, and not
moulding himself alone. Then do you consider that he will become a poor
craftsman with regard to discretion and justice and all kinds of common virtues?"
"Not at all, in truth," he said.
Grammar

36. Tense formation.


To identify verbal forms, it is useful to note the principal parts. Illustrations are provided
here, first with the so-called pure verbs, that is, those for which the stems are not
modified by the endings. Examples are: παιδεύω 'educate', τιμάω 'honor', ποιέω 'make'.
Present παιδεύω τιμάω ποιέω
Future παιδεύσω τιμήσω ποιήσω
Aorist active ἐπαίδευσα ἐτίμησα ἐποιήσα
Perfect active πεπαίδευκα τετίμηκα πεποίηκα
Perfect middle πεπαίδευμαι τετίμημαι πεποίημαι
Aorist passive ἐπαιδεύθην ἐτιμήθην ἐποιήθην

37. Tense formation of obstruent stems.


In stems ending in obstruent consonants, that is, those ending in stops or fricatives, the
consonant of the stem is modified before the tense markers. Examples are given here for
πείθω 'persade', πράττω 'do', ἄγω 'lead', and γράφω 'write'.
Present πείθω πράττω ἄγω γράφω
Future πείσω πράξω ἄξω γράψα
Aorist active ἔπεισα ἔπραξα ἤγαγον ἔγραψα
Perfect active πέπεικα πέπραχα ἦχα γέγραφα
Perfect middle πέπεισμαι πέπραγμαι ἤγμαι γέγραμμαι
Aorist passive ἐπείσθην ἐπράχθην ἤχθην ἐγράφθην

38. Tense formation of resonant stems.


Stems ending in resonants may fail to have the future/aorist marker. Examples are φαίνω
'appear', ἀγγέλλω 'announce', and σπείρω 'sow'.
Present φαίνω ἀγγέλλω σπείρω
Future φανῶ ἀγγελῶ σπερῶ
Aorist active ἔφηνα ἤγγειλα ἔσπειρα
Perfect active πέφαγκα ἤγγελκα ἔσπαρκα
Perfect middle πέφασμαι ἤγγελμαι ἔσπαρμαι
Aorist passive ἐφάνθην ἠγγέλθην ἔσπάρθην

39. The tense formations of some frequent but irregular verbs.


Some verb forms are quite irregular. Some forms of ἔχω 'have' are based on its ancient
root *σεχ-. The forms of φέρω 'bear' are based on several roots. The forms of λέγω, φημί,
ἀγορεύω 'say, speak' are also based on various roots.
Present ἔχω φέρω λέγω (etc.)
Future ἕξω οἴσω έρῶ
Aorist active ἔσχον ἤνεγκον εἶπον
Perfect active ἔσχηκα ἐνήνοχα εἴρηκα
Perfect middle ἔσχημαι ἐνήνεγμαι εἴρημαι
Aorist passive ἔσχομην ἠνέχθην ἐρρήθην

40. The Middle and Passive Perfect.


The forms are the same in the two voices. The subjunctive and optative have forms of the
verb 'to be' after the participle (not repeated in the optative, below). They are as follows:
Indicative Preterite Subjunctive Opt.
1s πεπαίδευμαι ἐπεπαιδεύμην πεπαιδευμένος ω ᾿ε̃ εἴην
2s πεπαίδευσαι έπεπαίδευσο --- ἦς εἴης
3s πεπαίδευται ἐπεπαίδευτο --- ἦ εἴη

1p πεπαιδεύμεθα ἐπεπαιδεύμεθα πεπαιδευμένοι ὦμεν εἴημεν


2p πεπαίδευσθε ἐπεπαιδεύσθε --- ἦτε εἴτηε
3p πεπαίδευνται ἐπεπαίδευντο --- ὦσι εἴησιν
Classical Greek Online
Lesson 9
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Aristotle was born in Macedonia in 384 BC. In 367 BC he went to Athens to study with
Plato. Plato had a high regard for him, calling him the "intellect of his school." He stayed
in Athens until the death of Plato in 347 BC, and after several residences elsewhere he
was invited in 342 BC by Philip of Macedonia to instruct his son, Alexander, who was
then 13. In 335 BC Aristotle returned to Athens where the state gave him the Lyceum. In
the walks surrounding it he gave lectures on philosophy to many scholars while walking
up and down, for which the school was named Peripatetic. He remained head of the
school until 323 BC, when he left Athens for Euboea, where he died in 322 BC. His
treatises and lectures on philosophy have always been highly regarded.
Reading and Textual Analysis
The Poetics is the last work of Aristotle. It is not as widely cited as his Metaphysics, nor
his Nicomachean Ethics, but was selected here to illustrate his interest also in the arts. He
is considered to be the first literary critic. For him, the arts represent essential truths
apprehended by the mind. He proceeds to analyze works of literature, as for their style
and for the construction of their plot. Style of poetry is to be judged by the employment
of meter and selection of vocabulary. For a plot, unity is essential, and among other
things the type of hero. In his first sentence Aristotle states the aim for the treatise as
depicting the essence of poetry, its various types, and the requirements for successful
plots. Among the types are epic poetry, tragedy and comedy, and dithyrambic poetry as
well as most flute- and harp-playing. For all of these he demands mimesis, or imitation of
life. And he accounts for interest in them because humans have an instinct for
representation and because they enjoy representations. The Poetics is relatively short, but
also very compact, as the selection here illustrates. The selection below is from book IV:
22-26.
Ἀρχὴ μὲν οὖν καὶ οἶον ψυχὴ ὁ μῦθος τῆς τραγῳδίας, δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη.
·1316 ἀρχὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἀρχή> beginning, first
principle -- first principle
·1317 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand
·1318 οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- truly
·1319 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1320 οἶον -- adverb; <οἶον> so to say -- so to say
·1321 ψυχὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ψυχή> soul -- the soul
·1322 ὁ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1323 μῦθος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <μῦθος> speech, plot --
plot
·1324 τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- of ...
·1325 τραγῳδίας -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <τραγῳδία> tragedy --
tragedy
·1326 δεύτερον -- adverb; <δεύτερον> second -- the second
·1327 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand
·1328 τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- ta
·1329 ἤθη -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ἦθος> custom, character --
character
παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστιν καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς.
·1330 παραπλήσιον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <παραπλήσιος>
such-like -- the same
·1331 γάρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- indeed
·1332 ἐστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- it is
·1333 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- also
·1334 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- in
·1335 τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- ...
·1336 γραφικῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <γραφικῆ> painting --
painting
εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις φαρμάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ
λευκογραφήσας εἰκόνα.
·1337 εἰ -- conjunction; <εἰ> if -- if
·1338 γάρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
·1339 τις -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τις>
someone, something -- someone
·1340 ἐναλείψειε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative of <ἐναλείψω>
paint, smear -- painted
·1341 τοῖς -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- with the
·1342 καλλίστοις -- adjective; dative plural neuter of superlative of <καλός>
good, beautiful -- best
·1343 φαρμάκοις -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <φάρμακον> paint, color --
colors
·1344 χύδην -- adverb; <χύδην> at random, promiscuously -- at random
·1345 οὐκ -- particle; <οὐκ> not -- not
·1346 ἂν -- particle; <ἄν> if -- ...
·1347 ὁμοίως -- adverb; <ὁμοίως> similarly -- as much
·1348 εὐφράνειεν -- verb; 3rd person singular optative aorist of <εὐφραίνω>
delight, please -- it would ...delight
·1349 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- as
·1350 λευκογραφήσας -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle
of <λευκο-γραφέω> paint in white on a black background -- painting . . . in
white on a black background
·1351 εἰκόνα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <εἰκών> image, portrait --
an image
ἔστιν τε μίμησις πράξεως καὶ διὰ ταύτην μάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων.
·1352 ἔστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- it is
·1353 τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
·1354 μίμησις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <μίμησις>
representation -- a representation
·1355 πράξεως -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <πράξις> action in actual
life -- of action in actual life
·1356 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1357 διὰ -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- because of
·1358 ταύτην -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <οὗτος>
this -- that
·1359 μάλιστα -- adverb; superlative of <μάλα> very -- most of all
·1360 τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1361 πραττόντων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of present participle of
<πράττω> achieve, manage -- of those in action
Τρίτον δὲ ἡ διάνοια.
·1362 τρίτον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <τρίτος> third -- the
third (element)
·1363 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·1364 ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1365 διάνοια -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <διάνοια> thought,
mind -- thought
τοῦτο δέ ἐστιν τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα καὶ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα.
·1366 τοῦτο -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <οὗτος>
this -- this
·1367 δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·1368 ἐστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is
·1369 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·1370 λέγειν -- verb; infinitive of <λέγω> say -- to say
·1371 δύνασθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive of <δύναμαι> be able -- the ability
·1372 τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- (the) what is
·1373 ἐνόντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἔνειμι> to be in,
to be possible -- possible
·1374 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1375 τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- (the) what is
·1376 ἁρμόττοντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of present participle of
<ἁρμόττω> fit together -- fitting
ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ τῆς ῥητορικῆς ἔργον ἐστίν.
·1377 ὅπερ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <ὅσπερ> it -- it
·1378 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- in
·1379 τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1380 λόγων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λόγος> word, reason -- the
words
·1381 τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- of the
·1382 πολιτικῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <πολιτική> politics --
politics
·1383 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1384 τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- of the
·1385 ῥητορικῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ῥητορική> rhetoric --
rhetorician
·1386 ἔργον -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ἔργον> work, deed -- (in
the) activities
·1387 ἐστίν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is (provided)
οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχαῖοι πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς.
·1388 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1389 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand
·1390 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- indeed
·1391 ἀρχαῖοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἀρχαιος> old -- old
(writers)
·1392 πολιτικῶς -- adverb; <πολιτικῶς> like statesmen -- like statesmen
·1393 ἐποίουν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ποιέω> make, do -- made
·1394 λέγοντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of present participle of
<λέγω> say -- (those speaking) the characters speak
·1395 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1396 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand
·1397 νῦν -- adverb; <νῦν> now -- current (writers)
·1398 ῥητορικῶς -- adverb; <ῥητορικῶς> like rhetoricians -- like rhetoricians
Ἔστιν δὲ ἦθος μὲν τὸ τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ τὴν προαίρεσιν, ὁποῖά τις ἐν οἷς οὐκ ἔστι δῆλον ἤ
προαιρεῖται ἤ φεύγει.
·1399 ἔστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is
·1400 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·1401 ἦθος -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ἦθος> custom, character --
character
·1402 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- and
·1403 τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·1404 τοιοῦτον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <τοιοῦτος> such --
that
·1405 ὃ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which --
which
·1406 δηλοῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <δηλόω> be clear, reveal --
reveals
·1407 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1408 προαίρεσιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <προαίρεσις> choice
-- choice
·1409 ὁποῖά -- interrogative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ὁπος> what
sort of -- what sort of thing
·1410 τις -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τις>
someone, something -- one
·1411 ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- among
·1412 οἷς -- demonstrative pronoun; dative plural neuter of <ὅς> this, that, he,
she, it -- those where
·1413 οὐκ -- particle; <οὐκ> not -- not
·1414 ἔστι -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- it is
·1415 δῆλον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <δῆλος> clear, obvious
-- clear
·1416 ἤ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or
·1417 προαιρεῖται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <προαιρέω>
choose -- chooses
·1418 ἤ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or
·1419 φεύγει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <φεύγω> escape, flee --
avoids
διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν λόγων ἐν οἵς μηδ' ὅλως ἔστιν ὅ τι προαιρεῖται ἢ φεύγει ὁ
λέγων.
·1420 διόπερ -- adverb; <διόπερ> therefore, so -- so
·1421 οὐκ -- particle; <οὐκ> not -- not
·1422 ἔχουσιν -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἔχω> have -- (those) ... have
·1423 ἦθος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἦθος> custom, character --
character
·1424 τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- (in) the
·1425 λόγων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λόγος> word, reason --
words
·1426 ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in
·1427 οἵς -- relative pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὅς> who, which --
which
·1428 μηδ' -- particle; <μηδέ> and not -- not
·1429 ὅλως -- adverb; <ὅλως> wholly -- wholly
·1430 ἔστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- it is ... (clear)
·1431 ὅ -- relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which --
what
·1432 τι -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone,
something -- ...
·1433 προαιρεῖται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <προαιρέω>
choose -- chooses
·1434 ἢ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or
·1435 φεύγει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <φεύγω> escape, flee --
avoids
·1436 ὁ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1437 λέγων -- participle used as substantive; nominative singular masculine of
present participle of <λέγω> say -- (speaking one) speaker
Τέταρτον δὲ τῶν ἐν λόγῳ ἡ λέξις.
·1438 τέταρτον -- adverb; of <τέταρτος> fourth -- fourth
·1439 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·1440 τῶν -- article used as pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of the
(elements)
·1441 ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in
·1442 λόγῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <λόγος> word, reason -- the
literary items
·1443 ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1444 λέξις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <λέξις> style -- style
λέγω δὲ, ὥσπερ πρότερον εἴρεται, λέξιν τὴν διὰ τῆς ὀνομασίαν ἑρμηνείαν.
·1445 λέγω -- verb; 1st person singular present of <λέγω> say -- I mean (that)
·1446 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·1447 ὥσπερ -- conjunction; <ὥσπερ> as -- as
·1448 πρότερον -- adverb; <πρότερον> earlier, before -- earlier
·1449 εἴρεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <εἴρω> speak, say --
has been said
·1450 λέξιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <λέξις> style -- style
·1451 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- (is) the
·1452 διὰ -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- by means of
·1453 τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1454 ὀνομασίαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ὀνομασία> language
-- language
·1455 ἑρμηνείαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἑρμηνεία>
interpretation -- interpretation
ὅ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμμέτρων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν δύναμιν.
·1456 ὅ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which --
this
·1457 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1458 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- for
·1459 τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1460 ἐμμέτρων -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <ἔμμετρος> metrical --
poetry
·1461 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1462 ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- for
·1463 τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1464 λόγων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λόγος> word, reason --
(words) prose
·1465 ἔχει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἔχω> have -- has
·1466 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1467 αὐτὴν -- pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
same
·1468 δύναμιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <δύναμις> power --
force
Lesson Text
Ἀρχὴ μὲν οὖν καὶ οἶον ψυχὴ ὁ μῦθος τῆς τραγῳδίας, δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη.
παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστιν καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς. εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς
καλλίστοις φαρμάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκογραφήσας
εἰκόνα. ἔστιν τε μίμησις πράξεως καὶ διὰ ταύτην μάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων. Τρίτον
δὲ ἡ διάνοια. τοῦτο δέ ἐστιν τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα καὶ τὰ ἁρμόττοντα.
ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ τῆς ῥητορικῆς ἔργον ἐστίν. οἱ μὲν γὰρ
ἀρχαῖοι πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς. Ἔστιν δὲ ἦθος μὲν τὸ
τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ τὴν προαίρεσιν, ὁποῖά τις ἐν οἷς οὐκ ἔστι δῆλον ἤ προαιρεῖται ἤ
φεύγει. διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν λόγων ἐν οἵς μηδ' ὅλως ἔστιν ὅ τι
προαιρεῖται ἢ φεύγει ὁ λέγων. Τέταρτον δὲ τῶν ἐν λόγῳ ἡ λέξις. λέγω δὲ, ὥσπερ
πρότερον εἴρεται, λέξιν τὴν διὰ τῆς ὀνομασίαν ἑρμηνείαν. ὅ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμμέτρων
καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν δύναμιν.
Translation
The plot is truly the first principle and so to say the soul of tragedy; and the
second is character. It is the same also in painting. For if someone painted with
the best colors at random, it would not delight as much as painting an image in
white on a black background. For it is a representation of action in actual life, and
because of that most of all of those in action.
The third element is thought. This is the ability to say what is possible and what is
fitting. It is provided in the words and the activities of the statesman and of the
rhetorician. For the old writers made the characters speak like statesmen and the
new writers like rhetoricians.
Now character is that which reveals choice, i.e. what sort of thing one chooses or
avoids among those where it is not clear. So those have no character in the words,
in which it is not wholly clear what the speaker chooses or avoids.
The fourth of the elements in the literary items is style. And I mean, as has been
said earlier, that style is the means of interpretation through meaning. And this has
the same force for poetry and prose.
Grammar

41. Verbs in -μι; the present and imperfect active system.


A small number of frequent verbs have different endings and formations from those of
the general verbs. Among these are τίθημι 'put', ἵημι 'send', ἵστημι, and δίδωμι 'give'. The
present forms of τίθημι are given here to illustrate their forms. The forms of the others are
comparable, though δίδωμι has ο-vowels corresponding to the ε-vowels of the three other
verbs.
Present Imperfect
1 sg τίθημι ἐτίθην
2 sg τίθης ἐτίθεις
3 sg τίθησι(ν) ἐτίθει

1 pl τίθεμεν ἐτίθεμεν
2 pl τίθετε ἐτίθετε
3 pl τιθέασι(ν) ἐτίθεσαν

Subjunctive Optative Imperative


1 sg τιθῶ τιθείην
2 sg τιθῇς τιθείης τίθει
3 sg τιθῇ τιθείη τιθέτω

1 pl τιθῶμεν τιθεῖμεν
2 pl τιθῆτε τιθεῖτε τίθετε
3 pl τιθῶσι(ν) τιθεῖεν τιθέντων

42. Forms of the aorist active.

Indicative Subjunctive Optative Imperative


1 sg ἔθηκα θῶ θείην
2 sg ἔθηκας θῇς θείης θές
3 sg ἔθηκε(ν) θῇ θείη θέτω

1 pl ἔθεμεν θῶμεν θεῖμεν


2 pl ἔθετε θῆτε θεῖητε θέτε
3 pl ἔθεσαν θῶσι(ν) θεῖεν θέντων

43. Forms of the Present and Imperfect system of εἰμί 'am'.

Present Imperfect
1 sg εἰμί ἦν
2 sg εἶ ἦσθα
3 sg ἐστί(ν) ἦν
1 pl ἐσμέν ἦμεν
2 pl ἐστέ ἦτε
3 pl εἰσί(ν) ἦσαν

Subjunctive Optative Imperative


1 sg ὦ εἴην
2 sg ᾖς εἴης ἴσθι
3 sg ᾖ εἴη ἔστω

1 pl ὦμεν εἴημεν
2 pl ἤτε εἴητε ἔστε
3 pl ὦσι(ν) εἴησαν ἔστων

44. Forms of οἶδα 'I know'.


οἶδα is a perfect with present meaning. It is based on a root meaning 'see', so that the
perfect has developed in meaning from 'I have seen' to 'I know'. The forms representing
present and past time are given here.
Present Past
1 sg οἶδα 'I know' ᾔδη 'I knew'
2 sg οἶσθα 'thou knowest' ᾔδησθα 'thou knewest'
3 sg οἶδε(ν) 'he/she knows' ᾔδει 'he/she knew'

1 pl ἴσμεν 'we know' ᾔδμεν 'we knew'


2 pl ἴστε 'you know' ᾔδετε 'you knew'
3 pl ἴσασι(ν) 'they know' ᾔδεσαν 'they knew'

45. Particles.
As you have noted in the texts, particles are numerous in Greek texts. Moreover, they are
often left untranslated. They may modify meaning much as intonation does in English; if
then translated with their meaning given in dictionaries, such as 'indeed, to be sure' and so
on, the English sentence is turgid. In combinations, such as καὶ δέ, καὶ merely adds
emphasis. Particles then must be treated in relation to one another and to the entire
sentence.
There are two negative particles, also called adverbs, οὺ (οὔτε, οὐκ, etc.), and μή, which
is required in sentences expressing a desire and is used in conditions.
There are several interrogative particles, of which ἧ and ἆρα are the most frequent. Other
particles are listed here in alphabetical order.
ἀλλά 'on the other hand, but, on the contrary'
ἅμα 'at the same time, at once'
ἄρα 'therefore, then' (note the different accentuation from the interrogative particle)
γάρ 'for'
γέ 'indeed, certainly'
δέ 'but, however' (often used as a connective, and need not be translated)
δή 'already, now' (or used to add emphasis)
ἦ 'truly, really'
ἤ 'or' (often doubled with the meanings 'either ...or')
καί 'and' or, as used for emphasis, 'even'
μέν 'indeed' (may be used with δέ to indicate a correlation, and not translated)
οὐδέ 'and not'
οὖν 'indeed, certainly; therefore'
οὔτε ... οὔτε, μήτε ... μήτε 'neither ... nor'
πέρ 'even, indeed'
τέ 'and'; τέ ... τέ 'both ... and'; τέ ... καί 'not only ... but also'

