Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Technology

Gandipet, Hyderabad - 500075

Department of M&H

COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE

LEARNING LAB MANUAL
PHONETICS LAB MANUAL
I YEAR B.Tech
(2015 – 2016)

ELCS lab Manual 1

 MEMBERS OF FACULTY

1. Dr.C.S. Srinivas
M.A.., M.Phil, Ph.D

2. Ms. A. Lavanya
M.A. , PGDTE

3. Mr. K. Venkata Ramana

M.A.

4. Ms. C.N.A. Chandra

M.A. , M.Phil

5. Mr. E. Krishna Chaitanya

M.A., M.Phil, PGCTE & PGDTE

6. Mr. V. Venkata Ramana

M.A. , M.Ed., M.Phil., PGCTE

7. Ms. Gousia Sultana

M.A.

8. Mr. John Elijah

M.A.

9. Dr.B.S .Meenakshi
M.A., PGCTE, M. Phil., Ph.D(ELE)

10. Ms.E.Elizabeth Kamala

M.A.., PGDTE, M.Ed, M. Phil.,

ELCS lab Manual 2

INTRODUCTION

In view of the growing importance of English as a tool for global

communication and the consequent emphasis on training students to acquire
communicative competence, the syllabus has been designed to develop
linguistic and communicative competence of Engineering students.

The language laboratory makes use of the latest technological aids to support
language learning. It is in fact a complex of audio-visual equipment specially
designed to meet the requirements of language learners. It consists of a teacher
console which helps the instructor in monitoring the learning activities of the
individual learners. Each learner is provided with a learner-booth which
includes a monitor to see the visual content of the 'lessons' and a headphone
for the audio component. The instructor can use a pre-recorded audio-visual
CD or cassette at the console and it is simultaneously accessible to all the 30
learners. In fact, he can record his own lesson which can be simultaneously
recorded at all the 30 learner booths.

What makes the language laboratory useful is the fact that the teacher console
allows the instructor to listen to each learner individually and get in touch
with any learner through the head phone without disturbing others. Similarly,
the learner by just pressing a button can communicate with the instructor for
suggestions, queries, without once again disturbing fellow learners. The
advantage is that 30 individual learners go through the learning process
listening to the language lesson, reproducing the activities, recording it on the
audio tape so that they can cross check their performance. The language lab
has the facility of a 'conference' - that is the instructor can hold brief
discussions with five selected learners without once again disturbing the rest
of the class. Though the technology involved is very simple, it makes a big
difference in bringing a shift from passive learning to active, collaborative
learning. It provides a measure of autonomy to the learner because he or she
can choose the learning material at his or her own pace. The learner can repeat
exercises, skip some and always retrieve whatever he requires. At the same
time he is also not deprived of the presence of an instructor. With the
availability of highly sophisticated audio video material prepared by leading
institutions of English, one can also ensure the quality of the learning
material. As it is obvious, the laboratory is specially equipped to teach
pronunciation, accent and intonation. The university therefore plans to
provide intensive short-term training to candidates who want to take their
TOEFL and IELTS. These competitive examinations require the ability to
comprehend British, American or Australian accents. The language lab can
easily handle this task.

ELCS lab Manual 3

Language Lab
English Language learning is very important for today’s global society.
English is the international language for business. The correct phonetics
accents and dialects are to be effectively used for, business communication,
official communication, talking to seniors, colleges and juniors, to the
secretary, the telephone operator, etc. With the help of a good language lab one
can easily learn the different dialects and accents- the British, the American,
the India accents, etc. For those aspiring for employment abroad especially
Nurses going to England or America with the language lab will be very
useful.

A fully computerized Language Lab with ETNL Software can be of used for
learning any language. Eg- English, Arabic, French, German, etc. The
training materials such as recorded tapes CDs etc and proficient teacher for
that particular language are the extra requirements for ETNL Language Lab.

What is LANGUAGE LAB?

A Language Lab is a place where student or any one for that matter can learn
a language and improve his speaking and listening capacity. One can get
familiar with any language of his choice, not only that he can develop skills to
understand and speak the different dialects and accents of the same Language.

The idea of Language Lab was originated during the World War. The
importance of communicating in foreign languages was very highly felt by the
warring factions. The Language Lab was born. In the beginning the lab
consisted of tape recorders, amplifiers, headphones and mics systematically
laid out so that a teacher can help the students in faster learning using
recorded lessons and other teaching aids. This system worked wonderfully at
that time, but had some inherent defects.