Classical Greek Online


Lesson 10
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Little is known of Pausanias. He was apparently born in Lydia. On the basis of references
in his work, as to contemporary Roman emperors, it is concluded that he lived from
approximately 120-180 AD. He traveled widely throughout the eastern Mediterranean
area, including Italy. While aware of his limitations as a writer and interests, we are
grateful to him for his information on the highlights of Greek civilization before many of
them were damaged or destroyed.
Reading and Textual Analysis
Pausanias's Description of Greece reports his travels in Attica, the Peloponnese and
central Greece. As in the selection below, he provides a straightforward account of sites,
especially the most famous for their art or architecture, amplified by accounts of people.
He is not highly regarded for his style, nor for the insight that distinguishes the histories
of Herodotus and Thucycides. But his descriptions inform us of the state of the
magnificent products of the important period of Greek civilization, such as that of the
Parthenon before it was blown up by an explosion of munitions in the 17th century. The
description is very detailed, extending through ten books. In addition to its content, the
selection here, Attica xxii: 4-5, may illustrate that the language conforms to the standards
of the classical period.
καί ἐς δέ τὴν ἀκρόπολίν ἐστιν ἔσοδος μία.
·1469 καί -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1470 ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- to
·1471 δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
·1472 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1473 ἀκρόπολίν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀκρόπολις>
Acropolis -- Acropolis
·1474 ἐστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- there is
·1475 ἔσοδος -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἔσοδος> entrance --
entrance
·1476 μία -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <εἷς> one -- (only) one
ἑτέραν δὲ οὐ παρέχεται, πᾶσα ἀπότομος οὖσα καὶ τεῖχος ἔχουσα ἐχυρόν.
·1477 ἑτέραν -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <ἕτερος> other --
another
·1478 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·1479 οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not
·1480 παρέχεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <παρέχω>
provide -- it does... provide
·1481 πᾶσα -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πᾶς> all, every --
everywhere
·1482 ἀπότομος -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <ἀπότομος>
precipitous -- precipitous
·1483 οὖσα -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of <εἰμί>
I am -- being
·1484 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1485 τεῖχος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <τεῖχος> wall -- wall
·1486 ἔχουσα -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of
<ἔχω> have -- having
·1487 ἐχυρόν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἐχυρός> strong, secure
-- strong
τὰ δὲ προπύλαια λίθου λευκοῦ τὴν ὀροφὴν ἔχει καὶ κόσμῳ καὶ μεγέθει τῶν λίθων μέχρι
γε καὶ ἐμοῦ προεῖχε.
·1488 τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·1489 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
·1490 προπύλαια -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <προπύλαια> gateway --
gateway
·1491 λίθου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <λίθος> stone -- marble
·1492 λευκοῦ -- adjective; genitive singular masculine of <λευκός> white -- of
white
·1493 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1494 ὀροφὴν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ὀροφή> roof -- a roof
·1495 ἔχει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἔχω> have -- has
·1496 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1497 κόσμῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <κόσμος> beauty, order,
world -- in beauty
·1498 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1499 μεγέθει -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <μέγεθος> size -- size
·1500 τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1501 λίθων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λίθος> stone -- stones
·1502 μέχρι -- preposition; <μέχρι> until -- until
·1503 γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- ...
·1504 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- ...
·1505 ἐμοῦ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- my time
·1506 προεῖχε -- verb; singular present of <προείχω> to be superior, excel -- is
unexcelled
τὰς μὲν οὖν εἰκόνας τῶν ἱππέων οὐκ ἔχω σαφῶς εἰπεῖν, εἴτε οἱ παῖδές εἰσιν οἱ
Ξενοφῶντος εἴτε ἄλλως ἐς εὐπρέπειαν πεποιημέναι.
·1507 τὰς -- article; accusative plural feminine of <ὁ> the -- (regarding) the
·1508 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand
·1509 οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- indeed
·1510 εἰκόνας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural; of <εἰκών> image, portrait --
statues
·1511 τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- of the
·1512 ἱππέων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἱππεύς> horseman --
horsemen
·1513 οὐκ -- particle; <οὐκ> not -- not
·1514 ἔχω -- verb; 1st person singular present of <ἔχω> have -- I can
·1515 σαφῶς -- adverb; <σαφῶς> truly -- truly
·1516 εἰπεῖν -- verb; aorist infinitive of <λέγω> say -- say
·1517 εἴτε -- conjunction; <εἴτε> whether...or -- whether
·1518 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1519 παῖδές -- noun, masculine/feminine; nominative plural of <παῖς> child --
sons
·1520 εἰσιν -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <εἰμί> I am -- they are
·1521 οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1522 Ξενοφῶντος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ξενοφῶν>
Xenophon -- of Xenophon
·1523 εἴτε -- conjunction; <εἴτε> whether...or -- or
·1524 ἄλλως -- adverb; <ἄλλως> otherwise, especially -- otherwise
·1525 ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- for
·1526 εὐπρέπειαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <εὐπρέπεια>
appearance, beauty -- beauty
·1527 πεποιημέναι -- verb; participle perfect middle of <ποιέω> make, do --
produced
τῶν δὲ προπυλαίων ἐν δεξίᾳ Νίκης ἐστὶν Ἀπτέρου ναός.
·1528 τῶν -- article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of the
·1529 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand
·1530 προπυλαίων -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <προπύλαια> gateway --
gateway
·1531 ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- on
·1532 δεξίᾳ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <δεξιά> the right hand -- the
right
·1533 Νίκης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Νίκη> Victory -- Victory
·1534 ἐστὶν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is
·1535 Ἀπτέρου -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <Ἄπτερος> Wingless
-- of Wingless
·1536 ναός -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <ναός> temple -- the
temple
ἐντεῦθεν ἡ θάλασσά ἐστι σύνοπτος, καὶ ταύτῃ ῥίψας Αἰγεὺς ἑαυτὸν ὡς λέγουσιν
ἐτελεύτησεν.
·1537 ἐντεῦθεν -- adverb; <ἐντεῦθεν> from there -- from there
·1538 ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1539 θάλασσά -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <θάλασσα> sea -- sea
·1540 ἐστι -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am -- is
·1541 σύνοπτος -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <σύνοπτος>
visible -- visible
·1542 καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
·1543 ταύτῃ -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this
-- there
·1544 ῥίψας -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of
<ῥίπτω> throw down -- threw . . . down
·1545 Αἰγεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Αἰγεύς> Aegeus --
Aegeus
·1546 ἑαυτὸν -- reflexive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ἑαυτός>
himself -- himself
·1547 ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- as
·1548 λέγουσιν -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <λέγω> say -- they say
·1549 ἐτελεύτησεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <τελευτέω> finish, die --
died
ἀνήγετο μὲν γὰρ ἡ ναῦς μέλασιν ἱστίοις ἡ τοὺς παῖδας φέρουσα ἐς Κρήτην.
·1550 ἀνήγετο -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <ἀνάγομαι> put out
to sea -- put out to sea
·1551 μὲν -- particle; <μέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand
·1552 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
·1553 ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1554 ναῦς -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ναῦς> ship -- ship
·1555 μέλασιν -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <μέλαν> black -- with black
·1556 ἱστίοις -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <ἱστίον> sail -- sails
·1557 ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1558 τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1559 παῖδας -- noun, masculine/feminine; accusative plural of <παῖς> child --
children
·1560 φέρουσα -- verb; nominative singular feminine of participle of <φέρω>
bear, bring, carry -- carrying
·1561 ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- to
·1562 Κρήτην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Κρήτη> Crete -- Crete
Θησεὺς δὲ -- ἔπλει γὰρ τόλμης τι ἔχων ἐς τὸν Μίνω καλούμενον ταῦρον
·1563 Θησεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Θησεύς> Theseus --
Theseus
·1564 δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand
·1565 ἔπλει -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <πλέω> sail -- was sailing
·1566 γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- indeed
·1567 τόλμης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <τόλμα> courage, venture
-- of a venture
·1568 τι -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone,
something -- something
·1569 ἔχων -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <ἔχω>
have -- having
·1570 ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- against
·1571 τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1572 Μίνω -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Μίνος> Minos -- of Minos
·1573 καλούμενον -- verb; accusative singular masculine of present participle
passive of <καλέω> call, summon -- so called
·1574 ταῦρον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ταῦρος> bull -- bull
πρὸς τὸν πατέρα προεῖπε χρήσεσθαι τοῖς ἱστίοις λευκοῖς, ἤν ὀπίσω πλέῃ τοῦ ταύρου
κρατήσας.
·1575 πρὸς -- preposition; <πρός> to -- to
·1576 τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- his
·1577 πατέρα -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <πατήρ> father --
father
·1578 προεῖπε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <προ-λέγω> say beforehand
-- had said . . . beforehand
·1579 χρήσεσθαι -- deponent verb; infinitive middle of <χράομαι> need, use --
(he would) use
·1580 τοῖς -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
·1581 ἱστίοις -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <ἱστίον> sail -- sails
·1582 λευκοῖς -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <λευκός> white -- with white
·1583 ἤν -- conjunction; <ἤν> if -- if
·1584 ὀπίσω -- adverb; <ὀπίσω> back -- back
·1585 πλέῃ -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative of <πλέω> sail -- he
would sail
·1586 τοῦ -- article; genitive singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1587 ταύρου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ταῦρος> bull -- bull
·1588 κρατήσας -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of
<κρατέω> hold fast, take to heart; rule, conquer -- having conquered
τούτων λήθην ἔσχεν Ἀριάδνην ἀφῃρημένος.
·1589 τούτων -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <οὗτος> this --
these (things)
·1590 λήθην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <λήθη> forgetting -- (him)
to forget
·1591 ἔσχεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἔχω> have -- caused
·1592 Ἀριάδνην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἀριάδνη> Ariadne --
Ariadne
·1593 ἀφῃρημένος -- verb; nominative singular masculine of passive participle
of <ἀφαιρέω> take away -- having lost
ἐνταῦθα Αἰγεὺς ὡς εἶδεν ἱστίοις μέλασι τὴν ναῦν κομιζομένην, οἷα τὸν παῖδα τεθνάναι
δοκῶν, ἀφεὶς αὐτὸν διαφθείρεται.
·1594 ἐνταῦθα -- adverb; <ἐνταῦθα> then, there -- then
·1595 Αἰγεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Αἰγεύς> Aegeus --
Aegeus
·1596 ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- when
·1597 εἶδεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <εἶδον> saw -- saw
·1598 ἱστίοις -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <ἱστίον> sail -- sails
·1599 μέλασι -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <μέλαν> black -- with black
·1600 τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
·1601 ναῦν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ναῦς> ship -- ship
·1602 κομιζομένην -- verb; accusative singular feminine of passive participle of
<κομίζω> provide for -- traveling
·1603 οἷα -- relative pronoun; accusative neuter plural of <οἷος> like, such that --
that
·1604 τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- his
·1605 παῖδα -- noun, masculine/feminine; accusative singular of <παῖς> child --
son
·1606 τεθνάναι -- verb; infinitive perfect of <θνήσκω> die -- had died
·1607 δοκῶν -- verb; present participle nominative singular masculine of
<δοκέω> seem, think -- thinking
·1608 ἀφεὶς -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of
<ἀφίημι> send forth, throw down, permit, forgive -- throwing ...down
·1609 αὐτὸν -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
himself
·1610 διαφθείρεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <διαφθείρω>
destroy, kill -- killed himself
Lesson Text
καί ἐς δέ τὴν ἀκρόπολίν ἐστιν ἔσοδος μία. ἑτέραν δὲ οὐ παρέχεται, πᾶσα
ἀπότομος οὖσα καὶ τεῖχος ἔχουσα ἐχυρόν. τὰ δὲ προπύλαια λίθου λευκοῦ τὴν
ὀροφὴν ἔχει καὶ κόσμῳ καὶ μεγέθει τῶν λίθων μέχρι γε καὶ ἐμοῦ προεῖχε. τὰς μὲν
οὖν εἰκόνας τῶν ἱππέων οὐκ ἔχω σαφῶς εἰπεῖν, εἴτε οἱ παῖδές εἰσιν οἱ Ξενοφῶντος
εἴτε ἄλλως ἐς εὐπρέπειαν πεποιημέναι. τῶν δὲ προπυλαίων ἐν δεξίᾳ Νίκης ἐστὶν
Ἀπτέρου ναός. ἐντεῦθεν ἡ θάλασσά ἐστι σύνοπτος, καὶ ταύτῃ ῥίψας Αἰγεὺς
ἑαυτὸν ὡς λέγουσιν ἐτελεύτησεν. ἀνήγετο μὲν γὰρ ἡ ναῦς μέλασιν ἱστίοις ἡ τοὺς
παῖδας φέρουσα ἐς Κρήτην. Θησεὺς δὲ -- ἔπλει γὰρ τόλμης τι ἔχων ἐς τὸν Μίνω
καλούμενον ταῦρον πρὸς τὸν πατέρα προεῖπε χρήσεσθαι τοῖς ἱστίοις λευκοῖς, ἤν
ὀπίσω πλέῃ τοῦ ταύρου κρατήσας. τούτων λήθην ἔσχεν Ἀριάδνην ἀφῃρημένος.
ἐνταῦθα Αἰγεὺς ὡς εἶδεν ἱστίοις μέλασι τὴν ναῦν κομιζομένην, οἷα τὸν παῖδα
τεθνάναι δοκῶν, ἀφεὶς αὐτὸν διαφθείρεται.
Translation
There is only one entry to the Acropolis. It does not provide another, being
precipitous everywhere and having a strong wall. And the gateway has a roof of
white marble, and is unexcelled for the beauty and size of its stones to my day.
Regarding the statues of the horsemen, I cannot truly say whether they are the
sons of Xenophon or whether they were produced especially for beauty. And on
the right of the gateway is the temple of Wingless Victory. From here the sea is
visible, and here, as they say, Aegeus throwing himself down died. For the ship
carrying the children to Crete put out to sea with black sails. But Theseus, was
sailing on something of a venture against the bull of Minos, so called. He had said
to his father beforehand that he would sail back with white sails, having
conquered the bull. But having lost Ariadne caused him to forget these things.
Then Aegeus, when from this point he saw the ship traveling with black sails,
thinking that his son had died, throwing himself down killed himself.
References

46. Texts.
Editors have worked with Greek texts since the Alexandrian period, when the texts of
Homer were essentially fixed. Western scholars have continued the tradition as in the
Teubner publications, those published by the Clarendon Press, and so on. If one examines
an edited text with extensive introduction and commentary, such as Hesiod: Works and
Days, M. L. West, ed. xiii, 399 pp. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), the information
provided is enormous. The author states that he "perused" over six hundred texts when
producing his book. As noted in the comments to the selection included here, the
differences between his text and others, however, are slight.
Unless a text with extensive commentary is desired, readers of the Greek texts will do
well to use the editions of the Loeb Classical Library, which have the added advantage of
including translations. They are readily available from the Harvard University Press
(Cambridge, MA 02138). The texts have been widely read in schools and universities,
such as those of Xenophon, Plato and Homer have been published with introductions and
commentaries, often also with glossaries. Or commentaries may be published separately,
such as A Commentary on Herodotus by W. W. How and J. Wells, 2 vols., 456 and 445
pp. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1912, often reprinted). References may be found in catalogues of
libraries and publishers, and increasingly on web sites.

47. Grammars.
Similarly, grammars of Greek are based on long attention. The fullest grammar is that of
Eduard Schwyzer, Griechische Grammatik, I-III. Munich: Beck, 1939-53. For ready
reference, most readers will find useful a shorter grammar, such as that of Herbert Weir
Smyth, Greek Grammar (1920), revised by Gordon M. Messing, Harvard University
Press (1956).
For a historical treatment, see the Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin by Carl
Darling Buck (Chicago: University Press, 1933). A successor is the New Comparative
Grammar of Greek and Latin, by Andrew L. Sihler (Oxford: University Press, 1995); it is
written like a novel -- no references, no bibliography.

48. Dictionaries.
Dictionaries of various extent are readily available. An Intermediate Greek-English
Lexicon, founded upon the seventh edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon
(Oxford: Clarendon: 1989) provides good coverage for texts of every type.

49. Specialized handbooks.


Catalogues in libraries and lists of publishers are excellent sources for handbooks dealing
with all aspects of Greek culture and history. A highly interesting work for information on
oral epic and especially Homer is The Making of Homeric Verse, the Collected Papers of
Milman Parry, Adam Parry, ed. (New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987).
While no Mycenaean texts have been included here, chiefly because of their brevity,
readers may wish to consult Documents in Mycenaean Greek, by Michael Ventris and
John Chadwick (Cambridge: University Press, 1956). The sub-title reads: Three hundred
selected tablets from Knossos, Pylos and Mycenae with commentary and vocabulary. A
History of Greece to 322 B.C. by N.G.L. Hammond (Oxford: Clarendon, 1986, 3rd ed.)
provides broad coverage, dealing also with dialects, literature, art and thought. A Smaller
Classical Dictionary, ed. E. H. Blakeney (New York: Dutton, 1928) provides compact
entries on persons, places and things in the Roman and Greek world. One should not
overlook the essays in encyclopedias, such as those in the celebrated 13th edition of the
Encyclopedia Brittanica. These deal with various aspects of culture and history.

50. The Legacy of the Greek World.


The legacy of the Greek world on western civilization is evident in all aspects of political
and cultural life. Democratic government had its start there. The works of Thucydides,
Demosthenes, Plato and Aristotle among others provided many of the principles as well
as intellectual support for civil arrangements.
In literature the Homeric poems have been a constant inspiration, as translations,
commentaries and references indicate. The great tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophocles and
Euripides, as well as the author of comedies, Aristophanes, are similarly admired, as well
as lyric poets like Pindar. The influence of Greek art and architecture, whether produced
by unknown artists or sculptors like Phidias, is visible on government buildings
throughout the western world.
While Greek religion maintains interest for mythology and literature, the wide adoption
of Christianity is evident in the maintenance of the New Testament and the majority of
early commentary, as of St. Augustine, through the Greek language. The three creeds, the
Apostle's, the Nicaean, the Athanasian, were all formulated in Greek. And while Roman
culture has been influential in these fields as well, it owes much to the heritage of the
earlier Greek culture, as in matters like the alphabet. The Greeks may have adopted it and
other items from other cultures, but they reshaped them and passed them on in improved
form to lands much larger than their small area. As a result especially of Alexander's
conquests, Greek civilization and culture influenced the entire Mediterranean and
surrounding areas, with lasting effects on far larger areas.

Classical Greek Online


Master Glossary
Jonathan Slocum and Marie-Claire Beaulieu
This Master Glossary page lists, in an alphabetical order suitable to the language and the
script employed for it, every unique word form that appears in lesson texts and, for each
word, its unique glosses. In addition to the gloss information, sans contextual translation,
links are provided to every appearance, in every numbered lesson, of the word/gloss in
question. With this index one may perform a quick "word look-up" and, in addition, study
how words are used in context by clicking on their links.

ἅ: relative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ὅς> who, which --