During the 2nd stage of development, computers were included in the system
along with tape recorders and amplifiers. This certainly improved the
functioning eliminating some of the inherent defects.

The 3rd stage of development is the ETNL Language Lab. It eliminates the use
of tape recorders and amplifiers. It is a fully computerized Lab incorporating
the software developed by us. The lessons and the interactive communications
are processed in a digital format, resulting in the highest clarity making the
teaching and learning process a pleasant and effective one. This system
transmits the voice without any noise.

ELCS lab Manual 4

OBJECTIVES

The language Lab focuses computer-aided multi-media

instruction and language acquisition to achieve the following
targets

 To expose the students to a variety of self-instructional

learner-friendly modes of language learning.

 To help the students cultivate the habit of reading

passages from the computer monitor, thus providing
them with the required facility to face computer based
competitive exams such GRE, TOEFL, GMAT etc.

 To enable them to learn better pronunciation through

stress on word accent, intonation and rhythm.

 To train them to use language effectively to face

interviews, group discussions, public speaking.

 To initiate them into greater use of the computer in

resume preparation, report writing, formats making
etc.

ELCS lab Manual 5

CONTENTS

CONTENTS Page No.

1. Introduction to Phonetics – Speech Sounds of English 7

2. Vowels and Consonants – 10
Associated Phonetic Symbols
3. Three Term Label of Consonants 14
4. Consonant Clusters 19
5. Silent Consonant letters 21
6. Minimal Pairs 25
7. Word Accent / Stress Shifts 30
8. Double Consonant Letters 34
9. Intonation 37

ELCS lab Manual 6

 Introduction to Phonetics – The Sounds of English

What is Phonetics?

Phonetics is a science of the sounds of a language. The sounds are described

according to the method by which they are produced, and are classified
accordingly. The study of phonetics is necessary, if we want to acquaint
ourselves with a foreign language. It is not necessary to learn the phonetics of
the mother – tongue, as we grasp the correct pronunciation of the mother –
tongue by imitating the parents. But in the case of a foreign language, as we do
not get opportunities to hear that language, spoken, the necessity of the study of
its phonetics is, therefore, necessary.

Phonetic Transcription

As we all know, the basic components of any spoken language are sounds and
written language are symbols or letters of the alphabet. Almost all the Indian
languages viz. Telugu, Hindi etc. are much more Phonetic i.e., there is one to one
correspondence between the letters and the sounds, for example, the letter

The case with English language is completely different. English is not a

Phonetic language because there is no one to one relationship between the letters
of the English alphabet and their sounds. Some times one letter stands for
different sounds. An example of the first type is the letter u in the words cut, put,
rude, minute, bury, and university. An example of the second type may be the k-
sound represented differently in different words by the letter k in kit, ck in rock, c
in cut, cc in acclaim, ch in chemistry, and qu in queen.

Because on such a mismatch between spelling and sound, a learner of a language

like English cannot be sure of how to pronounce a word that he encounters for
the first time in the written form.

International Phonetic Alphabet

To overcome the problem a need had been felt to evolve an alphabet in which
words of any language could be written unambiguously. One such alphabet,
which is used very extensively by phoneticians all over the world, is the
International Phonetic Alphabet (or IPA), devised by the International Phonetic
Association. It is claimed to have symbols to represent all the sounds that exist
in the languages of the world; it can therefore be used to transcribe words of any
language, i.e., to write them down more or less as one pronounces them.

ELCS lab Manual 7

 SPEECH MECHANISM

Human beings produce sounds by using certain body mechanisms. These

mechanisms have primary functions to perform such as breathing, smelling,
chewing, swallowing and shall also play vital role in the production of speech
sounds.

A body from head to abdomen is needed for the production of spoken language.
There are 3 groups of bodily organs that are used to produce speech sounds. One
group lies in the trunk, the other is in throat, and the last one is the head. These 3
groups of bodily organs are respectively known as

1. Respiratory system
2. Phonatory system
3. Articulatory system

These three systems with different primary functions, work together as a unified
whole to produce speech sounds.

1. Respiratory System

The respiratory system comprises of the lungs, muscles of the chest, and
windpipe (trachea).
An air stream expelled from the lungs provides the most useful energy for a
vocal activity.

2. Phonatory System

This consists of larynx (Adam’s apple) and the glottis. Larynx is also called voice
box. Larynx contains the vocal cords and the opening between the vocal cords
known as glottis.