ἀγάμενοι: deponent verb; nom. pl. masc. of present participle middle of <ἄγαμαι> to
wonder, admire --
ἀγάμενος: deponent verb; nom. sing. masc. of middle participle of <ἄγαμαι> to wonder,
admire --
ἀγγέλους: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <ἄγγελος> messenger --
ἀδάμαντος: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ἀδάμας> steel --
Ἀδείμαντε: noun, masculine; vocative singular of <Αδείμαντος> Adeimontus --
ἀδικούμενα: verb; accusative plural neuter of passive participle of <ἀδικέω> wrong --
ἀδικοῦντα: verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἀδικέω> wrong --
ἀδύνατον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἀδύνατος> impossible --
ἀέθλων: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἀέθλος> battle, woe --
ἀεὶ: adverb; <ἀεί> always --
ἄειδε: verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <ἀείδω> sing, chant --
ἁζόμενοι: verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle middle of <ἅζομαι>
stand in awe of --
ἀθάνατοι: adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἀθάνατος> immortal --
ἁθρόοι: adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἁθρόος> together --
αἱ: article; nominative plural feminine of <ὁ> the --
Αἰγεὺς: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Αἰγεύς> Aegeus --
Αἵδι: noun, masculine; dative singular of <Αἵδης> Hades --
αἰεὶ: adverb; <αἰεί> always --
αἰπὺν: adjective; accusative singular masculine of <αἰπύς> deep --
αἰτέειν: verb; infinitive present, of <αἰτέω> request --
αἰτίην: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <αἰτία> cause, reason --
αἰτίους: adjective; accusative plural masculine of <αἴτιος> blameworthy --
ἀκηδέα: adjective; accusative singular masculine of <ἀκήδης> without sorrow --
ἀκηκοότα: verb; nominative plural neuter of perfect participle of <ἀκούω> hear, listen --
ἀκλεᾶ: adjective; nominative plural neuter of <ἀκλεός> without fame --
ἀκούουσι: verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἀκούω> hear, listen --
ἀκούσας: verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <ἀκούω> hear, listen
--
ἄκρον: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἄκρον> mountain-top, peak --
ἀκρόπολίν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀκρόπολις> Acropolis --
ἄλγε': noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄλγος> woe --
ἄλγεα: noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄλγος> woe --
Ἀλέξανδρον; noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Ἀλέξανδρος> Alexandros --
ἀληθῶς: adverb; <ἀληθῶς> really, truly -
Ἁλικαρνησσέος: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἁλικαρνησεύς> Halicarnassian --
ἀλλ': conjunction; <ἀλλά> but --
ἄλλα: adjective; accusative plural neuter of <ἄλλος> other --
ἄλλα: adjective; nominative plural neuter of <ἄλλος> other --
ἀλλὰ: conjunction; <ἀλλά> but --
ἄλλας: adjective; accusative plural feminine of <ἄλλος> other --
ἀλλήλοισι: pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another --
ἀλλήλους: pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another --
ἀλλήλων: pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another --
ἀλλήλων: pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <ἀλλήλων> one another --
ἄλλο: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἄλλος> other --
ἄλλοι: adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other --
ἄλλοι: adjective; vocative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other --
ἄλλους: adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other --
ἄλλων: adjective; genitive plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other --
ἄλλως: adverb; <ἄλλως> otherwise, especially --
ἅμα: adverb; <ἅμα> at the same time --
ἀμειξίαν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀμειξία> lack of intercourse --
ἁμόθεν: adverb; <ἁμόθεν> from any point --
ἀμφὶ: preposition; <ἀμφί> around, between --
ἄν: particle; <ἄν> if --
ἀνὰ: preposition; <ἀνά> on --
ἀναβὰς: verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <ἀναβαίνω> mount,
go up --
ἀνάγκη: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἀνάγκη> force, compulsion --
ἀνακαλεῖ: verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἀνακαλέω> designate --
ἀναλαβὼν: verb; nominative singular masculine of participle of <ἀναλαμβάνω> take
along --
ἄναξ: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <ἄναξ> ruler --
ἄνδρα: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἀνήρ> man -
ἀνδρῶν: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἀνήρ> man --
ἀνήγετο: verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <ἀνάγομαι> put out to sea --
ἀνθρώπῳ: noun, masculine; dative singular of <ἄνθρωπος> human being --
ἀνθρώπων: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being --
ἀντὶ: preposition; <ἀντί> instead of --
ἀντιθέῳ: adjective; dative singular masculine of <ἀντίθεος> godlike --
ἀντίπαλον: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἀντίπαλος> contrast --
ἀπαιρέουσαι: verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of <ἀπαιρέω> take
off --
ἀπαιτέειν: verb; infinitive of <ἀπαιτέω> request --
ἀπαιτεόντων: verb; genitive plural neuter of present participle of <ἀπαιτέω> request --
ἅπαντες: adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἅπας> all --
ἅπασιν: adjective; dative plural masculine of <ἅπας> all --
ἀπείρονα: adjective; accusative singular feminine of <ἀπείρων> boundless --
ἀπέκτεινάν: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἀποκτείνω> kill --
ἀπερείσι': adjective; accusative plural neuter of <ἀπερείσιος> countless --
ἀπὸ: preposition; <ἀπό> from --
ἀπόδεξις: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἀπόδεξις> exposition, publication --
ἀποδεχθέντα: verb; nominative plural neuter of aorist participle passive of <ἀποδείκνυμι>
propose --
ἄποινα: noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄποινα> ransom --
ἀποκεκρίσθαι: verb; perfect infinitive passive of <ἀποκρίνω> separate, answer --
ἀποκρατήσειε: verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative of <ἀποκρατέω> exceed --
Ἀπόλλωνα: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Ἀπόλλων> Apollo --
Ἀπόλλωνος: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἀπόλλων> Apollo --
ἀπότομος: adjective; nominative singular feminine of <ἀπότομος> precipitous --
Ἀπτέρου: adjective; genitive singular feminine of <Ἄπτερος> Wingless --
ἆρ': interrogative particle; <ἆρα> then --
ἆρα: interrogative particle; <ἆρα> then --
Ἀργείους: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἀργεῖος> Argive --
ἀργύρεον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἀργύρεος> silver --
ἀργυρέῳ: adjective; dative singular neuter of <ἀργύρεος> silver --
ἄρειον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of comparative of <ἄγαθος> good --
ἀρετῆς: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἀρετῆ> virtue --
Ἄρηος: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἄρης> Ares --
ἀρητῆρα: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἀρητήρ> priest --
Ἀριάδνην: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἀριάδνη> Ariadne --
ἁρμόττοντα: verb; accusative plural neuter of present participle of <ἁρμόττω> fit together
--
ἀρνύμενος: verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle middle of
<ἄρνυμαι> win --
ἄρξαι: verb; infinitive aorist of <ἄρχω> begin --
ἁρπαγὰς: noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ἁρπαγή> abduction --
ἁρπαγήν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἁρπαγή> abduction --
ἁρπαγῆς: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἁρπαγή> abduction --
ἁρπάσαντος: verb; genitive singular masculine of <ἁρπάζω> carry off --
ἀρχαῖοι: adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἀρχαιος> old --
ἀρχὴ: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἀρχή> beginning, first principle --
ἀσθένειαν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀσθένεια> weakness --
Ἀσίην: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἀσία> Asia --
ἀσπερχὲς: adverb; <ἀσπερχές> unceasingly --
ἄστεα: noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄστυ> city --
ἀτασθαλίῃσιν: noun, feminine; dative plural of <ἀτασθαλία> folly --
ἄτερ: preposition; <ἄτερ> without --
ἀτμίδα: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀτμίς> steam, vapor --
Ἀτρείδα: noun, masculine; accusative dual of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus --
Ἀτρείδαι: noun, masculine; vocative plural of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus --
Ἀτρείδης: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus --
ἅττα: pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ὅστις> whoever, whatever --
αὐτὰρ: conjunction; <αὐτάρ> but --
αὖτε: adverb; <αὖτε> then, again --
αὕτη: demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this --
αὐτὴν: pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
αὐτῆς: pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
αὔτις: adverb; <αὔτις> again --
αὐτοὶ: pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
αὐτοῖς: pronoun; dative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
αὐτομάτη: adjective; nominative singular feminine of <αὐτόματος> by itself --
αὐτὸν: pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
αὐτοῦ: pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
αὐτοὺς: pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
αὐτῳ: pronoun; dative singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
αὐτῶν: pronoun; genitive plural feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
αὐτῶν: pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he --
ἀφ': preposition; <ἀπό> from --
ἀφείλετο: verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <ἀφαιρέω> take away --
ἀφεὶς: verb; nom. sing. masc. of aorist participle of <ἀφίημι> send forth, throw down,
permit, forgive --
ἀφῃρημένος: verb; nominative singular masculine of passive participle of <ἀφαιρέω>
take away --
ἀφικνοῦνται: deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἀφικνέομαι> come to, reach --
ἀφίκοντο: deponent verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ἀφικνέομαι> come to, reach --
ἀφομοιοῦσθαι: verb; passive infinitive of <ἀφομοιοε̃ω> to make like --
Ἀχαιοί: noun, masculine; vocative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean --
Ἀχαιοῖς: noun, masculine; dative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean --
Ἀχαιοὺς: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean --
Ἀχαιῶν: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean --
Ἀχιλλεύς: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles --
Ἀχιλλέως: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles --
Ἀχιλλῆος: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles --
βάρβαρα: adjective; accusative plural neuter of <βάρβαρος> foreign, not Greek --
βαρβάροισι: noun, masculine; dative plural of <βάρβαρος> foreigner, non-Greek --
βαρβάρους: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <βάρβαρος> foreigner, non-Greek --
βασιλῆι: noun, masculine; dative singular of <βασιλεύς> king --
βλέπειν: verb; infinitive of <βλέπω> see --
βοὴ: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <βοή> shout --
βουλή: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <βουλή> will --
βουλοίατό: verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative of <βούλομαι> wish, request --
βοῦς: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <βοῦς> cow, ox --
βοῶν: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <βοῦς> cow, ox --
βοῶντας: verb; accusative plural masculine of present participle of <βοάω> shout --
βοώντων: verb; genitive plural masculine of participle of <βοάω> shout --
γ': particle; <γε> indeed --
γαῖα: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <γαῖα> land --
γαῖαν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <γαῖα> land --
γὰρ: conjunction; <γάρ> for --
γε: particle; <γε> indeed --
γενεῇ: noun, feminine; dative singular of <γενεή> family, generation, race --
γενεὴ: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <γενεή> family, generation, race --
γενέσθαι: deponent verb; infinitive aorist of <γίγνομαι> happen, become --
γένεται: deponent verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <γίγνομαι> happen,
become --
γενήσεσθαι: deponent verb; infinitive future middle of <γίγνομαι> happen, become --
γένηται: deponent verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <γίγνομαι> happen, become
--
γενόμενα: part. used as substantive; nom. pl. neuter of pres. part. middle of <γίγνομαι>
happen, become
γενόμενος: deponent verb; nom. sing. neuter of pres. part. middle of <γίγνομαι> happen,
become --
γένος: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <γένος> race --
γένος: noun, neuter; nominative singular of <γένος> race --
γέρρα: noun, neuter; accusative plural of <γέρρον> ox-hide wicker shield --
γίγνεται: deponent verb; 3rd person singular present of <γίγνομαι> happen, become --
γίνεσθαι: deponent verb; aorist infinitive of <γίγνομαι> happen, become --
γίνονται: deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <γίγνομαι> happen, become --
γλαφυροῖσι: adjective; dative plural neuter of <γλαφυρός> hollow --
γραφικῆς: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <γραφικῆ> painting --
γυναῖκα: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <γυνή> woman --
γυναῖκες: noun, feminine; nominative plural of <γυνή> woman --
γυναικὸς: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <γυνή> woman --
δ': particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand --
δακρύοντες: verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <δακρύω> weep
--
Δαναοὺς: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Δαναοί> Danaans --
δασειῶν: adjective; genitive plural masculine of <δασύς> hairy, shaggy --
δέ: particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand --
δεινόν: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <δεινός> terrible --
δεξίᾳ: noun, feminine; dative singular of <δεξιά> the right hand --
Δευκαλίωνος: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Δευκαλίων> Deucalion --
δευτέρῃ: adjective; dative singular feminine of <δεύτερος> second --
δεύτερον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <δεύτερος> second --
δεύτερον: adverb; <δεύτερον> second --
δέχεσθαι: verb; infinitive of <δέχομαι> receive --
δὴ: particle; <δή> indeed --
δηλοῖ: verb; 3rd person singular present of <δηλόω> be clear, reveal --
δῆλον: adjective; nominative singular neuter of <δῆλος> clear, obvious --
δημιουργὸν: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <δημιουργός> craftsman --
δημοσίᾳ: adverb; <δημοσίᾳ> in public --
δημοτικῆς: adjective; genitive singular feminine of <δημοτικός> of the people, in
common use --
δι': preposition; <διά> through, by --
δῖα: adjective; nominative singular feminine of <δῖος> godlike, noble --
διὰ: preposition; <διά> through, by --
διαβολὴ: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <διαβολή> false accusation, calumny --
διαγνοίη: verb; 3rd person singular optative aorist of <διαγιγνώσκω> discern, distinguish
--
διάνοια: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <διάνοια> thought, mind --
διάνοιαν: noun, feminine; accusative singular <διάνοια> thought, mind --
διαστήτην: verb; 2nd person dual aorist middle of <δι-ίστημι> separate, strive --
διαφανέας: adjective; accusative plural masculine of <διαφανής> transparent, red-hot --
διαφθείρεται: verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <διαφθείρω> destroy, kill --
δικαιοσύνης: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <δικαιοσύνη> justice, righteousness --
δικαιότερον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of comparative of <δίκαιος> just,
righteous --
δίκας: noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right --
διόπερ: adverb; <διόπερ> therefore, so --
δῖος: adjective; nominative singular masculine of <δῖος> godlike, noble --
Διὸς: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus --
δοῖεν: verb; 3rd person plural optative aorist of <δίδωμι> give --
δοκεῖ: verb; 3rd person singular present of <δοκέω> seem, think --
δοκήσει: verb; 3rd person singular future of <δοκέω> seem, think --
δοκῶν: verb; present participle nominative singular masculine of <δοκέω> seem, think --
δόντες: verb; nominative plural masculine of aorist participle of <δίδωμι> give --
δόξαι: verb; aorist infinitive of <δοκέω> seem, think --
δρόμῳ: noun, masculine; dative singular of <δρόμος> run --
δύναμιν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <δύναμις> power --
δύνασθαι: deponent verb; infinitive of <δύναμαι> be able --
δυνατὸν: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <δυνατός> possible --
δυσμενείας: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <δυσμένεια> enmity, hate --
δύω: number; dual of <δύο> two --
δώματ': noun, neuter; accusative plural of <δῶμα> house, home --
δώσει: verb; 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive of <δίδωμι> give --
δώσουσι: verb; 3rd person plural future of <δίδωμι> give --
ἑαυτὸν: reflexive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ἑαυτός> himself --
ἑαυτῶν: reflexive pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἑαυτός> himself --
ἐγγύτερον: adjective; nominative singular feminine comparative of <ἐγγύς> near --
ἐγένετο: deponent verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <γίγνομαι> happen, become --
ἐγένοντο: deponent verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <γίγνομαι> happen, become --
ἐγίγνετο: deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect middle of <γίγνομαι> happen,
become --
ἐγίγνοντο: deponent verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <γίγνομαι> happen, become --
ἔγνω: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <γιγνώσκω> know, learn --
ἐδόκει: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <δοκέω> seem, think --
ἐδύνατο: deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <δύναμαι> be able --
ἐζώγρησαν; verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ζωγρέω> capture alive --
ἔζωον: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ζώω> live --
ἐθελῆσαί: verb; infinitive aorist of <ἐθέλω> wish, want --
ἔθεον: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <θέω> run --
ἔθηκε: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <τίθημι> put, place --
ἔθνεα: noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἔθνος> nation, people, tribe --
ἔθνη: noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἔθνος> nation, people, tribe --
εἰ: conjunction; <εἰ> if --
εἶδέ: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <εἶδον> saw --
εἶδεν: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <εἶδον> saw --
εἴη: verb; 3rd person singular present optative of <εἰμί> I am --
εἰκόνα: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <εἰκών> image, portrait --
εἰκόνας: noun, feminine; accusative plural; of <εἰκών> image, portrait --
εἴκοσιν: number; accusative plural neuter of <εἴκοσι> twenty --
εἷμα: noun, neuter; nominative singular of <εἷμα> clothing --
εἵματα: noun, neuter; accusative plural of <εἷμα> clothing --
εἶναι: verb; infinitive of <εἰμί> I am --
εἵνεκεν: preposition; <εἵνεκεν> because of --
εἰπὲ: verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <λέγω> say --
εἰπεῖν: verb; aorist infinitive of <λέγω> say --
εἶπον: verb; 1st person singular aorist of <λέγω> say --
εἵποντο: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἕπομαι> follow --
εἴρεται: verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <εἴρω> speak, say --
εἴρηκε: verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <εἴρω> speak, say --
εἰς: preposition; <εἰς> towards --
εἰσιν: verb; 3rd person plural present of <εἰμί> I am --
εἴτε: conjunction; <εἴτε> whether...or --
εἶχεν: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <εἴχω> have, be --
ἐκ: preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of --
ἕκαστοι: adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἕκαστος> each, every --
ἑκάστους: adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ἕκαστος> each, every --
ἐκδόντες: verb; nominative plural masculine of aorist participle of <ἐκδιδώμι> give up --
ἐκεῖ: adverb; <ἐκεῖ> there --
ἐκεῖνο: demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ἐκεῖνος> that --
ἑκηβόλον: adjective; accusative singular masculine of <ἑκηβόλος> far-shooting --
ἑκηβόλου: adjective; genitive singular masculine of <ἑκηβόλος> far-shooting --
ἐκνικῆσαι: verb; infinitive passive of <ἐκνικάω> prevail --
ἐκπέρσαι: verb; aorist infinitive of <ἐκπέρθω> destroy --
ἔλαβον: verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <λαμβάνω> receive, capture --
ἐλέαιρον: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἐλεαίρω> pity --
Ἑλένην: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἑλένη> Helen --
ἐλθόντας: verb; accusative plural masculine of aorist participle of <ἔρχομαι> come, go --
Ἑλλάδος: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Ἑλλάς> Greece --
Ἑλλάς: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Ἑλλάς> Greece --
Ἕλληνας: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek --
Ἕλληνες: noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek --
Ἑλληνικὴ: adjective; nominative singular feminine of <Ἑλληνικός> Greek --
Ἑλληνικὸν: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Ἑλληνικός> Greek --
Ἕλληνος: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἕλληνος> Hellenos --
Ἕλλησι: noun, masculine; dative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek --
ἑλώρια: noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἑλώριον> spoils, booty --
ἐμβασίλευεν: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <ἐμβασιλεύω> be king in --
ἔμελε: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <μέλω> to care, to be an object of care --
ἐμμέτρων: adjective; genitive plural masculine of <ἔμμετρος> metrical --
ἐμοὶ: pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I --
ἐμοῦ: pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I --
ἔμπης: adverb; <ἔμπης> nevertheless --
ἐμπίπλασθαι: verb; infinitive passive of <ἐμπίπλημι> fill --
ἔμπροσθεν: adverb; <ἔμπροσθεν> before, in front --
ἐμφερεστάτη: adjective; nominative singular feminine of superlative of <ἐμφέρης>
resembling --
ἓν: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <εἷς> one --
ἐν: preposition; <ἐν> in --
ἐναλείψειε: verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative of <ἐναλείψω> paint, smear --
ἐναλίγκιον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἐναλίγκιος> resembling, like --
ἐνέδραν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἐνέδρα> ambush --
ἔνθ': adverb; <ἔνθα> then, there --
ἔνθα: adverb; <ἔνθα> then, there --
ἐνιαυτῶν: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἐνιαυτός> year --
ἔννεπε: verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <ἐνέπω> tell, tell of --
ἐνοικέοντα: verb; accusative plural neuter of present participle of <ἐνοικέω> dwelling in
--
ἐνόντα: verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἔνειμι> to be in, to be possible --
ἐνταῦθα: adverb; <ἐνταῦθα> then, there --
ἐντεῦθεν: adverb; <ἐντεῦθεν> from there --
ἐξ: preposition; <ἐξ> from, out of --
ἐξαπίνης: adverb; <ἐξαπίνης> on a sudden --
ἐξίτηλα: adjective; nominative plural neuter of <ἐξίτηλος> fading, forgotten --
ἐὸν: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἐός> his, her --
ἐπ': preposition; <ἐπί> on, about --
ἐπαγομένων: verb; genitive plural masculine of present participle passive of <ἐπάγω>
bring in, invite --
ἐπεὰν: conjunction; <ἐπεάν> when, after --
ἐπεὶ: conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after --
ἐπειδὴ: conjunction; <ἐπειδή> after --
ἔπειτα: adverb; <ἔπειτα> thereupon --
ἐπεκλώσαντο: verb; 3rd person plural aorist middle of <ἐπικλώθω> spin; decide --
ἔπερσεν: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <πέρθω> destroy, sack --
ἔπεσι: noun, neuter; dative plural of <ἔπος> words, saying --
ἐπὶ: preposition; <ἐπί> on, about --
ἐπιβαλλόμενον: verb; accusative singular neuter of present participle passive of
<ἐπιβάλλω> throw on --
ἐπιβάλλουσι: verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἐπιβάλλω> throw on --
ἐπίκλησις: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἐπίκλησις> name, title --
ἐπιόντες: verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <ἐπίειμι> come near
--
ἐπιστάμενον: deponent verb; accusative singular masculine of present participle of
<ἐπίσταμαι> know --
ἐπιτίθεσθαι: verb; infinitive aorist middle of <ἐπιτίθημι> attack --
ἔπλει: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <πλέω> sail --
ἐποίουν: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ποιέω> make, do --
ἐπολέμησαν: verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <πολεμέω> fight, be at war --
ἔπραξαν: verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <πράσσω> achieve, manage --
ἐπωνυμίαν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἐπωνυμία> name, designation --
ἔργ': noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ἔργον> work, deed --
ἔργα: noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ἔργον> work, deed --
ἐργασαμένη: verb; nominative singular feminine of aorist participle of <ἐργάζομαι>
work, make --
ἔργον: noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ἔργον> work, deed --
ἔριδι: noun, feminine; dative singular of <ἔρις> strife --
ἐρίσαντε: verb; 2nd person dual aorist participle of <ἐρίζω> quarrel --
ἑρμηνείαν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἑρμηνεία> interpretation --
ἐρρύσατο: verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <ῥύομαι> save --
ἔρυκε: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <ἐρύκω> hold back --
ἐς: preposition; <ἐς> towards --
ἔσαν: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <εἰμί> I am --
ἐσθλὰ: adjective used as substantive; nominative plural neuter of <ἐσθλόν> good --
ἔσοδος: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἔσοδος> entrance --
ἔστι: verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am --
ἐστιν: verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰμί> I am --
ἔσχεν: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἔχω> have --
ἔτ': adverb; <ἔτι> still --
ἑταίρων: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἕταιρος> comrade --
ἑτάρους: noun, masculine; accusative plural <ἕταρος> comrade --
ἐτελείετο: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect passive of <τελείω> fulfill, complete --
ἐτελεύτησεν: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <τελευτέω> finish, die --
ἑτέραν: adjective; accusative singular feminine of <ἕτερος> other --
ἔτι: adverb; <ἔτι> still --
ἔτος: noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ἔτος> year --
εὔ; adverb; <εὔ> well --
εὐκνήμιδες; adjective; vocative plural masculine of <εὐκνῆμις> well-greaved --
εὐπρέπειαν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <εὐπρέπεια> appearance, beauty --
Εὐρώπην: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Εὐρώπη> Europe --
εὐφράνειεν: verb; 3rd person singular optative aorist of <εὐφραίνω> delight, please --
εὐωδίη: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <εὐωδίη> fragrant scent --
ἐφ': preposition; <ἐπί> on, about --
ἔφη: verb; 2nd person singular imperfect of <φημί> say --
ἔχει: verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἔχω> have --
ἔχον: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἔχω> have --
ἔχοντα: verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἔχω> have --
ἔχοντες: verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <ἔχω> have --
ἔχοντι: verb; dative singular masculine present participle of <ἔχω> have --
ἔχουσα: verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of <ἔχω> have --
ἔχουσιν: verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἔχω> have --
ἐχυρόν: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἐχυρός> strong, secure --
ἔχω: verb; 1st person singular present of <ἔχω> have -
ἔχων: verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <ἔχω> have --
Ζεὺς: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus --
ἧ: adverb; <ἧ> verily --
ἡ: article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the --
ἢ: conjunction; <ἤ> or, than --
ἥ: relative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <ὅς> who, which --
ἥγηνται: deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἡγέομαι> lead, regard, rule --
ἡγήσασθαι: deponent verb; infinitive aorist of <ἡγέομαι> lead, regard, rule --
ἠδὲ: conjunction; <ἠδέ> and, also --
ἥδε: demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <ὅδε> this --
ἤδη: adverb; <ἤδη> already --
Ἠελίοιο: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἠέλιος> Helios --
ἦεν: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <εἶμι> go --
ἤθη: noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἦθος> custom, character --
ἤθη: noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ἦθος> custom, character --
ἦθος: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἦθος> custom, character --
ἦθος: noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ἦθος> custom, character --
ἤκιστα: adverb; <ἥκιστα> least --
ἠλαύνετο: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect middle of <ἐλαύνω> set in motion --
ἤλθε: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἔρχομαι> come, go --
ἧμαρ: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἧμαρ> day --
ἡμέρᾳ: noun, feminine; dative singular of <ἡμέρα> day --
ἡμέρῃ: noun, feminine; dative singular of <ἡμέρα> day --
ἡμίθεοι: adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἡμίθεος> demi-god --
ἡμῖν: pronoun; dative plural of <ἐγώ> I --
ἤν: conjunction; <ἤν> if --
ἥν: possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ὅς> his --
ἦν: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <εἰμί> I am --
Ἡροδότου: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἡερόδοτος> Herodotus --
ἡρώων: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἥρως> hero --
ἧσαν: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <εἰμί> I am --
ἦσαν: verb; 3rd person singular plural imperfect of <εἰμί> I am --
ἤσθιον: verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ἐσθίω> eat --
ἠτίμασεν: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἀτιμάζω> dishonor --
θάλασσά: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <θάλασσα> sea --
θάλασσαν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <θάλασσα> sea --
θαλάσσῃ: noun, feminine; dative singular of <θάλασσα> sea --
θάλαττα: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <θάλαττα> sea --
θεά: noun, feminine; vocative singular of <θεά> goddess --
θεάων: noun, feminine; genitive plural of <θεά> goddess --
θεῖον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <θεῖος> divine, godlike --
θεῖος: adjective; nominative singular masculine of <θεῖος> divine, godlike --
θείῳ: noun, masculine; dative singular of <θεῖος> deity, divinity --
θεοὶ: noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god --
θεωμένους: deponent verb; accusative plural masculine of middle participle of
<θεάομαι> see --
θεῶν: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <θεός> god --
Θησεὺς: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Θησεύς> Theseus --
Θήχης: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Θήχης> Theches --
θοὰς: adjective; accusative plural feminine; of <θοός> fast --
Θρήικες: noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Θρῆτ́ιξ> Thracian --
θύγατερ: noun, feminine; vocative singular of <θυγάτηρ> daughter --
θυγάτρα: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <θυγάτηρ> daughter --
θυμιᾶται: verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <θυμιάω> burn with smoke --
θυμόν: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <θυμός> soul, heart --
θωμαστά: adjective; nominative plural neuter of <θωμαστός> wonderful --
ἴδεν: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <εἴδω> see, know --
ἰδίᾳ: adverb; <ἰδίᾳ> privately --
ἱέμενός: deponent verb; nom. sing. masc. of present participle of <ἵεμαι> desire --
ἱερὸν: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἱερός> sacred --
Ἰθάκην: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἰθάκη> Ithaca --
ἱκέσθαι: deponent verb; infinitive aorist middle of <ἱκνέομαι> reach --
ἱππέας: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <ἱππεύς> horseman --
ἱππέων: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἱππεύς> horseman --
ἵπποι: noun, masculine; nominative plural of <ἵππος> horse --
ἵππον: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἵππος> horse --
ἱστίοις: noun, neuter; dative plural of <ἱστίον> sail --
ἱστορίης: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἱστορία> inquiry, history --
ἴσχει: verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἴσχω> stay --
ἰσχυσάντων: verb; genitive plural masculine of participle aorist of <ἰσχύω> be strong --
ἰφθίμους: adjective; accusative plural feminine of <ἴφθιμος> valiant --
καθ': preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under --
καθαραὶ: adjective; nominative plural feminine of <καθαρός> clean, pure --
καὶ: conjunction; <καί> and --
καιομένης: verb; genitive singular feminine of participle middle of <καίω> burn --
κακήν: adjective; accusative singular feminine of <κακός> evil, poor --
κακοῖσιν: adjective; dative plural neuter of <κακός> evil, poor --
κακὸν: adjective; accusative singular masculine of <κακός> evil, poor --
καλεῖσθαι: verb; infinitive passive of <καλέω> call, summon --
καλέονται: verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <καλέω> call, summon --
καλλίστοις: adjective; dative plural neuter of superlative of <καλός> good, beautiful --
καλούμενον: verb; acc. sing. masc. of present participle passive of <καλέω> call,
summon --
κάλυψεν: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <καλύπτω> cover --
Καλυψὼ: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Καλυψώ> Calypso --
καμάτου: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <κάματος> toil, labor --
κανναβίδα: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <κάνναβις> hemp --
καννάβιος: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <κάνναβις> hemp --
κάνναβις: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <κάνναβις> hemp --
κάρτα: adverb; <κάρτα> very much, extremely --
κατ': preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under --
κατὰ: adverb; <κατά> completely, down, under --
κατὰ: preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under --
καταπλάσσονται: verb; 3rd person plural present of <καταπλάσσω> plaster over --
καταπλαστὺν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <καταπλαστύς> plaster --
κατασωχόμενον: verb; accusative sing. n. of present part. middle of <κατασώχω> rub in
pieces
κατασώχουσι: verb; 3rd person plural present of <κατασώχω> rub in pieces --
κατελεῖν: verb; infinitive aorist of <καθαιρέω> take down, destroy --
κάτω: adverb; <κάτω> downward --
κέδρου: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <κέδρος> cedar --
κεχρημένον: verb; accusative singular masculine of perfect participle middle of
<χράομαι> need, use --
κεχωρίσθαι: verb; infinitive perfect passive of <χωρίζω> separate --
κληθέντες: verb; nominative plural masculine aorist participle passive of <καλέω> call,
summon --
κοινῇ: adjective; dative singular feminine of <κοινός> common --
κολωνὸν: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <κολωνός> heap --
κομιζομένην: verb; accusative singular feminine of passive participle of <κομίζω>
provide for --
κοσμήτορε: noun, masculine; accusative dual of <κοσμήτωρ> commander --
κόσμιός: adjective; nominative singular masculine of <κόσμιος> orderly --
κοσμίῳ: noun, masculine; dative singular of <κόσμιος> decorum, order --
κόσμῳ: noun, masculine; dative singular of <κόσμος> beauty, order, world --
κρατερόφρονα: adjective; accusative singular masculine of <κρατερόφρων> stout-
hearted, dauntless --
κρατήσας: verb; nom. sing. masc. of aorist participle of <κρατέω> hold fast, take to heart;
rule, conquer
κραυγὴ: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <κραυγή> shout --
Κρήτην: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Κρήτη> Crete --
Κρονίδης: adjective; nominative singular masculine of <Κρονίδης> son of Kronos --
Κρόνου: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Κρόνος> Cronos --
κύνεσσιν: noun, masculine; dative plural of <κύων> dog --
κυπαρίσσου: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <κυπαρίσσος> cypress --
κώ: adverb; <κώ> yet --
λάβωσι: verb; 3rd person plural aorist subjunctive of <λαμβάνω> receive, capture --
Λακεδαιμονίης: adjective; genitive singular feminine of <Λακεδαιμόνιος>
Lacedemonian, Spartan --
λαμπραί: adjective; nominative plural feminine of <λαμπρός> shiny --
λαοί: noun, masculine; nominative plural of <λαός> people --
λαῶν: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λαός> people --
λέγειν: verb; infinitive of <λέγω> say --
λέγοντας: verb; accusative plural masculine of present participle of <λέγω> say --
λέγουσι: verb; 3rd person plural present of <λέγω> say --
λέγουσιν: verb; 3rd person plural present of <λέγω> say --
λέγω: verb; 1st person singular present of <λέγω> say --
λέγων: participle used as substantive; nominative singular masculine of present participle
of <λέγω> say
λέξιν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <λέξις> style --
λέξις: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <λέξις> style --
λευκογραφήσας: verb; nom. sing. m. of aorist part. of <λευκο-γραφέω> paint in white on
a black background
λευκοῖς: adjective; dative plural neuter of <λευκός> white --
λευκοῦ: adjective; genitive singular masculine of <λευκός> white --
λήθην: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <λήθη> forgetting --
Λητοῦς; noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Λητώ> Leto --
λιβάνου: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <λίβανος> frankincense, frankincense tree
--
λίθον: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <λίθος> stone --
λίθου: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <λίθος> stone --
λίθους: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <λίθος> stone --
λίθων: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λίθος> stone --
λιλαιομένη: verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle middle of
<λιλαίομαι> desire --
λινέοισι: adjective; dative plural neuter of <λίνεος> of linen --
λίνεον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <λίνεος> of linen --
λίνου: noun, neuter; genitive singular of <λίνον> linen --
λίνῳ: noun, neuter; dative singular of <λίνον> linen --
λίσσετο: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <λίσσομαι> pray --
λόγον: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <λόγος> word, reason --
λόγῳ: noun, masculine; dative singular of <λόγος> word, reason --
λόγων: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λόγος> word, reason --
λούονται: verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <λούομαι> wash oneself --
λουτροῦ: noun, neuter; genitive singular of <λουτρόν> bathing --
λοχαγοὺς: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <λοχαγός> captain --
Λύκιον: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Λύκιος> Lycius --
λύσαιτε: verb; 2nd person plural optative aorist of <λύω> loosen, free --
λυσόμενός: verb; nominative singular masculine of future participle middle of <λύω>
loosen, free --
μάλα: adverb; <μάλα> very --
μάλιστα: adverb; superlative of <μάλα> very --
μᾶλλον: adverb; <μᾶλλον> more and more --
μάχεσθαι: verb; infinitive middle of <μάχομαι> fight, quarrel --
μαχόμενον: deponent verb; accusative singular masculine of present participle of
<μάχομαι> fight, quarrel --
μεγάθεος: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <μεγάθης> height --
μεγάλα: adjective; nominative plural neuter of <μεγάλος> great --
μεγάλως: adverb; <μεγάλως> greatly --
μέγαν: adjective; accusative singular masculine of <μέγας> great --
μεγέθει: noun, neuter; dative singular of <μέγεθος> size --
μεῖζόν: adjective; nominative singular neuter of comparative of <μέγας> great --
μείζων: adjective; nominative singular feminine of comparative of <μέγας> great --
μέλασι: adjective; dative plural neuter of <μέλαν> black --
μέλασιν: adjective; dative plural neuter of <μέλαν> black --
μελετῆσαι: verb; aorist infinitive of <μελετάω> care for, practice --
μελιᾶν: noun, feminine; genitive plural of <μελία> the ash tree --
μεμείχεται: verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive of <μίγνυμι> mix --
μὲν: particle; <μέν> on the one hand --
μενέαινεν: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <μεναίνω> rage --
μέντοι: particle; <μέντοι> but, however --
μερίμνας: noun, feminine; accusative plural of <μέριμνα> care, anxious thought --
μερόπων: adjective; genitive plural masculine of <μέροψ> endowed with speech --
μετὰ: preposition; <μετά> after, with --
μετόπισθεν: adverb; <μετόπισθε> afterwards --
μέχρι: preposition; <μέχρι> until --
μὴ: particle; <μή> not --
μηδ': particle; <μηδέ> and not --
μηδὲ: particle; <μηδέ> and not --
Μηδείης: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Μηδεία> Medea --
μὴν: particle; <μήν> verily --
μῆνιν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <μῆνις> anger --
μήτε: adverb; <μήτε> and not, neither --
μηχανὴν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <μηχανή> instrument --
μία: adjective; nominative singular feminine of <εἷς> one --
μιμεῖσθαί: deponent verb; infinitive middle of <μιμέομαι> imitate --
μίμησις: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <μίμησις> representation --
μιν: pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <μιν> it --
Μίνω: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Μίνος> Minos --
μοι: pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I --
μόνον: adverb; <μόνον> alone --
μούνας: adjective; accusative plural feminine of <μοῦνος> alone --
Μοῦσα: noun, feminine; vocative singular of <Μοῦσα> Muse --
μῦθος: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <μῦθος> speech, plot --
μυρί': adjective; accusative plural neuter of <μυρίος> countless --
ναός: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <ναός> temple --
ναῦν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ναῦς> ship --
ναῦς: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ναῦς> ship --
νέεσθαι: verb; infinitive middle of <νέομαι> return --
νῆας: noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ναῦς> ship --
νήπιοι: adjective; nominative plural masculine of <νήπιος> childish, foolish --
Νίκης: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Νίκη> Victory --
νόημα: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <νόημα> thought, understanding --
νόον: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <νόος> mind --
νόστιμον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <νόστιμος> returning --
νόστον: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <νόστος> return --
νόστου: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <νόστος> return --
νόσφι: preposition; <νόσφι> apart, afar, except --
νόσφιν: adverb; <νόσφι> apart, afar, except --
νοῦσον: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <νούσος> sickness --
νύκτωρ: adverb; <νύκτωρ> by night --
νύμφη: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <νύμφη> nymph --
νῦν: adverb; <νῦν> now --
Ξενοφῶν: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ξενοφῶν> Xenophon --
Ξενοφῶντι: noun, masculine; dative singular of <Ξενοφῶν> Xenophon --
Ξενοφῶντος: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ξενοφῶν> Xenophon --
ξύλου: noun, neuter; genitive singular of <ξύλον> wood --
ξύμπαντας: adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ξύμπας> all together --
ξύμπαντες: adjective; nominative plural masculine <ξύμπας> all together --
ξύμπασά: adjective; nominative singular feminine of <ξύμπας> all together --
ξυμπάσης: adjective; genitive singular feminine of <ξύμπας> all together --
ξυνέηκε: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <συνίημι> bring together --
ξυνῆλθον: deponent verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <συνέρχομαι> unite, come together
--
ξυνίεσαν: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ξυνίημι> bring together, understand --
ὁ: article used as pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the --
ὅ: article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the --
ὅ: relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which --
ὃ: relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which --
ὄβριμον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ὄβριμος> strong --
Ὀδυσῆι: noun, masculine; dative singular of <Ὀδυσεύς> Odysseus --
οἱ: article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the --
οἳ: demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it --
οἱ: reflexive pronoun; dative singular masculine of <σφεῖς> they --
οἳ: relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅς> who, which --
οἷα: relative pronoun; accusative neuter plural of <οἷος> like, such that --
οἴει: deponent verb; 2nd person singular present middle of <οἶμαι> think --
οἰζύος: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <οἰζύς> misery, suffering --
οἴκαδ': adverb; <οἴκαδε> home --
οἰκηιεῦνται: verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <οἰκηιεύω> claim --
οἴκοι: adverb; <οἴκοι> at home --
οἶκόνδε; adverb; <οἶκόνδε> to his home --
οἶον: adjective; accusative singular masculine of <οἶος> alone --
οἶον: adverb; <οἶον> so to say --
οἵπερ: article used as demonstrative pronoun; nom. pl. masc. of <ὁ> the + particle <περ>
indeed --
οἷς: demonstrative pronoun; dative plural neuter of <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it --
οἵς: relative pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὅς> who, which --
οἶσι: participle used as substantive; dative plural neuter of present participle of <εἰμί> I
am --
οἷσι: possessive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὅς> his --
οἷσιν: demonstrative pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it --
οἰωνοῖσί: noun, masculine; dative plural of <οἰωνός> large bird, bird of prey --
ὄλεθρον: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ὄλεθρος> destruction --
ὀλέκοντο: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect passive of <ὀλέκω> kill --
ὄλοντο: verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ὄλλυμαι> perish --
Ὀλύμπια: adjective; accusative plural neuter of <Ὀλύμπιος> Olympian --
ὅλως: adverb; <ὅλως> wholly --
Ὅμερος: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ὅμερος> Homer --
ὁμιλεῖ: verb; 3rd person singular present of <ὁμιλέω> consort with, busy oneself with --
ὁμιλίᾳ: noun, feminine; dative singular of <ὁμιλία> being together --
ὁμιλῶν: verb; nom. sing. masc. of present participle of <ὁμιλέω> consort with, busy
oneself with --
ὁμοῖον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ὅμοιος> like, similar --
ὁμοιότατα: adjective; accusative plural neuter superlative of <ὅμοιος> like, similar --
ὁμοίως: adverb; <ὁμοίως> similarly -
ὃν: possessive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ὅς> his --
ὄνομα: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὄνομα> name --
ὄνομα: noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ὄνομα> name --