3. Articulatory System

The articulatory system comprises the roof of mouth (i.e, teeth ridge, the hard
palate, the soft palate or the velum and the uvula), the tongue and the lips.

All English language sounds are produced with the Pulmonic Egressive Air
stream mechanism (i.e. exhaling air out to release sounds).

ELCS lab Manual 8

 ARTICULATORS

Articulators are otherwise called organs of speech i.e., the organs which
help in the production of speech sounds. They can be classified as

1. Active articulators
2. Passive articulators

Active Articulators

These are those organs of speech that move towards the passive
articulators in the production of a speech sound. They can alter their position
and move from their original position. Lips, the tongue, the soft palate or the
velum and the lower teeth are active articulators.

Passive Articulators

These organs have fixed position, upper teeth, roof of the mouth (divided
into alveolar and hard palate) are examples of passive articulators. Ex In the
production of the sound / t /, the alveolum is the passive articulator and the tip
of the tongue is the active articulator.

ELCS lab Manual 9

 INTRODUCTION TO VOWELS AND CONSONANTS

AND ASSOCIATED PHONETIC SYMBOLS

Classification of Sounds in English

The English alphabet has 26 letters out of which 5 are vowels and the rest are
consonants. These letters and letter combinations give rise to 44 sounds. These
44 sounds are divided into 20 vowel sounds (i.e., 12 pure vowels and 8
diphthongs) and 24 consonants. They are as follows

Vowels

Vowels are the sounds in the production of which there is no obstruction of air
and the air passes freely through the mouth. All vowels are voiced sounds as
they are produced with the vibration of vocal cords.

There are altogether 20 vowel sounds; out of which 12 are Monophthongs (also
called pure vowels) and 8 are diphthongs (also called vowel glides and impure
vowels).

Monophthongs

Monophthongs are single letter symbols/sounds. There are long and short
Monophthongs. Long sounds are accompanied by colon marks ().

Short Vowels

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

ELCS lab Manual 10

Long Vowels

8)

9)

10)

11)

12)

Diphthongs

Diphthongs are the combination of two Monophthongs. Each of this sound starts
with one vowel and ends with another vowel. The first letter in each diphthong
is slightly longer than the second one.

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)

Consonants

Consonants are the sounds during the production of which the air is blocked
somewhere in the oral/nasal passage either suddenly or slowly and the air is
released. Some of the consonants are voiced others are voiceless sounds.

ELCS lab Manual 11

Voiced and Voiceless Sounds

A vibrating sound is called a voiced sound and a sound without vibration is

called voiceless. If we plug our ears with our fingers and produce the two
sounds such as bee and sea, we hear a buzzing sound for bee and it is called a
voiced sound. But in the production of the word sea, there is no buzzing sound
and hence it is called a voiceless sound. Most voiceless consonants have their
corresponding voiced consonants.

Voiced Voiceless

b p
d t
z s
dʒ tʃ
g k

There are altogether 24 consonant sounds. They are as follows

1. /P/

2. /b/

3. /t/

4. /d/

5. /k/

6. /g/

7. / t ʃ /

8. / dʒ /

9. /m/

ELCS lab Manual 12

 10. /n/

11. / ŋ /

12. /l/

13. /f/

14. /v/

15. //

16. / ð /

17. /s/

18. /z/

19. / ʃ /

20. / ʒ /

21. /h/

22. /r/

23. /w/

24. /j/

ELCS lab Manual 13

 Three Term Label of Consonants

Consonants are described according to three different labels and they are

I. Place of Articulation
II. Manner of Articulation
III. Glottis (determines whether a sound is produced is a voiced or a voiceless
sound)

I . Place of Articulation

Consonant sounds are divided into nine categories according to the place of
mouth where the sounds are produced. These sounds are made between the
Passive Articulators i.e., upper part of the mouth and Active Articulators i.e.,
tongue, both the lips.

Three Term Label Chart

1. Bilabial
These sounds are produced between the two lips, both upper and lower. There
are four bilabial sounds in English.

 Pen, aPPle, aPe

 Boy, aBnormal, aplomB
 Mice, aMong, roaM
 Work, language

2. Labio-Dental
The lower lip makes a contact with the edge of the upper front teeth while these
sounds are made out. There are two labio-dental sounds in English.

 Fan, aFFection, rooF

 Van, adVenture, serve

3. Dental
The tip of the tongue makes a light contact with the backside of the upper front
teeth while these sounds are produced. There are two dental sounds in English.