ὀνομασίαν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ὀνομασία> language --
ὅπερ: relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <ὅσπερ> it --
ὄπισθεν: adverb; <ὄπισθεν> behind --
ὀπισθοφύλακες: noun, masculine; nominative plural of <ὀπισθοφύλαξ> rear-guard --
ὀπίσω: adverb; <ὀπίσω> back --
ὁποῖά: interrogative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ὁπος> what sort of --
ὁρᾷ: verb; 3rd person singular present of <ὁράω> see --
ὄρει: noun, neuter; dative singular of <ὄρος> mountain --
ὄρος: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὄρος> mountain --
ὄρους: noun, neuter; genitive singular of <ὄρος> mountain --
ὀροφὴν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ὀροφή> roof --
ὁρῶντας: verb; accusative plural masculine of participle of <ὁράω> see --
ὅς: demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it --
ὅς: relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅς> who, which --
ὅσοι: relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅσος> as many --
ὅστις: relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅστις> whoever, whatever --
ὅσῳ: relative pronoun; dative singular neuter of <ὅσος> as many --
ὅτ': conjunction; <ὅτε> when --
ὅτε: conjunction; <ὅτε> when --
ὅτι: conjunction; <ὅτι> because, that --
ὅτου: pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <ὅτος> someone --
ὅτῳ: relative pronoun; dative singular neuter of <ὅστις> whoever, whatever --
οὐ: particle; <οὐ> not --
οὗ: relative pronoun; genitive singular neuter <ὅς> who, which --
οὐδ': particle; <οὐδέ> not --
οὐδαμοῦ: adverb; <οὐδαμοῦ> nowhere --
οὐδὲ: particle; <οὐδέ> not --
οὐδεμία: pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν> no one,
nothing --
οὐδὲν: adverb; <οὐδέν> in no way --
οὐδὲν: pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν> no one, nothing
--
οὐδὲν: pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν> no one, nothing
--
οὐκ: particle; <οὐκ> not --
οὐλομένην: participle; accusative singular feminine of present participle middle of
<ὀλόω> to destroy --
οὖν: adverb; <οὖν> indeed --
οὕνεκα: conjunction; <οὕνεκα> because --
οὐρανῷ: noun, masculine; dative singular of <οὐρανός> heaven --
οὖσα: verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of <εἰμί> I am --
οὔτ': adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor --
οὔτε: adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor --
οὔτω: adverb; <οὔτω> thus --
οὕτω: adverb; <οὕτως> so, thus --
οὐχ: particle; <οὐ> not --
πάθεν: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <πάσχω> suffer --
παῖδα: noun, masculine/feminine; accusative singular of <παῖς> child --
παῖδας: noun, masculine/feminine; accusative plural of <παῖς> child --
παῖδές: noun, masculine/feminine; nominative plural of <παῖς> child --
παίδων: noun, masculine/feminine; genitive plural of <παῖς> child --
παλαιῶν: adjective; genitive plural masculine of <παλαιός> old, ancient --
πᾶν: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <πᾶς> all, every --
πάντα: adjective used as substantive; accusative plural neuter of <πᾶς> all, every --
παντάπασι: adverb; <παντάπασι> absolutely --
πάντας: adjective; accusative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every --
πάντες: adjective; nominative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every --
πάντως: adverb; <πάντως> altogether --
πάνυ: adverb; <πάνυ> at all --
παρ': preposition; <παρά> from, of --
παράπαν: adverb; <παράπαν> absolutely --
παραπλήσιον: adjective; nominative singular neuter of <παραπλήσιος> such-like --
παραχέουσαι: verb; nominative plural feminine of present participle of <παραχέω> pour
in --
παρεβοήθει: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <παραβοηθέω> come up to help --
παρεγγυήσαντος: verb; genitive singular masculine of aorist participle of <παρεγγυάω>
pass along --
παρεγγυώντων: verb; genitive plural masculine of participle of <παρεγγυάω> pass along
--
παρέχεσθαι: verb; passive infinitive of <παρέχω> provide --
παρέχεται: verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <παρέχω> provide --
πάρος: conjunction; <πάρος> until --
πᾶσα: adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πᾶς> all, every --
πᾶσι: adjective; dative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every --
πᾶσι: adjective; dative plural neuter of <πᾶς> all, every --
πατέρα: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <πατήρ> father -
πατὴρ: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <πατήρ> father --
παύονται: verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <παύω> stop, cease --
παχὺ: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <παχύς> thick --
παχύτητος: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <παχύτης> thickness --
Πελασγικὸν: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Πελασγικός> Pelasgian --
πέμπτῇ: adjective; dative singular feminine of <πέμπτος> fifth --
πέμψαντας: verb; accusative plural masculine of aorist participle of <πέμπω> send --
πεποιημέναι: verb; participle perfect middle of <ποιέω> make, do --
περ: adverb; <πέρ> although --
περὶ: preposition; <περί> around --
περιέβαλλον: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <περιβάλλω> throw around --
περιπλομένων: verb; genitive plural masculine of present middle participle of
<περιπέλομαι> revolve --
Πέρσαι: noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Πέρσης> Persian --
πεφευγότες: verb; nominative plural masculine of perfect participle of <φεύγω> escape,
flee --
πεφυγμένος: verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle middle of
<φεύγω> escape, flee --
Πηληιάδεω: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πηληιάδης> son of Peleus --
πῖλους: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <πῖλος> mat --
πλάγχθη: verb; 3rd person singular aorist passive of <πλάζω> wander, toss --
πλάττειν: verb; infinitive of <πλάττω> mould, shape --
πλέῃ: verb; 3rd person singular present optative of <πλέω> sail --
πλείους: adjective; accusative plural masculine of comparative of <πολύς> many --
πλεῖστον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <πλεῖστος> most --
πλείω: adjective; accusative singular feminine comparative of <πολύς> many --
πλείων: adjective; nominative singular feminine comparative of <πολύς> many --
πλὴν: preposition; <πλήν> except --
ποιεῦνται: verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <ποιέω> make, do --
ποίησ': verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ποιέω> make, do --
ποιησάμενοι: verb; nominative plural masculine of aorist middle participle of <ποιέω>
make, do --
ποίησαν: verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ποιέω> make, do --
ποίησε: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ποιέω> make, do --
ποιοῦσι: verb; 3rd person plural present of <ποιέω> make, do --
πόλεις: noun, feminine; accusative plural of <πόλις> city --
πόλεις: noun, feminine; nominative plural of <πόλις> city --
πολέμιον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <πολέμιος> hostile, inimical --
πολεμίους: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <πολέμιος> enemy --
πόλεμόν: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ποε̃λεμος> war --
πόλιν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <πόλις> city --
πολιτικῆς: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <πολιτική> politics --
πολιτικῶς: adverb; <πολιτικῶς> like statesmen --
πολλὰ: adjective; accusative plural neuter of <πολύς> many --
πολλὰς: adjective; accusative plural feminine of <πολύς> many --
πολλὴ: adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πολύς> many --
πολλοῦ: adjective; genitive singular masculine of <πολύς> many --
πολλῷ: adverb; dative singular neuter of <πολύς> many --
πολλῶν: adjective; genitive plural masculine of <πολύς> many --
πολὺ: adverb; <πολύς> many --
πολύτροπον: adjective; accusative singular masculine of <πολύτροπος> much-turned,
much-traveled --
πόντῳ: noun, masculine; dative singular of <πόντος> sea --
πόνων: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <πόνος> grief --
Ποσειδάωνος: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ποσειδάων> Poseidon --
πόσιν: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <πόσις> husband --
ποτ': adverb; <ποτέ> at some time, ever --
πότνι': adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πότνια> revered, queenly --
που: adverb; <που> anywhere, perhaps --
πουλυβοτείρῃ: adjective; dative singular feminine of <πουλυβότειρα> all nourishing,
fruitful --
πραγματείας: noun, feminine; accusative plural of <πραγματεία> hard work, affairs --
πράξεως: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <πράξις> action in actual life --
πραττόντων: verb; genitive plural masculine of present participle of <πράττω> achieve,
manage --
Πριάμοιο: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πρίαμος> Priam --
Πριάμου: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πρίαμος> Priam --
πρὸ: preposition; <πρό> before --
προαιρεῖται: verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <προαιρέω> choose --
προαίρεσιν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <προαίρεσις> choice --
προεῖπε: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <προ-λέγω> say beforehand --
προεῖχε: verb; singular present of <προείχω> to be superior, excel --
προίαψεν: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <προιάπτω> send forth --
προισομένων: verb; genitive plural neuter of aorist participle of <προφέρω> bring forth --
προπύλαια: noun, neuter; nominative plural of <προπύλαια> gateway --
προπυλαίων: noun, neuter; genitive plural of <προπύλαια> gateway --
πρὸς: preposition; <πρός> to --
πρόσωπον: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <πρόσωπον> face --
προτέρη: adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πρότερος> first, before --
πρότερον: adverb; <πρότερον> earlier, before --
προτέρους: adjective; accusative plural masculine of <πρότερος> first, before --
προφέρειν: verb; infinitive of <προφέρω> bring forth --
πρῶτα: adverb; accusative plural neuter of <πρῶτος> first --
πρώτιστα: adverb; <πρώτιστα> first of all --
πρῶτοι: adjective used as substantive; nominative plural masculine of <πρῶτος> first --
πρῶτοι: adjective; nominative plural masculine of <πρῶτος> first --
πρῶτὸν: adverb; <πρῶτον> first --
πτολίεθρον: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <πτολίεθρον> city --
πυρί: noun, neuter; dative singular of <πῦρ> fire --
πυρίῃ: noun, feminine; dative singular of <πυρίη> vapor bath --
πυρίη: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <πυρίη> vapor bath --
πω: adverb; <πω> yet --
ῥητορικῆς: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ῥητορική> rhetoric --
ῥητορικῶς: adverb; <ῥητορικῶς> like rhetoricians --
ῥίψας: verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <ῥίπτω> throw down --
σαφῶς: adverb; <σαφῶς> truly --
σιδήρεον: adjective; nominative singular neuter of <σιδήρεος> of iron --
σῖτον: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <σῖτος> corn, bread --
σκήπτρῳ: noun, neuter; dative singular of <σκήπτρον> sceptre --
Σκύθαι: noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Σκύθης> Scythian --
σπειρομένη: verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle passive of
<σπείρω> sow --
σπέρμα: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σπέρμα> seed --
σπέσσι: noun, neuter; dative plural of <σπέος> cave, grotto --
στέμματ': noun, neuter; accusative plural of <σττ́εμμα> wreath, garland --
στόλον: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <στόλος> army --
στονόεντα: adjective; nominative singular neuter of <στονόεις> sad, wretched --
στρατείαν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <στρατεία> expedition --
στρατεύεσθαι: verb; infinitive middle of <στρατεύω> take the field, attack --
στρατηγοὺς: noun, masculine; accusative plural of <στρατηγός> general --
στρατιώται: noun, masculine; nominative plural of <στρατιώτης> soldier --
στρατιωτῶν: noun, masculine; genitive plural of <στρατιώτης> soldier --
στρατὸν: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <στρατός> army --
συναγεῖραι: verb; infinitive aorist of <συναγείρω> assemble --
σύνοπτος: adjective; nominative singular feminine of <σύνοπτος> visible --
σφέας: reflexive pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -
σφετέρῃσιν: adjective; dative plural feminine of <σφέτερος> own --
σφι: reflexive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they --
σφίσι: reflexive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they --
σφωε: pronoun; accusative dual masculine of <σφωε> those two --
σχολὴ: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <σχολή> leisure --
σῶμα: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σῶμα> body --
σωφροσύνης: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <σωφροσύνη> moderation, discretion
--
τ': conjunction; <τε> and --
τὰ: article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the --
τὰ: article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the --
τὰς: article; accusative plural feminine of <ὁ> the --
ταῦρον: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ταῦρος> bull --
ταύρου: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ταῦρος> bull --
ταῦτὰ: article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the + pronoun <αὐτός> oneself, he --
ταῦτα: demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this --
ταῦτα: demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this --
ταύτῃ: demonstrative pronoun; dative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this --
ταύτην: demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this --
ταύτης: demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <οὗτος> this --
τάχα: adverb; <τάχα> presently, soon --
τε: conjunction; <τε> and --
τεθνάναι: verb; infinitive perfect of <θνήσκω> die --
τεῖχος: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <τεῖχος> wall --
τεκμηριοῖ: verb; 3rd person singular present optative of <τεκμηριόω> prove positively --
τεταγμένα: verb; accusative plural neuter of passive participle of <τάσσω> arrange, put in
order --
τέταρτον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <τέταρτος> fourth --
τέταρτον: adverb; of <τέταρτος> fourth --
τεῦχε: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <τεύχω> make ready, make --
τῇ: article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the --
τὴν: article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the --
τῆς: article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the --
τι: adverb; <τι> in any way --
τι: indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something --
τι: indefinite pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something --
τίθεναι: verb; infinitive of <τίθημι> put, place --
τινὰ: indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something --
τινας: indefinite pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <τις> someone, something --
τις: indefinite pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <τις> someone, something --
τις: indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τις> someone, something --
τίς: interrogative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τίς> who, what --
τὸ: article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the --
τὸ: article; nominative singular neuter of <ὁ> the --
τόδε: demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ὅδε> this --
τοιοῦτον: adjective; nominative singular neuter of <τοιοῦτος> such --
τοῖς: article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the --
τοῖσι: article; dative plural masculine of <ὁ> the --
τοίσι: article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the --
τοῖσιν: article used as pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὁ> the --
τόλμης: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <τόλμα> courage, venture --
τὸν: article used as pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the --
τὸν: article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the --
τοὄνομα: noun; article <τό> the + noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὄνομα> name --
τοσαύτην: adjective; accusative singular feminine of <τοσοῦτος> such --
τοῦ: article; genitive singular masculine of <ὁ> the --
τοῦ: article; genitive singular neuter of <ὁ> the --
τοὺς: article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the --
τοῦτο: demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <οὗτος> this --
τοῦτό: demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <οὗτος> this --
τούτου: demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this --
τούτων: demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <οὗτος> this --
τραγῳδίας: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <τραγῳδία> tragedy --
τρηχὺν: adjective; accusative singular masculine of <τρηχύς> rough --
τρίβων: adjective; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <τρίβω> skilled,
experienced --
τρίτον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <τρίτος> third --
τρίτον: adjective; nominative singular neuter of <τρίτος> third --
Τροίης: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Τροίη> Troy --
Τρωικῶν: adjective; genitive plural neuter of <Τρωικός> Trojan --
τῷ: article used as pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the --
τῷ: article; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the --
τῷ: article; dative singular neuter of <ὁ> the --
τῶν: article used as pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the --
τῶν: article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the --
τῶν: article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the --
ὕβριες: noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ὕβρις> violence --
ὕδατι: noun, neuter; dative singular of <ὕδωρ> water --
ὕδωρ: noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὕδωρ> water --
υἱὸν: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <υἱός> son --
υἱός: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <υἱός> son --
ὑμῖν: pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σύ> you --
ὑπ': preposition; <ὑπό> under, by --
Ὑπερίονος: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ὑπερίων> Hyperion --
ὑπερφέρει: verb; 3rd person singular present of <ὑπερφέρω> surpass --
ὑπὸ: preposition; <ὑπό> under, by --
ὑποδύνουσι: verb; 3rd person plural present of <ὑποδύω> go under --
ὑποζύγια: noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ὑποζύγιον> pack animal --
ὕστερον: adverb; <ὕστερον> later --
φαίνεται: verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <φαίνω> seem --
φαρμάκοις: noun, neuter; dative plural of <φάρμακον> paint, color --
φέρουσα: verb; nominative singular feminine of participle of <φέρω> bear, bring, carry -
φέρουσι: verb; 3rd person plural present of <φέρω> bear, bring, carry --
φέρων: verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <φέρω> bear, bring,
carry --
φεύγει: verb; 3rd person singular present of <φεύγω> escape, flee --
φθειρόμενοι: verb; nominative plural masculine of participle middle of <φθείρω> perish
--
Φθιῶτιδι: noun, feminine; dative singular of <Φθιῶτις> Phthiotis --
Φθιώτιδος: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Φθιῶτις> Phthiotis --
φθόνου: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <φθόνος> envy, ill-will --
φίλην: adjective; accusative singular feminine of <φίλος> dear, friendly --
φίλοισι: noun, masculine; dative plural of <φίλος> dear one, friend --
φιλόσοφος: noun, masculine; nominative singular of <φιλόσοφος> wise man --
φύγον: verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <φεύγω> escape, flee --
φύεται: verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <φύω> grow --
φυὴν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <φύη> stature --
φυομένη: verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle middle of <φύω> grow
--
χαλεπὰς: adjective; accusative plural feminine of <χαλεπός> difficult --
χάλκειον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <χάλκειος> of bronze --
χειρότερον: adjective; accusative singular neuter comparative of <κακός> evil, poor --
χερσὶν: noun, feminine; dative plural of <χείρ> hand --
χθονὶ: noun, feminine; dative singular of <χθών> earth --
χολωθεὶς: verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle passive of <χολόω>
anger --
χρήσεσθαι: deponent verb; infinitive middle of <χράομαι> need, use --
χρόνου: noun, masculine; genitive singular of <χρόνος> time --
χρόνῳ: noun, masculine; dative singular of <χρόνος> time --
χρύσεον: adjective; accusative singular neuter of <χρύσεος> golden --
χρυσέῳ: adjective; dative singular neuter of <χρύσεος> golden --
Χρύσην: noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Χρύσης> Chryses --
χρώμενοι: deponent verb; nominative plural masculine middle participle of <χράομαι>
need, use --
χύδην: adverb; <χύδην> at random, promiscuously --
χώρας: noun, feminine; genitive singular of <χώρα> land, country --
χώρῃ: noun, feminine; dative singular of <χώρα> land, country --
ψυχὰς: noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ψυχή> soul --
ψυχὴ: noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ψυχή> soul --
ψυχὴν: noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ψυχή> soul --
ὦ: exclamation; <ῶ> Oh --
ᾠήθησαν: verb; 3rd person plural aorist passive of <οἴομαι> think, imagine --
ὠμοβόεια: adjective; accusative plural neuter of <ὠμοβόειος> of raw, untanned oxhide --
ὦν: adverb; <ὦν> indeed --
ὦν: verb; present participle nominative singular masculine of <εἰμί> I am --
ὠνόμασεν: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ὀνομάζω> speak of by name --
ὦρσε: verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ὄρνυμι> stir up --
ὠρύονται: verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <ὠρύομαι> howl --
ὣς: adverb; <ὡς> so, thus --
ὡς: conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus --
ὥσπερ: conjunction; <ὥσπερ> as --
ὥστε: adverbial conjunction; <ὥστε> like, so that --
ὠφελίᾳ: noun, feminine; dative singular of <ὠφελία> aid --
Classical Greek Online
Base Form Dictionary
Jonathan Slocum and Marie-Claire Beaulieu
This Base Form Dictionary index lists, in an alphabetical order suitable to the language
and the script employed for it, every unique base form underlying one or more surface
(word) forms in lesson texts. For each base form a general meaning (if any) is shown,
along with links to every usage, in every numbered lesson, of the associated surface
forms. With this index, one may click on any link to perform a quick "usage look-up,"
and thereby study how surface forms in texts are constructed from base forms.
A new, experimental feature is being introduced to these EIEOL lessons, namely the
addition of pointers to Proto-Indo-European roots identified by Julius Pokorny in his
monumental work, Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch (2 vols. Bern: Franke,
1959-1969; reprinted in 1989). Because Pokorny is becoming increasingly outdated, we
may revise these links in the future; however, for the time being, this information might
prove interesting to those who are curious about Indo-European etymology. Notice of
potential error is always welcome.
<ἄγαθος> good --
<ἄγαμαι> to wonder, admire -- [Pokorny] --
<ἄγγελος> messenger --
<ἀδάμας> steel --
<Αδείμαντος> Adeimontus --
<ἀδικέω> wrong -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀδύνατος> impossible -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀέθλος> battle, woe -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀεί> always -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀείδω> sing, chant -- [Pokorny] --
<ἅζομαι> stand in awe of -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀθάνατος> immortal -- [Pokorny] --
<ἁθρόος> together -- [Pokorny] --
<Αἰγεύς> Aegeus --
<Αἵδης> Hades -- [Pokorny] --
<αἰεί> always -- [Pokorny] --
<αἰπύς> deep --
<αἰτέω> request -- [Pokorny] --
<αἰτία> cause, reason -- [Pokorny] --
<αἴτιος> blameworthy -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀκήδης> without sorrow -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀκλεός> without fame -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀκούω> hear, listen --
<ἄκρον> mountain-top, peak -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀκρόπολις> Acropolis -- [Pokorny] --
<ἄλγος> woe --
<Ἀλέξανδρος> Alexandros --
<ἀληθῶς> really, truly -- [Pokorny] --
<Ἁλικαρνησεύς> Halicarnassian --
<ἀλλά> but --
<ἀλλήλων> one another -- [Pokorny] --
<ἄλλος> other -- [Pokorny] --
<ἄλλως> otherwise, especially -- [Pokorny] --
<ἅμα> at the same time -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀμειξία> lack of intercourse -- [Pokorny] --
<ἁμόθεν> from any point -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀμφί> around, between -- [Pokorny] --
<ἄν> if -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀνά> on -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀναβαίνω> mount, go up -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀνάγκη> force, compulsion -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀνάγομαι> put out to sea --
<ἀνακαλέω> designate -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀναλαμβάνω> take along -- [Pokorny] --
<ἄναξ> ruler --
<ἀνήρ> man -- [Pokorny] --
<ἄνθρωπος> human being -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀντί> instead of -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀντίθεος> godlike -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀντίπαλος> contrast --
<ἀπαιρέω> take off -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀπαιτέω> request -- [Pokorny] --
<ἅπας> all -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀπείρων> boundless -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀπερείσιος> countless --
<ἀπό> from -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀποδείκνυμι> propose -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀπόδεξις> exposition, publication -- [Pokorny] --
<ἄποινα> ransom --
<ἀποκρατέω> exceed --
<ἀποκρίνω> separate, answer -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀποκτείνω> kill --
<Ἀπόλλων> Apollo -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀπότομος> precipitous --
<Ἄπτερος> Wingless --
<ἆρα> then -- [Pokorny] --
<Ἀργεῖος> Argive -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀργύρεος> silver -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀρετῆ> virtue -- [Pokorny] --
<Ἄρης> Ares -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀρητήρ> priest --
<Ἀριάδνη> Ariadne --
<ἁρμόττω> fit together --
<ἄρνυμαι> win -- [Pokorny] --
<ἁρπαγή> abduction -- [Pokorny] --
<ἁρπάζω> carry off -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀρχαιος> old --
<ἀρχή> beginning, first principle --
<ἄρχω> begin --
<ἀσθένεια> weakness --
<Ἀσία> Asia --
<ἀσπερχές> unceasingly -- [Pokorny] --
<ἄστυ> city -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀτασθαλία> folly --
<ἄτερ> without -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀτιμάζω> dishonor -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀτμίς> steam, vapor -- [Pokorny] --
<Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus --
<αὐτάρ> but -- [Pokorny] --
<αὖτε> then, again -- [Pokorny] --
<αὔτις> again -- [Pokorny] --
<αὐτόματος> by itself -- [Pokorny] --
<αὐτός> oneself, he -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀφαιρέω> take away -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀφίημι> send forth, throw down, permit, forgive -- [Pokorny] --
<ἀφικνέομαι> come to, reach --
<ἀφομοιοε̃ω> to make like -- [Pokorny] --
<Ἀχαιός> Achaean --
<Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles --
<βάρβαρος> foreign, not Greek -- [Pokorny] --
<βάρβαρος> foreigner, non-Greek -- [Pokorny] --
<βασιλεύς> king --
<βλέπω> see --
<βοάω> shout -- [Pokorny] --
<βοή> shout -- [Pokorny] --
<βουλή> will -- [Pokorny] --
<βούλομαι> wish, request -- [Pokorny] --
<βοῦς> cow, ox -- [Pokorny] --
<γαῖα> land --
<γάρ> for -- [Pokorny] --
<γε> indeed -- [Pokorny] --
<γενεή> family, generation, race -- [Pokorny] --
<γένος> race -- [Pokorny] --
<γέρρον> ox-hide wicker shield -- [Pokorny] --
<γίγνομαι> happen, become -- [Pokorny] --
<γιγνώσκω> know, learn -- [Pokorny] --
<γλαφυρός> hollow -- [Pokorny] --
<γραφικῆ> painting -- [Pokorny] --
<γυνή> woman -- [Pokorny] --
<δακρύω> weep -- [Pokorny] --
<Δαναοί> Danaans -- [Pokorny] --
<δασύς> hairy, shaggy -- [Pokorny] --
<δέ> and, on the other hand -- [Pokorny] --
<δεινός> terrible -- [Pokorny] --
<δεξιά> the right hand -- [Pokorny] --
<Δευκαλίων> Deucalion -- [Pokorny] --
<δεύτερον> second -- [Pokorny] --
<δεύτερος> second -- [Pokorny] --
<δέχομαι> receive -- [Pokorny] --
<δή> indeed -- [Pokorny] --
<δῆλος> clear, obvious -- [Pokorny] --
<δηλόω> be clear, reveal -- [Pokorny] --
<δημιουργός> craftsman -- [Pokorny] --
<δημοσίᾳ> in public -- [Pokorny] --
<δημοτικός> of the people, in common use -- [Pokorny] --
<διά> through, by -- [Pokorny] --
<διαβολή> false accusation, calumny --
<διαγιγνώσκω> discern, distinguish -- [Pokorny] --
<διάνοια> thought, mind --
<διαφανής> transparent, red-hot -- [Pokorny] --
<διαφθείρω> destroy, kill -- [Pokorny] --
<δίδωμι> give -- [Pokorny] --
<δι-ίστημι> separate, strive -- [Pokorny] --
<δίκαιος> just, righteous -- [Pokorny] --
<δικαιοσύνη> justice, righteousness -- [Pokorny] --
<δίκη> custom, right -- [Pokorny] --
<διόπερ> therefore, so -- [Pokorny] --
<δῖος> godlike, noble -- [Pokorny] --
<δοκέω> seem, think -- [Pokorny] --
<δρόμος> run -- [Pokorny] --
<δύναμαι> be able -- [Pokorny] --
<δύναμις> power -- [Pokorny] --
<δυνατός> possible -- [Pokorny] --
<δύο> two -- [Pokorny] --
<δυσμένεια> enmity, hate -- [Pokorny] --
<δῶμα> house, home -- [Pokorny] --
<ἑαυτός> himself -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐγγύς> near -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐγώ> I -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐθέλω> wish, want -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔθνος> nation, people, tribe --
<εἰ> if -- [Pokorny] --
<εἶδον> saw -- [Pokorny] --
<εἴδω> see, know -- [Pokorny] --
<εἴκοσι> twenty -- [Pokorny] --
<εἰκών> image, portrait -- [Pokorny] --
<εἷμα> clothing -- [Pokorny] --
<εἰμί> I am -- [Pokorny] --
<εἶμι> go -- [Pokorny] --
<εἵνεκεν> because of -- [Pokorny] --
<εἴρω> speak, say -- [Pokorny] --
<εἰς> towards -- [Pokorny] --
<εἷς> one -- [Pokorny] --
<εἴτε> whether...or --
<εἴχω> have, be -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐκ> from, out of -- [Pokorny] --
<ἕκαστος> each, every -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐκδιδώμι> give up -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐκεῖ> there -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐκεῖνος> that -- [Pokorny] --
<ἑκηβόλος> far-shooting -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐκνικάω> prevail -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐκπέρθω> destroy -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐλαύνω> set in motion -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐλεαίρω> pity --
<Ἑλένη> Helen --
<Ἑλλάς> Greece --
<Ἕλλην> Greek --
<Ἑλληνικός> Greek --
<Ἕλληνος> Hellenos --
<ἑλώριον> spoils, booty -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐμβασιλεύω> be king in --
<ἔμμετρος> metrical -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔμπης> nevertheless -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐμπίπλημι> fill -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔμπροσθεν> before, in front --
<ἐμφέρης> resembling --
<ἐν> in -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐναλείψω> paint, smear --
<ἐναλίγκιος> resembling, like --
<ἐνέδρα> ambush -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔνειμι> to be in, to be possible -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐνέπω> tell, tell of -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔνθα> then, there -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐνιαυτός> year -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐνοικέω> dwelling in -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐνταῦθα> then, there -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐντεῦθεν> from there -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐξ> from, out of -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐξαπίνης> on a sudden -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐξίτηλος> fading, forgotten -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐός> his, her -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐπάγω> bring in, invite -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐπεάν> when, after -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐπεί> when, after -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐπειδή> after -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔπειτα> thereupon -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐπί> on, about -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐπιβάλλω> throw on -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐπίειμι> come near -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐπίκλησις> name, title -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐπικλώθω> spin; decide -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐπίσταμαι> know -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐπιτίθημι> attack -- [Pokorny] --
<ἕπομαι> follow -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔπος> words, saying -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐπωνυμία> name, designation -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐργάζομαι> work, make -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔργον> work, deed -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐρίζω> quarrel -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔρις> strife -- [Pokorny] --
<ἑρμηνεία> interpretation --
<ἐρύκω> hold back -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔρχομαι> come, go -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐς> towards -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐσθίω> eat -- [Pokorny] --
<ἐσθλόν> good -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔσοδος> entrance -- [Pokorny] --
<ἕταιρος> comrade -- [Pokorny] --
<ἕταρος> comrade -- [Pokorny] --
<ἕτερος> other -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔτι> still -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔτος> year -- [Pokorny] --
<εὔ> well -- [Pokorny] --
<εὐκνῆμις> well-greaved -- [Pokorny] --
<εὐπρέπεια> appearance, beauty -- [Pokorny] --
<Εὐρώπη> Europe --
<εὐφραίνω> delight, please -- [Pokorny] --
<εὐωδίη> fragrant scent --
<ἐχυρός> strong, secure -- [Pokorny] --
<ἔχω> have -- [Pokorny] --
<Ζεύς> Zeus -- [Pokorny] --
<ζωγρέω> capture alive --
<ζώω> live -- [Pokorny] --
<ἤ> or, than -- [Pokorny] --
<ἧ> verily --
<ἡγέομαι> lead, regard, rule -- [Pokorny] --
<ἠδέ> and, also -- [Pokorny] --
<ἤδη> already -- [Pokorny] --
<Ἠέλιος> Helios -- [Pokorny] --
<Ἡερόδοτος> Herodotus --
<ἦθος> custom, character -- [Pokorny] --
<ἥκιστα> least -- [Pokorny] --
<ἧμαρ> day -- [Pokorny] --
<ἡμέρα> day -- [Pokorny] --
<ἡμίθεος> demi-god -- [Pokorny] --
<ἤν> if -- [Pokorny] --
<ἥρως> hero -- [Pokorny] --
<θάλασσα> sea --
<θάλαττα> sea --
<θεά> goddess -- [Pokorny] --
<θεάομαι> see --
<θεῖος> deity, divinity -- [Pokorny] --
<θεῖος> divine, godlike -- [Pokorny] --
<θεός> god -- [Pokorny] --
<θέω> run --
<Θησεύς> Theseus --
<Θήχης> Theches --
<θνήσκω> die -- [Pokorny] --
<θοός> fast -- [Pokorny] --
<Θρῆτ́ιξ> Thracian --
<θυγάτηρ> daughter -- [Pokorny] --
<θυμιάω> burn with smoke -- [Pokorny] --
<θυμός> soul, heart -- [Pokorny] --
<θωμαστός> wonderful -- [Pokorny] --
<ἰδίᾳ> privately -- [Pokorny] --
<ἵεμαι> desire -- [Pokorny] --
<ἱερός> sacred -- [Pokorny] --
<Ἰθάκη> Ithaca --
<ἱκνέομαι> reach -- [Pokorny] --
<ἱππεύς> horseman -- [Pokorny] --
<ἵππος> horse -- [Pokorny] --
<ἱστίον> sail --
<ἱστορία> inquiry, history -- [Pokorny] --
<ἰσχύω> be strong -- [Pokorny] --
<ἴσχω> stay -- [Pokorny] --
<ἴφθιμος> valiant --
<καθαιρέω> take down, destroy -- [Pokorny] --
<καθαρός> clean, pure --
<καί> and -- [Pokorny] --
<καίω> burn -- [Pokorny] --
<κακός> evil, poor -- [Pokorny] --
<καλέω> call, summon -- [Pokorny] --
<καλός> good, beautiful -- [Pokorny] --
<καλύπτω> cover -- [Pokorny] --
<Καλυψώ> Calypso -- [Pokorny] --
<κάματος> toil, labor -- [Pokorny] --
<κάνναβις> hemp --
<κάρτα> very much, extremely -- [Pokorny] --
<κατά> completely, down, under -- [Pokorny] --
<καταπλάσσω> plaster over -- [Pokorny] --
<καταπλαστύς> plaster -- [Pokorny] --
<κατασώχω> rub in pieces --
<κάτω> downward --
<κέδρος> cedar -- [Pokorny] --
<κοινός> common -- [Pokorny] --
<κολωνός> heap -- [Pokorny] --
<κομίζω> provide for --
<κοσμήτωρ> commander --
<κόσμιος> decorum, order --
<κόσμιος> orderly --
<κόσμος> beauty, order, world --
<κρατερόφρων> stout-hearted, dauntless -- [Pokorny] --
<κρατέω> hold fast, take to heart; rule, conquer -- [Pokorny] --
<κραυγή> shout -- [Pokorny] --
<Κρήτη> Crete --
<Κρονίδης> son of Kronos --
<Κρόνος> Cronos --
<κυπαρίσσος> cypress --
<κύων> dog -- [Pokorny] --
<κώ> yet -- [Pokorny] --
<Λακεδαιμόνιος> Lacedemonian, Spartan --
<λαμβάνω> receive, capture -- [Pokorny] --
<λαμπρός> shiny -- [Pokorny] --
<λαός> people --
<λέγω> say -- [Pokorny] --
<λέξις> style -- [Pokorny] --
<λευκο-γραφέω> paint in white on a black background -- [Pokorny] --
<λευκός> white -- [Pokorny] --
<λήθη> forgetting -- [Pokorny] --
<Λητώ> Leto --
<λίβανος> frankincense, frankincense tree --
<λίθος> stone --
<λιλαίομαι> desire -- [Pokorny] --
<λίνεος> of linen -- [Pokorny] --
<λίνον> linen -- [Pokorny] --
<λίσσομαι> pray -- [Pokorny] --
<λόγος> word, reason -- [Pokorny] --
<λούομαι> wash oneself -- [Pokorny] --
<λουτρόν> bathing -- [Pokorny] --
<λοχαγός> captain --
<Λύκιος> Lycius -- [Pokorny] --
<λύω> loosen, free -- [Pokorny] --
<μάλα> very -- [Pokorny] --
<μᾶλλον> more and more -- [Pokorny] --
<μάχομαι> fight, quarrel -- [Pokorny] --
<μεγάθης> height -- [Pokorny] --
<μεγάλος> great -- [Pokorny] --
<μεγάλως> greatly -- [Pokorny] --
<μέγας> great -- [Pokorny] --
<μέγεθος> size -- [Pokorny] --
<μέλαν> black -- [Pokorny] --
<μελετάω> care for, practice -- [Pokorny] --
<μελία> the ash tree -- [Pokorny] --
<μέλω> to care, to be an object of care -- [Pokorny] --
<μέν> on the one hand -- [Pokorny] --
<μεναίνω> rage --
<μέντοι> but, however --
<μέριμνα> care, anxious thought -- [Pokorny] --
<μέροψ> endowed with speech --
<μετά> after, with -- [Pokorny] --
<μετόπισθε> afterwards -- [Pokorny] --
<μέχρι> until -- [Pokorny] --
<μή> not -- [Pokorny] --
<μηδέ> and not -- [Pokorny] --
<Μηδεία> Medea --
<μήν> verily -- [Pokorny] --
<μῆνις> anger -- [Pokorny] --
<μήτε> and not, neither -- [Pokorny] --
<μηχανή> instrument -- [Pokorny] --
<μίγνυμι> mix -- [Pokorny] --
<μιμέομαι> imitate --
<μίμησις> representation --
<μιν> it -- [Pokorny] --
<Μίνος> Minos --
<μόνον> alone -- [Pokorny] --
<μοῦνος> alone -- [Pokorny] --
<Μοῦσα> Muse -- [Pokorny] --
<μῦθος> speech, plot -- [Pokorny] --
<μυρίος> countless -- [Pokorny] --
<ναός> temple -- [Pokorny] --
<ναῦς> ship -- [Pokorny] --
<νέομαι> return -- [Pokorny] --
<νήπιος> childish, foolish -- [Pokorny] --
<Νίκη> Victory -- [Pokorny] --
<νόημα> thought, understanding --
<νόος> mind --
<νόστιμος> returning -- [Pokorny] --
<νόστος> return -- [Pokorny] --
<νόσφι> apart, afar, except --
<νούσος> sickness --
<νύκτωρ> by night -- [Pokorny] --
<νύμφη> nymph -- [Pokorny] --
<νῦν> now -- [Pokorny] --
<Ξενοφῶν> Xenophon -- [Pokorny] --
<ξύλον> wood --
<ξύμπας> all together --
<ξυνίημι> bring together, understand --
<ὁ> the -- [Pokorny] --
<ὄβριμος> strong -- [Pokorny] --
<ὅδε> this -- [Pokorny] --
<Ὀδυσεύς> Odysseus --
<οἰζύς> misery, suffering --
<οἴκαδε> home -- [Pokorny] --
<οἰκηιεύω> claim --
<οἴκοι> at home -- [Pokorny] --
<οἶκόνδε> to his home -- [Pokorny] --
<οἶμαι> think -- [Pokorny] --
<οἴομαι> think, imagine -- [Pokorny] --
<οἶον> so to say -- [Pokorny] --
<οἶος> alone -- [Pokorny] --
<οἷος> like, such that --
<οἰωνός> large bird, bird of prey -- [Pokorny] --
<ὄλεθρος> destruction -- [Pokorny] --
<ὀλέκω> kill -- [Pokorny] --
<ὄλλυμαι> perish -- [Pokorny] --
<ὀλόω> to destroy -- [Pokorny] --
<Ὀλύμπιος> Olympian --
<ὅλως> wholly -- [Pokorny] --
<Ὅμερος> Homer -- [Pokorny] --
<ὁμιλέω> consort with, busy oneself with -- [Pokorny] --
<ὁμιλία> being together -- [Pokorny] --
<ὅμοιος> like, similar -- [Pokorny] --
<ὁμοίως> similarly -- [Pokorny] --
<ὄνομα> name -- [Pokorny] --
<ὀνομάζω> speak of by name -- [Pokorny] --
<ὀνομασία> language -- [Pokorny] --
<ὄπισθεν> behind -- [Pokorny] --
<ὀπισθοφύλαξ> rear-guard --
<ὀπίσω> back -- [Pokorny] --
<ὁπος> what sort of --
<ὁράω> see -- [Pokorny] --
<ὄρνυμι> stir up -- [Pokorny] --
<ὄρος> mountain -- [Pokorny] --
<ὀροφή> roof -- [Pokorny] --
<ὅς> his -- [Pokorny] --
<ὅς> this, that, he, she, it -- [Pokorny] --
<ὅς> who, which -- [Pokorny] --
<ὅσος> as many -- [Pokorny] --
<ὅσπερ> it -- [Pokorny] --
<ὅστις> whoever, whatever -- [Pokorny] --
<ὅτε> when -- [Pokorny] --
<ὅτι> because, that -- [Pokorny] --
<ὅτος> someone -- [Pokorny] --
<οὐ> not --
<οὐδαμοῦ> nowhere -- [Pokorny] --
<οὐδέ> not --
<οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν> no one, nothing --
<οὐδέν> in no way --
<οὐκ> not --
<οὖν> indeed --
<οὕνεκα> because --
<οὐρανός> heaven -- [Pokorny] --
<οὔτε> neither, nor --
<οὗτος> this -- [Pokorny] --
<οὔτω> thus -- [Pokorny] --
<οὕτως> so, thus -- [Pokorny] --
<παῖς> child -- [Pokorny] --
<παλαιός> old, ancient -- [Pokorny] --
<παντάπασι> absolutely -- [Pokorny] --
<πάντως> altogether -- [Pokorny] --
<πάνυ> at all -- [Pokorny] --
<παρά> from, of -- [Pokorny] --
<παραβοηθέω> come up to help -- [Pokorny] --
<παράπαν> absolutely -- [Pokorny] --
<παραπλήσιος> such-like -- [Pokorny] --
<παραχέω> pour in -- [Pokorny] --
<παρεγγυάω> pass along -- [Pokorny] --
<παρέχω> provide -- [Pokorny] --
<πάρος> until -- [Pokorny] --
<πᾶς> all, every -- [Pokorny] --
<πάσχω> suffer -- [Pokorny] --
<πατήρ> father -- [Pokorny] --
<παύω> stop, cease -- [Pokorny] --
<παχύς> thick -- [Pokorny] --
<παχύτης> thickness -- [Pokorny] --
<Πελασγικός> Pelasgian -- [Pokorny] --
<πέμπτος> fifth -- [Pokorny] --
<πέμπω> send --
<περ> indeed -- [Pokorny] --
<πέρ> although -- [Pokorny] --
<πέρθω> destroy, sack -- [Pokorny] --
<περί> around -- [Pokorny] --
<περιβάλλω> throw around -- [Pokorny] --
<περιπέλομαι> revolve -- [Pokorny] --
<Πέρσης> Persian --
<Πηληιάδης> son of Peleus --
<πῖλος> mat -- [Pokorny] --
<πλάζω> wander, toss --
<πλάττω> mould, shape -- [Pokorny] --
<πλεῖστος> most -- [Pokorny] --
<πλέω> sail -- [Pokorny] --
<πλήν> except -- [Pokorny] --
<ποιέω> make, do -- [Pokorny] --
<πολεμέω> fight, be at war -- [Pokorny] --
<πολέμιος> enemy -- [Pokorny] --
<πολέμιος> hostile, inimical -- [Pokorny] --
<ποε̃λεμος> war -- [Pokorny] --
<πόλις> city -- [Pokorny] --
<πολιτική> politics -- [Pokorny] --
<πολιτικῶς> like statesmen -- [Pokorny] --
<πολύς> many -- [Pokorny] --
<πολύτροπος> much-turned, much-traveled -- [Pokorny] --
<πόνος> grief -- [Pokorny] --
<πόντος> sea -- [Pokorny] --
<Ποσειδάων> Poseidon --
<πόσις> husband -- [Pokorny] --
<ποτέ> at some time, ever -- [Pokorny] --
<πότνια> revered, queenly -- [Pokorny] --
<που> anywhere, perhaps -- [Pokorny] --
<πουλυβότειρα> all nourishing, fruitful -- [Pokorny] --
<πραγματεία> hard work, affairs --
<πράξις> action in actual life -- [Pokorny] --
<πράσσω> achieve, manage -- [Pokorny] --
<πράττω> achieve, manage -- [Pokorny] --
<Πρίαμος> Priam --
<πρό> before -- [Pokorny] --
<προαίρεσις> choice -- [Pokorny] --
<προαιρέω> choose -- [Pokorny] --
<προείχω> to be superior, excel --
<προιάπτω> send forth --
<προ-λέγω> say beforehand -- [Pokorny] --
<προπύλαια> gateway --
<πρός> to -- [Pokorny] --
<πρόσωπον> face -- [Pokorny] --
<πρότερον> earlier, before -- [Pokorny] --
<πρότερος> first, before -- [Pokorny] --
<προφέρω> bring forth -- [Pokorny] --
<πρώτιστα> first of all -- [Pokorny] --
<πρῶτον> first -- [Pokorny] --
<πρῶτος> first -- [Pokorny] --
<πτολίεθρον> city --
<πῦρ> fire -- [Pokorny] --
<πυρίη> vapor bath -- [Pokorny] --
<πω> yet -- [Pokorny] --
<ῥητορική> rhetoric -- [Pokorny] --
<ῥητορικῶς> like rhetoricians -- [Pokorny] --
<ῥίπτω> throw down -- [Pokorny] --
<ῥύομαι> save -- [Pokorny] --
<σαφῶς> truly --
<σιδήρεος> of iron --
<σῖτος> corn, bread --
<σκήπτρον> sceptre -- [Pokorny] --
<Σκύθης> Scythian --
<σπείρω> sow -- [Pokorny] --
<σπέος> cave, grotto --
<σπέρμα> seed -- [Pokorny] --
<σττ́εμμα> wreath, garland --
<στόλος> army -- [Pokorny] --
<στονόεις> sad, wretched -- [Pokorny] --
<στρατεία> expedition -- [Pokorny] --
<στρατεύω> take the field, attack -- [Pokorny] --
<στρατηγός> general -- [Pokorny] --
<στρατιώτης> soldier -- [Pokorny] --
<στρατός> army -- [Pokorny] --
<σύ> you -- [Pokorny] --
<συναγείρω> assemble -- [Pokorny] --
<συνέρχομαι> unite, come together -- [Pokorny] --
<συνίημι> bring together -- [Pokorny] --
<σύνοπτος> visible -- [Pokorny] --
<σφεῖς> they -- [Pokorny] --
<σφέτερος> own -- [Pokorny] --
<σφωε> those two -- [Pokorny] --
<σχολή> leisure -- [Pokorny] --
<σῶμα> body -- [Pokorny] --
<σωφροσύνη> moderation, discretion -- [Pokorny] --
<τάσσω> arrange, put in order -- [Pokorny] --
<ταῦρος> bull -- [Pokorny] --
<τάχα> presently, soon --
<τε> and -- [Pokorny] --
<τεῖχος> wall -- [Pokorny] --
<τεκμηριόω> prove positively --
<τελείω> fulfill, complete -- [Pokorny] --
<τελευτέω> finish, die -- [Pokorny] --
<τέταρτος> fourth -- [Pokorny] --
<τεύχω> make ready, make -- [Pokorny] --
<τι> in any way -- [Pokorny] --
<τίθημι> put, place -- [Pokorny] --
<τις> someone, something -- [Pokorny] --
<τίς> who, what -- [Pokorny] --
<τό> the -- [Pokorny] --
<τοιοῦτος> such -- [Pokorny] --
<τόλμα> courage, venture -- [Pokorny] --
<τοσοῦτος> such -- [Pokorny] --
<τραγῳδία> tragedy -- [Pokorny] --
<τρηχύς> rough -- [Pokorny] --
<τρίβω> skilled, experienced -- [Pokorny] --
<τρίτος> third -- [Pokorny] --
<Τροίη> Troy --
<Τρωικός> Trojan --
<ὕβρις> violence -- [Pokorny] --
<ὕδωρ> water -- [Pokorny] --
<υἱός> son -- [Pokorny] --
<Ὑπερίων> Hyperion --
<ὑπερφέρω> surpass -- [Pokorny] --
<ὑπό> under, by -- [Pokorny] --
<ὑποδύω> go under -- [Pokorny] --
<ὑποζύγιον> pack animal -- [Pokorny] --
<ὕστερον> later -- [Pokorny] --
<φαίνω> seem -- [Pokorny] --
<φάρμακον> paint, color -- [Pokorny] --
<φέρω> bear, bring, carry -- [Pokorny] --
<φεύγω> escape, flee -- [Pokorny] --
<φημί> say -- [Pokorny] --
<φθείρω> perish -- [Pokorny] --
<Φθιῶτις> Phthiotis --
<φθόνος> envy, ill-will -- [Pokorny] --
<φίλος> dear one, friend -- [Pokorny] --
<φίλος> dear, friendly -- [Pokorny] --
<φιλόσοφος> wise man --
<φύη> stature -- [Pokorny] --
<φύω> grow -- [Pokorny] --
<χαλεπός> difficult --
<χάλκειος> of bronze -- [Pokorny] --
<χείρ> hand -- [Pokorny] --
<χθών> earth -- [Pokorny] --
<χολόω> anger -- [Pokorny] --
<χράομαι> need, use -- [Pokorny] --
<χρόνος> time --
<χρύσεος> golden --
<Χρύσης> Chryses --
<χύδην> at random, promiscuously -- [Pokorny] --
<χώρα> land, country -- [Pokorny] --
<χωρίζω> separate -- [Pokorny] --
<ψυχή> soul -- [Pokorny] --
<ῶ> Oh -- [Pokorny] --
<ὠμοβόειος> of raw, untanned oxhide -- [Pokorny] --
<ὦν> indeed --
<ὠρύομαι> howl -- [Pokorny] --
<ὡς> as, thus -- [Pokorny] --
<ὡς> so, thus -- [Pokorny] --
<ὥσπερ> as -- [Pokorny] --
<ὥστε> like, so that -- [Pokorny] --
<ὠφελία> aid -- [Pokorny] --