 THink, paTHs, baTH

 THen, raTHer, baTHE

ELCS lab Manual 14

4. Alveolar
During the articulation of these sounds, the tip and blade of the tongue make a
firm contact with the alveolar/teeth ridge. There are six alveolar sounds in
English.

 Tomorrow, aTTend, smarT

 Drink, aDDict, noD
 SCienCe, aSSign, maSS
 Zero, raZor, bagS
 NatioN, iNterNatioNal, atteNtioN
 Leave, aLLow, smaLL

5. Post-Alveolar
There is only one post-alveolar sound in English. During the articulation of this
sound, the tip and blade of the tongue makes a very light contact with the
immediate backside of the alveolar/teeth ridge.

 Raddish, oRganisation, baR

6. Palato-Alveolar
During the articulation of these sounds, the entire blade of the tongue makes a
firm contact with alveolar ridge + front portion of the hard palate. There are four
palato-alveolar sounds in English.

 CHair, baCHelor, matCH

 Jar, solDier, JudGe
 SHake, naTIOnal, smaSH
 Genre, meaSure, viSion, rouGe

7. Palatal
There is only one palatal sound in English. During the articulation of this sound,
the centre of the tongue is made stiff and raised towards the hard palate.

 Yes, Yellow, EUropean, student

8. Velar
During the articulation of these sounds, the back of the tongue is firmly held
against the soft palate. There are three velar sounds in English.

 Kite, aCcident, attaCK

 God, aGnostic, smoG
 thiNk, smokiNG, amoNG
ELCS lab Manual 15
9. Glottal
There is only one glottal sound in English. During the articulation of this sound,
the air from the lungs escapes through a narrow glottis with audible friction.

 Heart, reHearsal,

II. Manner of Articulation

It specifies the kind of closure or narrowing involved in the production of a

sound. In other words, it specifies the kind of stricture involved in the
articulation of sound. Depending on the stricture involved i.e., whether there is a
complete closure, or a partial closure or only a narrowing that causes audible
friction. Consonants are classified into plosives, affricates, fricatives, nasals,
frictionless continuant, lateral and semi-vowel.

1. Plosives A plosive is formed by the complete obstruction of the vocal tract by

the articulators. This obstruction is then released, allowing the air to "explode"
out of the mouth. Examples of plosives in English are , , , , , .

2. Fricatives A fricative is formed by the articulators, such as the tongue or the

lips. During production of these sounds, the air is blocked for few seconds and
the air is released gradually and slowly. Examples of fricatives in English are ,
, , , ,

3. Africates An affricate combines the manner of articulation for the plosive and
the fricative. It has a complete closure of the vocal tract by an articulator.
However, when the closure is released, the release is somewhat gradual,
providing a narrow space between the articulator and the mouth for the airflow
to move through. Examples of affricates in English are , .

4. Nasal A nasal is formed by the obstruction of the vocal tract and the lowering
of the velum. This lowering of the velum allows the airflow to flow out through
the nasal cavity, rather than through the oral cavity. Examples of nasals in
English are , , .

5. Frictionless Continuant Eg /r/ During the production of this sound the mouth
position is open and the front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate and
the sound is produced without any friction. Example /r/ in red.

6. Lateral A lateral sound is produced when the air is released from lateral sides
of the tongue and it can be found during the production of the sound /l/

ELCS lab Manual 16

7. Semi Vowel semi vowels are the sounds which are similar to vowels.
Examples of these sounds are /w/ and /j/. Examples 1. yes 2. universal 3.
world 4. wonder

The three term labels of consonants are as follows

1. /P/ bilabial voiceless plosive

2. /b/ bilabial voiced plosive

3. /t/ alveolar voiceless plosive

4. /d/ alveolar voiced plosive

5. /k/ velar voiceless plosive

6. /g/ velar voiced plosive

7. / t ʃ / Palato alveolar voiceless affricate

8. / dʒ / Palato alveolar voiced affricate

9. /m/ Labio-dental Voiceless fricative

10. /n/ alveolar Voiced Nasal

11. / ŋ / velar Voiced Nasal

12. /l/ alveolar Voiced lateral

13. /f/ labio-dental voiceless fricative

14. /v/ labio-dental voiced fricative

15. // dental voiceless fricative

ELCS lab Manual 17

 16. / ð / dental voiced fricative

17. /s/ alveolar voiceless fricative

18. /z/ alveolar voiced fricative

19. / ʃ / Palato alveolar voiceless fricative

20. / ʒ / Palato alveolar voiced fricative

21. /h/ glottal voiceless fricative

22. /r/ post-alveolar voiced frictionless continuant

23. /w/ bi-labial voiced semi-vowel / Velar voiced semi-vowel

24. /j/ palatal voiced semi-vowel

ELCS lab Manual 18

 Consonant Clusters

Introduction

Word stress is a very important feature of spoken English. Words are made up
of sounds. The words two /tu/ and see /si/ are made up of two sounds each. The
words cat /kaet/ and back /baek/ are made up of three sounds each. The words
sent /sent/ and build /bIld/ are made up of four sounds each. The common
feature of all these words is that they are all monosyllabic words.