Classical Greek Online


English Meaning Index
Jonathan Slocum and Marie-Claire Beaulieu
This English Index lists, in alphabetical order, seemingly significant words used in the
"general meaning" glosses of Base Forms underlying one or more surface (word) forms
in lesson texts. For each English word, base forms having that word in their general
meanings are shown, along with links to every usage, in every numbered lesson, of the
associated surface forms. With this index, one may click on any link to perform a quick
"usage look-up," and thereby study how surface forms in texts are constructed from base
forms sharing a general English meaning word. In order to reduce clutter in this index,
certain high-frequency English "function" words are ignored unless there are no
"content" words in the meaning.
This index was created by software, not by human hand, using lesson materials authored
with very few constraints on the expression of "meaning" other than it being in English.
Selecting significant words from free-form text via software is a notoriously difficult
task. For example, while most meanings in these lessons are expressed as "glosses," some
or parts may be comments directed toward the human reader, who is expected to discern
the difference. Computer software cannot yet make such subtle linguistic distinctions, so
all words in a meaning are treated alike. With few exceptions, then, all words are
indexed. The results are neither produced nor presented with any claims to superior
linguistic sensitivity, but at least the full meaning texts are shown for your inspection and
judgment. Modest effort was invested in tuning the software to ignore [apparently]
superfluous, high-frequency words (e.g., the preposition "of") that, in the presence of
[apparently] more important words, contribute little or no useful information to an index;
unfortunately this may result in some words, in some contexts, being unfairly omitted.
ABDUCTION : <ἁρπαγή> abduction --
ABLE : <δύναμαι> be able --
ABOUT : <ἐπί> on, about --
ABSOLUTELY : <παντάπασι> absolutely --
ABSOLUTELY : <παράπαν> absolutely --
ACCUSATION : <διαβολή> false accusation, calumny --
ACHAEAN : <Ἀχαιός> Achaean --
ACHIEVE : <πράσσω> achieve, manage --
ACHIEVE : <πράττω> achieve, manage --
ACHILLES : <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles --
ACROPOLIS : <ἀκρόπολις> Acropolis --
ACTION : <πράξις> action in actual life --
ACTUAL : <πράξις> action in actual life --
ADEIMONTUS : <Αδείμαντος> Adeimontus --
ADMIRE : <ἄγαμαι> to wonder, admire --
AEGEUS : <Αἰγεύς> Aegeus --
AFAR : <νόσφι> apart, afar, except --
AFFAIRS : <πραγματεία> hard work, affairs --
AFTER : <μετά> after, with --
AFTER : <ἐπειδή> after --
AFTER : <ἐπεάν> when, after --
AFTER : <ἐπεί> when, after --
AFTERWARDS : <μετόπισθε> afterwards --
AGAIN : <αὔτις> again --
AGAIN : <αὖτε> then, again --
AID : <ὠφελία> aid --
ALEXANDROS : <Ἀλέξανδρος> Alexandros --
ALIVE : <ζωγρέω> capture alive --
ALL : <ξύμπας> all together --
ALL : <πουλυβότειρα> all nourishing, fruitful --
ALL : <πρώτιστα> first of all --
ALL : <πάνυ> at all --
ALL : <πᾶς> all, every --
ALL : <ἅπας> all --
ALONE : <μοῦνος> alone --
ALONE : <μόνον> alone --
ALONE : <οἶος> alone --
ALONG : <παρεγγυάω> pass along --
ALONG : <ἀναλαμβάνω> take along --
ALREADY : <ἤδη> already --
ALSO : <ἠδέ> and, also --
ALTHOUGH : <πέρ> although --
ALTOGETHER : <πάντως> altogether --
ALWAYS : <αἰεί> always --
ALWAYS : <ἀεί> always --
AM : <εἰμί> I am --
AMBUSH : <ἐνέδρα> ambush --
ANCIENT : <παλαιός> old, ancient --
AND : <καί> and --
AND : <τε> and --
ANGER : <μῆνις> anger --
ANGER : <χολόω> anger --
ANIMAL : <ὑποζύγιον> pack animal --
ANOTHER : <ἀλλήλων> one another --
ANSWER : <ἀποκρίνω> separate, answer --
ANXIOUS : <μέριμνα> care, anxious thought --
ANY : <τι> in any way --
ANY : <ἁμόθεν> from any point --
ANYWHERE : <που> anywhere, perhaps --
APART : <νόσφι> apart, afar, except --
APOLLO : <Ἀπόλλων> Apollo --
APPEARANCE : <εὐπρέπεια> appearance, beauty --
ARES : <Ἄρης> Ares --
ARGIVE : <Ἀργεῖος> Argive --
ARIADNE : <Ἀριάδνη> Ariadne --
ARMY : <στρατός> army --
ARMY : <στόλος> army --
AROUND : <περιβάλλω> throw around --
AROUND : <περί> around --
AROUND : <ἀμφί> around, between --
ARRANGE : <τάσσω> arrange, put in order --
AS : <ὥσπερ> as --
ASH : <μελία> the ash tree --
ASIA : <Ἀσία> Asia --
ASSEMBLE : <συναγείρω> assemble --
ATREUS : <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus --
ATTACK : <στρατεύω> take the field, attack --
ATTACK : <ἐπιτίθημι> attack --
AWAY : <ἀφαιρέω> take away --
AWE : <ἅζομαι> stand in awe of --
BACK : <ἐρύκω> hold back --
BACK : <ὀπίσω> back --
BACKGROUND : <λευκο-γραφέω> paint in white on a black background --
BATH : <πυρίη> vapor bath --
BATHING : <λουτρόν> bathing --
BATTLE : <ἀέθλος> battle, woe --
BEAR : <φέρω> bear, bring, carry --
BEAUTIFUL : <καλός> good, beautiful --
BEAUTY : <εὐπρέπεια> appearance, beauty --
BEAUTY : <κόσμος> beauty, order, world --
BECAUSE : <εἵνεκεν> because of --
BECAUSE : <οὕνεκα> because --
BECAUSE : <ὅτι> because, that --
BECOME : <γίγνομαι> happen, become --
BEFORE : <πρό> before --
BEFORE : <πρότερον> earlier, before --
BEFORE : <πρότερος> first, before --
BEFORE : <ἔμπροσθεν> before, in front --
BEFOREHAND : <προ-λέγω> say beforehand --
BEGIN : <ἄρχω> begin --
BEGINNING : <ἀρχή> beginning, first principle --
BEHIND : <ὄπισθεν> behind --
BETWEEN : <ἀμφί> around, between --
BIRD : <οἰωνός> large bird, bird of prey --
BLACK : <λευκο-γραφέω> paint in white on a black background --
BLACK : <μέλαν> black --
BLAMEWORTHY : <αἴτιος> blameworthy --
BODY : <σῶμα> body --
BOOTY : <ἑλώριον> spoils, booty --
BOUNDLESS : <ἀπείρων> boundless --
BREAD : <σῖτος> corn, bread --
BRING : <ξυνίημι> bring together, understand --
BRING : <προφέρω> bring forth --
BRING : <συνίημι> bring together --
BRING : <φέρω> bear, bring, carry --
BRING : <ἐπάγω> bring in, invite --
BRONZE : <χάλκειος> of bronze --
BULL : <ταῦρος> bull --
BURN : <θυμιάω> burn with smoke --
BURN : <καίω> burn --
BUSY : <ὁμιλέω> consort with, busy oneself with --
BUT : <αὐτάρ> but --
BUT : <μέντοι> but, however --
BUT : <ἀλλά> but --
BY : <αὐτόματος> by itself --
BY : <διά> through, by --
BY : <νύκτωρ> by night --
BY : <ὀνομάζω> speak of by name --
BY : <ὑπό> under, by --
CALL : <καλέω> call, summon --
CALUMNY : <διαβολή> false accusation, calumny --
CALYPSO : <Καλυψώ> Calypso --
CAPTAIN : <λοχαγός> captain --
CAPTURE : <ζωγρέω> capture alive --
CAPTURE : <λαμβάνω> receive, capture --
CARE : <μελετάω> care for, practice --
CARE : <μέλω> to care, to be an object of care --
CARE : <μέριμνα> care, anxious thought --
CARRY : <φέρω> bear, bring, carry --
CARRY : <ἁρπάζω> carry off --
CAUSE : <αἰτία> cause, reason --
CAVE : <σπέος> cave, grotto --
CEASE : <παύω> stop, cease --
CEDAR : <κέδρος> cedar --
CHANT : <ἀείδω> sing, chant --
CHARACTER : <ἦθος> custom, character --
CHILD : <παῖς> child --
CHILDISH : <νήπιος> childish, foolish --
CHOICE : <προαίρεσις> choice --
CHOOSE : <προαιρέω> choose --
CHRYSES : <Χρύσης> Chryses --
CITY : <πτολίεθρον> city --
CITY : <πόλις> city --
CITY : <ἄστυ> city --
CLAIM : <οἰκηιεύω> claim --
CLEAN : <καθαρός> clean, pure --
CLEAR : <δηλόω> be clear, reveal --
CLEAR : <δῆλος> clear, obvious --
CLOTHING : <εἷμα> clothing --
COLOR : <φάρμακον> paint, color --
COME : <παραβοηθέω> come up to help --
COME : <συνέρχομαι> unite, come together --
COME : <ἀφικνέομαι> come to, reach --
COME : <ἐπίειμι> come near --
COME : <ἔρχομαι> come, go --
COMMANDER : <κοσμήτωρ> commander --
COMMON : <δημοτικός> of the people, in common use --
COMMON : <κοινός> common --
COMPLETE : <τελείω> fulfill, complete --
COMPLETELY : <κατά> completely, down, under --
COMPULSION : <ἀνάγκη> force, compulsion --
COMRADE : <ἕταιρος> comrade --
COMRADE : <ἕταρος> comrade --
CONQUER : <κρατέω> hold fast, take to heart; rule, conquer --
CONSORT : <ὁμιλέω> consort with, busy oneself with --
CONTRAST : <ἀντίπαλος> contrast --
CORN : <σῖτος> corn, bread --
COUNTLESS : <μυρίος> countless --
COUNTLESS : <ἀπερείσιος> countless --
COUNTRY : <χώρα> land, country --
COURAGE : <τόλμα> courage, venture --
COVER : <καλύπτω> cover --
COW : <βοῦς> cow, ox --
CRAFTSMAN : <δημιουργός> craftsman --
CRETE : <Κρήτη> Crete --
CRONOS : <Κρόνος> Cronos --
CUSTOM : <δίκη> custom, right --
CUSTOM : <ἦθος> custom, character --
CYPRESS : <κυπαρίσσος> cypress --
DANAANS : <Δαναοί> Danaans --
DAUGHTER : <θυγάτηρ> daughter --
DAUNTLESS : <κρατερόφρων> stout-hearted, dauntless --
DAY : <ἡμέρα> day --
DAY : <ἧμαρ> day --
DEAR : <φίλος> dear one, friend --
DEAR : <φίλος> dear, friendly --
DECIDE : <ἐπικλώθω> spin; decide --
DECORUM : <κόσμιος> decorum, order --
DEED : <ἔργον> work, deed --
DEEP : <αἰπύς> deep --
DEITY : <θεῖος> deity, divinity --
DELIGHT : <εὐφραίνω> delight, please --
DEMI-GOD : <ἡμίθεος> demi-god --
DESIGNATE : <ἀνακαλέω> designate --
DESIGNATION : <ἐπωνυμία> name, designation --
DESIRE : <λιλαίομαι> desire --
DESIRE : <ἵεμαι> desire --
DESTROY : <διαφθείρω> destroy, kill --
DESTROY : <καθαιρέω> take down, destroy --
DESTROY : <πέρθω> destroy, sack --
DESTROY : <ἐκπέρθω> destroy --
DESTROY : <ὀλόω> to destroy --
DESTRUCTION : <ὄλεθρος> destruction --
DEUCALION : <Δευκαλίων> Deucalion --
DIE : <θνήσκω> die --
DIE : <τελευτέω> finish, die --
DIFFICULT : <χαλεπός> difficult --
DISCERN : <διαγιγνώσκω> discern, distinguish --
DISCRETION : <σωφροσύνη> moderation, discretion --
DISHONOR : <ἀτιμάζω> dishonor --
DISTINGUISH : <διαγιγνώσκω> discern, distinguish --
DIVINE : <θεῖος> divine, godlike --
DIVINITY : <θεῖος> deity, divinity --
DO : <ποιέω> make, do --
DOG : <κύων> dog --
DOWN : <καθαιρέω> take down, destroy --
DOWN : <κατά> completely, down, under --
DOWN : <ἀφίημι> send forth, throw down, permit, forgive --
DOWN : <ῥίπτω> throw down --
DOWNWARD : <κάτω> downward --
DWELLING : <ἐνοικέω> dwelling in --
EACH : <ἕκαστος> each, every --
EARLIER : <πρότερον> earlier, before --
EARTH : <χθών> earth --
EAT : <ἐσθίω> eat --
ENDOWED : <μέροψ> endowed with speech --
ENEMY : <πολέμιος> enemy --
ENMITY : <δυσμένεια> enmity, hate --
ENTRANCE : <ἔσοδος> entrance --
ENVY : <φθόνος> envy, ill-will --
ESCAPE : <φεύγω> escape, flee --
ESPECIALLY : <ἄλλως> otherwise, especially --
EUROPE : <Εὐρώπη> Europe --
EVER : <ποτέ> at some time, ever --
EVERY : <πᾶς> all, every --
EVERY : <ἕκαστος> each, every --
EVIL : <κακός> evil, poor --
EXCEED : <ἀποκρατέω> exceed --
EXCEL : <προείχω> to be superior, excel --
EXCEPT : <νόσφι> apart, afar, except --
EXCEPT : <πλήν> except --
EXPEDITION : <στρατεία> expedition --
EXPERIENCED : <τρίβω> skilled, experienced --
EXPOSITION : <ἀπόδεξις> exposition, publication --
EXTREMELY : <κάρτα> very much, extremely --
FACE : <πρόσωπον> face --
FADING : <ἐξίτηλος> fading, forgotten --
FALSE : <διαβολή> false accusation, calumny --
FAME : <ἀκλεός> without fame --
FAMILY : <γενεή> family, generation, race --
FAR-SHOOTING : <ἑκηβόλος> far-shooting --
FAST : <θοός> fast --
FAST : <κρατέω> hold fast, take to heart; rule, conquer --
FATHER : <πατήρ> father --
FIELD : <στρατεύω> take the field, attack --
FIFTH : <πέμπτος> fifth --
FIGHT : <μάχομαι> fight, quarrel --
FIGHT : <πολεμέω> fight, be at war --
FILL : <ἐμπίπλημι> fill --
FINISH : <τελευτέω> finish, die --
FIRE : <πῦρ> fire --
FIRST : <πρότερος> first, before --
FIRST : <πρώτιστα> first of all --
FIRST : <πρῶτον> first --
FIRST : <πρῶτος> first --
FIRST : <ἀρχή> beginning, first principle --
FIT : <ἁρμόττω> fit together --
FLEE : <φεύγω> escape, flee --
FOLLOW : <ἕπομαι> follow --
FOLLY : <ἀτασθαλία> folly --
FOOLISH : <νήπιος> childish, foolish --
FOR : <γάρ> for --
FORCE : <ἀνάγκη> force, compulsion --
FOREIGN : <βάρβαρος> foreign, not Greek --
FOREIGNER : <βάρβαρος> foreigner, non-Greek --
FORGETTING : <λήθη> forgetting --
FORGIVE : <ἀφίημι> send forth, throw down, permit, forgive --
FORGOTTEN : <ἐξίτηλος> fading, forgotten --
FORTH : <προιάπτω> send forth --
FORTH : <προφέρω> bring forth --
FORTH : <ἀφίημι> send forth, throw down, permit, forgive --
FOURTH : <τέταρτος> fourth --
FRAGRANT : <εὐωδίη> fragrant scent --
FRANKINCENSE : <λίβανος> frankincense, frankincense tree --
FREE : <λύω> loosen, free --
FRIEND : <φίλος> dear one, friend --
FRIENDLY : <φίλος> dear, friendly --
FROM : <παρά> from, of --
FROM : <ἀπό> from --
FROM : <ἐκ> from, out of --
FROM : <ἐξ> from, out of --
FRONT : <ἔμπροσθεν> before, in front --
FRUITFUL : <πουλυβότειρα> all nourishing, fruitful --
FULFILL : <τελείω> fulfill, complete --
GARLAND : <σττ́εμμα> wreath, garland --
GATEWAY : <προπύλαια> gateway --
GENERAL : <στρατηγός> general --
GENERATION : <γενεή> family, generation, race --
GIVE : <δίδωμι> give --
GIVE : <ἐκδιδώμι> give up --
GO : <εἶμι> go --
GO : <ἀναβαίνω> mount, go up --
GO : <ἔρχομαι> come, go --
GO : <ὑποδύω> go under --
GOD : <θεός> god --
GODDESS : <θεά> goddess --
GODLIKE : <δῖος> godlike, noble --
GODLIKE : <θεῖος> divine, godlike --
GODLIKE : <ἀντίθεος> godlike --
GOLDEN : <χρύσεος> golden --
GOOD : <καλός> good, beautiful --
GOOD : <ἄγαθος> good --
GOOD : <ἐσθλόν> good --
GREAT : <μεγάλος> great --
GREAT : <μέγας> great --
GREATLY : <μεγάλως> greatly --
GREECE : <Ἑλλάς> Greece --
GREEK : <βάρβαρος> foreign, not Greek --
GREEK : <Ἑλληνικός> Greek --
GREEK : <Ἕλλην> Greek --
GRIEF : <πόνος> grief --
GROTTO : <σπέος> cave, grotto --
GROW : <φύω> grow --
HADES : <Αἵδης> Hades --
HAIRY : <δασύς> hairy, shaggy --
HALICARNASSIAN : <Ἁλικαρνησεύς> Halicarnassian --
HAND : <δεξιά> the right hand --
HAND : <δέ> and, on the other hand --
HAND : <μέν> on the one hand --
HAND : <χείρ> hand --
HAPPEN : <γίγνομαι> happen, become --
HARD : <πραγματεία> hard work, affairs --
HATE : <δυσμένεια> enmity, hate --
HAVE : <εἴχω> have, be --
HAVE : <ἔχω> have --
HE : <αὐτός> oneself, he --
HE : <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it --
HEAP : <κολωνός> heap --
HEAR : <ἀκούω> hear, listen --
HEART : <θυμός> soul, heart --
HEART : <κρατέω> hold fast, take to heart; rule, conquer --
HEAVEN : <οὐρανός> heaven --
HEIGHT : <μεγάθης> height --
HELEN : <Ἑλένη> Helen --
HELIOS : <Ἠέλιος> Helios --
HELLENOS : <Ἕλληνος> Hellenos --
HELP : <παραβοηθέω> come up to help --
HEMP : <κάνναβις> hemp --
HER : <ἐός> his, her --
HERO : <ἥρως> hero --
HERODOTUS : <Ἡερόδοτος> Herodotus --
HIMSELF : <ἑαυτός> himself --
HIS : <οἶκόνδε> to his home --
HIS : <ἐός> his, her --
HIS : <ὅς> his --
HISTORY : <ἱστορία> inquiry, history --
HOLD : <κρατέω> hold fast, take to heart; rule, conquer --
HOLD : <ἐρύκω> hold back --
HOLLOW : <γλαφυρός> hollow --
HOME : <δῶμα> house, home --
HOME : <οἴκαδε> home --
HOME : <οἴκοι> at home --
HOME : <οἶκόνδε> to his home --
HOMER : <Ὅμερος> Homer --
HORSE : <ἵππος> horse --
HORSEMAN : <ἱππεύς> horseman --
HOSTILE : <πολέμιος> hostile, inimical --
HOUSE : <δῶμα> house, home --
HOWEVER : <μέντοι> but, however --
HOWL : <ὠρύομαι> howl --
HUMAN : <ἄνθρωπος> human being --
HUSBAND : <πόσις> husband --
HYPERION : <Ὑπερίων> Hyperion --
IF : <εἰ> if --
IF : <ἄν> if --
IF : <ἤν> if --
ILL-WILL : <φθόνος> envy, ill-will --
IMAGE : <εἰκών> image, portrait --
IMAGINE : <οἴομαι> think, imagine --
IMITATE : <μιμέομαι> imitate --
IMMORTAL : <ἀθάνατος> immortal --
IMPOSSIBLE : <ἀδύνατος> impossible --
IN : <ἐν> in --
INDEED : <γε> indeed --
INDEED : <δή> indeed --
INDEED : <οὖν> indeed --
INDEED : <περ> indeed --
INDEED : <ὦν> indeed --
INIMICAL : <πολέμιος> hostile, inimical --
INQUIRY : <ἱστορία> inquiry, history --
INSTEAD : <ἀντί> instead of --
INSTRUMENT : <μηχανή> instrument --
INTERCOURSE : <ἀμειξία> lack of intercourse --
INTERPRETATION : <ἑρμηνεία> interpretation --
INVITE : <ἐπάγω> bring in, invite --
IRON : <σιδήρεος> of iron --
IT : <μιν> it --
IT : <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it --
IT : <ὅσπερ> it --
ITHACA : <Ἰθάκη> Ithaca --
ITSELF : <αὐτόματος> by itself --
JUST : <δίκαιος> just, righteous --
JUSTICE : <δικαιοσύνη> justice, righteousness --
KILL : <διαφθείρω> destroy, kill --
KILL : <ἀποκτείνω> kill --
KILL : <ὀλέκω> kill --
KING : <βασιλεύς> king --
KING : <ἐμβασιλεύω> be king in --
KNOW : <γιγνώσκω> know, learn --
KNOW : <εἴδω> see, know --
KNOW : <ἐπίσταμαι> know --
KRONOS : <Κρονίδης> son of Kronos --
LABOR : <κάματος> toil, labor --
LACEDEMONIAN : <Λακεδαιμόνιος> Lacedemonian, Spartan --
LACK : <ἀμειξία> lack of intercourse --
LAND : <γαῖα> land --
LAND : <χώρα> land, country --
LANGUAGE : <ὀνομασία> language --
LARGE : <οἰωνός> large bird, bird of prey --
LATER : <ὕστερον> later --
LEAD : <ἡγέομαι> lead, regard, rule --
LEARN : <γιγνώσκω> know, learn --
LEAST : <ἥκιστα> least --
LEISURE : <σχολή> leisure --
LETO : <Λητώ> Leto --
LIFE : <πράξις> action in actual life --
LIKE : <οἷος> like, such that --
LIKE : <πολιτικῶς> like statesmen --
LIKE : <ἀφομοιοε̃ω> to make like --
LIKE : <ἐναλίγκιος> resembling, like --
LIKE : <ὅμοιος> like, similar --
LIKE : <ὥστε> like, so that --
LIKE : <ῥητορικῶς> like rhetoricians --
LINEN : <λίνεος> of linen --
LINEN : <λίνον> linen --
LISTEN : <ἀκούω> hear, listen --
LIVE : <ζώω> live --
LOOSEN : <λύω> loosen, free --
LYCIUS : <Λύκιος> Lycius --
MAKE : <ποιέω> make, do --
MAKE : <τεύχω> make ready, make --
MAKE : <ἀφομοιοε̃ω> to make like --
MAKE : <ἐργάζομαι> work, make --
MAN : <φιλόσοφος> wise man --
MAN : <ἀνήρ> man --
MANAGE : <πράσσω> achieve, manage --
MANAGE : <πράττω> achieve, manage --
MANY : <πολύς> many --
MANY : <ὅσος> as many --
MAT : <πῖλος> mat --
MEDEA : <Μηδεία> Medea --
MESSENGER : <ἄγγελος> messenger --
METRICAL : <ἔμμετρος> metrical --
MIND : <διάνοια> thought, mind --
MIND : <νόος> mind --
MINOS : <Μίνος> Minos --
MISERY : <οἰζύς> misery, suffering --
MIX : <μίγνυμι> mix --
MODERATION : <σωφροσύνη> moderation, discretion --
MORE : <μᾶλλον> more and more --
MOST : <πλεῖστος> most --
MOTION : <ἐλαύνω> set in motion --
MOULD : <πλάττω> mould, shape --
MOUNT : <ἀναβαίνω> mount, go up --
MOUNTAIN : <ὄρος> mountain --
MOUNTAIN-TOP : <ἄκρον> mountain-top, peak --
MUCH : <κάρτα> very much, extremely --
MUCH-TRAVELED : <πολύτροπος> much-turned, much-traveled --
MUCH-TURNED : <πολύτροπος> much-turned, much-traveled --
MUSE : <Μοῦσα> Muse --
NAME : <ἐπωνυμία> name, designation --
NAME : <ἐπίκλησις> name, title --
NAME : <ὀνομάζω> speak of by name --
NAME : <ὄνομα> name --
NATION : <ἔθνος> nation, people, tribe --
NEAR : <ἐγγύς> near --
NEAR : <ἐπίειμι> come near --
NEED : <χράομαι> need, use --
NEITHER : <μήτε> and not, neither --
NEITHER : <οὔτε> neither, nor --
NEVERTHELESS : <ἔμπης> nevertheless --
NIGHT : <νύκτωρ> by night --
NO : <οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν> no one, nothing --
NO : <οὐδέν> in no way --
NOBLE : <δῖος> godlike, noble --
NON-GREEK : <βάρβαρος> foreigner, non-Greek --
NOR : <οὔτε> neither, nor --
NOT : <βάρβαρος> foreign, not Greek --
NOT : <μηδέ> and not --
NOT : <μή> not --
NOT : <μήτε> and not, neither --
NOT : <οὐ> not --
NOT : <οὐδέ> not --
NOT : <οὐκ> not --
NOTHING : <οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν> no one, nothing --
NOURISHING : <πουλυβότειρα> all nourishing, fruitful --
NOW : <νῦν> now --
NOWHERE : <οὐδαμοῦ> nowhere --
NYMPH : <νύμφη> nymph --
OBJECT : <μέλω> to care, to be an object of care --
OBVIOUS : <δῆλος> clear, obvious --
ODYSSEUS : <Ὀδυσεύς> Odysseus --
OF : <παρά> from, of --
OF : <ἐκ> from, out of --
OF : <ἐξ> from, out of --
OFF : <ἀπαιρέω> take off --
OFF : <ἁρπάζω> carry off --
OH : <ῶ> Oh --
OLD : <παλαιός> old, ancient --
OLD : <ἀρχαιος> old --
OLYMPIAN : <Ὀλύμπιος> Olympian --
ON : <ἀνά> on --
ONE : <εἷς> one --
ONE : <μέν> on the one hand --
ONE : <οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν> no one, nothing --
ONE : <φίλος> dear one, friend --
ONE : <ἀλλήλων> one another --
ONESELF : <αὐτός> oneself, he --
ONESELF : <λούομαι> wash oneself --
ONESELF : <ὁμιλέω> consort with, busy oneself with --
ORDER : <κόσμιος> decorum, order --
ORDER : <κόσμος> beauty, order, world --
ORDER : <τάσσω> arrange, put in order --
ORDERLY : <κόσμιος> orderly --
OTHER : <δέ> and, on the other hand --
OTHER : <ἄλλος> other --
OTHER : <ἕτερος> other --
OTHERWISE : <ἄλλως> otherwise, especially --
OUT : <ἐκ> from, out of --
OUT : <ἐξ> from, out of --
OVER : <καταπλάσσω> plaster over --
OWN : <σφέτερος> own --
OX : <βοῦς> cow, ox --
OX-HIDE : <γέρρον> ox-hide wicker shield --
OXHIDE : <ὠμοβόειος> of raw, untanned oxhide --
PACK : <ὑποζύγιον> pack animal --
PAINT : <λευκο-γραφέω> paint in white on a black background --
PAINT : <φάρμακον> paint, color --
PAINT : <ἐναλείψω> paint, smear --
PAINTING : <γραφικῆ> painting --
PASS : <παρεγγυάω> pass along --
PEAK : <ἄκρον> mountain-top, peak --
PELASGIAN : <Πελασγικός> Pelasgian --
PELEUS : <Πηληιάδης> son of Peleus --
PEOPLE : <δημοτικός> of the people, in common use --
PEOPLE : <λαός> people --
PEOPLE : <ἔθνος> nation, people, tribe --
PERHAPS : <που> anywhere, perhaps --
PERISH : <φθείρω> perish --
PERISH : <ὄλλυμαι> perish --
PERMIT : <ἀφίημι> send forth, throw down, permit, forgive --
PERSIAN : <Πέρσης> Persian --
PHTHIOTIS : <Φθιῶτις> Phthiotis --
PIECES : <κατασώχω> rub in pieces --
PITY : <ἐλεαίρω> pity --
PLACE : <τίθημι> put, place --
PLASTER : <καταπλαστύς> plaster --
PLASTER : <καταπλάσσω> plaster over --
PLEASE : <εὐφραίνω> delight, please --
PLOT : <μῦθος> speech, plot --
POINT : <ἁμόθεν> from any point --
POLITICS : <πολιτική> politics --
POOR : <κακός> evil, poor --
PORTRAIT : <εἰκών> image, portrait --
POSEIDON : <Ποσειδάων> Poseidon --
POSITIVELY : <τεκμηριόω> prove positively --
POSSIBLE : <δυνατός> possible --
POSSIBLE : <ἔνειμι> to be in, to be possible --
POUR : <παραχέω> pour in --
POWER : <δύναμις> power --
PRACTICE : <μελετάω> care for, practice --
PRAY : <λίσσομαι> pray --
PRECIPITOUS : <ἀπότομος> precipitous --
PRESENTLY : <τάχα> presently, soon --
PREVAIL : <ἐκνικάω> prevail --
PREY : <οἰωνός> large bird, bird of prey --
PRIAM : <Πρίαμος> Priam --
PRIEST : <ἀρητήρ> priest --
PRINCIPLE : <ἀρχή> beginning, first principle --
PRIVATELY : <ἰδίᾳ> privately --
PROMISCUOUSLY : <χύδην> at random, promiscuously --
PROPOSE : <ἀποδείκνυμι> propose --
PROVE : <τεκμηριόω> prove positively --
PROVIDE : <κομίζω> provide for --
PROVIDE : <παρέχω> provide --
PUBLIC : <δημοσίᾳ> in public --
PUBLICATION : <ἀπόδεξις> exposition, publication --
PURE : <καθαρός> clean, pure --
PUT : <τάσσω> arrange, put in order --
PUT : <τίθημι> put, place --
PUT : <ἀνάγομαι> put out to sea --
QUARREL : <μάχομαι> fight, quarrel --
QUARREL : <ἐρίζω> quarrel --
QUEENLY : <πότνια> revered, queenly --
RACE : <γενεή> family, generation, race --
RACE : <γένος> race --
RAGE : <μεναίνω> rage --
RANDOM : <χύδην> at random, promiscuously --
RANSOM : <ἄποινα> ransom --
RAW : <ὠμοβόειος> of raw, untanned oxhide --
REACH : <ἀφικνέομαι> come to, reach --
REACH : <ἱκνέομαι> reach --
READY : <τεύχω> make ready, make --
REALLY : <ἀληθῶς> really, truly --
REAR-GUARD : <ὀπισθοφύλαξ> rear-guard --
REASON : <αἰτία> cause, reason --
REASON : <λόγος> word, reason --
RECEIVE : <δέχομαι> receive --
RECEIVE : <λαμβάνω> receive, capture --
RED-HOT : <διαφανής> transparent, red-hot --
REGARD : <ἡγέομαι> lead, regard, rule --
REPRESENTATION : <μίμησις> representation --
REQUEST : <αἰτέω> request --
REQUEST : <βούλομαι> wish, request --
REQUEST : <ἀπαιτέω> request --
RESEMBLING : <ἐμφέρης> resembling --
RESEMBLING : <ἐναλίγκιος> resembling, like --
RETURN : <νέομαι> return --
RETURN : <νόστος> return --
RETURNING : <νόστιμος> returning --
REVEAL : <δηλόω> be clear, reveal --
REVERED : <πότνια> revered, queenly --
REVOLVE : <περιπέλομαι> revolve --
RHETORIC : <ῥητορική> rhetoric --
RHETORICIANS : <ῥητορικῶς> like rhetoricians --
RIGHT : <δεξιά> the right hand --
RIGHT : <δίκη> custom, right --
RIGHTEOUS : <δίκαιος> just, righteous --
RIGHTEOUSNESS : <δικαιοσύνη> justice, righteousness --
ROOF : <ὀροφή> roof --
ROUGH : <τρηχύς> rough --
RUB : <κατασώχω> rub in pieces --
RULE : <κρατέω> hold fast, take to heart; rule, conquer --
RULE : <ἡγέομαι> lead, regard, rule --
RULER : <ἄναξ> ruler --
RUN : <δρόμος> run --
RUN : <θέω> run --
SACK : <πέρθω> destroy, sack --
SACRED : <ἱερός> sacred --
SAD : <στονόεις> sad, wretched --
SAIL : <πλέω> sail --
SAIL : <ἱστίον> sail --
SAME : <ἅμα> at the same time --
SAVE : <ῥύομαι> save --
SAW : <εἶδον> saw --
SAY : <εἴρω> speak, say --
SAY : <λέγω> say --
SAY : <οἶον> so to say --
SAY : <προ-λέγω> say beforehand --
SAY : <φημί> say --
SAYING : <ἔπος> words, saying --
SCENT : <εὐωδίη> fragrant scent --
SCEPTRE : <σκήπτρον> sceptre --
SCYTHIAN : <Σκύθης> Scythian --
SEA : <θάλασσα> sea --
SEA : <θάλαττα> sea --
SEA : <πόντος> sea --
SEA : <ἀνάγομαι> put out to sea --
SECOND : <δεύτερον> second --
SECOND : <δεύτερος> second --
SECURE : <ἐχυρός> strong, secure --
SEE : <βλέπω> see --
SEE : <εἴδω> see, know --
SEE : <θεάομαι> see --
SEE : <ὁράω> see --
SEED : <σπέρμα> seed --
SEEM : <δοκέω> seem, think --
SEEM : <φαίνω> seem --
SEND : <προιάπτω> send forth --
SEND : <πέμπω> send --
SEND : <ἀφίημι> send forth, throw down, permit, forgive --
SEPARATE : <δι-ίστημι> separate, strive --
SEPARATE : <χωρίζω> separate --
SEPARATE : <ἀποκρίνω> separate, answer --
SET : <ἐλαύνω> set in motion --
SHAGGY : <δασύς> hairy, shaggy --
SHAPE : <πλάττω> mould, shape --
SHE : <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it --
SHIELD : <γέρρον> ox-hide wicker shield --
SHINY : <λαμπρός> shiny --
SHIP : <ναῦς> ship --
SHOUT : <βοάω> shout --
SHOUT : <βοή> shout --
SHOUT : <κραυγή> shout --
SICKNESS : <νούσος> sickness --
SILVER : <ἀργύρεος> silver --
SIMILAR : <ὅμοιος> like, similar --
SIMILARLY : <ὁμοίως> similarly --
SING : <ἀείδω> sing, chant --
SIZE : <μέγεθος> size --
SKILLED : <τρίβω> skilled, experienced --
SMEAR : <ἐναλείψω> paint, smear --
SMOKE : <θυμιάω> burn with smoke --
SO : <διόπερ> therefore, so --
SO : <οἶον> so to say --
SO : <οὕτως> so, thus --
SO : <ὡς> so, thus --
SO : <ὥστε> like, so that --
SOLDIER : <στρατιώτης> soldier --
SOME : <ποτέ> at some time, ever --
SOMEONE : <τις> someone, something --
SOMEONE : <ὅτος> someone --
SOMETHING : <τις> someone, something --
SON : <Κρονίδης> son of Kronos --
SON : <Πηληιάδης> son of Peleus --
SON : <υἱός> son --
SON : <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus --
SOON : <τάχα> presently, soon --
SORROW : <ἀκήδης> without sorrow --
SORT : <ὁπος> what sort of --
SOUL : <θυμός> soul, heart --
SOUL : <ψυχή> soul --
SOW : <σπείρω> sow --
SPARTAN : <Λακεδαιμόνιος> Lacedemonian, Spartan --
SPEAK : <εἴρω> speak, say --
SPEAK : <ὀνομάζω> speak of by name --
SPEECH : <μέροψ> endowed with speech --
SPEECH : <μῦθος> speech, plot --
SPIN : <ἐπικλώθω> spin; decide --
SPOILS : <ἑλώριον> spoils, booty --
STAND : <ἅζομαι> stand in awe of --
STATESMEN : <πολιτικῶς> like statesmen --
STATURE : <φύη> stature --
STAY : <ἴσχω> stay --
STEAM : <ἀτμίς> steam, vapor --
STEEL : <ἀδάμας> steel --
STILL : <ἔτι> still --
STIR : <ὄρνυμι> stir up --
STONE : <λίθος> stone --
STOP : <παύω> stop, cease --
STOUT-HEARTED : <κρατερόφρων> stout-hearted, dauntless --
STRIFE : <ἔρις> strife --
STRIVE : <δι-ίστημι> separate, strive --
STRONG : <ἐχυρός> strong, secure --
STRONG : <ἰσχύω> be strong --
STRONG : <ὄβριμος> strong --
STYLE : <λέξις> style --
SUCH : <οἷος> like, such that --
SUCH : <τοιοῦτος> such --
SUCH : <τοσοῦτος> such --
SUCH-LIKE : <παραπλήσιος> such-like --
SUDDEN : <ἐξαπίνης> on a sudden --
SUFFER : <πάσχω> suffer --
SUFFERING : <οἰζύς> misery, suffering --
SUMMON : <καλέω> call, summon --
SUPERIOR : <προείχω> to be superior, excel --
SURPASS : <ὑπερφέρω> surpass --
TAKE : <καθαιρέω> take down, destroy --
TAKE : <κρατέω> hold fast, take to heart; rule, conquer --
TAKE : <στρατεύω> take the field, attack --
TAKE : <ἀναλαμβάνω> take along --
TAKE : <ἀπαιρέω> take off --
TAKE : <ἀφαιρέω> take away --
TELL : <ἐνέπω> tell, tell of --
TEMPLE : <ναός> temple --
TERRIBLE : <δεινός> terrible --
THAN : <ἤ> or, than --
THAT : <οἷος> like, such that --
THAT : <ἐκεῖνος> that --
THAT : <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it --
THAT : <ὅτι> because, that --
THAT : <ὥστε> like, so that --
THE : <τό> the --
THE : <ὁ> the --
THECHES : <Θήχης> Theches --
THEN : <αὖτε> then, again --
THEN : <ἆρα> then --
THEN : <ἐνταῦθα> then, there --
THEN : <ἔνθα> then, there --
THERE : <ἐκεῖ> there --
THERE : <ἐνταῦθα> then, there --
THERE : <ἐντεῦθεν> from there --
THERE : <ἔνθα> then, there --
THEREFORE : <διόπερ> therefore, so --
THEREUPON : <ἔπειτα> thereupon --
THESEUS : <Θησεύς> Theseus --
THEY : <σφεῖς> they --
THICK : <παχύς> thick --
THICKNESS : <παχύτης> thickness --
THINK : <δοκέω> seem, think --
THINK : <οἴομαι> think, imagine --
THINK : <οἶμαι> think --
THIRD : <τρίτος> third --
THIS : <οὗτος> this --
THIS : <ὅδε> this --
THIS : <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it --
THOSE : <σφωε> those two --
THOUGHT : <διάνοια> thought, mind --
THOUGHT : <μέριμνα> care, anxious thought --
THOUGHT : <νόημα> thought, understanding --
THRACIAN : <Θρῆτ́ιξ> Thracian --
THROUGH : <διά> through, by --
THROW : <περιβάλλω> throw around --
THROW : <ἀφίημι> send forth, throw down, permit, forgive --
THROW : <ἐπιβάλλω> throw on --
THROW : <ῥίπτω> throw down --
THUS : <οὔτω> thus --
THUS : <οὕτως> so, thus --
THUS : <ὡς> as, thus --
THUS : <ὡς> so, thus --
TIME : <ποτέ> at some time, ever --
TIME : <χρόνος> time --
TIME : <ἅμα> at the same time --
TITLE : <ἐπίκλησις> name, title --
TO : <πρός> to --
TOGETHER : <ξυνίημι> bring together, understand --
TOGETHER : <ξύμπας> all together --
TOGETHER : <συνέρχομαι> unite, come together --
TOGETHER : <συνίημι> bring together --
TOGETHER : <ἁθρόος> together --
TOGETHER : <ἁρμόττω> fit together --
TOGETHER : <ὁμιλία> being together --
TOIL : <κάματος> toil, labor --
TOSS : <πλάζω> wander, toss --
TOWARDS : <εἰς> towards --
TOWARDS : <ἐς> towards --
TRAGEDY : <τραγῳδία> tragedy --
TRANSPARENT : <διαφανής> transparent, red-hot --
TREE : <λίβανος> frankincense, frankincense tree --
TREE : <μελία> the ash tree --
TRIBE : <ἔθνος> nation, people, tribe --
TROJAN : <Τρωικός> Trojan --
TROY : <Τροίη> Troy --
TRULY : <σαφῶς> truly --
TRULY : <ἀληθῶς> really, truly --
TWENTY : <εἴκοσι> twenty --
TWO : <δύο> two --
TWO : <σφωε> those two --
UNCEASINGLY : <ἀσπερχές> unceasingly --
UNDER : <κατά> completely, down, under --
UNDER : <ὑποδύω> go under --
UNDER : <ὑπό> under, by --
UNDERSTAND : <ξυνίημι> bring together, understand --
UNDERSTANDING : <νόημα> thought, understanding --
UNITE : <συνέρχομαι> unite, come together --
UNTANNED : <ὠμοβόειος> of raw, untanned oxhide --
UNTIL : <μέχρι> until --
UNTIL : <πάρος> until --
UP : <παραβοηθέω> come up to help --
UP : <ἀναβαίνω> mount, go up --
UP : <ἐκδιδώμι> give up --
UP : <ὄρνυμι> stir up --
USE : <δημοτικός> of the people, in common use --
USE : <χράομαι> need, use --
VALIANT : <ἴφθιμος> valiant --
VAPOR : <πυρίη> vapor bath --
VAPOR : <ἀτμίς> steam, vapor --
VENTURE : <τόλμα> courage, venture --
VERILY : <μήν> verily --
VERILY : <ἧ> verily --
VERY : <κάρτα> very much, extremely --
VERY : <μάλα> very --
VICTORY : <Νίκη> Victory --
VIOLENCE : <ὕβρις> violence --
VIRTUE : <ἀρετῆ> virtue --
VISIBLE : <σύνοπτος> visible --
WALL : <τεῖχος> wall --
WANDER : <πλάζω> wander, toss --
WANT : <ἐθέλω> wish, want --
WAR : <ποε̃λεμος> war --
WAR : <πολεμέω> fight, be at war --
WASH : <λούομαι> wash oneself --
WATER : <ὕδωρ> water --
WAY : <οὐδέν> in no way --
WAY : <τι> in any way --
WEAKNESS : <ἀσθένεια> weakness --
WEEP : <δακρύω> weep --
WELL : <εὔ> well --
WELL-GREAVED : <εὐκνῆμις> well-greaved --
WHAT : <τίς> who, what --
WHAT : <ὁπος> what sort of --
WHATEVER : <ὅστις> whoever, whatever --
WHEN : <ἐπεάν> when, after --
WHEN : <ἐπεί> when, after --
WHEN : <ὅτε> when --
WHETHER : <εἴτε> whether...or --
WHICH : <ὅς> who, which --
WHITE : <λευκο-γραφέω> paint in white on a black background --
WHITE : <λευκός> white --
WHO : <τίς> who, what --
WHO : <ὅς> who, which --
WHOEVER : <ὅστις> whoever, whatever --
WHOLLY : <ὅλως> wholly --
WICKER : <γέρρον> ox-hide wicker shield --
WILL : <βουλή> will --
WIN : <ἄρνυμαι> win --
WINGLESS : <Ἄπτερος> Wingless --
WISE : <φιλόσοφος> wise man --
WISH : <βούλομαι> wish, request --
WISH : <ἐθέλω> wish, want --
WITHOUT : <ἀκλεός> without fame --
WITHOUT : <ἀκήδης> without sorrow --
WITHOUT : <ἄτερ> without --
WOE : <ἀέθλος> battle, woe --
WOE : <ἄλγος> woe --
WOMAN : <γυνή> woman --
WONDER : <ἄγαμαι> to wonder, admire --
WONDERFUL : <θωμαστός> wonderful --
WOOD : <ξύλον> wood --
WORD : <λόγος> word, reason --
WORDS : <ἔπος> words, saying --
WORK : <πραγματεία> hard work, affairs --
WORK : <ἐργάζομαι> work, make --
WORK : <ἔργον> work, deed --
WORLD : <κόσμος> beauty, order, world --
WREATH : <σττ́εμμα> wreath, garland --
WRETCHED : <στονόεις> sad, wretched --
WRONG : <ἀδικέω> wrong --
XENOPHON : <Ξενοφῶν> Xenophon --
YEAR : <ἐνιαυτός> year --
YEAR : <ἔτος> year --
YET : <κώ> yet --
YET : <πω> yet --
YOU : <σύ> you --
ZEUS : <Ζεύς> Zeus --

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