Syllable Syllable is the smallest unit of word which can be pronounced at a time
or without stopping in between, which contains a vowel sound.

If a word has more than one syllable, all the syllables are not equally prominent
one of the syllables is more prominent than the others. For example, the word
Doc-tor is made up of two syllables Doc and tor but only the first syllable Doc
is stressed as it is more prominent than tor.

It implies that a syllable is made up of a vowel and optionally consonant(s).

Consonant Clusters

A syllable must have a vowel, and zero, one, or more consonants before the
vowel or after it. When a sequence of two or more consonants occurs either
before or after a vowel in a single syllable, it is known as a ‘Consonant Cluster’.
Consonant clusters occur initially and finally. Consonant clusters occurred
initially are called initial consonant clusters, if it occurs finally they are called
final consonant clusters.

Initial Consonant Clusters

Two-Consonant Clusters
/pl-/ plan, plot, place
/pr-/ pray, prize, proud
/kl-/ clean, club, climb
/bl-/ blue, blink, blot
/fl-/ flask, flew, flap
/fr-/ free, fresh, fry
/sp-/ speak, spend, spy,
/sm-/ small, smile, smoke

ELCS lab Manual 19

Three-Consonant Clusters
/spl-/ splash, spleen, split
/spr-/ spring, sprout, spray
/str-/ strong, strike, stroll
/skr-/ screen, scrub, scratch
/skw-/ squash, square, squint

Final Consonant Clusters

Two-Consonant Clusters
/-pt/ kept, wrapped, slept /-gd/ mugged, begged
/-ks/ works, shocks, fox /-ft/ craft, coughed, laughed
/lk/ milk, silk, sulk /-bd/ rubbed, clubbed

Three-Consonant Clusters
/-pts/ adopts, erupts /-lkt/ milked, sulked
/-kts/ facts, ducts /-lvd/ shelved
/-kst/ fixed, next /-lvz/ wolves
/-mpt/ tempt, prompt /-lks/ silks

Four-Consonant Clusters
/-mpts/ prompts /-lfs/ twelfths
/-mpst/ glimpsed /-kss/ sixths
/-ksts/ texts
/-lpts/ sculpts

ELCS lab Manual 20

 Silent Consonant Letters

Silent consonant letters constitute one of the problem areas in respect of

pronunciation of English words. The following are the few spelling sequences
containing silent letters
i) B is always silent in the spelling sequences mb and bt occurring in the
word-final position
Comb numb bomb limb debt
Lamb thumb womb climb doubt
Tomb succumb plumb
b is also silent in plumber, bomber, subtle, redoubtable.

ii) D is always silent in the spelling sequence dj

adjective adjunct adjacent
adjudge adjoin adjutant
adjourn adjust adjudicate

iii) G is silent in the spelling sequence gm or gn

phlegm gnarl champagne sign
paradigm gnash poignant resign
gnat physiognomy assign
gnaw consign malign campaign

However, G is not silent in certain derivatives formed from such words. Example
phlegmatic, paradigmatic, signature, resignation, malignant

iv) H is silent in the spelling sequence gh and in the word-final position

ghost ghetto ah
aghast eh

ELCS lab Manual 21

 ghastly oh
Note H is also silent in John, Thames, Thomas

v) K is always silent in the word-initial spelling sequence kn

kneel knee
knob knight
knave knowledge
knife knock

vi) L is silent before k and m in the word-final spelling sequences lk and

lm in some words as the following
walk balm
talk palm
stalk psalm
folk calm

vii) N is silent in the word-final spelling sequence mn

autumn damn
column hymn
condemn solemn
Note However, N is not silent in derivatives formed from such words.
Example autumnal damnable
Condemnable hymnal
Condemn solemn
Note The word columnist can be pronounced either way (with or
without /N/).

viii) P is silent in the word-initial spelling sequences pn, ps, pt

ELCS lab Manual 22

 pneumonia psalm Ptolemy
pneumatic psychology
pseudonym psyche
Also P is silent in the final sequence pt in the word receipt.

ix) T is always silent when it occurs between (a) s and l (b) s and en
stl stl sten
castle hustle glisten
thistle bustle listen
wrestle whistle fasten
apostle bristle chasten

x) W is silent in the (a) final position, (b) initial spelling sequence wr, and
(c) sometimes initial spelling sequence wh
saw wreath who
raw writhe whom
claw write whose
flow wring whole
blow wrest whoop
snow wrestle whore
show wrist wreck
wrap

xi) S is silent before l in the following words

aisle island isle
xii) In RP, the letter R is silent unless it is followed by a vowel. Thus
(a) it is silent in the following words, for example, where there is no
vowel (i.e., vowel sound) follows it
art car

ELCS lab Manual 23

 airport occur
charm hear
park store
worse meter
herb metre
church meteor

(b) R is not silent in the following words, for example, where a vowel
follows it
Radio hearing
Charisma storing
Carry meteorology
Occurrence aristocrat
Notice also (for the same reason) R is silent in hear but not in hearing.
Similarly, it is not silent in phrases and sentences when a word ending
in r or re (e.g., acre, meagre, centre) is followed by another word
beginning with a vowel. Compare the following sequences under (a)
and (b)

(a) R is silent (b) R is not silent

far far off
near near it
a car mechanic a car electrician
the car was stolen the car is stolen
meager meager income
acre an acre of land

ELCS lab Manual 24

Minimal Pairs

/I/ /i:/
Ship sheep
Fit feet
Bit beat
Sit seat
knit neat
rich reach
pit Pete
gin Jean
chip cheap
six seeks
list least
hill he'll
filled field
mill meal
ill eel
is ease
itch each
pitch peach
liver leaver
risen reason

ELCS lab Manual 25

/I/ - /e/
bit bet
did dead
fill fell
will well
rid red
pit Pete
sit set
bill bell
it ate
six sex
mint meant
hid head
Sid said
Rick wreck
Dick deck
chick check
hill Hell
win when
tin ten
sinned send

ELCS lab Manual 26

-- -----------------------
bet bat
pen pan
men man
head had
said sad
guess gas
letter latter
better batter
dead dad
Ken can
pet pat
hem ham
set sat
pedal paddle
bend band
lend land
kettle cattle
peck pack
vet vat
send sand

ELCS lab Manual 27

- -----------------------
bet but
net nut
hem hum
said sud
sex sucks
better butter
wren run
Ben bun
trek truck
leg lug
Ben bun
dead dud
send sunned
bed bud
Fen fun
rest rust
ten ton
pedal puddle
hemp hump

ELCS lab Manual 28

- -----------------------
bet Bert
bed bird
head heard
ten turn
Hell hurl
Ben burn
edge urge
nest nursed
Ted turd
bled blurred
held hurled
weld world
west worst
best burst
well whirl
end earned
spend Spurned
kennel Kernel
wed Word
peck Perk

ELCS lab Manual 29

 Word Accent / Stress Shift

Stress in English words is fixed, i.e., the stress always falls on a particular syllable
in a given word. For example, in the word miserable, the stress is on the first
syllable, i.e., mis, whether the word is said in isolation or in connected speech.
But at the same time, stress in English words is free, i.e., it is not tied to any
particular syllable in the chain of syllables constituting the word. For example,
English words can be stressed on the first syllable as in ‘miserable, on the
second syllable as in a’gree, on the third syllable as in under’stand and so on.

The syllable that which receives highest degree of prominence in a word is said
to have the primary accent / stress. Any other prominent syllable which
receives prominence next to primary accent / stress is said to have secondary
accent. Primary accent is marked with a vertical bar above and in front of the
syllable to which it refers. Secondary accent is marked with a vertical bar below
and in front of the syllable. For example, in the following words

,after’noon

,cigar’ette

,repre’sent

The primary stress is on the last syllable and the secondary stress is on the first
syllable. When such words are used in connected speech, pitch movement can be
initiated only on the syllables, which have primary stress.

Rules of Word Stress

Here are a few rules of word stress. These will help one locate stress in words.

Functional shift of stress

There are a number of words of two syllables in which the accentual pattern
depends on whether the word is used as a noun, an adjective or a verb. When
the word is used as a noun or an adjective, the stress is on the first syllable. When
the word is used as a verb, the stress is on the second syllable. Here are a few
examples

ELCS lab Manual 30

 Noun / Adjective Verb

‘absent ab’sent

‘object ob’ject

‘subject sub’ject

‘project pro’ject

‘Progress pro’gress

‘Decrease De’crease

Words with prefixes / suffixes their stress patterns

Here we discuss words with prefixes / suffixes in terms of their stress patterns.

a) Verbs of two syllables beginning with the prefix dis- are stressed on the
last syllable.

dis’arm dis’may
dis’band dis’pel

b) Verbs of two syllables

Verbs of two syllables ending in –ate, -ise/-ize, -ct are stressed on the
last syllable.

nar’rate cap’size
at’tract chas’tise

c) Words ending in ‘ion, -ic, -ical, -ically, -ially, -ian, -ious, -eous
i) Words ending in –ion have the stress on the penultimate (i.e., the last
but one) syllable.

-ion
appli’cation civili’zation
compo’sition ‘question

ELCS lab Manual 31

 ii) Words ending in –ic/-ical/ically, -ial/-ially, -ian have the stress
on the syllable preceding the suffix.
-ic
apolo’getic sympa’thetic
e’lectric patri’otic

-ical -ically
apolo’getical apolo’getically

-ial -ian
me’morial lib’rarian
of’ficial mu’sician

iii) Words ending in –ious, -eous have the stress on the penultimate
(i.e., the last but one) syllable
-ious -eous
‘anxious ‘piteous
in’dustrious cou’rageous

d) Words ending in –ate, -ise,/-ize, -fy, -ity, -cracy, -crat, -graph, -

graphy, -meter, -logy
i) Words of more than two syllables ending in –ate, -ise/-ize, -ify are
stressed on the ante-penultimate syllable (i.e., third from the end).

-ate -ise, ize -ify

‘complicate ‘colonise ‘justify
ar’ticulate mo’nopolize ‘classify

ii) Words ending in –ity, -cracy, -crat, -graph, -graphy, -meter, -logy
have the stress on the ante-penultimate syllable (i.e., third from the
end).
-ity -cracy -crat
a’bility au’tocracy ‘autocrat
elec’tricity de’mocracy ‘democrat

ELCS lab Manual 32

iii) Words ending in –graph, -graphy, -meter, -logy have the stress on
the ante-penultimate syllable (i.e., third from the end).
-graph -graphy -meter -logy
‘autograph pho’tography ther’mometer psy’chology
‘paragraph spec’trography lac’tometer bi’logy

iv) Words ending in –ain, -aire, -eer, -enta, -ential, -ese, -esce, -
escence, -escent, -esque, -ique, -it is, -ee, -ette, -ete, -ade have the
stress on the suffix.
–ain -aire -eer -ental,
Ob’tain millio’naire engi’neer experi’mental
Main’tain question’naire volun’teer acci’dental
Ascer’tain marke’teer pa’rental
Re’frain car’eer inci’dental

–ential -ese -esce -escence,

Exis’tential bur’mese coa’lesce effer’vescence
Provi’dential chi’nese conva’lesce ado’lescence

–ee -ette -ete -ade,

Pay’ee eti’quette de’lete barri’cade
Absen’tee ga’zette com’plete de’grade

e) Stress Shift
Stress shift is quite normal in derivatives. Here are a few examples

a’cademy aca’demic acade’mician

‘photograph pho’tographer photo’graphic
‘politics po’litical poli’tician

Here we have given you a few rules for marking stress in English. We have also
discussed functional shift of stress. Please remember these rules of stress are
very useful for you to be able to pronounce English words correctly.

ELCS lab Manual 33

 Double Consonant Letters

All double consonant letters except cc are always pronounced as single

consonant sounds, e.g., summer / /, rubber / /, etc.

However, the case of the consonant letter sequence cc is somewhat different.

While, like other double consonant letters, it is generally pronounced /k/, in some
cases, it is pronounced /ks/
/k/ /ks/
Accord accede
Account accent
Occupy accelerate
Occur accept
Accurate success
Accompany access

Pronunciation of ‘the’ in connected speech

In connected speech (e.g., in sentences), the article ‘the’ is generally pronounced
as follows

(i) / ðə / before consonants

The pen is mightier than the sword. /ðə pen … sɔːd /

(ii) / ði / before vowels

The apples are rotten. / ði æplz… /

Note However, when the word the is to be emphasized in a particular sentence,

it is pronounced / ði /

This is the best option. / … ði best …./

ELCS lab Manual 34

Pronunciation of Suffixes or word endings
The plural form in written English with an s has three distinct sounds

/s/ cups s
/z/ cubs s z
/iz/ horses, benches iz

Rule 1
When a word ends in a voiceless sound as in /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/ the s that follows is
sounded as /s/

Tap - taps /s/

Pet - pets /s/
Book - books /s/
Rule 2
When a word ends in a voiced sound as in /b/, /d/, /g/ the s is sounded as /z/
Bag - bags /z/
Tub - tubs /z/
Kid - Kids /z/
Rule 3
The plural morpheme /s/ or any word ending in s is sounded as /iz/ with words
ending in s, z, dz and t. It is applicable to verbs too.
Bus - buses /iz/
Bench - benches /iz/
Bridge - bridges /iz/
Wish - wishes /iz/
/s/ sound represented by
s - seek, case
ss - essay, pass
sc - science, scene
c - cement, cease

ELCS lab Manual 35

/z/ is presented by
s - please, cousin
ss - scissors, dresses
z - zeal, amaze
zz - puzzle, dazzle
x - exact, examination
Past tense form ending with the inflection ‘d’ has three distinct sounds
bag - bagged /d/ d
wash - washed /t/ d t
add - added /id/ id
Rule 1
If a verb ends in a voiced sound, its past tense has the /d/ sound at the end
bagged /d/
clubbed /d/
lived /d/
Rule 2
If a verb ends in a voiceless sound, its past tense has the /t/ sound at the end
washed /t/
looked /t/
stopped /t/
Rule 3
If a verb ends in /t/ or /d/ its past tense has the /id/ sound at the end
want - wanted /id/ state - stated /id/ add - added /id/
wade - waded /id/

ELCS lab Manual 36

 INTONATION

Stress and intonation blend together to lend charm to English speech.

Intonation means variation of voice or pitch or pitch fluctuation. By pitch
fluctuation we mean that the pitch of the voice is continually in the process of
either falling or rising while we are talking. In fact, it never remains constant for
more than a fraction of a second. Pitch fluctuation is found in the speech of all
communities. It is not a random fluctuation but follows well-defined melodic
patterns, which are meaningful.

Pitch

The pitch of the voice is determined by the frequency of the vibration of the vocal
cords, i.e., number of times they open and close in a second. The patterns of
variation of the pitch of the voice (i.e., the fall or the rise) constitute the
intonation of a language.

Rhythm

Rhythm is a kind of periodicity, which would mean the recurrence of certain

patterns of sound at regular intervals of space or time. Duration of tones and
stresses or accents (beats) commonly fall into regular groupings.

Tune / Tone Shapes

The shape of a tune (tone) is decided by the number of important words in a

word group and by the attitude you wish to express. By important words we
mean the words which carry most of the meaning in a group.

Before speaking on the speakers’ attitude(s), it is important to see what tunes we

must learn to use while speaking English. There are 2 vital tones and they are as
follows

I) The Falling Tune

The falling tune is sometimes referred to as the glide-down. It consists of a fall

in the pitch of the voice from a high level to a low level. It is marked [ \ ].

The falling tune is normally used in

1. Ordinary statements made without any implications, e.g.

a. I ‘liked it ‘very much
b. It was ‘quite good

ELCS lab Manual 37

2. Questions beginning with a question-word such as what, how, where,
why, etc., when said in a neutral, way, e.g
a. ‘Who were you talking to?
b. ‘What’s the matter?

3. Commands, e.g
a. ‘Go and ‘open the window
b. ‘Take it a way

4. Question tags when the speaker expects the listener to agree with him, e.g
a. It’s pleasant today, isn’t it?
b. It was a ‘good film, wasn’t it?

 The two most common pitch movements are

rising pitch yés
falling pitch yès

II) The Rising Tune

The rising tune is sometimes referred to as the glide-up. It consists of a rise in

the pitch of the voice from a low level to a high level. It is marked [ / ].

The rising, tune is normally used in

1. Incomplete statements, e.g

a. It’s seven O clock (and she hasn’t got up as yet).
b. I’ll buy you a dress (if I go there)

2. Polarity type questions which demand a yes/no answer, e.g.

a. ‘Are they coming?
b. ‘Will you do it?

3. Question tags when the speaker gives his/her listener the option to
disagree with him/her e.g
a. You’re a gardener, aren’t you?
b. It was a ‘good film, wasn’t it?

4. Greetings, partings, apologies, encouragement, e.g.

a. Hello
b. ‘Good bye
c. I’m so Sorry

ELCS lab Manual 38